buses buses largest municipal bus company united_kingdom dominant provider bus services transport edinburgh company wholly owned city edinburgh council owns company remainder owned east west councils buses operates majority bus services edinburgh extending outlying suburbs towns villages company operates limited stop express routes edinburgh airport service park ride services night bus network tourist services company operates travel shops city centre operates buses depot locations street marine company maintains driver training school engineering depot history company trace history edinburgh street company involving times companies edinburgh north city_council edinburgh corporation department took operation time system cable operated electrification network completed motor buses arrived closed operation edinburgh corporation transport department purchased rear engined double bus currently preserved scottish vintage bus museum buses added fleet years edinburgh corporation transport renamed region transport renamed buses august edinburgh council announced creation transport edinburgh new public body meant oversee public transport edinburgh including buses new system transport edinburgh council stated priority integration bus services executive directors buses board new organisation awards buses won awards services region including bus operator year bus awards subsequently voted public transport operator year bus national transport awards company cited substantial route development growth passenger numbers million investment low floor buses buses voted best bus company vehicles previously carried wording voted scotland best bus company laurel type logo near november company won city operator year award bus awards buses operated flat fare system charged adult march child day tickets pre paid multiple singles available senior citizens travelling free travel passes line rest scotland april adult single fare child day ticket april cash payment placed automatically vault driver access change given increasing security allowing passengers board quickly bus pass pre paid plastic giving unlimited travel regular daytime night bus services edinburgh services purchased initially transport edinburgh owner picture incorporated card prevent use purchased card placed board reader reads chip cards credited weekly weekly annual period warning displayed days validity card topped transport edinburgh pay point equipped retailers bus network conjunction management changes route branding route network undergone considerable change removal apparently confusing aspects letter routes clockwise circular services services transferred routed princes street parallel george street new town banning cars princes street closing certain access points majority current network comprises routes pass city centre opposing termini services pass princes street place walk crossing points remaining cross city services exists northern southern semi circle routes local loop area routes contained edinburgh notably playing card branded routes extend surrounding areas edinburgh airport double deck buses intermediate points display final destination company double buses unique scotland displaying destination rear early late evenings services curtailed city centre early termini transition night bus service cases route displayed intermediate display certain routes day short working termini minor indicated use internal external boards double deck deliveries feature route diverted intermediate display road cause service diverted normal route night buses buses operates network increased routes numbered routed match daytime routes increased frequency operation night buses provides continuous hour bus service areas city ticket allows unlimited travel night night bus infrastructure buses operates engineering works major work buses carried previous company headquarters engineering works hill walk sold subject planning permission occupied company repeated delays controversies public inquiry site sold developments site developed flats houses buses maintain travel shops city bridge street travel shop opened court shopping mall town centre february buses services integrated edinburgh commenced operation owned council buses services interchange locations closed guided element formed phase permanent way fleet edinburgh corporation buses historically employed high degree service bus fleet including use low floor buses facilitate maintenance savings employed services time december fleet consisted buses current vehicles buses modern fleet national standards average vehicle age years september main service fleet low floor majority current main service fleet comprises single deck wright eclipse bodies wright eclipse bodies solo diesel electric hybrids double deck dennis president bodies president wright eclipse bodies wright eclipse bodies wright eclipse bodies alexander dennis hybrid president dennis converted open use tour operations vehicles fitted internal external cameras cab radios passenger driver safety bus lane enforcement assisting police action company drivers end buses started replacing ticket machines ticket machines machines supplied transport scotland national travel scheme improve free travel scotland preserved vehicles vehicles previously buses predecessors preserved awaiting preservation groups societies vehicles regularly appear events rallies running days country main fleet route branding traditionally edinburgh corporation regional transport buses dark red cream matching seating coach seated alexander bodied alexander bodied painted scheme red place vehicles branded usually operated routes company traditionally maintained uniform buses deliveries low floor vehicles seen new standard introduced route branding increasingly introduction low floor vehicles route branding highlights route certain services making buses easier spotted identify low floor buses started phased company low floor operation return traditional white style altered slightly suit lines modern buses type bus owned directly buses type painted new july buses introduced new double deck buses buses continued red white pattern outside bus buses changed seats matching red colour changed entrance bus wooden effect routes buses receive branding branding new branding created white edinburgh buses route gradually green promoting colours reflect type engine alexander dennis hybrid buses added fleet began operating route western harbour new hybrids buses gold colour scheme free wheels electronic destination displays buses took delivery single deck hybrids entered service route delivered summer route december year work services city link buses routes edinburgh branded city link blue positions red buses white roof colour vehicles city link colours new white mint coloured roof pen celebrate history area pen original buses branded high fuel consumption worked standards playing cards theme double routes low floor scheme based playing card theme symbol suit incorporating route number route september club class city extra yellow black club symbol bus club class branded buses new white yellow roof connect branding spring expected replace club class branding september announced style lady victoria honour mining heritage routes pass scottish mining museum based lady victoria route east west heart city featuring red gold decks large heart arrow symbol route ace cutting city orange black symbol worn buses buses white route branding route service black yellow diamond symbol superseded new branding mill race grey later removed high fuel consumption long route single deck routes received branding based playing card theme route branded best deal red route leader pack blue new branding route queen scots standard white route stock brig routes commenced double operation june march respectively retained orange roof stock brig branding connect branding mid saw introduction connect branding example red based connect city centre sands earlier playing card theme second example applies new friendly vehicles route branding connect edinburgh park city centre ocean terminal base colour pink example applied bus route legend connect base colour yellow applied new interpretation classic white connect branding replaced lady victoria branding october zoo advertising june buses entered year deal edinburgh zoo create fleet vehicles carrying animal themed advertising designs route connect branding variations exist vehicles recognise featuring dive day tigers faster stripes rainbow tourism history tour operations buses operated city tours white coaches later employed city tour wore updated version white blue detailing short period edinburgh classic tour set open later competed guide friday result guide friday introducing competition city centre airport route buses wore blue white carrying scottish star star highland star buses operated open tours oxford conjunction local operator cambridge classic tour identity edinburgh bus tours buses operate open double deck tour bus services distinct brands city edinburgh tours mac tours majestic tour city tour operated franchise city brand brought control entity edinburgh bus tours separate trading names retained city edinburgh tours mac tours visit old town new town hill palace edinburgh castle albeit slightly differing routes majestic tour operates long loop new town royal garden coast ocean terminal site royal yacht mac tours operation uses buses dark red cream edinburgh vintage bus branding tours use president bodied dennis city tours red edinburgh tours white green majestic tours use yellow blue coloured vehicles forth tours mac tours operated bus forth tours providing bridge tours cruises forth bus dedicated president bodied dennis painted special yellow blue green forth tours services buses operates dedicated limited stop service route edinburgh airport bridge road service uses dedicated fleet special web site orange winged logo web site interior exterior vehicles original plain airline blue later replaced new wright eclipse bodied march new vehicles included leather type composition leather recycled waste leather power enables passengers deck watch lower deck led lights free vehicles cost standard vehicles carry tone blue red previous carried white light dark blue orange detailing park ride edinburgh network existing proposed park ride sites buses sites country buses june buses expanded east introduction route edinburgh replacing group service following withdrawing area route operated separate legal entity country buses initially operated existing buses service operated wright eclipse bodied president bodied dennis painted green cream similar scottish motor traction eastern scottish buses september second service commenced edinburgh service run wright eclipse urban bodies buses formally queen scots route branding east_coast buses august north scotland east taken operated east_coast buses vehicle tracking buses active members system responsible funding partly responsible operation operates tracking movements buses computers relay information designated bus signs city giving real time date information buses passengers december announced following success application developed iphone similar way works allows people download application iphone enables nearest bus stop bus developed buses city edinburgh council application won backing companies bus edinburgh application developed android platform similar functionality iphone application like iphone application application developed independent developer backed buses city edinburgh council available free charge august company introduced early running alarm system drivers linked automatic vehicle tracking system sounds alarm displays warning messages bus running early result company fined traffic commissioner scotland having found running buses early customer complaint vehicle operator services agency monitored services february found instances buses running early despite starting route time running late company defence built running time cope delays works places works ended early commissioner accepted defence chose action company operating licence maximum vehicles instead commissioner imposed fine set lower legal maximum calculated vehicles popular culture buses depot setting programme buses company staff feature firm participation series company chief executive officer said good opportunity public transport eye generation customers


