national museum national museum arabic principal museum lebanon collection begun world war museum officially opened museum collections totaling objects medieval finds excavations undertaken general artifacts exhibited ranging date prehistoric times medieval period civil war museum stood line separated factions museum egyptian revival building collection suffered extensive damage war artifacts saved minute measures today major renovation national museum regained position especially leading collector ancient objects history origin small group ancient artifacts collected french officer stationed lebanon exhibited provisional museum building street forerunner archaeological fine arts service began assemble items region round initial collection rapidly expanded successive antiquity directors addition finds excavations led tyre donations private collections included henry coin collection general george ford director american mission school foundation friends museum committee headed prime minister minister education fine arts created raise funds build national museum founding committee included alfred albert ali henry george joseph george jean jack committee accepted plans presented architects construction began plot land donated municipality near completed opening museum scheduled postponed political situation lead world war national museum finally opened president alfred conservation national museum hands charles director service national library collection continued grow direction head curator years start civil war closing devastation outbreak war split opposing areas national museum general line known museum alley separated militias armies conditions immediate vicinity museum rapidly worsened museum endured bombing turned barracks combatants museum alley controlled militias syrian israeli armies opened closed road short lived authorities decided close museum protective measures inside museum initiated wife alternating fire fights moments truce vulnerable small artifacts removed showcases hidden basement walled banning access lower floors ground floor installed floor covered layer concrete statues protected situation reached worst heavier artifacts wood concrete final cease fire declared museum general state near destruction museum flooded outer facade badly marked bullets shells occupied premises covered internal walls graffiti state museum collection small objects left years totally inappropriate environment national museum built high water table caused dangerous increase humidity collection water inside large stone artifacts left emergency ventilation traces visible lower edges stone monuments wing adjacent general devastated shells started fire destroying documents maps photographs records boxes containing archaeological objects laboratory equipment lost war items looted exhibited turkish museums whilst auctioned ironically stolen external stores mainly kept avoid damage looting reopening renovation plans restore national museum came minister culture higher education proposal tear concrete walls cases protected national treasures turned general director museum doors windows prevent looting donated funds museum massive new main door doors windows decision pull concrete wall protected entrance basement restoration work started focused building restoration collection museum officially inaugurated november president parts ground floor basement accessible remainder building repair important modifications needed meet requirements modern standards museum closed public july achieve restoration works october museum opened doors public patronage president rehabilitation national museum undertaken ministry culture general national heritage foundation plans french architect urban designer jean government started massive campaign recover stolen traded civil war artifacts recovered warehouses private homes law item years old belongs state basement reopening opening basement floor scheduled november june ground floors open public architecture museum designed french inspired egyptian revival style architects built limestone comprises basement ground floor floor terrace central block covered glass roof giving natural overhead light site approximately square metres exhibition floor space totals square metres immediately adjoining museum administrative offices occupy square metres collections national museum currently exhibits artifacts collection approximately objects museum displays follow chronological circuit beginning ending ottoman era circuit begins ground floor large objects displayed include statues upper floor displays small medium sized artifacts arranged chronological order theme modern showcases soft lighting glasses emphasize aesthetic aspect artifacts collection prehistoric artifacts early hunter societies ranging lower typically hooks pottery found caves rock shelters territory prehistoric sites surveyed lebanon sites bronze age bronze age saw birth lebanon fortified villages development commercial maritime activities invention world alphabet collection includes museum masterpiece holds oldest text written alphabet collection highlights king limestone royal cemetery 10th century bronze temple 18th century decorated knife gold ivory temple 18th century axes gold temple 18th century king crown gold bronze royal cemetery 18th century king jewelry collection gold precious stones royal cemetery 18th century bronze temple 18th century duck shaped box ivory 14th century iron age iron age lebanon saw climax civilization culminated maritime expansion transmission cultures alphabet attributed greek legend period era autonomy city states area came persian occupying influenced jewelry ivory work statues key highlights collections include ford collection marble 4th century statues temple marble 4th century capital bull marble 5th century period period decisive victory won alexander great persian king iii opened greek alexander death came