holocaust belgium holocaust german occupied belgium refers persecution attempted jews world war start war population belgium overwhelmingly catholic jews largest non christian population country numbering population million lived cities antwerp brussels vast majority recent immigrants belgium fled persecution germany eastern_europe result small minority actually possessed belgian citizenship shortly invasion belgium military government passed series anti jewish laws october belgian committee secretary generals refused start operate passing anti jewish measures military government unwilling pass legislation german government began seize jewish owned businesses forced jews positions civil service april orders german authorities flemish collaborators antwerp burned house chief town antwerp germans created country association des association jews belgium jews required join final solution persecution belgian jews escalated jews forced wear yellow star david mark public registers compiled germans began jews concentration camps general government occupied portion poland jews chosen registration lists required turn newly established transit camp deported train concentration camps august july jews deported belgium killed camps liberated allies opposition general population treatment jews belgium grew end occupation cent jews belgium hiding hidden particularly catholic priests helped organized resistance des committee jewish defence provided food refuge hiding jews jews hiding joined armed resistance april members attacked twentieth rail convoy succeeded rescuing deported background religion anti war population belgium overwhelmingly catholic cent population baptized cent marriage ceremonies held traditional catholic services politically country dominated catholic party jewish population belgium comparatively small population million jews country world war interwar period saw substantial jewish immigration belgium population rose new jewish immigrants came eastern_europe nazi_germany escaping anti poverty native countries population belgium time approximately jewish migrants claimed belgian citizenship speak french dutch jewish communities developed brussels antwerp half jews belgium lived interwar period saw rise popularity fascist new order parties belgium chiefly represented flemish national union flanders wallonia flemish parties supported creation greater dutch state jews excluded ideology based christian particularly anti semitic campaigned anti semitic elections stance officially condemned belgian authorities prominent figures including king iii suspected holding anti semitic attitudes june jewish illegal immigrants arrested belgian police deported germany public condemnation halted practice november start war influence fascist parties declining belgium country began accepting jewish refugees including louis refused german invasion occupation interwar period belgium followed strict policy political neutrality belgian land component mobilized country involved war invaded nazi_germany campaign lasting days belgian military commander chief iii surrendered belgium french province grouped german military administration belgium northern france und country military occupation initially fell control nazi party authorities july replaced civilian administration greatly increasing power radical nazi party organisations allied liberation september holocaust early discrimination persecution october german military administration adopted anti jewish legislation time new laws similar laws adopted germany coincided adoption similar legislation netherlands france laws october forbade jews practice certain including civil service forced jews register local municipality date german administration announced definition regarded jewish jewish owned shops businesses marked sign window jewish owned economic assets registered june list jewish businesses drawn german government began jewish businesses transferred german ownership process termed jewish owned businesses million belgian raised anticipated total october september anti jewish proclaimed military administration association des association jews belgium created germans administer jewish population belgium november directed germans run jews acted organizational allowing nazis deal belgian jews unit played major role registering jews country total jews registered number represents half total jewish population reflecting community organization figure adolf presented total number jews belgium conference january jews arrested based affiliation closely supervised und security police intelligence service responsible administration transit camp played major role jews turn voluntarily knew fate awaiting disputed following assassination resistance robert leader confidence association declined regarded increasing suspicion war leaders tried acquitted holocaust antwerp april watching german propaganda film der flemish began city antwerp mob armed iron bars attacked burned city threw street attacked home marcus town chief police fire brigade summoned forbidden intervene german authorities yellow badge rest occupied europe compulsory wearing yellow badge enforced belgian version badge depicted black letter standing french dutch centre yellow star david star displayed prominently outer clothing public harsh penalties non compliance decree sparked public outrage belgium great personal risk belgian civil authorities brussels refused distribute badge buying time jews hiding german authorities antwerp attempted enforce wearing policy dropped non jewish citizens protested wore august germans began jews recruitment work german factories pretext half jews turned voluntarily german authorities transportation round ups begun late july later war germans increasingly relied police arrest round jews force convoy belgium carrying jews left transit camp august soon followed trains left camps eastern_europe october january temporarily halted time people deported rail convoys result queen intervention german authorities deported wave belgian citizens resumed time camps begun nearly belgian jews deported forced laborers organisation civil military engineering group working construction atlantic wall northern france september armed currency protection command units raided homes seize personal belongings occupants preparing report transit camp month jews belgian citizenship deported time units relied networks paid belgian person betrayed war collaborator stated trial cent arrests antwerp information paid total jews deported transports halted deteriorating situation occupied belgium liberation jews deported varied location highest antwerp cent deported lower brussels cent cent cent main destination convoys german occupied poland smaller numbers sent concentration camps concentration camp france total jews deported belgium survived war deported killed artist belgian collaboration holocaust members belgian fascist political parties actively attempted assist jews encouraged association known people defence specially formed bring belgian anti assist early stages occupation campaigned anti jewish laws routinely published anti semitic articles party newspapers belgian civil authorities especially police security service officially forbidden assist german authorities routine maintenance order incidents occurred individual policemen police sections assisted german arrest jews orders antwerp belgian authorities facilitated conscription jews forced labour france aided rounding jews august threatened local officials fort outside antwerp germans force belgian police intervene brussels police officers orders helped arrest jews historian argued fifth jews arrested belgium rounded belgian police general refusal belgian police assist holocaust cited reason comparatively high survival rate belgian jews holocaust belgian opposition jewish persecution belgian resistance treatment jews august september following passing legislation wearing yellow start began jewish partisans destroyed records jews compiled organization specifically devoted hiding jews des formed summer left wing organization saved children adults finding safe hiding places produced language underground newspapers word labour stance fight communist dozens organised resistance groups provided support hidden jews groups individual resistance members responsible finding hiding places providing food forged papers jews hiding went join organised resistance groups groups left wing backgrounds like particularly popular belgian jews communist inspired partisans particularly large jewish section brussels resistance responsible assassination robert head program active collaborator austrian jew selected germans role assassination led change leadership jewish leaders including head arrested interned released public outcry sixth deported directly belgian resistance unusually informed fate deported jews august months start belgian underground newspaper reported deported jews killed groups gas killed fire early sent victor martin academic economist catholic university gather information fate