ethnic group nation native iceland june republic founded independent danish monarchy language spoken north language predominant religion historical dna records indicate percent settlers norse origin primarily western norway rest celtic stock ireland peripheral scotland iceland tumultuous history development island slow lack interest countries controlling history norway denmark norway ultimately denmark time iceland relatively little contact outside world island independent union denmark iceland republic society undergone rapid process post independence era history iceland young land mass having formed estimated million years ago volcanic mid-atlantic ridge larger islands remain human settlement date generally accepted evidence suggest human activity prior norse arrival initial migration settlement viking sight iceland went course harsh conditions sailing norway islands reports led efforts settle island 9th century sail iceland intentionally story documented manuscript said named island iceland permanent iceland usually considered norwegian named settled family place named bay following group set sail north_atlantic ocean families livestock slaves possessions escaping domination king norway traveled viking island iceland people primarily norwegian irish scottish origin irish scottish slaves servants norse chiefs according descendants group settled scotland ireland speaking people genetic evidence suggests approximately maternal gene pool derived ireland scotland higher scandinavian countries comparable origin paternal gene pool origin rest age settlement considered lasted point island claimed english assembly commonwealth founded conflict english plain near families met established iceland national assembly lacked power enforce laws struggles rival left iceland divided king norway asked step final disputes old known age iceland norwegian leadership royal house norway died point iceland norway came control danish crown introduction absolute monarchy denmark relinquished autonomy crown including right initiate consent legislation meant loss independence iceland led nearly years decline largely denmark crown consider iceland colony supported assisted particular lack help defense led constant raids pirates coasts unlike norway denmark need iceland fish wool created dramatic deficit iceland trade new ships built result iceland forbidden trade countries order danish government 18th century climatic conditions reached time low settlement volcanic south island erupted eruption produced lava total volume emitted built caused cooling effect northern hemisphere consequences iceland catastrophic approximately population dying famine sheep cattle horses died million tons released disaster known mist discontinued decades eventually restored moved capital held centuries independence prosperity 19th century brought significant improvement situation protest movement led statesman historian authority literature inspired romantic nationalist currents mainland europe protested strongly political journals self publications return national consciousness political social changes help speed iceland development danish government relaxed trade ban imposed iceland gradually began rejoin western_europe economically socially return contact peoples came iceland arts especially literature years later iceland granted constitution today recognize efforts largely responsible economic social resurgence iceland gained near independence world war retained formal ties danish crown independence completed june birthday national referendum iceland broke ties denmark nearly centuries danish rule declared independent demographics society mitochondrial dna found today contemporary traced native populations ireland scotland scandinavia study shows tiny proportion samples contemporary carry distant lineage belongs possibly traced settlement americas years ago study preliminary analyses revealed lineage present pool years ago small founding population considerable history relative isolation considered highly genetically compared european populations reason extensive records population reach settlement iceland focus considerable research companies academic medical researchers study mitochondrial dna blood groups revealed variable population expected genetic comparable diversity europeans study shows big group scandinavian males particular samples carry dna results mitochondrial dna studies consistent records trace ancestry scandinavia ireland scotland minor contribution european groups founder effects effects genetic drift pronounced gene pool nearby populations supporting assumed genetic isolation population emigration greenland greenland settled leadership red late 10th century isolated harsh land offered sufficient grazing support cattle sheep climate cold crops royal trade ships norway occasionally went greenland trade population eventually reached high point communities developed independent institutions fading away 15th century papal sent late year columbus attempted find shorter route instead found americas north_america according saga red immigration north_america dates born colony short lived abandoned immigration north_america resume years new instances immigration north_america occurred small group settled spanish fork utah colony washington island wisconsin immigration united_states canada began earnest 1870s migrants initially settling great lakes area settlers fleeing famine iceland today sizable communities descent united_states canada canada home largest population outside main island iceland culture language literature north language official language iceland facto laws silent issue grammar comparable latin ancient greek closely old english practically identical old norse old literature divided categories best known foreigners poetry poetry saga literature saga literature understood broadly poetry heroic mythological poems poetry praises considered poetry court poetry finally saga literature prose ranging pure fiction fairly factual history written changed little 13th century modern readers understand tell events iceland 10th early 11th centuries considered best known pieces literature elder poetic younger prose major pieces literature poetic collection poems stories late 10th century younger prose manual poetry contains stories norse mythology religion iceland embraced christianity called country secular predominantly christian culturally lutheran church claims total population early christianity traditional catholicism religious movement imported denmark 18th century marked effect island religious leisure activities fostered certain long time considered stereotype time led boom printing iceland today societies world catholicism supplanted reformation world religions represented island small protestant free churches catholic communities nascent muslim community composed immigrants local converts unique iceland fast growing legally recognized revival pre christian religion original settlers according roman catholic diocese approximately jews iceland lady iceland israeli born jew cuisine cuisine consists mainly fish lamb dairy fish main diet recently given way beef pork iceland traditional foods called foods include smoked lamb sheep heads dried fish smoked salmon cured shark andrew chef traveled world bizarre foods andrew responded question thing eaten response shark fin iceland shark fin form performance art earliest indigenous music epic tales viking era performed cappella christianity played major role development music hymns written local poet priest noted writing hymns 17th century island relative isolation ensured music maintained regional flavor 19th century pipe organs prevalent european religious music appeared island singers groups forms music come iceland music contains vibrant folk pop traditions recent groups singers monsters men national anthem lands english country god written music song written iceland celebrated anniversary settlement island originally published title hymn commemoration iceland thousand years sports iceland national football team participate world cup qualified finals european championship olympic participation summer olympics participate summer olympics appearance winter games winter olympics won olympic silver medal triple jump national team enjoyed relative success team received silver medal olympic games 3rd place european men championship


canadians canadians french people identified country canada connection residential legal historical cultural canadians connections exist collectively source canadian canada bilingual society home people different ethnic religious national origins majority population old world immigrants descendants following initial period french larger british colonization different waves peaks immigration settlement non peoples took place course nearly centuries continue today elements french british recent immigrant customs languages religions combined form culture canada canadian identity canada strongly influenced linguistic geographic economic neighbour united_states canadian independence britain grew gradually course years formation canadian confederation world war world war particular gave rise desire canadians country recognized fully fledged sovereign state distinct citizenship legislative independence established passage statute westminster canadian citizenship act took effect january sovereignty achieved constitution canada law closely mirrored united_kingdom legislation mid 20th century represents canadians commitment development population canadians world total population having relied immigration population growth social development approximately current canadians second generation immigrants percent canadian residents 2000s born country statistics canada projects nearly half canadians age foreign born foreign born parent peoples according canadian census numbered country population immigration french originally settled new france present day quebec ontario present day nova_scotia new_brunswick early 17th century approximately irish born families settle saint lawrence valley population culture 18th 19th century immigration westward area known land carried french settlers working north west company british settlers english scottish representing hudson bay company coupled independent called des arrival newcomers led creation ethnic group mixed european nations british conquest new france preceded small number germans settled alongside scottish port royal nova_scotia irish immigrated colony newfoundland wake invasion canada newly formed continental_army american revolutionary war approximately united empire loyalist fled british north_america large portion migrated new_brunswick war british including british_army regulars scottish irish immigration encouraged land upper canada lower canada immigrants came colonies british north_america mainly british isles great migration canada new arrivals included speaking highland scots displaced highland nova_scotia irish potato famine 1840s significantly increased pace irish immigration prince edward island province canada distressed individuals landing toronto beginning late 1850s immigration chinese