rule egypt battle based modern iraq abolished local appointed governors bearing greek names rule cities greek influence way persian period stronger found influence local spreading interacted local semitic population remained faithful gods language resulted artistic architectural best illustrated artifacts collection highlights sanctuary marble near statue marble greek gods roman period military expedition roman general end anarchy prevailing empire roman world roman civil wars continued disrupt region reign extended area favored international trade local industries glass developed roman period section collection highlights include marble tyre 2nd century drunken marble tyre 2nd century abduction europe mosaic 3rd century statue marble seven wise men mosaic 3rd century bust marble tyre 3rd century byzantine period death roman empire divided western eastern empire cities attached converted christianity state religion emperor ordered destruction pagan temples like kept alive local population survived form centuries artifacts byzantine period include jealousy mosaic elements church chancel marble coins jewelry collection arab conquest period arab conquest lebanon completed expansion coastal cities slowed earthquakes 6th century revived period shipyards showed renewed activity saw extensive irrigation work agriculture lebanon directly affected changes brought power long period islam spread arabic language administration progressively replaced local population artifacts period include coins gold jewelry publications initiated museum publication bulletin museum bulletin reached volumes publication stopped civil war journal covered archaeological finds sites ancient museum british friends national museum foundation resumed publication annual journal entitled history lebanon bulletin architecture architecture bulletin annual journal issued general cooperation ministry culture keeping tradition museum bulletin volume issued journal publishes research papers excavations archaeological surveys reports location facilities museum located district intersection avenue damascus road flanked general building museum ground floor houses restoration lab small theater gift shop museum gallery


known fort roman province remains fort protected scheduled ancient monument area manchester north west england grid reference founded garrisoned auxiliary soldiers guarded road running chester york civilian settlement traders families soldiers grew outside fort area industrial activity site lay ruins industrial revolution manchester expanded fort way new developments damaged construction canal great northern railway site area alongside canal urban heritage park reconstructed remains fort gatehouse buildings display public location roman fort built naturally sandstone bluff guarding nearby crossing river fort near junction roman roads guarded road fortresses chester york running east west road manchester north addition overlooked lesser road running north west fort chain fortifications road roman fort lying miles east miles west stamps indicate administrative links nearest fort miles forts probably got place wood near area fort changed greatly centuries followed remains surrounded mills built industrial revolution damaged subsequent manchester south west corner manchester city centre canal cuts southern corner fort developed busy passes close east fort follows general line roman road generally thought represent original breast reference breast like hill mother reference local river goddess meanings preserved languages derived common meaning breast irish mother welsh latin particularly representing common denoting place city welsh manchester presumably derives original form history prehistoric evidence prehistoric settlement evidence activity area flint discovered late bronze age pottery found area territory celtic tribe romans annexed area control sub tribe roman fort built built fortifications erected campaigns treaty failed excavations demonstrated fort main phases construction second phase fort built turf timber designed garrisoned infantry drawn auxiliary non citizen soldiers roman army civilian settlement called grew fort late 1st early 2nd centuries year surrounding fort strengthened manchester roman fort superseded fort demolished time grew rapidly early 2nd century abandoned time broadly coinciding demolition fort inhabited fort rebuilt possible temple associated civilian settlement modern altar dedicated fortune found probably dating early 3rd century altar dating late 1st century discovered near roman settlement dedicated minor gods described fantastic condition county archaeologist said roman stone inscription found manchester years records second known roman manchester preservation stone remarkable stone shallow bowl offerings wine blood burn pagan worship evidence early christian worship 1970s fragment 2nd century word square discovered discussion academics word square carved piece actually christian earliest examples christianity britain second phase built year turf timber construction larger previous fort measuring hectares acres accommodate extra fort rebuilt stone walls surrounding fort given stone facing concentration sheds associated fort described industrial estate manchester included 3rd century register roads roman empire inscriptions repairs buildings indicate use half 3rd century abandoned century supported excavated remains buildings demolished materials robbed use evidence coins indicates civilian settlement associated fort declined century small garrison remained late 3rd century early 4th century medieval roman withdrawal britain area agricultural purposes identified listed cities britain history traditionally attributed lying derelict centuries ruins commented john 16th century william late 16th early 17th centuries william manchester historian john 18th century early 18th century john said fort quarter mile town south south