deported belgian jews cover research post university cologne martin visited witnessed arrested germans escaped able report findings attack 20th transport best known belgian resistance action holocaust attack 20th rail convoy evening april poorly armed members resistance attacked railway convoy passed near flemish train containing jews guarded germans resistance members covered red paper danger signal stop train freed prisoners wagon discovered germans managed jump train later journey train belgian driver deliberately kept speed low allow escape resistance members responsible attack arrested end occupation executed jean robert deported concentration camps survived war attack 20th train attack holocaust train belgium war transport belgium experience mass breakout passive resistance treatment jews germans led public resistance belgium june representative german foreign ministry brussels von complained exhibit sufficient understanding nazi racial policy belgian underground newspaper called belgian citizens small gestures disgust nazi racial policy august paper called greet jews passing offer seat protest measures applied furious discrimination jews condemned high profile figures occupied country early october senior catholic clergyman belgium cardinal van condemned german policy particularly legislation van church resources available hiding jews prevented publicly condemning treatment jews peers feared nazi repression church german attempts involve belgian authorities local government implementation began protest committee secretary generals panel belgian senior civil servants tasked implementing german demands refused outset enforce anti jewish legislation june conference greater brussels region refused allow officials distribute yellow jews districts great personal risk led joseph van sent letter protesting decree german authorities june refusal brussels council later city distribute allowed jews hiding began year members met queen appeal support appealed military governor belgium general alexander von sent deputy head non military aspects administration berlin clarify policy main security office concessions allowing jews belgian citizenship exempt jewish families broken agreed jewish men age women belgian protests old forced labor legacy remembrance aftermath war emigration israel decreased jewish population belgium estimated population concentrated brussels antwerp new smaller communities developed notable belgian holocaust survivors include joint recipient nobel prize physics paul known journalist converted christianity responsible design european flag passing holocaust denial law illegal deny attempt justify holocaust act follows belgian anti racism law passed led establishment centre equal opportunities opposition racism racism anti belgium aiding victims discrimination barracks site transit camp preserved museums holocaust german repression belgium occupation belgian senate commissioned centre historical research documentation war contemporary society produce definitive historical report belgian collaboration holocaust report entitled belgium published generated significant public interest belgium abroad report findings controversial emphasised extent belgian police authorities collaborated jews total awarded distinction nations state israel lives save jews persecution occupation


manchester bombing manchester bombing attack carried provisional irish republican army saturday june detonated powerful pound truck bomb corporation street centre manchester england biggest bomb detonated great_britain world war targeted city infrastructure economy causing devastating damage estimated million billion sent warnings minutes bomb detonated people evacuated area called extraordinary operations bomb squad unable bomb time people injured fatalities particularly considering strength bomb time england hosting euro football championships russia germany match place manchester following day provisional campaign aimed forcing british government withdraw northern_ireland manchester target bombs subjected attack scale february ended seventeen month large truck bomb attack london wharf financial district bomb manchester times size wharf manchester bombing condemned british irish governments president bill_clinton days blast issued statement claimed responsibility regretted causing injury civilians buildings near explosion damaged repair demolished closed months structural repairs rebuilding work completed end cost billion redevelopment continued perpetrators attack caught greater manchester police conceded unlikely charged connection bombing bombing credited starting city mass regeneration turning manchester modern british powerhouse city background provisional irish republican army carrying armed campaign aimed ultimately bringing united ireland attacking military political targets bombed infrastructure commercial targets northern_ireland england believed damaging economy causing severe disruption pressure british government negotiate withdrawal northern_ireland manchester target earlier bombs damaged city centre businesses man later imprisoned april bomb exploded manchester court injuring bomb factories found greater manchester men imprisoned planning attacks north west england december detonated small bombs manchester city centre forcing police evacuate thousands hurt shattered glass cost estimated million damage business losses downing street declaration allowed political party associated participate party peace negotiations condition called called august john major government dependent party votes began insisting fully party negotiations saw demand total surrender believed british unwilling hold negotiations ended february detonated powerful truck bomb wharf financial districts london blast killed people caused estimated million worth damage planted devices london space weeks planned carry similar bombing manchester city chosen host cities euro football tournament attended visitors media organisations europe margaret called oxygen publicity russia germany match place old manchester day bombing year manchester won bid host commonwealth games time biggest multi sport event staged britain june multi party negotiations began belfast elected barred resumed agreed details bombing south brigade tasked planning carrying attack responsible wharf bombing february bombing members mixed explosives ireland shipped freight dublin england london bomb assembled loaded red white ford cargo box truck june driven north manchester accompanied ford served scout car discovery saturday june ford cargo truck parked corporation street outside marks store near centre setting bomb men wearing jackets baseball caps sunglasses left vehicle walked cathedral street man picked ford truck parked double yellow lines hazard lights flashing minutes traffic warden issued vehicle parking ticket called removal studios street received telephone claiming bomb corner corporation street cannon street explode hour irish accent gave police know threat genuine warnings sent television radio stations newspapers hospital policeman arrive scene noticed wires running truck hole reported found bomb forensic experts later estimated bomb weighed pounds mixture military grade plastic explosive cheap easily explosive extensively components trigger found later designed detonate bomb evacuation estimated people shopping working vicinity evacuation area undertaken police officers street police station supplemented officers drafted manchester control football crowds police helped security guards local shops group worked people away bomb assisted firefighters security guards established continuously expanding area prevent entry greatest extent available manpower permit quarter mile truck miles explosion bomb squad arrived liverpool base attempted bomb remote controlled device ran time bomb exploded causing estimated million billion damage affecting city centre retail space marks sky bridge connecting centre neighbouring buildings destroyed largest peacetime bomb detonated great_britain blast created mushroom cloud rose metres feet ground explosion heard miles away left crater metres wide glass masonry thrown air police away people falling debris fatalities people injured search area casualties confused shop windows mistaken bodies hospitals greater manchester ready receive injured blast police casualties north manchester general hospital treated total cared manchester royal treated streets ambulance crews assisted doctors nurses happened city centre morning reaction bombing condemned british prime minister john major government opposition individual members parliament mps terrorist attack early major stated explosion looks like work work causes absolute ireland criticised john struck mute attack immediate aftermath described bombing face people trying better instincts chance persuade president united_states bill_clinton stated deeply outraged bomb explosion joined major utterly condemning brutal act terrorism president adams stated shocked bombing insisted party committed achieving peace settlement