colony vancouver island colony british_columbia peaked onset canyon gold rush chinese immigration act eventually placed head tax chinese immigrants hopes chinese immigration completion canadian pacific railway population canada consistently risen doubling approximately years establishment canadian confederation mid- late 19th century canada policy assisting immigrants europe including estimated unwanted home children britain block settlement communities established western canada late 19th early 20th centuries planned spontaneously created settlers canada receiving large number european immigrants predominantly italians germans dutch poles legislative restrictions immigration continuous journey regulation chinese immigration act favoured british european immigrants amended 1960s opening doors immigrants parts world 1950s seen high levels immigration europeans 1970s immigrants increasingly chinese indian vietnamese jamaican late 1960s early 1970s canada received american vietnam war draft late 1980s 1990s canada growing pacific trade brought large influx south tended settle british_columbia immigrants backgrounds tend settle major urban centres canadian public major political parties support immigration majority illegal immigrants come southern provinces people republic china asia eastern_europe caribbean africa middle_east contributing illegal population estimates numbers illegal immigrants range report general canada stated canada lost track approximately illegal immigrants expired citizenship canadian citizenship typically obtained birth canada birth adoption abroad biological parent adoptive parent canadian citizen born canada canada receive citizenship born outside canada canadian citizen granted permanent resident lives canada years meets specific requirements canada established law enactment canadian citizenship act took effect january immigration refugee protection act passed parliament canada bill replaced immigration act primary federal legislation regulating immigration prior legal status canadian citizenship canada laws consisted multitude acts beginning immigration act according citizenship immigration canada main classifications immigrants family class persons closely related canadian residents economic class admitted basis point system accounts age health labour market skills required cost effectively immigrants canada labour market refugee class seeking protection applying remain country way canadian immigration refugee law immigrants family class refugees economic immigrants total immigrants country canada world refugees highest capita immigration rates world report asia pacific foundation canada million canadian citizens abroad represents total canadian population living abroad united_states hong_kong united_kingdom taiwan china lebanon united arab australia largest canadian canadians united_states constitute greatest single community million representing canadians abroad current canadian law canada restrict dual citizenship passport canada encourages citizens travel abroad canadian passport access canadian services ethnic ancestry canada ethnic groups members million people numerous represented smaller amounts according census largest self reported ethnic origin canadian followed english french scottish irish german italian chinese north american indian ukrainian dutch netherlands census million canadians identified member visible minority total population numerous south asian black filipino peoples considered visible minority employment equity act definition statistics canada uses complete list canadian ethnic groups culture canada culture product languages religions political legal system canada shaped waves migration combined form unique blend art cuisine literature humour music today canada diverse makeup constitutional protection policies promote cultural quebec cultural identity strong french speaking commentators speak quebec culture distinct english canadian culture canada cultural mosaic collection regional ethnic canadian government policies official publicly funded health care higher progressive taxation capital punishment strong efforts eliminate poverty strict gun control regard drug use recently sex marriage social canada political cultural values american media entertainment popular dominant english canada conversely canadian cultural products successful united_states worldwide government canada influenced culture programs laws institutions created crown corporations promote canadian culture media tried protect canadian culture setting legal canadian content canadian culture historically influenced french british cultures traditions canada territory inhabited developed later european colonies americas result themes symbols pioneers traders important early development canadian identity nations played critical development european colonies canada particularly role assisting exploration continent north american fur trade british conquest new france brought large population british imperial rule creating need compromise accommodation new british rulers left religious political social culture french speaking quebec act right catholic faith use french civil law quebec law constitution act designed meet growing calls canadians autonomy british rule avoiding overly strong contributed civil war united_states fathers confederation set canadians path turn contributed acceptance diversity canadian forces overall civilian participation world war second world war helped foster canadian nationalism conscription crisis highlighted considerable rift ethnic lines result second world wars government canada british authority gradual political ties united_kingdom modernization canadian immigration policies 20th century immigrants african caribbean asian added canadian identity culture multiple origins immigration pattern continues today arrival large numbers immigrants non british non french backgrounds canada adopted official policy government 1970s 1980s canadian government described ideology public emphasis social importance immigration administered department citizenship immigration reflected law canadian act section canadian charter rights freedoms religion canada nation diverse encompassing wide range groups beliefs customs canadian charter rights freedoms references god monarch carries title defender faith canada official religion support religious freedom religion canada important canada political culture role christianity decline having central integral canadian culture daily life commentators suggested canada come enter post christian period secular state canada rise majority canadians consider religion daily lives believe god practice religion generally considered private matter society state canadian census reported canadians identify christians number catholics largest group accounting percent population largest protestant united church canada accounting canadians followed canadians declare religious affiliation including groups remaining affiliated non christian religions largest islam followed buddhism judaism arrival european colonists explorers nations followed wide array religions colonial period french settled shores saint lawrence river specifically latin rite roman catholics including number dedicated converting effort eventually proved successful large protestant communities formed british conquest new france followed american protestant settlers displaced american revolution late nineteenth century saw beginning substantive shift canadian immigration patterns large numbers irish southern europeans immigrants creating new roman catholic communities english canada settlement west brought significant eastern orthodox immigrants eastern_europe immigrants united_states earliest documentation jewish presence canada occurs british_army records french indian war general 1st baron attacked won montreal british regiment jews including officer corps notably lieutenant aaron hart considered father canadian islamic hindu buddhist communities small old nation canadian census canadian national census indicated thirteen muslims populace approximately canadian mosque constructed approximately muslims canada buddhism arrived canada japanese immigrated late 19th century japanese buddhist temple canada built vancouver influx immigrants late 20th century japanese indian southeast asian customs contributed recent expansion hindu buddhist communities languages multitude languages million canadians english french official languages mother approximately canadians respectively nearly million canadians listed non official language mother tongue common non official languages include chinese mainly language speakers spanish german italian percent canadians individuals speak language half number reported language daily basis additionally canadians speak sign languages unknown number speakers spoken languages maritime sign language plains sign talk speakers language english french recognized constitution canada official languages federal government laws enacted english french government services available languages canada territories official status indigenous languages official languages alongside national languages english french common language territorial government northwest territories official languages act declares different languages english french north south media widely accessible county offer specialty television channels newspapers publications minority languages canada world european colonies frontier european exploration settlement tended diverse fluid place cultures different languages met interacted need common means communication indigenous inhabitants new arrivals purposes trade cases led development mixed languages languages like tended highly localized spoken small number individuals frequently capable speaking language reaching canada united_states mexico existed plains sign talk functioned originally trade language communicate internationally linguistic borders


clan clan japanese clan originating northern japan specifically province northeast coast branch local clan rose power period winning battle entered period family lords ruling domain second branch family later established ruled domain survived family restoration relieved office extended family new nobility era history origins clan initially claimed descent branch clan later years claim origin change family branch clan known clan branch family clan ruled sections northern province relations families declared independence vice district magistrate clan local magistrate attacked killed began taking clan castles attacked local power figure took castle clan fight clan continue ensuing years pledged confirmed holdings region northern tip family changed era clan sided eastern army battle immediate neighbors supported eastern army victory clan granted increase territory permission existing domain named family castle town domain started small increased size remained politically active early years era mainly area died early years era marked series major disturbances shook family disturbance riot ran disturbance disturbance plot clan assassinate lord stemmed old clans major branch clan founded given rank promoted status ruling family domain immediately bordered parent family domain lesser branch founded son family head branch remained end period main family temple located family held office domains northern assisted frontier region late period domain forces modernized western lines clan war war clan sided imperial government attacked forces nearby domain soon switched course briefly pact created backing favor imperial government major military action imperial army branch joined siding imperial government result entire clan able evade punishment government northern domains northern forces joined imperial army attacking republic return assistance government granted family increase branches imperial governors han domains years later lines relieved offices abolition han system era main family title count later worked supervisor number national bank member house peers adopted son court noble heir succeeded death princess present day descendant main line family heads main line branch line notable