west station goes giant castle castle field stands called castle field conspicuous described remained fort eastern like western yards length eighty yards northern termination nearly perpendicular carries crest yards height lowered form great entrance camp earth running ridge mounting bank breadth rising gradually wall falls away carries height south eastern angle wall bears broken line mortar coat turf near south eastern corner large earth continued yards southern like northern seventy yards length sinking immediately elevation eastern end declines till yards reduced height yard seventeen yards appears second gateway ground rising crest bank point south particularly order afford passage river yards gates ground falling away west continues right line ridge necessarily rises till sharp slope yards length southwestern angle wall beginning probably higher present sufficiently secured river banks appears young oak rising ridge head considerably rest runs smooth line near level yards ground eye rounded turf south western point camp ground slopes away west south south west runs nearly having crest seven feet height slope turf extent wall original condition yards angle station ground visibly rising ascent bank large gravel running slight ridge level yards stretches length bounded western boundary british city sharp slope northern remaining original course seventy yards commencement gateway opening station directly road rest wall rises feet height planted way exhibiting curious view parts facing turf stone inner structure presenting eye stone quarry angular pieces rock round river mortar white brown patches mortar stone general view wall stands contrasted green turf entirely level line green moss half reveals projecting points great british city romans preserved northern thirty yards eastern end western present appearances ground intimate closed eastern point high bank raised ditch sloped away manchester expanded industrial revolution construction canal south western corner fort late 18th early 19th centuries building great northern railway site late 19th century damaged remains destroyed southern half fort railway built charles documented remains uncovered process including parts archaeological investigation francis later work roman fort excavated fort western defences series small scale excavations undertaken intermittently generally exploring northern defences fort mid-20th century historian taylor called surviving stretch roman wall interesting roman remains britain excavation carried 1970s professor jones fort rest area united_kingdom urban heritage park partial forts walls including opened university manchester archaeological unit carried excavations investigate site area underwent regeneration reconstruction archaeological investigation roman fort associated civilian settlement far provided approximately artefacts layout fort measured metres metres surrounded double ditch wooden wooden replaced stone measuring metres metres thick associated surrounded site west north east sides majority lying north covered hectares acres fort hectares acres buildings generally storey timber framed construction cemetery south east fort


ring ring gold like necklace found ring county southern romania formed large gold treasure dated ring generally assumed roman mediterranean origin features gothic language inscription elder alphabet inscribed ring remains subject considerable academic interest number theories origin reason burial date proposed inscription sustained damage shortly discovery longer read certainty subjected attempts reconstruction interpretation recently possible reconstruct damaged portion aid rediscovered depictions ring original state taken inscribed ring offer insight nature pre christian pagan religion history origin original discovered large ring known hill near romania consisted pieces comprising wide assortment gold vessels plates cups jewelry including rings inscriptions uncovered objects found stuck black mass leading assumption covered kind organic material cloth leather prior interred total weight find approximately objects inscribed rings stolen shortly find remaining objects recovered discovered ring cut pieces inscribed characters damaged point fortunately detailed drawings cast photograph london society ring damaged survive nature lost character established relative certainty remaining objects collection display high quality scholars doubt indigenous origin taylor earliest works discussing find speculates objects represent acquired raids roman provinces early theory probably proposed picked identifies pagan king gothic likely owner presumably acquired conflict roman emperor catalogue suggests objects viewed having gifts roman leaders allied princes recent studies performed objects indicate geographically disparate origins gold ore southern mountains persia indigenous origin ore ruled rejects possibility roman imperial coins having melted objects comes opposite conclusion comparison composition techniques earlier analysis indicates gold inscribed ring classified pure roman found objects results indicate including inscribed ring composed gold ore mined far north represent objects gothic possession prior southward migration culture culture cast doubt traditional theory roman mediterranean origin ring research necessary origin material manufacture identified burial finds type remains unclear objects placed plausible reasons proposed taylor argues ring objects found likely site pagan temple based analysis surviving inscription indicative active theory largely ignored later research notably observed remaining objects possess definite ceremonial character particularly noteworthy connection dish decorated depictions probably deities favour viewing objects personal suggest gold buried attempt hide defeated gothic north black_sea began moving remains unclear gold remained buried treaty enabled bring protection roman rule