argued sheer return old agenda excluding seeking republicans june claimed responsibility bombing stated regretted causing injury civilians statement continued british government spent months august trying force surrender weapons defeat republican struggle prepared enhance democratic peace process lasting peace british government democratic rights people ireland party political self interest bombing came days beginning peace talks belfast represented opposition talks excluded republicans attack political strategy included negotiations terms according historian richard english return bombings like manchester bomb saying return war want huge bomb cities deal effort fears manchester considerable irish community subjected attacks richard martin leader deputy leader manchester city_council respectively public visit irish world heritage centre hill event incidents occurred evening bomb gang men irish themed bar centre shouting loyalist slogan surrender smashing furniture windows seven days bombing manchester council held family fun day town hall albert square encourage visitors city centre series events euro football match russia germany old went ahead planned day following bombing stadium heavily guarded overnight carefully searched game germany won watched capacity crowd investigation effort trace route ford cargo truck police examined footage major road motorway taken england days bombing footage revealed truck driven south motorway london friday afternoon attack seen heading north motorway accompanied ford detectives truck loaded explosives london intended vehicle truck recorded travelling east motorway manchester morning explosion police manchester aware metropolitan police colleagues london investigating suspected unit based capital wondered london unit responsible manchester bombing july metropolitan police arrested men suspected membership john robert patrick martin francis tried convicted conspiracy cause explosions national grid electricity stations sentenced years jail police manchester worked establish men responsible manchester bomb investigation led detective chief inspector gordon greater manchester police person charged criminal offence connection manchester bomb truck registered owner told police sold dealer turn sold truck man calling tom fox weeks bombing purchase price delivered cash taxi driver dealer instructed truck nearby park leave keys documents hidden inside checking records telephone calls dealer police found mobile phone registered ireland checking records phone appeared calls locations consistent known whereabouts ford truck known member phone morning bombing minutes bombers parked truck corporation street june phone registered owner reported stolen days earlier police felt gathered evidence bring prosecution men held london meeting attended commander special branch manchester assistant chief constable senior officer royal decided reasons public present findings investigation crown prosecution service body responsible undertaking criminal england felt suspects police custody longer threat pursue case ongoing undercover operations police finally sent file decided prosecute leak early steve chief crime reporter manchester evening news leaked classified special branch documents naming suspected bombing documents revealed man suspected organising attack visited manchester shortly bombing covert police surveillance toured devastated city centre returning home south suspicion fell source leaked documents analysis mobile phone records placed hotel north yorkshire miles manchester evening april manchester evening news named man described prime suspect manchester bomb plot newspaper reported file sent greater manchester police crown prosecution service contained sentence opinion investigating officers sufficient evidence charge party conspiracy cause explosions united_kingdom man denied involvement attorney general wrote letter local advice given independent lawyer case answer evidence available judge stop case attorney general wrote decision prosecute influenced government newspaper identified men arrested london july having planned attack july released terms belfast agreement people arrested connection bombing tried misconduct public office day trial held january acquitted trial found contempt court refusing reveal source offence term imprisonment right appeal greater manchester police announced realistic chance responsible bombing reconstruction buildings immediate vicinity explosion severely damaged overall square feet retail space square feet office space use paid million million damages time expensive man disasters considerable insurance victims bombing received total compensation criminal injuries compensation authority individual received largest awarded result incident according home office statistics estimated businesses half mile blast affected recover heaviest damage sustained buildings nearest bomb michael house comprising marks store storey office block house offices royal sun alliance insurance company centre shopping mall michael house deemed economic repair demolished marks took opportunity acquire demolish adjacent house enlarged site world biggest branch store company fortunes changed construction subsequently occupied building marks leased lewis store interim frontage badly damaged removed city centre glass corn exchange royal exchange blown landlord corn exchange invoked force condition lease tenants building converted shopping centre dome royal exchange shifted blast reconstruction took half years cost million paid national lottery possibility rebuilding parts city centre raised days bomb june michael deputy prime minister announced international competition designs redevelopment bomb affected area bids received invited submit designs second round announced november winning design consortium headed redevelopment 1960s redevelopment manchester city centre unpopular residents market street near explosion time second busiest shopping street considered commentators fearful place avoided like plague margaret consecutive election victory labour controlled manchester council believed manchester regeneration funded solely public money despite government insistence funding schemes significant element private investment graham leader manchester city_council later admitted general election result jail card labour winning general election lost victory effectively paid manchester socialist experiment shortly wrote letter capitulation nicholas secretary state environment saying win like work efforts improvement bombing respects matters worse cutting area north centre exterior widely rest city centre large building nearby redeveloped occupied daily_mirror newspaper locals considered bomb best thing happened manchester cleared way redevelopment dysfunctional city centre view expressed terry north leader liberal democrat opposition manchester city_council simon responded exception comments bomb city day lost jobs scared injured blast bomb best thing happen manchester sir manchester stated bomb provided opportunity manchester city centre fully exploited bomb obviously bad redevelopment point view lost opportunity area ann square compare birmingham exciting development got touch manchester howard chief executive manchester city_council quoted saying people bomb turned great thing manchester rubbish substantial regeneration redevelopment taking place city centre bombing support manchester bid summer olympics second olympic bid tom chairman property development group urban splash arts council england north west agreed bomb attack trigger large scale redevelopment taken place manchester early 1990s turning point manchester came bomb second olympic games bid lost city suddenly huge party people idea manchester longer consider competition likes barcelona los_angeles sydney aspirations increased accordingly memorials pillar box survived blast despite yards explosion carries small brass plaque recording bombing removed construction redevelopment work returned original spot corporation street reopened plaque reads remained standing undamaged june 15th area devastated bomb box removed rebuilding city centre returned original site november 22nd thanksgiving service miracle manchester held manchester cathedral july coincide arrival commonwealth games attended queen elizabeth_ii duke edinburgh june lit memorial held manchester cathedral mark tenth anniversary bombing