japanese settlement small japanese community mainly consists japanese residing long term basis japanese started reside gained independence established long term businesses country japanese settlement dates early 19th century large scale japanese migration occur 1920s came japanese rule administered south pacific mandate japanese settlers took leading administrative roles japanese colonial government developed economy japanese surrender virtually japanese population repatriated japan people mixed japanese descent allowed remain people japanese descent constitute large minority population result substantial japanese settlers generally identify cultural norms daily lives history early years recorded account japanese contact occurred coastal sailing ship blown course surviving men spent years japanese traders began establish settlements mid-19th century onwards japanese trading stations established traders married daughters local raised local families japan annexed germany japanese settlers descendants acted state liaison officials japanese military administration civilian government established headquarters replacing military administration civilian government initiated programme identify unused land redevelopment land build new industrial estates expand towns accommodate immigrants japan okinawa japan government actively encouraged japanese including began establishing farming settlements farming settlement established settlers encountered problems humid tropical environment abandoned later settlements established successfully great depression resulted massive unemployment late 1920s 1930s japanese migrated immigrants brought families sought employment japanese immigrants held administrative posts worked labourers agricultural fishery mining industries japanese constituted population concentrated urban areas japanese settlers took wives minority mixed japanese children later years japanese administration japanese navy expanded military facilities onwards labourers japan korea employed construct facilities complete facilities short period time number labourers rose placed heavy strain islands scarce resources japanese labourers permanent settlers homeland japanese men regular services held administrative posts police force jobs agricultural sector japanese civilians played important role islands propaganda activities food resources cut japan japanese encountered greater difficulties dealing starvation counterparts tropical survival skills recent years present following surrender japan allied forces japanese military personnel civilians repatriated japan labourers technicians permitted remain carry repair works infrastructure offspring japanese allowed remain migrated japan fathers 1950s japanese formed organisation assist japanese japanese youths abandoned parents search parents forcibly separated result forced japanese settlers japan organisation cultural organisation 1980s onwards japanese reunited japanese families voluntarily chose leave certain family interaction japan kept minimal level post war years fishermen occasionally visited catches 1960s onwards japanese nationals 1970s married local 1980s japanese businessmen set businesses japanese nationals residing half expressed desire permanent residency married filipino women majority brought families japan maintained frequent contacts japan settlers 1980s consisted japanese settlers repatriated japan world war settlers returned usually consisted individuals years age worked tour guides japanese assumed key positions public service sector politics mark suggested strong representation japanese leading positions society attributed mainstream japanese education received youth president half japanese fostered closer diplomatic ties japan presidency state visit japan emperor personally received visit commended japanese alike visit prompted japan channel monetary aid facilitate repair work bridge securing special trade agreements japan demographics early years civilian administration japanese population consisted individuals reached little japanese resident population increased rate mid-1930s onwards japanese vast majority concentrated influx japanese immigrants development city quickly outnumbered japanese constituted percent city population japanese half islands population japanese population census large minority japanese populace consisted immigrants japanese population repatriated japanese surrender people japanese descent remained constitute large minority population study pacific island nations fund estimated born japanese father mother vast majority born study foundation advanced studies international development japan estimates populace japanese ancestry following table shows increase japanese population japanese colonial era language japanese colonial era japanese settlers mainly japanese daily discourse japanese communication japanese english recognised official language japanese japanese knowledge language people mixed japanese heritage competent japanese especially attended mainstream primary schools japanese introduced use script informal settings japanese surrender use japanese discouraged place english japanese use daily discourse favour japanese english japanese frequently japanese japanese ancestry number japanese tourists increased 1990s japanese introduced subject schools elections religion state heavily emphasised 1930s means promote japanese nationalism japanese norms built 1930s particular note completion great southern shrine november subsequently served central shrine civilian participation rituals heavily emphasised focused japanese cultural ideals worship japanese emperor buddhist missions encouraged establish religious missions buddhist temple erected mainly cater spiritual needs japanese settlers early japanese settlers reportedly built small agricultural colonies civilian government actively encouraged religious missionary activities christian missions initially given financial support japanese civilian government encouraged stamp certain rituals practiced later imprisoned late 1930s onwards japanese suspicious missionaries involvement espionage activities war abandoned demolished japanese chose adopt christianity favour buddhism 1980s 1990s miniature great shrine reconstructed unlike japanese colonial era reconstructed served memorial sites japanese soldiers battles died second world war visited japanese tourists family members slain soldiers society racial segregation japanese civilian administration segregated japanese immigrants adopted policies intended protect welfare 1930s onwards focus later shifted providing japanese immigrants civilian administration faced difficulties meeting demands increasing immigrant population racial segregation practiced sectors society highly pronounced workforce educational sectors faced difficulties getting employed administrative positions workforce dominated japanese settlers educational sector japanese children attended mainstream primary schools lessons based mainstream curriculum schools mainland japan children attended public schools attended lessons focused skills labour students public schools dropped completing elementary education children japanese fathers mothers faced difficulties getting enrolled primary schools especially born mixed race descendants japanese colonial era minority mixed race japanese emerged japanese japanese men women lived urban areas brought accordance japanese norms values spoke japanese daily lives sought education japan time limited knowledge customs language children born reportedly greater exposure customs spoke japanese japanese children generally classified japanese official figures access japanese social privileges reportedly faced discrimination placed japanese circles rural areas formed higher concentrations japanese men nationalists especially actively discouraged mixed unions japanese men women japanese government encouraged provided social benefits women married japanese men unions civilian men recognised military personnel prohibited marrying women allowed civilian government suppressed unions men japanese women known case union man japanese woman japanese colonial era japanese surrender japanese settlers repatriated japan male japanese settlers raised japanese families abandoned families favour reasoning offspring able better adapt japan women raised mixed race children abandoned adopted families japanese families migrated japan generally faced cultural shock petitioned return living japan years petitions allowed allowed bring japanese second generation descendants japanese descended earlier settlers generally chose remain raised japanese speaking families reportedly faced trouble retained japanese japanese generally identified war second generation japanese usually married women local populace terms self identification japanese usually emphasised japanese identities occasions associate japanese instance participate memorial services japanese soldiers died pacific war japanese chose buried japanese deaths notably economy japanese civilian administration encouraged japanese businessmen settlers expand mining production came commercial existence german colonial era time new infrastructure built towns including road harbour facilities electricity lines laid immigration japan okinawa korea intensified result new job opportunities state owned enterprise south seas colonization corporation formed islands economic activities administration objective developing islands self capabilities late 1930s japanese pearl divers regular visits sea stopped october april influx pearl divers japan led development island tourist industry japanese settlers opened new houses liquor houses cater pearl divers october april japanese surrendered japanese business enterprises organisations closed effectively ending japanese influence economy decades war american occupation government imposed strict trade restrictions japan contact japan 1960s starting fishermen granted fishing rights japanese tourists began visit increasing numbers mid-1970s growing influx tourists led restoration heritage sites particularly memorial sites administrative buildings built japanese era accommodate interests japanese tourists accounted half visiting tourists tourist sites run maintained citizens japanese heritage knowledge japanese customs languages helped facilitate tour groups consisting japanese tourists education japanese language school weekend programme operation notable people senator chin vice president politician diplomat president foreign minister president peter politician