prior death researchers suggested king specifically identifying gothic general roman army killed owner help explain remained buried fails account conspicuous ring having chosen site hide large valuable treasure date dates burial proposed largely derived considerations origin objects manner burial inscription important factor taylor suggests range recent studies scholars proposed slightly later dates supporters theory suggesting end 4th century date proposed suggesting early 5th century inscription reconstruction interpretation gold ring bears elder inscription characters 7th probably having destroyed ring cut half thieves damaged object scholarly debate variously interpreted indicating possibly photograph society taken guide inscription originally read follows reading followed early scholars notably taylor translates dedicated temple translates sacred commenting reading suggests interpreting indicative following translates sacred inheritance scholars interpreted indicative feminine ending translates holy altar ring gothic reading translates dedicated gothic mothers female guardian spirits translates gothic women female warriors damaged reads comments understood early form gothic gothic early gothic sanctuary following reading translates inscription gothic object suggests possible read damaged interprets representative era translates good year era sacred expressed doubts meaning statement supports reading viewing ring connected king role ensuring abundant harvest represented reads damaged translates holy meaning despite lack consensus exact import inscription scholars agree language form gothic intent religious taylor interprets inscription clearly pagan nature indicative existence temple ring offering derives date burial fact danube generally considered complete generations having arrived survive initial conversion phase converted christian hands pagan case shows weakened considerably following years likelihood deposit greatly diminished following interpret ring possibly representing temple ring sacred oath ring existence pagan times documented old norse literature archaeological finds furthermore suggest inscription proof existence mother goddess worship echoing documented worship mother parts north propose appearance common terms denoting help clarify distinction concepts gothic language implying ring considered holy connected


royal jerusalem royal hebrew known royal royal royal royal ancient constructed great renovation temple mount end 1st century bce probably magnificent secular construction structure described mentioned better sun center public commercial activity royal likely location jesus temple royal overlooked jerusalem residential commercial quarters southwestern corner place ram horn blown announce start holy days royal destroyed roman army sack jerusalem site temple mount currently inaccessible archaeologists artifacts recovered excavations foot platform secondary use later constructions evidence confirmed details given accounts historian allowed comparison royal decoration contemporaneous monumental buildings history construction reconstruction second temple principal building projects construction began quarter 1st century bce monumental architectural feat important political achievement invested great deal effort expansion temple platform especially southern temple mount descends valleys expansion southern edge served base royal erected building form open led described sources likely magnificent secular historian praised royal worthy mention structure sun described building detail pillars stood rows fourth row interwoven wall built stone thickness pillar men arms extended round join hands length feet double spiral basis number pillars court sculptures order rows pillars included intervals walking middle walks parallel contrived manner breadth feet length height feet breadth middle half height double higher roofs adorned deep sculptures wood representing sorts figures middle higher rest wall adorned beams resting pillars interwoven polished stone rows columns running columns royal contained parallel halls central metres wide hall flanking metres wide halls column approximately metres diameter according metres tall classical proportions roughly metres central hall twice tall probably nearly metres tall israeli archaeologist estimates royal roughly metres wide metres long gives length approximately central aisle higher ceiling light provided windows upper central hall possible stood eastern wall describes columns style capitals found excavations mount southern wall reused later roman byzantine islamic structures ceilings deeply cut wood carvings parts interior apparently covered southernmost row columns incorporated southern wall temple mount northern opened plaza middle stood temple outside southern wall distinguished retaining wall platform series running length superstructure main entry city monumental staircase led valley robinson arch passing street shops royal built artificially raised portion temple mount platform arches underneath supported columns provided service areas structures gates southern wall led corridors beneath rising temple plaza served main entrance temple compound additional passages led storage areas possibly provided secondary access temple arched eastern temple mount led gate opened called solomon stables beneath eastern end widely assumed area storage area conjunction business conducted expansion temple mount platform erection royal required engineers overcome difficult conditions necessary build metres tall foundations slope valley equivalent metres tall foundations great effort invested construction royal testimony immense importance status temple mount unlike predecessors kings served high priests unable participate rituals client king appointed romans lacking legitimacy unpopular subjects initiated temple reconstruction win favour jews forbidden entering inner achievement