england middle ages england middle ages concerns history england medieval period end 5th century start early modern period england emerged collapse roman empire economy towns abandoned centuries immigration new identities cultures began emerge developing predatory kingdoms competed power rich artistic culture flourished anglo producing epic poems sophisticated anglo converted christianity 7th century network monasteries built england 8th 9th centuries england faced fierce viking attacks fighting lasted decades establishing powerful kingdom promoting growth english identity despite repeated crises succession danish seizure power start 11th century england powerful state strong military successful economy norman invasion england led defeat replacement anglo saxon elite norman french nobles supporters william successors took existing state system local revolts controlling population network castles new rulers introduced feudal approach governing england practice slavery creating wider body labourers called position women society changed laws land shifted england population doubled 12th 13th centuries expansion towns cities trade helped warmer temperatures northern europe new wave monasteries established ecclesiastical reforms led tensions successive kings despite developments england governance legal system anglo norman elite resulted multiple civil wars loss normandy 14th century england saw great famine black death catastrophic events killed half england population throwing economy chaos old political order social unrest followed form peasants revolt changes economy resulted emergence new class gentry nobility began exercise power system termed nearly villages deserted inhabitants men women sought new opportunities towns cities new technologies introduced england produced great medieval philosophers natural scientists english kings 14th 15th centuries laid claim french throne resulting years war times england enjoyed huge military success economy profits international wool cloth trade country crisis facing military failure france ongoing recession social unrest broke followed wars roses fought rival factions english nobility henry vii victory typically marks end middle ages england start early modern period political history early middle ages start middle ages england province roman empire english economy dominated imperial roman spending large military establishment turn helped support complex network towns roads end 4th century roman forces largely withdrawn english economy collapsed immigrants began arrive increasing numbers 5th century initially peacefully establishing small farms settlements new political social identities emerged including culture east england saxon culture south local groups establishing small ruled powerful families individuals 7th century rulers including east essex kent begun term kings living villa royal centres collecting tribute surrounding kingdoms referred 7th century kingdom rose prominence leadership king invaded neighbouring lands loosely controlled covering england remaining kingdoms led warrior continued compete territory 8th century massive earthworks defensive built helped defend key towns scandinavian raids england began viking attacks grew number scale danish great army invaded england captured york defeated kingdom east fell alfred driven internal exile alfred eventually won sequence victories exploiting fear viking threat raise large numbers men network defended towns called defend territory royal resources suppressing internal opposition rule alfred contained invaders region known confirmed kings rulers english expanded north reigns york finally permanently raids neighbouring areas including wales followed kingdom new military power death royal succession problematic took power following murder brother edward england invaded son danish king attempts bribe attack payments failed took throne son older english families following seizure power son edward survived exile normandy returned claim throne edward childless succession concern england dominated family taken advantage danish killings acquire huge wealth edward died claimed throne defeating rival norwegian battle bridge high middle ages william duke normandy took advantage english succession crisis invade army norman followers mercenaries defeated battle hastings rapidly occupied south england william network castles control major centres power granting extensive lands main norman followers opting eliminating anglo saxon elite major revolts followed william suppressed intervening north east england establishing norman control york devastating region norman lords england launching point attacks south north wales spreading valleys create new territories time william death england formed largest anglo norman empire ruled network nobles england normandy wales england growing wealth critical allowing norman kings project power region including funding campaigns normandy norman rule proved unstable throne contested leading violent conflicts noble supporters william inherited throne faced revolts attempting replace older brother robert cousin stephen william died hunting despite robert rival claims younger brother henry immediately seized power war broke ending robert defeat subsequent life imprisonment robert son remained free formed focus fresh revolts death henry legitimate son william died aboard white ship disaster sparking fresh succession crisis henry nephew stephen claimed throne disputed empress henry daughter civil war broke england normandy resulting long period warfare later termed anarchy son henry finally agreed peace settlement winchester succeeded king henry_ii rulers england called count northern france henry acquired huge marriage england key loose lands spread western_europe later termed empire henry royal authority rebuilt royal finances intervening claim power ireland promoting anglo norman country henry strengthened england borders wales scotland country wealth fund long running war rivals france arrangements succession proved problematic revolts broke led henry children eager acquire power lands backed france scotland welsh princes final confrontation henry son richard succeeded throne richard spent reign focused protecting possessions france fighting crusade brother john inherited england lost normandy years war france john fought successive increasingly expensive campaigns bid regain possessions john efforts raise revenues combined relationships english barons led confrontation attempt restore peace signing finally outbreak barons war john died having fought rebel barons french stalemate royal power established barons loyal young henry iii england power structures remained unstable outbreak second barons war resulted king capture simon henry son edward defeated rebel factions restoring father power late middle ages king edward rebuilt status monarchy restoring extending key castles fallen disrepair uprisings princes north wales led edward huge army defeating native welsh undertaking programme english castle building region wars conducted flanders edward fought campaigns scotland unable achieve strategic victory costs created tensions nearly led civil war edward inherited war scotland faced growing opposition rule result royal favourites military failures war followed instability subsequent overthrow possible murder edward hands french wife isabella rebel baron roger isabella regime lasted years falling coup led isabella son edward iii like grandfather edward iii took steps restore royal power black death arrived england losses epidemic recurring followed major impact events england years come edward pressure france challenge french throne century english forces fought campaigns long running conflict known years war despite challenges involved raising revenues pay war edward military successes brought influx plundered wealth parts england enabled substantial building work king members english elite including edward son black prince heavily involved campaigning france new continental territories edward grandson young richard faced political economic problems resulting black death including peasants revolt broke south england coming decades richard groups nobles power control policy france henry seized throne support parliament ruling henry exercised power royal council parliament attempting enforce political religious son henry war france came close achieving strategic success shortly death henry king age months english political system military situation france began sequence bloody civil wars later termed wars roses finally broke spurred economic crisis widespread perception poor government edward leading faction known removed henry power fighting edward henry edward brother george backed leading nobles powerful french supporters power edward triumphant rivals dead death power passed brother richard gloucester initially ruled behalf young edward seizing throne richard iii future henry vii aided french scottish troops returned england defeated richard battle bringing end majority fighting lesser rebellions tudor dynasty continue years government society governance social structures early middle ages anglo saxon kingdoms societies based ties allegiance powerful lords immediate followers social structure king stood normal processes anglo saxon life household special privileges protection beneath king nobles powerful maintained courts termed relationship kings nobles bound military symbolism ritual exchange weapons armour called formed level society holding land right controlling businesses towns peasants worked land belonging formed lower class lowest class slaves bought sold held minimal rights balance power different groups changed time early period kings