informal referring filipino people philippines culture overseas filipino unspecified number refer feminine word formed taking letters filipino adding language commonly filipino nicknames iii respectively etc self identification wave going continental united_states world war sense term similar regarded younger filipino americans terms widely recently gained mainstream usage particularly members filipino masses filipino american sector created differentiate experiences united_states slang term refer people filipino descent music impacted socio political climate 1970s employed philippine president ferdinand people power revolution regime recent mainstream tend center entertainment big brother music idol played significant role developing national cultural identity term extensively government philippines apparently positive slang term flip origins according filipino american historian dawn earliest appearance terms issue filipino student bulletin article featured terms titled filipino women courses invade business politics motivations desire self identify likely attributed diverse independent history country comprising islands western pacific_ocean trace years spanish colony 16th century later occupied united_states led outbreak philippine american war commonwealth philippines established country gaining independence hostilities pacific theatre second world war ended philippines languages indigenous area belong branch language family president renamed language national language language renamed filipino secretary education constitution declared filipino language official english mandated development national language known filipino official languages filipino english million overseas worldwide equivalent total population philippines earliest earliest known magazines newspapers date 1920s include taking social issues facing casual mentions events advertisements hawaii following notable earliest united_states united_states earliest published usage known philippine republic article written january member faculty school chicago insult taken addressed chinese philippines philippines earliest published usage known december history philippine press briefly mentions weekly spanish english publication called based published publishing company manila based magazine red official organ police printed article street gangs stating gang composed patrons pools rooms banded protect abusive american notable literature filipino poet semi autobiography america heart work day fields season money chinese book describes childhood philippines voyage america years following harvest trail rural west american ethnic courses illustrate racism experienced thousands filipino laborers 1930s united_states music early 1970s music pop emerged sung mix rock folk ballads marking political use music similar early hip hop class music conscious attempt create filipino national popular culture reflected social realities problems early juan band performing music widely regarded example rock gained popular currency late 1970s philippines surge patriotism hit song filipino folk singer trend followed filipino rapper francis 1990s filipino rock band bamboo reversed syllables 2000s terms highlighting relationship philippines rock soon followed folk later jazz music express opposition philippine president ferdinand use martial law creating songs subversive national pride cultural nature songs seemingly non threatening administration ordered radio stations play later songs hour music greatly employed political forces sought overthrow


chinese chinese indonesian indonesia chinese pin descended chinese ethnic groups particularly han chinese came indonesia workers directly maritime southeast_asia population grew rapidly colonial period workers contracted home provinces southern china dutch ethnic classification policy chinese considered foreign struggled enter colonial national scene despite successes economic endeavors evidence discrimination chinese found history indonesia government policies implemented attempted resentment ethnic chinese economic grew 1950s native indonesian merchants felt remain competitive cases government action propagated stereotype ethnic chinese owned corrupt asian financial crisis severely disrupted business activities reform government policy legislation removed number political social restrictions chinese indonesia census reported million self identified ethnic chinese percent country population source stated million chinese living country half chinese like straits chinese etc chinese descendant making indonesia population development local chinese society culture based pillars clan associations ethnic media chinese language schools flourished period chinese nationalism final years china dynasty second sino japanese war differences object nationalist sentiments brought split population group supported political reforms mainland china worked improved status local politics new order government dismantled pillars ethnic chinese identity favor policies solution chinese problem patterns ethnic interaction found indonesia literature architecture cuisine chinese indonesian population java accounts nearly half group national population generally indonesia indigenous population significant rural agricultural communities exist country declining fertility rates resulted upward shift population pyramid median age increases emigration contributed population communities emerged nations second half 20th century participated programs people republic china emigrated western countries escape anti chinese sentiment overseas residents identities noticeably indonesian chinese history early interactions recorded movement people china maritime southeast_asia arrival forces khan culminated invasion java introduced chinese technologies island including intervention decline classical kingdoms precipitated rise empire chinese portuguese sources indicate chinese traders arrive islands buy later driven traders expanded chinese muslim traders eastern coast china arrived coastal towns indonesia malaysia early 15th century led commanded expeditions southeastern asia book translator documented activities chinese muslims archipelago legacy left men traders settled northern coast java documentation settlements 16th century chinese muslims likely absorbed majority muslim population dynasty interest southeastern asia reached low point trade legal illegal rarely reached archipelago portuguese mention resident chinese minority population arrived indonesia early 16th century trade north established china private trade licensing year years later silver began flowing region japan mexico europe trade flourished distinct chinese colonies emerged hundreds ports southeastern asia including pepper port chinese traders portuguese fell portuguese capture chinese engaged business instead portuguese chinese java assisted muslim attempts city ships chinese participation recorded annals colonial attitudes time dutch arrived early 17th century major chinese settlements existed north coast java traders merchants practiced agriculture inland areas dutch contracted immigrants skilled construction northwestern coast java recently created harbor selected new headquarters dutch east india company jan grew major hub trade china india home largest chinese community archipelago remains 21st century early governors general promoted entry chinese immigrants new settlements benefit places purpose gathering like port chinese population grown dutch introduced racial classification system separated residents chinese ancestry ancestry settled archipelago severed ties mainland welcomed favorable treatment protection dutch revenue farmers corporate structure tasked collecting export import duties managing harvest natural resources highly profitable earned population worked farmers following massacre ensuing war chinese rebelled dutch dutch attempted place number chinese enter indies designated immigration port archipelago ships limited specified number crew passengers depending size adjusted times meet demand overseas workers july sugar mills near need workers december freedoms chinese experienced corporation eliminated dutch government chinese monopoly salt trade granted administration regulation introduced requirement indigenous population chinese traveling territory obtain travel permit carry permit faced arrest security officers governor general introduced resolution forbade foreign java chinese living neighborhood native population following costly java war dutch introduced new cultivation system required farmers yield portion fields crops suitable european market compulsory cultivation restored economy colony ended system revenue farms established chinese perceived temporary residents encountered difficulties obtaining land rights europeans choice plantation areas colonial officials believed remaining plots protected preserved indigenous population short term varying lengths later introduced temporary measure chinese remained lands contracts second half 19th century colonial government began experimenting idea ethical policy protect indigenous population casting chinese foremost enemy state new policy administration increased restrictions chinese economic activities believed exploited native population western borneo chinese established major mining settlement dutch settlers local princes joined new republic known came conflict new dutch government seen incompatible objectives development region islands examples major settlements rural areas chinese recorded islands population risen nearly fishing tobacco industries developed brought region end 19th century hired straits settlements owing recruiting obstacles existed china divided nationalism chinese revolutionary figure sun visited southeast_asia later year socio religious organization known chinese association founded goal urge ethnic chinese indies support revolutionary movement china effort build chinese speaking schools association argued teaching english chinese languages dutch provide means taking words day voyage java singapore wider world freely overcome restrictions activities years later dutch authorities abandoned segregation policies abolished travel permits ethnic chinese allowed freely colony revolution founding republic china coincided growing chinese nationalist movement indies recognizable nationalist movement indigenous population dutch authorities feared nationalist sentiments spread growth mixed associations known members sing association broke away clashed ethnic chinese incident led creation islam organized popular nationalist movement indies indigenous groups saw chinese nationalist sentiment leading mutual anti chinese sentiment spread java led mass violence orchestrated members islam ethnic chinese following incident left wing chinese nationalist daily sin called sides work improve living conditions considered ethnic chinese like indigenous population poor sin went print began gaining momentum leading advocate chinese political nationalism ethnic chinese followed stream thought refused involvement local institutions participate politics relating mainland china second stream later formed wealthy ethnic chinese received education dutch run schools dutch oriented group wished increased participation local politics dutch education ethnic chinese ethnic chinese economic standing colonial economy championed chinese representatives movement gained momentum reached peak congress formation party elected president editor chief news magazine criticized sin ethnic chinese chinese nationalist stance pro indonesian counterparts founded indonesia support absorption ethnic chinese population support self government indonesia members group primarily division resurfaced end period japanese occupation occupation ethnic chinese communities attacked japanese forces owing suspicions contained consequence second sino japanese war dutch returned following end world war chaos caused advancing forces retreating revolutionaries saw radical muslim groups attack ethnic chinese communities revolutionary leaders sympathetic ethnic chinese unable stop sporadic violence affected fled rural areas dutch controlled cities saw proof pro dutch sentiments evidence chinese represented participated independence efforts members committee investigation preparation indonesian independence indonesia member preparatory committee indonesian independence indonesia chinese names loyalty question netherlands relinquished territorial claims archipelago exception west following round table conference year retreated taiwan allowing communist_party china