monumental royal gave rightful status mount showcase majesty purpose major roman city banking law courts commercial transactions jerusalem royal center activity years prior great revolt served seat judaism supreme judicial court moved chamber stone shop referring commercial activities conducted fragment monumental inscription found near eastern gates refers elders indicate meeting place near gates center commercial activity sight temple considered devout jews site commerce related temple ritual bought coins bearing prohibited images exchanged likely location jesus confrontation dove sellers money related chapter gospel matthew special sacred contributions purposes israel authority proposed royal site mint run great revolt rome site silver produced convenient proximity temple silver stores area use commercial purposes argue identification location operations revolt base metal struck jerusalem tower place trumpet ram horn blown signal start holy days pavement southwest corner royal complex piece stone excavated bears inscription reads place location overlooked jerusalem neighborhoods recovery inscription confirms southwest corner site took place destruction romans judging vain spare round holy house burnt places remains gates east south burnt afterward soldiers came rest outer court temple women children great mixed multitude people fled number thousand determined thing people given commanders orders relating soldiers rage set fire means came pass destroyed throwing burnt escape life great revolt subsequent jerusalem brought destruction temple including royal members roman command emperor son likely modified initial phases revolt temple mount fortified simon bar john main entry robinson arch destroyed towers built excavated remains provide evidence demise great fire chemical analysis remains shown materials underwent requiring minimum temperature result sustained high temperature burning consistent account destruction large remains contain mineral component bone origins human animal unknown temple mount excavations site royal currently occupied mosque islam shrine unavailable archaeological exploration professor benjamin hebrew university jerusalem carried excavations foot southern wall uncovered architectural fragments destruction debris site incorporated secondary use later byzantine construction despite nature provide largest richest second temple era found testament described finds include capitals motifs featured fragments found occasionally match patterns witnessed second temple era public buildings unearthed region reflect unique architectural characteristics include floral motifs cable patterns similar finds region southern syria leaves featured roman architecture muslim authority controlling islamic structures atop temple mount began illegally large amounts fill site royal order construct new access newly established restored expanded mosque material dug site dumped valley important information acquired proper excavation material archaeological context lost forever trying save saved operation debris started ongoing temple mount project resulted recovery architectural fragments second temple buildings remnants historical periods temple period


maya archaeological site municipality northern department guatemala site located lower reaches river valley features large complex activity site dated far early classic principal occupation site occurring late classic period level occupation continued early occupied frontier zone northeastern southeastern regions site dominated especially built palace complex city appears administrative centre comparatively little emphasis religious ceremonial activity likely subsidiary major maya city given complete absence texts sculpted monuments archaeologists served frontier post trading centre late classic greater public access threat warfare grew terminal classic access restricted end formal occupation city terminal classic appears violent evidence battle recovered excavations refugees appear occupied city centre immediately collapse formal settlement abandoned city good 11th century buildings contain inscribed graffiti dating phase occupation early including human animal figures deities temples scenes colonial graffiti evident visit ruins captain middle 18th century location accessed dirt road leading kilometres highway linking dirt road joins highway direction road leads approximately kilometres village called modern village extends shores small lake archaeological site located south range hills reaching maximum height metres site occupies small pocket forest extensive region cleared agricultural land agricultural land closest ruins largely dedicated livestock grazing particularly cattle horses located close river tributary river land ruins rivers subject frequent flooding factor impact inhabitants city forest covering archaeological site reaches average height metres contains tree species notable trees history earliest occupation concentrated south group dates early classic period major occupation site appears begun late classic period public spaces covered white architecture erected site basal platform appears built great north plaza laid late classic appears greater public access communicating leading south range terminal classic filled access buildings sealed completely closing public access palace reflects greater political instability entire region time complex abandoned city elite terminal classic time city centre deserted residents flint points recovered south combined remains individuals near surface indicates violent confrontation took place time city abandoned soon dawn immediately classic maya collapse refugees periphery city final occupants appear abandoned city time 11th century modern history 18th century passed site left graffiti year archives revealed spanish captain visited site august year documented early years 20th century explorer identified visible architecture site