elected members late king council rapidly norm succession kings bolstered status adopting christian ceremonies nomenclature introducing ecclesiastical 8th century christ deputy 11th century huge estates initially built king bishops monasteries 9th 10th centuries slowly broken consequence inheritance arrangements marriage settlements church purchases 11th century royal position worsened rapidly built huge new estates making collectively powerful king contributed political instability final anglo saxon years time went position deteriorated rights slowly eroded duties lords increased kingdom eventually laid claim england evolved royal administration king council comprising senior clergy important council met advise king policy legal issues royal household included officials clergy travelled king conducting affairs government went danish kings bodyguard accompanied court regional level played important government defence taxation post sheriff emerged 10th century local behalf anglo saxon tightly controlled kings providing high quality currency country system called anglo saxon kings built set written laws issued statutes codes laws written entirety supplemented extensive oral tradition customary law early period local assemblies called gathered apply laws particular cases 10th century replaced courts serving local areas dealing larger regions kingdom given permission king hold local courts legal system depended system value different individuals swearing behalf defendant varied according social status word companion king example worth times fines imposed size similarly varied accord oath value individual anglo saxon authorities struggled deal families emerged following violent killings attempting use system payment blood money way providing alternative long running high middle ages years norman conquest anglo saxon elite replaced new class norman nobility french settling england new successors church seniors drawn ranks areas society continuity adopted anglo saxon governmental institutions including tax system law making judicial matters initially courts continued function existing tax captured book produced changes areas soon began felt method government conquest described feudal system new nobles held lands behalf king return promising provide military support taking oath allegiance called homage granted lands termed honour major nobles turn granted lands smaller landowners return homage military support eventually held land return local labour services creating web resources enforced new courts system normandy concentrated power king upper elite anglo saxon system government practice slavery declined years conquest considered practice backward contrary teachings church prosperous peasants lost influence power holding land dependent providing labour services local lord sank economic hierarchy swelling numbers forbidden leave manor seek alternative employment centre power kings employed succession clergy responsible running royal military household emerged act bodyguard military staff england bishops continued form important local administration alongside nobility henry henry_ii implemented significant legal reforms extending widening scope royal law basis future english common law largely established standing law court westminster early common bench travelling judges conducting country king john extended royal role delivering justice extent appropriate royal intervention issues addressed emerging legal system institution 13th century drawing increasingly sharp distinction tensions existed system government royal wealth stretched england placed king privileged position powerful noble elite successive kings needed resources pay military campaigns conduct building programmes reward followers meant exercising feudal rights interfere land holdings nobles contentious frequent issue complaint growing belief land held hereditary right favour king property wealth increasingly focused hands nobility great expense wider encouraging breakdown aspects local time went norman nobility great anglo saxon families links began weaken late 12th century english barons fight continent proving difficult john attempts ended civil war civil strife emerged henry iii rebel barons demanding widespread reforms early version parliament summoned represent rebel interests late middle ages king edward royal power royal finances appealing broader english elite parliament raising new taxes hear petitions concerning abuses local governance political balance collapsed edward savage civil wars broke edward iii restored order help majority nobility exercising power common bench royal household government better organised larger scale 14th century king permanent residence westminster edward parliament predecessors handle general administration raise necessary taxes pay wars france royal lands diminished years increasingly frequent taxation required support royal initiatives edward held elaborate events effort unite supporters symbols ideal continued develop 14th century reflected growth orders including order grand tournaments round table events society government england early 14th century challenged great famine black death economic demographic crisis created sudden surplus land ability landowners exert feudal rights causing collapse rented lands wages employers competed scarce workforce legislation introduced limit wages prevent consumption luxury goods lower classes coming legal system energy time poll tax introduced spread costs war france widely population tensions violence summer form peasants revolt violent retribution followed alleged rebels executed new class gentry emerged result changes renting land major nobility farm profit legal system continued expand 14th century dealing wider set complex problems time richard deposed power major noble grown considerably powerful rulers henry contain minority henry controlled country depended income rent trade allow maintain groups paid armed sporting controversial buy support wider gentry system dubbed influence exerted house_of_lords parliament king council gentry exercised increasing influence house_of_commons opposing raising taxes pay french wars english government major financial difficulties leading crisis popular revolt leadership jack law order deteriorated crown unable intervene fighting different nobles followers resulting wars roses saw savage violence noble sides captured enemies executed family lands time henry vii took throne england governmental social structures substantially weakened noble lines extinguished women society medieval england society lives women heavily influenced contemporary beliefs gender authority position women varied considerably according factors including social class unmarried married widowed remarried country lived significant gender persisted period women typically limited life choices access employment trade legal rights men anglo saxon society enjoyed considerable rights status society firmly exercised power widespread influence early english church wealth authority diminished monastic reforms 9th century anglo saxon queens began hold lands right 10th century households contributed running kingdom women lead military forces absence husbands led defence towns anglo saxon women worked land agricultural community brewers norman invasion position women society changed rights roles women sharply defined result development feudal system expansion english legal system women benefited lost rights formally laid law end 12th century right free women property necessarily prevent women forcibly remarried wishes growth governmental institutions succession bishops reduced role queens households formal government married widowed remained significant cultural religious patrons played important political military events uncertain appropriate behaviour earlier centuries women worked agriculture roles clearly managing fields defined men work example dairy production dominated women years black death left women wider economy labour short supply land suddenly readily available rural areas peasant women enjoy better standard living work women increased women travelled towns cities point outnumbered men settlements worked husbands limited number including spinning making clothes servants women time brewers pushed business male dominated beer industry 15th century higher status jobs remained closed women earlier times exercised power estates husbands absence necessary defended skirmishes wealthy successfully claim rightful share late husband property live powerful members community right identity english cultural identity emerged interaction immigrants 5th 6th centuries indigenous british inhabitants early medieval described immigrants angles came wider area northern europe represented range different ethnic groups 6th century different groups began societies england roughly corresponding later angle saxon kingdoms recorded 8th century 9th century term officially refer single english people promoted propaganda purposes kings inspire resistance danish invasions french arrived conquest saw different