control mainland china chinese considered communist china attractive newly independent indonesia archipelago questioned ethnic chinese born dutch_east_indies parents dutch administration regarded citizens new state according principle right soil chinese law considered person chinese citizen according principle right blood meant indonesian citizens chinese descent claimed citizens people republic china attempts governments resolve issue indonesia china signed dual treaty asian african conference provisions ability renounce chinese citizenship wished solely remain indonesian citizens ethnic chinese thirds rightful claims indonesian citizenship renounced chinese status treaty came effect hand estimated ethnic chinese students left people republic china 1950s early 1960s wave students entirely educated chinese language schools able find opportunities education indonesia seeking quality scientific entered china high hopes future mainland subsequent occurred program following series anti communist violence drew anger ethnic chinese percent original students entered mainland eventually refugees hong_kong programs china cultural revolution returned overseas chinese questioned loyalty foreign connections grown urban environment sent countryside told rebel class background eventually lost contact families attacked spies half breeds foreign following introduction soft authoritarian rule guided democracy indonesian government military began placing restrictions alien residence trade regulations culminated enactment presidential regulation november banning retail services non indigenous persons rural areas ethnic chinese arab dutch businessmen specifically targeted enforcement provide favorable market indigenous businesses met protests chinese government circles indonesian society writer later criticized policies book indonesia movement led chinese indonesian political party indonesia began gather interest including president series attacks ethnic chinese communities west java proved short lived despite government condemnation violence branded communist organization ethnic chinese implicated association exacerbated public mind people republic china communism people majority muslims including minority thousand ethnic chinese killed anti communist purge followed failed coup état suspected communist led september managing chinese problem new order government general came power introduced political system based principles ideology prevent ideological battles occurred presidency democracy sought system discussions forming cohesive ethnic chinese identity longer allowed government committee formed examine aspects chinese problem agreed forced emigration communities solution challenge advantage economic whilst eliminating perceived economic dominance semi governmental institute promotion national unity formed advise government chinese process highlighting differences ethnic chinese indigenous seeking similarities expressions chinese culture language religion traditional festivals banned ethnic chinese pressured adopt indonesian sounding names 1970s 1980s government brought chinese indonesian businesses participate economic development programs new order keeping highly vulnerable strengthen central authority restrict political freedoms patron client relationships mainly exchange money security accepted norm ethnic chinese maintained social contract claim sense belonging country minority economic elite indonesian society ethnic chinese secured relationships family members members military protection small business owners relied local law enforcement officials stereotypes wealthy minority accepted facts failed acknowledge said businessmen number compared small traders shop owners interview conducted scholar adam book nation waiting indonesia search stability stated word chinese synonymous corruption economic role ethnic chinese contradictory translate acceptance status greater society politically weak faced social harassment anti chinese sentiment gathered intensity 1990s president gathered powerful businessmen chinese nationally televised meeting private ranch calling contribute percent shares commentators described spectacle good theatre served reinforce resentment suspicion ethnic chinese indigenous population major riots broke october december january entered seventh term president following election march indonesian students began series major demonstrations protest new order regime continued weeks culminated students security forces university incident sparked major violence cities property businesses owned chinese targeted women sexually assaulted aspect riots generally accepted true denied indonesian groups absence security forces large groups men women children looted burned numerous shopping major cities people chinese non chinese died inside shopping tens thousands ethnic chinese fled country following events estimated billion capital left country overseas destinations singapore hong_kong united_states social policy reforms present unexpectedly resigned week returned group meeting cairo took place riots reform government formed successor began campaign rebuild confidence chinese fled country particularly businessmen envoys james son financial magnate appealed chinese seeking refuge east asia australia north_america return promised security government political figures despite efforts met skepticism remarks vice president president suggested message special envoy described chinese key restoring badly needed capital economic activity businessmen target pleas including economist saw government efforts myth chinese economic domination ethnic chinese identity symbolic reforms chinese indonesian rights administration presidential instructions abolished use terms non official government documents business second abolished ban study chinese reaffirmed instruction abolished use identify citizens chinese descent established task force investigate violence government later dismissed findings additional legal gesture indonesia ratified convention elimination forms racial discrimination newly elected president abolished ban public displays chinese culture allowed chinese traditions practised freely need permit years later president declared chinese new year marked national holiday addition directive term legislature passed new citizenship law defining word indigenous constitution natural born person allowing chinese eligible run president law children foreigners born indonesia eligible apply indonesian citizenship post era saw end policy chinese numbers chinese began took parts nation politics government administrative sector presidency saw female chinese indonesian minister minister trade minister tourism creative economy notable chinese indonesian indonesian politics popularly known regent east chinese indonesian governor present origins chinese immigrants indonesian archipelago entirely originated ethnic han groups provinces southern china areas known regional diversity large numbers han chinese largest ethnic group world live southeast_asia nearly chinese descendants early immigrants new immigrants born mainland china group chinese people settle large numbers southern dominant immigrant group middle 19th century maritime culture comes trade whilst indonesia descendants dominant group eastern indonesia central east java western coast sumatra southern neighbors found eastern coast sumatra archipelago western borneo preferred plantation laborers sumatra traders regions represented unlike originate mountainous inland regions maritime culture owing terrain home region emigrated economic necessity waves chinese immigrant groups initially populated mining centers western borneo island attracted rapid growth west java late 19th century people like known southeast_asia migration 19th century largely directed tin mines east_coast sumatra notable traditionally skilled benefited close contact europeans hong_kong learning machinery industrial success migrated java time different reasons indonesia cities machine workers owners small businesses restaurants hotel keeping services evenly dispersed archipelago number far consequently roles secondary importance chinese communities demographics indonesia census reported citizens percent total population ethnic chinese additional percent ethnic chinese living indonesia reported foreign citizens people republic china republic china able pay cost indonesian citizen census employed method self identification refused identify ethnic chinese assumed identity ethnic groups recorded non chinese likely identify fear repercussions wake anti chinese violence according population census self identified chinese indonesian population growth census past estimates exact number chinese relied dutch_east_indies census collected direct information ethnicity census reported million self identified ethnic chinese living colony representing percent total population perceived accurate account group population ethnic information collected census census data language spoken religious affiliation intermediate years early survey chinese indonesian minority william skinner estimated million percent million percent lived indonesia foreign minister adam provided figure million report published indonesia daily media academic sources subsequently estimated percent total population ethnic chinese regardless year estimates 2000s placed figure million overseas affairs commission republic china estimated population high million according population census percent chinese lived capital city located island java island provinces west java central java east java included population accounted half percent chinese data doesn count number ethnic chinese foreign citizenship west percent population ethnic chinese followed islands percent islands percent percent north sumatra percent percent remaining provinces chinese account percent provincial population chinese north sumatra lived provincial capital constituted small percentage relatively large population province west grouped hub ethnic chinese economic activity singapore exception settlements existed long singapore founding ethnic chinese population indonesia grew average percent annually slowed owing effects great depression areas experienced net emigration falling growth rates attributed significant decrease number chinese immigrants admitted indonesia 1950s population relatively old according census having lowest percentage population years old nationwide second highest percentage population population pyramid narrow base rapid increase age group indicating rapid decline total fertility rates evidenced decline absolute number west java population peak occurred age group indicating decline fertility rates began early upper portion pyramid exhibited smooth decline increasing population age estimated percent chinese indonesian population constitute generation experienced political social pressures new order government average life years spent formative years prior regime completely disappear communities new migrants began moving indonesia southeast asian countries regions world second half 20th century migrants possess chinese heritage identified trend continued modern day independent estimates chinese indonesian population living countries james australian people encyclopedia estimated half living australia late 1990s ethnic chinese merged chinese communities new_zealand migrants reside suburbs sought asylum thirds granted residency australian scholar charles believes chinese indonesian migrants constitute large majority returned overseas chinese living hong_kong impossible accurately count number news sources provided estimates ranging living united_states estimated ethnic chinese locally migrants southern_california estimate percent indonesian americans living