marked map region visited behalf museum harvard_university photographed site renamed time site appears covered dense vegetation making exploration ruins difficult resulting brief description graham published plan site based preceding years taken place behalf guatemala project project started work site preliminary work consisted mapping ruins ruins cleared regional guatemala regional unit surveyed ruins recorded damage sank test pits direction looting damage repaired architecture deemed risk collapse work undertaken result earthquake damage detailed plans architecture guatemala included survey sites lower valley recently investigations funded spanish ministry culture university university excavations continued city centre south group looting damage recorded repaired site description site covers area hectares acres great structures identified archaeologists principal architecture dated late classic period layout city somewhat unusual north south axis oriented west north maya cities major axis similar east north political administrative functions concentrated eastern portion city taken include south group evidenced superior architectural quality areas great north plaza large square plan plaza measuring metres plaza packing clay based mud work took place late classic period based evidence flint artefacts recovered investigations clay mud likely brought city nearby swamps excavations plaza close revealed presence retaining wall probably related construction great platform supporting metre wide causeway runs south plaza running west parallel causeway runs south approximately metres south group area west causeway contains large number smaller platforms believed extensive residential area residential area includes large northern divided great north plaza row structures led southwards central west plaza opposite causeway south central west plaza bordered metre long structure divides south west plaza area smaller extends west believed represent lesser residential districts city area east city drops away rapidly lacks extensive settlement remains periodic flooding rivers occupation eastern zone important architectural complex palace enclosed courtyard located great north plaza known layout series lead square metre reservoir south appears private water source palace reservoir dried accessed wide great north plaza form plaza unusual similar complexes identified excavations revealed presence superimposed platforms built finely dressed stone blocks covered good quality later date platforms courtyard covered stones bound mortar covered floor platforms built late classic appear covered terminal classic interior courtyard measures approximately metres completely enclosed palace creating private space buildings north west south sides faced away private courtyard opening central doorway structure eastern structure built later date lateral face directly courtyard highly residence city ruler entrance courtyard exterior central north south west sides entrances northern entrance appears main entrance complex south entrance private entrance opened leading water source direction western entrance lead terrace metres causeway providing balcony excellent view city cut stone walls high quality constructed large finely cut blocks times forming walls metres thick filled rubble mortar exterior faces walls carefully dressed interior good quality vaulted ceilings high quality work found parts major cities presence smaller site considered surprising archaeologists walls facing interior courtyard especially preserved survey work archaeologists discovered long flint knife deliberately embedded interior north wall weighed grams knife embedded mortar blade pointing embedded decorations near tip archaeologists believe blade deposited rituals associated construction building outer eastern wall especially preserved including metres floor level building metres plaza floor wall continued metres section probably supported entire eastern face building measured metres long stood metres level great north plaza wall completely blank openings range structures sides opening away consisted series rooms varying size height rooms palace floor generally metres palace interior walls originally painted red black demonstrated surviving traces pigment exterior range structures originally decorated sculpted stone representing supernatural beings fragments found collapsed rubble vaulted ceilings palace constructed sides equal length unlike sites region sides vaulted ceilings different lengths exceptional height reaching metres south range south range measures metres long divides courtyard series south rooms south range include wide benches running entire width measure metres high preserve original covering bench room small step leading walls rooms relatively poorly preserved parts retain covering traces pigment inscribed graffiti doors crafted wood south facing rooms twin placed style architecture unusual range structure region examples known minor structures closest corresponding architecture comes region northern yucatán_peninsula cities differ excavations immediately south south range uncovered consisting preserved covered wall thought remains terrace platform portion second terrace wall uncovered west group investigations west group revealed occupation beginning late classic reaching maximum extent terminal classic construction methods west group inferior consisting finely cut limestone blocks bound earth based mortar lime based mortar palace complex platforms west group appear supported buildings dedicated craft production main west group appear lacked instead covered stone south group south group group centre possess monumental architecture south group oldest architectural group occupation dating far early classic slightly different orientation rest site apparently earlier construction consists number medium sized badly damaged larger number buildings measures approximately