english close family economic links normandy spoke norman french distinctive culture years english associated military failure 12th century divisions english began dissolve result end 12th century possibly early contemporary commentators believed peoples blending loss reinforced trend resulting society prized wider french cultural values french remained language court business international affairs mocked english poor pronunciation 14th century french increasingly having formally taught learnt naturally home aristocracy typically spend years lives france remained entirely comfortable working french 12th 13th centuries english began consider superior welsh scots english perceived economically prosperous properly christian celtic fringe considered lazy backward following invasion ireland late 12th century similar feelings expressed irish clarified reinforced 14th century english legislation english felt strongly foreign traders lived special london late middle ages position jews described italian baltic traders regarded aliens frequently targets violence economic england different identities sense status importance regional identities important men women yorkshire example clear identity english society professional groups distinct identity lawyers engaged open fighting cities london jews jewish community england played important role england period jews arrived england aftermath norman invasion william brought wealthy members community normandy settle london jewish community expanded england provided essential money lending banking services banned laws 12th century jewish financial community grew richer operating royal protection providing king source ready credit major towns jewish centres smaller towns saw visits travelling jewish merchants end henry_ii reign king ceased borrow jewish community instead turned money arbitrary taxation fines jews accusations conducted ritual child murder encouraging carried jewish communities reign richard initially peaceful start john reign king began money jewish community breakdown order jews subject fresh attacks henry iii restored protection jewish money lending began recover despite jewish community increasingly impoverished finally expelled england edward replaced foreign merchants religion rise christianity christianity official imperial religion roman empire churches built england second half 4th century overseen hierarchy bishops priests existing pagan converted christian use pagan sites operated 5th century collapse roman system late 5th century brought end formal christian religion east england new immigrants arrived gods including reflected english place names despite resurgence england christian communities survived western areas gloucestershire somerset movement christianity began late 6th 7th centuries helped conversion northern france carried considerable influence england pope gregory sent team missionaries convert king kent household starting process converting kent archbishop_of_canterbury started build new churches south east existing pagan kings converted wave change carried middle 7th century kingdoms south isle process largely complete end 7th century left confusing disparate array local practices religious ceremonies new christianity reflected existing military culture anglo kings began convert 6th 7th centuries conversion began justification war remaining pagan kingdoms example christian saints martial properties viking invasions 8th 9th centuries reintroduced north east england leading turn wave conversion indigenous scandinavian beliefs similar groups gods including combined belief final apocalyptic battle called norse settlers england converted relatively quickly beliefs christianity decades following occupation york archbishop survived process largely complete early 10th century enabled england leading negotiate norse mainland scandinavia started convert mainland rulers recruited missionaries england assist process religious institutions conversion england 6th 7th centuries explosion local church building english monasteries formed main basis church sponsored local rulers taking forms including mixed communities headed bishop led communities monks formed married priests families constructed staffed secular european tradition uniquely england chapters monks institutions badly affected 9th century viking raids predatory nobility start 10th century monastic lands financial resources quality monasteries religious work diminished reforms followed kings promoted rule popular continent reformed network monastic institutions south east england protection king helped establish royal control norman conquest brought new set norman french power adopted embraced aspects anglo saxon religious system introduced practices normandy extensive english lands granted monasteries normandy allowing create daughter monastic cells kingdom monasteries brought firmly web feudal relations holding land linked provision military support crown adopted anglo saxon model monastic cathedral communities seventy years majority english controlled monks english cathedral rebuilt extent new rulers england bishops remained powerful temporal figures early 12th century raised armies scottish invaders built extensive holdings castles country new orders began introduced england ties normandy waned french order fashionable houses introduced england spread quickly beginning 12th century onwards later century reached england creating houses interpretation monastic rules building great monastic communities england new slowed 13th century creating long term financial problems institutions dominican arrived england establishing end 13th century orders rapidly popular particularly towns heavily influenced local preaching religious military orders popular europe 12th century onwards acquired possessions england including church state church close relationship english state middle ages bishops major monastic leaders played important national government having key roles king council bishops oversaw towns cities managing local taxation government frequently viking incursions 9th century locations worcester local bishops came new accommodations local exchanging authority revenue assistance defence early english church disagreement doctrine addressed issues resolved arguments canterbury york britain began shortly continued medieval period william acquired support church invasion england promising ecclesiastical reform william promoted clergy gave ecclesiastical courts power reduced church direct links rome king tensions arose practices reforming movement pope gregory vii advocated greater autonomy royal authority clergy condemned practice promoted greater influence church matters despite bishops continuing play major royal government tensions emerged kings england key leaders english church kings clashed rights appointment religious policy successive including thomas stephen variously forced exile arrested royal knights killed early 13th century church largely won argument independence answering entirely rome challenges emerged traditional teachings church resulting teachings john member oxford_university argued scripture best guide understanding god intentions superficial nature combined abuses wealth church role senior government distracted study loose movement included members gentry pursued ideas death attempted pass parliamentary bill movement rapidly condemned authorities termed english bishops charged control counter trend disrupting enforcing teaching suitable local churches early 15th century teachings key political issue championed henry followers powers church state combat popular religious practice middle ages england tradition dating roman period typically pilgrims travel short distances shrine particular church perceived sin seek relief illness condition pilgrims travelled distant sites britain cases continent anglo saxon period built pagan sites popular pilgrimage destinations pilgrims visited prominent monasteries sites learning senior nobles kings travel rome popular destination 7th century onwards trips form convenient political exile religious institutions important canterbury winchester promoted pilgrimage destinations value historic associated sites accumulating relics important task ambitious institutions believed hold powers lent status site 12th century reports posthumous local saints increasing common england adding prominent relics participation seen form pilgrimage latin word applied activities english participation crusade limited england played prominent second fifth centuries leaving levant intervening years idea undertaking pilgrimage jerusalem new england idea justified warfare went anglo saxon times took cross crusade actually left individual lacked sufficient funds undertake journey raising funds travel typically involved selling lands possessions impact families times considerable impact economy economy technology geography england diverse geography medieval period east heavily wooded yorkshire despite medieval england broadly formed zones roughly divided rivers south east england