area chinese descent families usually resided indonesia generations canada minority chinese indonesian community speak chinese families interested ethnic traditions canadian born children reluctant learn indonesian chinese society stated general rule given area indonesia settled chinese numbers prior 20th century chinese society degree today sector society adults children indonesia born orientation china influence individual culture apparent sector society population consists twentieth century immigrants immediate descendants strongly oriented china significance social line sectors varies indonesia scholars study chinese distinguish members group according racial background terms initially racially distinguish pure chinese mixed ancestry secondary meaning terms later arose meant born china born indonesia considered communities occurs division speech groups pattern apparent turn 20th century occurs social class graded according education family standing wealth gender structure community follows traditions chinese society practice lost emphasis relationships instead patterns families incorporated elements traditions found society community sons daughters inherit family fortune including ancestral ashes political social economic authority families evenly distributed families terms distinguish maternal paternal relatives strongly western influence society evidenced high proportion childless couples children fewer couples despite break traditional patterns families closer traditional chinese values population lost connection ancestral homes coastal provinces china affected 20th century modernization patterns transformed region attitude divorce separation rates families segments generally lower ethnic groups arranged marriages common families relationships tend meant counterparts carry ancestral rituals higher degree youth tend religious education provided high quality catholic protestant schools youth likely convert christianity 21st century conceptual differences chinese slowly outdated families mixture characteristics cultures marriage cultural prevent formation precise definition chinese line simple racial criterion use chinese surname form generally sign cultural self identification ethnic chinese alignment chinese social system identity ethnic chinese dutch_east_indies census categorized foreign led separate registration citizenship conferred ethnic chinese citizenship act indonesia independent reaffirmed encountered obstacles legality citizenship chinese required produce indonesian citizenship certificate indonesia conducting business government officials able identity cards register birth death marriage certificates register business license requirement use abolished presidential instruction reaffirmed media sources reported local authorities demanding chinese instructions went effect terms identifying sectors community include traditionally describe born locally derived root indonesian word child means child land derived meaning new pure describe foreign born new immigrants significant number chinese live people republic china hong_kong considered population returned overseas chinese identify varying sectors chinese indonesian society tan contends differentiated according citizens host country resident aliens broken according cultural orientation social identification doctoral notes definitions based cultural affinity nation origin gained currency early 1990s old definition occasionally tan asserts scholars studying ethnic chinese refer group entity overseas chinese treatment indonesia majority population referred meaning chinese people previously described literature indonesian chinese shift terminology old description emphasizes group chinese origins recent indonesian integration citing prominent scholar leo believes shift necessary debunk stereotype exclusive group promotes sense nationalism economic members community inclined adhere practice based idea existence influenced connection implying importance business connections decade following indonesian independence business standing strengthened limited small businesses colonial period 1950s virtually retail stores indonesia owned ethnic chinese businesses ranged selling construction material soon grew indigenous merchants felt unable compete ethnic chinese businesses pressure indigenous merchants government enacted program presidential regulation imposed restrictions ethnic chinese rural retailers ethnic chinese businesses persisted owing integration larger networks southeast_asia dominance continued despite continuous state private efforts encourage growth indigenous capital indonesian chinese businesses larger bamboo network network overseas chinese businesses operating markets southeast_asia share common family cultural ties government policies shifted dramatically favorable economic expansion effort economy government turned possessed capability invest expand corporate activity ethnic chinese called supported military emerged dominant political force indigenous businessmen demanded greater investment support government 1970s legislative efforts failed reduce ethnic chinese dominance study published east asia unit australia department foreign affairs trade approximately percent market value publicly listed companies excluding foreign state owned companies owned chinese additionally owned percent private sector groups end figure propagated general belief ethnic chinese estimated percent population controlled percent economy accuracy figure disputed evident wealth existed ethnic boundaries image economically powerful ethnic chinese community fostered government inability patronage networks group dominated ethnic chinese business scene government groups emerged indonesia prior asian financial crisis group international group group owned ethnic chinese annual sales totaling billion crisis finally hit country severely disrupted corporate operations numerous lost majority assets collapsed years struggled repay international domestic debts reforms introduced following meant steer economy away arrangements established new order plans reform proved optimistic president announced july interview washington_post indonesia dependent ethnic chinese businessmen value percent unexpected reaction prompted immediate changes policies soon began support reform plans initially fearful process social meant ethnic chinese regarded equal members society time nation history increased regional autonomy allowed surviving explore new opportunities outer provinces economic reforms created market political activity 18th early 20th centuries ethnic chinese communities dominated presence period followed growth society effort ethnic chinese community new pan chinese movement emerged goal unified chinese political identity movement later split 1920s resisted leadership nationalist movement groups developed objectives apparent unification achieved terms leaders chose align community dutch abandoned segregation policies communities found common ground opposition invading japanese occupying forces treated chinese groups contempt issue following independence ethnic chinese led formation largest chinese indonesian political party mass organization majority membership led opposition draft law restricted number ethnic chinese gain indonesian citizenship movement met islamic party called implementation action indigenous businesses legislative election received votes gained seat people representative council later year candidates elected constitutional assembly ethnic based political parties banned government president leaving indigenous dominated parties united development party indonesian democratic_party indonesian society confined ethnic chinese activities economic sector chinese indonesian critics regime projected leaving ethnic chinese visible leaders eve legislative election resignation news magazine tempo conducted survey likely chinese indonesian voters political party choice election respondents able choose party percent favored indonesian democratic_party struggle image nationalist party considered favorable ethnic chinese party benefited presence economist respected ethnic chinese non ethnic chinese voters new ethnic political parties chinese indonesian reform party indonesia indonesian party indonesia failed garner support election despite result number chinese indonesian candidates standing national election increased fewer candidates chinese descent ran office representatives legislative election won seats culture language major chinese speech groups represented indonesia addition speak dialect mutually outside regions origin estimated million native speakers chinese varieties indonesia speakers southern min varieties including dialect speakers speakers speakers speakers eastern min chinese including dialect additionally estimated spoke varieties indonesian language chinese north eastern coast sumatra especially north sumatra predominantly speakers different variant speaking based dialect based dialect speaker java speaker majority west north speakers live java speakers mainly living big cities like speakers majority west especially central southern area islands surround speakers east java especially including ethnic chinese believe existence dialect language chinese known locally growth literature second half 19th century gave rise variant popularized martial arts stories translated chinese written indonesian scholars argue different mixture spoken perceived spoken exclusively ethnic chinese loan words chinese chinese uniquely chinese language simply low common tongue java streets markets especially cities spoken ethnic groups urban multi ethnic environment chinese dominant element cities markets language associated government officials traders people different language areas resorted form communicate academic literature discussing chinese commonly note ethnic chinese speak dialect archipelago furthermore dutch colonial government introduced chinese newspapers follow standard independence factors ethnic chinese play significant role development modern indonesian language largest group colonial period communicate variety literature chinese cultural influences seen local chinese literature dates late 19th century earliest comprehensive works subject salmon book literature chinese indonesia provisional lists works samples literature published volume collection titled dan indonesia chinese literature indonesian nation beloved indonesian author chinese ethnicity known indonesia martial art fiction set background china java years career stories published according leo forum magazine claimed stories background china stories background java media chinese language publications prohibited policy period exception government controlled daily newspaper indonesia lifting chinese language ban prompted older generation chinese promote use younger generation according malaysian chinese researcher chinese believed influenced virtues chinese culture values debate took place media discussing chinese mother tongue indonesian national language nostalgia common theme chinese language press period immediately following government rise china political economic standing turn 21st century impetus attempt attract younger readers seek cultural roots decades 20th century ethnic chinese owned movie theaters cities dutch_east_indies films china imported 1920s film industry began emerge arrival brothers shanghai films dominate market 1930s earliest films exclusively focused ethnic chinese community examined inter ethnic relations main theme later ban public use chinese language meant imported films television programs required dubbed english subtitles indonesian martial arts began appearing national television dubbed indonesian exception showing films hong_kong chinese limited ethnic