metres high cut half trench rescue operations uncovered remains dating late classic including piece bearing fragment text excavations revealed temple pyramid preserved central graffiti distinguished great quantity graffiti inscribed interior walls rooms display considerable level artistic skill graffiti believed date phase occupation early includes local fauna human figures playing musical instruments animals depicted graffiti include deer turtle frog human figures depicted playing subjects include pyramid temples scenes supernatural beings analysis pigment traces south range carried university revealed preference mineral vegetable local origin collected nearby hill artefacts artefacts excavated date transition terminal classic period early surrounding population appears occupied abandoned palace excavations south range uncovered great roughly dating terminal classic pieces dating early building stone artefacts excavated hundreds fragments waste incomplete found including figures elite human figures elaborate whistle shape owl identical found excavated rubbish courtyard owl shaped similar larger whistle found number artefacts recovered threshold room south range including complete terminal classic vessel flint knife broken fragments fragments area threshold room south range complete early plate recovered room found broken pieces terminal classic pieces dated early axe finds fragments pitcher supports archaeologists largely able reconstruct additionally terminal classic fragments found exploration immediately south stone pieces animal bones pits sunk courtyard revealed fragments fragments stone shell artefacts animal bones waste flint chips dated terminal classic analysis artefacts revealed unusual total absence flint colours including red pink orange brown cream grey particularly common human burial found room south range remains found lying right facing west arms bent preliminary investigation suggests remains young adult male height approximately metres left hand skull deformed result


hill fort hill fort known castle ditch iron age hill fort near northern england hill forts fortified hill settlements constructed britain iron age largest complex seven hill forts county constructed expanded 1st century romans site 6th 8th centuries anglo saxon probably established medieval post medieval periods farming damaged site ownership currently split forestry commission local farm protected scheduled ancient monument background hill forts developed late bronze early iron age roughly start millennium reason emergence britain purpose subject debate argued military sites constructed response invasion continental europe sites built invaders military reaction social tensions caused increasing population consequent pressure agriculture dominant view 1960s increasing use iron led social changes britain deposits iron ore located different places tin copper ore necessary bronze result trading patterns shifted old lost economic social status power passed hands new group people archaeologist barry believes population increase played role stated forts provided defensive possibilities community times stress increasing population burst open warfare wouldn having built state war functional defensive strongholds tensions undoubtedly attacked destroyed significant factor construction location layout hill forts england concentrated south country seven largest complex hill forts forts form geographical groups maiden castle south county hill fort southern group castle hill fort located grid reference hill common hill forts sits central ridge runs north south county hill fort follows hill measures surrounded ditch ditch wide deep inner bank lies history evidence bronze age activity erected hill hill fort built hill fort main archaeological phases phase activity site defended single ditch type hill fort termed settlement concentrated eastern fort hill second phase fort extended westwards occupying entire hill defences enhanced addition ditches enclosed area expanded acres acres defences covered acres acres previously theories expansion fort growth westwards extended defences completed time separate events happened time likely interest making site easier defend separate extended incorporate entrance western end site expansion phase dated late 1st century hill fort destroyed romans defences prevent site reused 4th 6th centuries hill fort built inner later dating 6th 8th centuries discovered suggested site anglo saxon built daughter alfred great recorded register anglo saxon chronicle medieval post medieval period south east site inhabited point lodge centre fort cultivated 19th century undergoes quarry excavated undertook excavations maiden castle nearby investigation origin hill forts structure scheduled ancient monument giving protection change site assessed high risk site causing erosion seven hill forts assessed high risk compared north west england scheduled monuments western northern parts owned forestry commission rest site old pale farm


robinson arch robinson arch given monumental staircase carried unusually wide stone arch stood southwestern corner temple mount built expansion second temple initiated great end 1st century bce recent findings suggest completed years death massive stone span constructed retaining walls temple mount carried traffic ancient jerusalem lower market area street royal complex mount destroyed great jewish revolt decades completion arch named biblical scholar edward robinson identified remnants excavations second half 20th century revealed purpose extent associated structures today considerable surviving portions ancient complex viewed public jerusalem archaeological park adjacent jerusalem western wall worship area portion groups place prayer history robinson arch constructed king renovation expansion second temple announced bce built link valley street major traffic second temple period royal southern end temple mount