lighter richer soils able support pastoral agriculture poorer soils colder climate north west produced predominantly pastoral economy slightly land covered trees 20th century bears wolves lived wild england bears hunted extinction 11th century 12th miles roads built romans remained use particular strategic importance way way street street crossed entire country road system adequate needs period significantly cheaper transport goods water major river networks formed key transport routes english towns formed inland ports middle ages england climate differed 21st century 9th 13th centuries england went medieval warm period prolonged period warmer temperatures early 13th century example summers warmer today climate slightly drier warmer temperatures allowed poorer land brought cultivation cultivated relatively far north warm period followed centuries cooler temperatures termed little ice age 14th century spring temperatures dropped considerably reaching cold end middle ages impacted significantly english agriculture living conditions start middle ages english landscape shaped human occupation centuries woodland new result fields reclaimed brush collapse roman empire human intervention established wood ancient system managing woods animals intensive approach managing woodlands agricultural lands included fields parts country south west waste remained testament earlier farming bronze age england environment continued shaped period building drain marshes tree clearance large scale extraction managed parks hunting game including deer built status symbols nobility 12th century onwards earlier versions parks originated early 7th century economy demographics english economy fundamentally agricultural depending growing crops wheat open field system sheep cattle pigs late anglo saxon period peasants moved away living isolated instead came form larger villages engaged cultivation agricultural land typically organised divided fields landowner manage directly called land majority fields cultivated local peasants peasants pay rent landowner agricultural labour lord fields rent form cash produce 11th century market economy england eastern southern towns heavily involved international trade built grind flour freeing labour productive agricultural tasks norman invasion caused damage soldiers looted countryside land confiscated castle building english economy greatly affected taxes increased established extensive forests exploited natural resources protected royal laws centuries saw huge growth english economy driven increase population million million land expense royal forests brought production feed growing population produce wool export europe hundreds new towns planned communities built england supporting creation charter medieval institutions governed growing trade jewish played significant role funding growing economy new religious orders emerged major players wool trade north mining increased england silver boom 12th century helping fuel expansion money supply economic growth began end 13th century owing combination land shortages depleted soils great famine shook english economy severely population growth ceased outbreak black death killed half english population agricultural sector rapidly higher wages lower prices diminishing profits leading final demise old system advent modern farming system charging cash lands returns land fell estates cases entire settlements simply abandoned nearly villages deserted period new class gentry emerged rented farms major nobility unsuccessful government attempts regulate wages consumption largely collapsed decades following peasants revolt english cloth industry grew considerably start 15th century new class international english merchant emerged typically based london south west expense older economies eastern towns new trading systems brought end international rise chartered company fishing north_sea expanded deeper waters backed commercial investment major merchants europe entered recession england suffered great slump trade collapsed driving agricultural prices ultimately acceptable levels royal taxation resulting tensions discontent played important jack popular uprising subsequent wars roses end middle ages economy begun recover considerable improvements shape early modern economy technology science technology science england advanced considerably middle ages driven greek islamic thinking reached england 12th century onwards advances scientific ideas including introduction arabic sequence improvements units measuring time built england late 13th century mechanical certainly installed magic palm reading considered important forms knowledge medieval england doubted reliability period produced influential english scholars roger bacon philosopher produced works natural philosophy astronomy work set theoretical basis future experimentation natural sciences william helped fuse latin greek islamic writing general theory logic razor cited conclusions english scholars time believed world probably round estimated earth 13th century despite limitations medieval medicine published longest medical works written latin prominent historical science texts began translated english time second half 14th century including travels sir john universities oxford cambridge established 11th 12th centuries drawing model university paris technological advances proceeded range areas grind grain existed anglo saxon period horizontal mill designs 12th century built eliminating use hand mills older horizontal mills gradually supplanted new vertical mill design began built late 12th century slowly common water powered mills powered appeared 12th century water power assist 14th century blast opening new mining methods developed horse powered pumps installed english mines end middle ages introduction beer transformed industry 14th century new techniques invented better preserve fish pottery widespread 12th 13th centuries largely replacing wooden plates 15th century william began printing press late 15th century transport links improved road bridges erected rebuilt stone long economic boom 12th 13th centuries england maritime trade benefited introduction ships docks improved fitted cranes time warfare armies warfare endemic early anglo saxon england major conflicts occurred approximately generation later period groups armed households formed heart armies supported larger numbers temporary troops levied kingdom called 9th century armies men called campaigns men available guard urban defences common weapon spear swords nobles cavalry probably common wider europe anglo fight horseback viking attacks england 9th century led developments tactics including use shield walls battle scandinavian seizure power 11th century introduced form elite household soldier protected king anglo norman warfare characterised military campaigns commanders tried raid enemy lands seize castles order allow control adversaries territory ultimately winning slow strategic victories pitched battles occasionally fought armies considered risky engagements usually avoided commanders armies period comprised bodies mounted armoured knights supported infantry numerous 12th century alongside older heart armies permanent military household king supported war feudal drawn local nobles limited period service campaign mercenaries increasingly employed driving cost warfare considerably adequate supplies ready cash essential success campaigns late 13th century edward expanded small standing army forming core larger armies strong largely comprising foot soldiers campaigns scotland france time edward iii armies smaller size troops typically better equipped carried potentially devastating weapon cannons english forces battles soldiers began contracted specific campaigns practice development armies grew late 15th century english armies somewhat backward wider european standards wars roses fought inexperienced soldiers outdated weapons allowing european forces intervened conflict decisive effect outcomes battles navies references english navy occur described ships defeating viking fleet early fleets limited size grew size 10th century allowing power projected irish sea english channel fleet vessels edward muster ships ships manned sailors called probably drawn coastal towns vessels national levy manned regular crews naval forces played important role rest middle ages enabling transportation troops supplies raids hostile territory attacks enemy fleets english naval power particularly important loss normandy turned english channel friendly transit route contested critical border region english fleets 13th 14th centuries typically comprised specialist vessels large transport ships pressed merchant vessels action increasingly included new form sailing ship battles fought fleet found anchor english victory open waters coast raiding campaigns french attacks south england cause devastation towns fully recovered fortifications fortifications built romans england survived middle ages including walls surrounding military forts cities defences reused unstable post roman period anglo saxon kings