chinese districts surroundings agreement film censor board religion little scholarly work devoted religious life chinese french book les temples collective chinese temples collective life major study assess ethnic chinese religious life indonesia ministry religious affairs grants official status religions islam catholicism buddhism civil registration law allow identify member religion identity cards according census data percent chinese buddhist christian catholic protestant conversion chinese religion christianity occurs younger generations uncommon find christian children parents adhere traditional religion wave conversions occurred 1950s 1960s response chinese culture number ethnic chinese catholics period second wave followed government withdrew status recognized religion 1970s assistant country representative indonesia asia foundation reported percent ethnic chinese population christian active international churches reported evidence suggests buddhist chinese christians increased standards education country nearly percent population muslims ethnic chinese muslims form small minority ethnic chinese population census counted percent chinese followers islam associations organization chinese muslims indonesia islam indonesia existence late 19th century established modern organization occasionally experienced periods inactivity included category religions accounted percent chinese indonesian population supreme council religion indonesia indonesia estimated percent ethnic chinese remaining percent ethnic converts government restored status recognized religion local authorities refused allow ethnic chinese listing religion identity cards local officials remained largely unaware civil registration law legally allowed citizens leave religion section identity cards blank architecture forms chinese architecture exist indonesia marked differences urban rural areas different islands architectural developments chinese southeast_asia differ mainland china blending local european dutch design patterns numerous variations fusion styles emerged chinese architecture indonesia manifested forms religious temples study halls houses cities colonial period divided racial districts european oriental arabs chinese indigenous usually physical boundaries zones rivers walls roads cases legal boundaries promoted high urban density zone especially chinese quarters leading poor environmental conditions early settlers adhere traditional architectural practices constructing houses instead adapted living conditions indonesia earliest houses longer standing likely built wood bamboo roofs resembling indigenous houses found sumatra borneo java permanent constructions replaced settlements 19th century segregation policies dutch forbade use european architectural styles non european ethnic groups ethnic chinese foreign indigenous groups lived according cultures chinese houses north coast java renovated include chinese ornamentation racial segregation eased turn 20th century ethnic chinese lost identity embraced european culture began removing ethnic ornaments buildings policies implemented new order government prohibited public display chinese culture accelerated transition local western architecture cuisine chinese culture particularly evident indonesian cuisine dishes words beginning presence meat meat words ending vegetables chinese white cap words food dishes ingredients origin indonesian language vernacular speech large cities integral local language ethnic chinese recognize origins popular indonesian dishes trace origin chinese influence food ingredients daily diet indigenous ethnic chinese populations dishes accompany rice staple food country ethnic chinese families pork generally preferred meat contrast traditional indonesian cuisine majority muslim areas avoids meat consumption pork decreased recent years owing recognition contribution health hazards high levels heart disease restaurant listing published english language daily post largely middle class locations city considered chinese page list additionally major hotels generally operate chinese restaurants found large shopping centers chinese restaurants urban character ethnic chinese established found serving shark fin soup bird nest soup food considered healing properties including ingredients traditional chinese medicine high demand education citizens republic china taiwan residing indonesia served international schools school chinese language school indonesia indonesian government ended ban chinese language international school


coast coast self designation form social group minority tamil ethnic group eastern province sri_lanka primarily found small coastal villages eastern township inhabit villages south living fishing slash burn agriculture cultivation rice basket weaving market occasional wage labor consider partly descended indigenous people local residents eastern province consider tamil hunter neighbors local social structure earliest times elders believe ancestors migrated interior time past speak dialect tamil region religious festivals people enter trance spirit possession use mixed language contains words language hindu worship folk deities main hindu deities maintain ancestor worship tradition interior clan divisions exist play important role choosing marriage partners place identify opposed separate ethnic group economic conditions impacted civil war identity western observers james charles termed social group coast coast east_coast considered partly descended interior island migrated unknown period past east_coast local interior clans number divisions claiming tamil mixed pure identity depends clans hunter settled settled tended period time assume tamil identity based area residence considered subdivision far largest sub group people residents eastern province consider maintain primitive life style partly dependent hunting gathering ethnic origins designated indigenous community sri_lanka placed system refer claiming high ranking given highest ritual position structure regions claim marry higher neighboring region higher ranked consider equals placing lower members connections stigma attached unions field studies indicated mixed marriages groups eastern possible claimed marry lower tamil agricultural workers field studies indicated unions place non married family village families ancestor tamil family member married tamil neighboring village gradually lost aspects identity culture longer identify 1980s 1990s families displaced native villages effects civil war placed refugee camps tamil refugees history ancestors migrated sri_lanka indian sub continent pre historic period number sites excavated containing human remains dated bce consider skeletal remains belong group ancestral surviving groups sri_lanka yielded burial sites excavated close present settlement precise time lineage founders migrated east_coast sri_lanka unknown earliest written reference tamil chronicle maintained prominent hindu temple town district tamil 14th 16th century original text chronicle documents presence people practiced hunting gathering survival exercising jurisdiction vast jungle tracts close township names number chiefs hunter accepted rightful owners forest lands documented presence north fishing helping traditional cutting wood muslim traders speculated individuals group recorded british colonial officers missionaries provided land start vegetables documented presence subdivision called temple tamil southern edges district suggests originally lived close temple district southern province early 1900s local encountered separate group local legends attribute origins hindu temples eastern province presence important hindu temples villages creation legends longer associated ownership maintenance important temples culture clans family organization clans interior interior clans called named trees animals places origin speculated clans territorial hunting territory divided clan violated members clans clans tree water tree wild plains village temple clans claimed superior status clans reported clans considered groups classification strongly denied led called groups denying clan association questioned claiming clan origins retention clan system divisions remember clan origins remembered self identified mentioned clans memories clans 1980s knowledge word tamil term family origin indicate division come fold division based descent system popular east_coast supposed descended local chiefs called ruled feudal divisions called clan divisions related rules totally followed practical marrying local preferred marriage pattern based cross cousin preference parallel cousins considered brothers sisters ineligible partners marriages place second cousins clan present value village residents related carries villages miles away longer distance villagers related related maintain places worship private property family group religion nominally known wear marks sacred ash forehead 19th century according local legends considered builders regional hindu temples associated hindu high god frequent important hindu temples associated high hindu deities local deities folk unique folk deities commonly local encountered unique deities ship spirit young god peculiar cult based legends foreigners coming ships landing coast usually lived ward hard times noted primitive village district known jon 1980s found deities longer replaced cult worship pattern combination devil dancing called ceremony tamil orthodox hindu rituals devil dancing unique aspect spirit possession devil dancing unique locals experience spirit procession trance states religious festivals devil dancing ceremonies related family groups family owned worship centers build platforms known weapon lance known installed middle construction similar function interior male family members dance night ceremony possessed spirits recently family members pattern similar nature ancestor patterns interior locations temporary ones related permanent structures turned temples village temporary structures temple identified hindu high god participate tamil folk dramas called depict scenes hindu language use tamil dialect peculiar region known tamil dialect day day conversations children study language schools ceremonies possessed spirits speak mixed language language interior mixed tamil words people longer know language evidence point past people bilingual language tamil longer case geographic distribution native chronicles documented presence like people island beginning historic period presence present eastern province noted kingdom period noted found chiefly bay census returned villages largest concentration villages close peninsula predominantly villages included found south close village called district towns foul point economic status native chronicles mention socio economic status primitive hunter chronicles mention chiefs received gifts clothes settlers state turn provided meat honey population indicating system trade groups provided manual labor clear forest lands exchange annual portion food crops harvested visited east_coast living houses mud moved place place dependent availability fish game surviving primarily fishermen wage laborers working timber merchants cutting transporting timber forests time visited considered subdivision economically better rest indigenous population interior attributed tamil economic cultural values clans absorption non families studies 1980s jon indicated general poorer rest tamil muslim communities eastern province attributed physical isolation remote villages prevailing cultural norms prevented fully integrating society studies indicate successfully integrated eastern society possessions differ non neighbors marked impact civil war noted proximity native villages theaters operations rebel government forces bombing