undertook significant planned urban expansion 8th 9th centuries creating protected earth wood walls utilised older roman fortifications practical reasons bolster owners symbolism roman power small number castles built england conquest began build timber bailey castles large numbers control newly occupied territories 12th century began build castles stone characteristic square keeps supported military political functions royal castles control key towns forests whilst castles norman lords control widespread estates feudal system called castle guard provide garrisons castles continued grow military 12th century 13th century new defensive town walls constructed england 14th century castles combining defences luxurious sophisticated living arrangements gardens parks early gunpowder weapons defend castles end 14th century essential feature fashionable castle economics maintaining castles meant left decline abandoned contrast small number castles developed wealthy palaces hosted lavish celebrations amid elaborate architecture smaller structures called tower houses emerged north england protect scottish threat late medieval period town walls increasingly military character expressions civic pride urban governance grand built 14th 15th centuries purposes arts art medieval england produced art form paintings carvings books functional beautiful objects wide range materials including gold glass ivory art usually drawing overt attention materials utilised designs anglo saxon artists created carved illuminated manuscripts crosses stone sculpture relatively survived modern period produced wide range frequently gold sword drinking horns particularly favoured designs early designs found burial style heavily influenced german animal shapes distorted flowing shapes positioned alongside geometric patterns 7th century onwards designs popular showing form incorporating animals people designs 10th century styles inspired classical imagery began enter continent widely reformed monasteries south east england norman conquest introduced northern french artistic styles particular illuminated manuscripts murals reduced demand carvings artistic areas including anglo saxon influence remained evident 12th century famous example older styles new regime stained glass distinctive form english art later medieval period coloured glass works entirely imported europe little early stained glass england survived typically ornamental educational function later works commemorated sponsors windows designs english making early 14th century especially high quality works produced london professionals exported europe known english illuminated books queen mary famous period featuring rich decoration combination natural figures rich colours quality illuminated art england declined significantly face competition flanders 14th century later english illuminated medieval pieces generally imitated flemish styles literature drama music anglo produced extensive poetry old english written early 9th century surviving poems compiled 10th early 11th century probably written typical poems portraying vivid heroic tale ending protagonist death hands dragon showing signs new christian influences england old english academic writing 9th century onwards including translations popular foreign works including pastoral care poetry stories written french popular norman conquest 12th century works english history began produced french verse romantic poems tournaments love popular paris fashion spread england form lays stories court king arthur fashionable interest henry_ii english continued modest scale write local religious works poems north england major works produced latin french reign richard use middle english poetry termed poetry works emulated french work onwards culminating influential canterbury tales uniquely english style major pieces poetry continued produced 15th century disciples thomas compiled older tales produce arthur music singing important england medieval period religious ceremonies court occasions accompany theatrical works singing techniques called introduced england 13th century accompanied instruments guitar pipes organ henry sponsored extensive range music england son henry brought influences occupied france important form music 15th century originally song sung dance prominent refrain 15th century form lost dancing introduced strong religious overtones ballads popular late 14th century onwards including ballad chase describing activities robin hood miracle plays performed communicate bible locations late 14th century extended vernacular mystery plays performed annually days broken cycles plays handful survived 21st century competed produce best plays town performances expression civic identity architecture century collapse british economy substantial buildings constructed towns abandoned new round houses constructed settlements timber buildings built imitating older roman styles immigrants constructed small rectangular buildings wood occasionally halls conversion christianity 6th 7th centuries reintroduced italian french built stone churches low height following narrow rectangular plan inside fitted glass colourful style developed period featuring characteristic circular arches 10th 11th centuries larger churches monastery buildings built featuring square circular towers contemporary european fashion palaces constructed nobility centred great timber halls manor houses began appear rural areas brought architectural styles stone churches preferred early norman kings style adapted produce large plain 12th century anglo norman style richer ornate pointed arches derived french architecture replacing curved designs style termed early english gothic continued variation rest middle ages early 14th century perpendicular gothic style created england emphasis immense windows soaring arcades fine timber roofs variety styles particular built english buildings 15th century architectural focus turned away monasteries favour parish churches decorated richly carved turn churches influenced design new existing domestic architecture continued develop having occupied older anglo saxon dwellings rapidly beginning build larger buildings stone timber elite preferred houses large ground floor halls wealthy constructed simpler houses halls floor master servants frequently lived spaces town houses built stone incorporated business domestic arrangements single functional design 14th century houses castles sophisticated affairs featuring murals glass windows buildings designed set apartments allow greater privacy fashionable brick began parts country copying french tastes architecture emulated older defensive designs remained popular known houses peasants period peasants appear lived relatively substantial timber framed long houses quality houses improved prosperous years following black death built professional legacy historiography history medieval england written 8th century accounts contemporary ancient history followed usually termed chronicles 16th century academic histories began written typically drawing primarily interpreting light current political concerns edward 18th century writings influential presenting medieval period dark age rome rebirth early modern period late victorian historians continued use sources deployed documents book alongside newly discovered financial legal commercial records produced progressive account political economic development england growth british_empire spurred interest periods english middle ages including empire years war 1930s older historical analyses challenged range neo approaches supported widening body documentary archaeological scientific evidence neo analyses continued popular post war years producing seminal works economic issues social protests post modern analysis influential 1970s 1980s focusing identity gender interpretation culture studies focused particular regions groups drawing new records new scientific approaches including landscape environmental fresh archaeological finds continue challenge previous interpretations historical studies england middle ages diverse early 21st century popular representations period wide range popular culture william_shakespeare plays lives medieval kings proved long lasting appeal heavily influencing popular interpretations histories figures king john henry taken key medieval events death thomas draw contemporary themes issues medieval mystery plays continue enacted key english towns cities film makers drawn extensively medieval period taking themes shakespeare robin hood ballads inspiration historical fiction set england middle ages remains popular 1980s 1990s seeing particular growth historical detective fiction period inspired fantasy writers including stories middle earth english medieval music revived 1950s choral musical groups attempting reproduce original sounds medieval living history events held 19th early 20th centuries period inspired considerable community historical england growing heritage industry surveys kings architecture castles churches landscape specialized studies historiography