platform site major ancient intersection opposite lay large public square temple main gates street lined shops formed city lower market royal exceptionally large complex served commercial legal functions looked intersection atop temple platform stood temple constructed expansion added evidently considered sacred time allowing mundane activities heavy public traffic accounts width stepped street modern lane highway fragments gate located recovered gate width calculated metres extant gate remnants established gate single gate double gate triple gate opening royal complex point gates western wall compound western quarters enclosure temple gates led king palace went passage intermediate valley led suburbs city led city road descended valley great number steps ascent city lay temple manner theater encompassed deep valley entire south quarter conventional view modern archaeologists counting gates left right count western societies making robinson arch fourth row counting left right question arises hebrew accustomed numbered objects counting right left intended gate fact gate mentioned description gates leading temple mount enclosure western according oral teachings received compiled prince gate western temple mount actually use served coming going gate gates presumably sealed earlier singular importance notes gates built western enclosure temple mount bridge ascended gates bridge broken insurgents war rome likely bridge leading gate construction arch built temple mount massive western retaining wall forms eastern support spring row blocks cut produce pattern theories speculate employed system shore timber forms construction common decorative element employed region time archaeologists noted region limited forests likely packed earth expensive support form arch constructed completion arch spanned metres width metres stepped street bore series seven additional arches metres length robinson arch stood metres north southwestern corner temple mount retaining wall soaring metres ancient street ran temple mount western wall massive stone arches classical antiquity renovation second temple initiated late 1st century bce excavations beneath street near arch revealed oil lamps type common century identifiable coins struck roman year means arch nearby sections western wall constructed date destruction destruction robinson arch occurred events surrounding roman jerusalem traditionally blamed roman destroyed temple mount enclosure eventually set fire entire city recently attributed factions control temple mount fortified prior fall continued hold jerusalem upper city month city breached romans wilson arch north defenders access temple platform difficult besieging forces south temple mount uncovered inscribed roman milestone bearing names fashioned staircase stood arch places destruction arch later excavations stone courses eastern spring arch consisting row blocks layers survived modern times remnant identified biblical scholar edward robinson bears time prior excavations remains arch ground level ancient street level lay far underground buried debris destruction structures temple mount later fill dumped valley centuries robinson believed identified eastern edge bridge linked temple compound upper city lay ridge west investigations charles warren noted presence large pier metres west wall remains arch warren concluded supports supposed series arches supporting bridge spanning valley subsequently dug series seven shafts west regular intervals found evidence additional piers benjamin excavations discovered pier fact western support single great arch uncovered pier metres long metres wide preserved height metres base found small hollow spaces possibly shops opening era street passes beneath arch survive place arched relieve pressure weight pier superstructure excavations revealed pier eastern external wall monumental building suggested archives jerusalem mentioned south building found remains vault supporting piers gradually decreasing height southwards distance metres building robinson arch supported monumental flight stairs led street street gate royal temple mount platform numerous stone steps found nearby excavations near arch resumed directed uncovered debris collapse arch remains include stairs staircase stones rounded visible found jerusalem archaeological park occupying site prayer site location arch western wall temple mount distance western wall plaza prompted israeli government allow area alternative services israel supreme_court women reading wearing traditional prayer plaza instructed israeli government prepare site robinson arch host events site inaugurated august hosted services reform conservative groups movements women wall activists resulted location referred court ordered compromise continues contentious reform women wall activists consider location unsatisfactory designation park archaeological site resulting restrictions access worship perceived treatment second class citizens exclusion western wall plaza president union reform judaism expressed opinion wall understood jewish people mean robinson arch doesn april jewish agency chairman proposed solution resolving controversy female prayer western wall calling renovation site foot robinson arch accessible hours day august new square foot prayer platform completed robinson arch access hours promised area named proper pronunciation controversy question authority prayer area announcement come authority future government appointed council include non orthodox representatives


valentine february february english archaeologist noted discipline studies prehistoric found southern england published widely archaeological subjects lifetime born london raised largely brighton developed early interest visits brighton museum later working bank clerk london embarked archaeological research amateur capacity visiting prehistoric weekends holidays order record shape dimensions location basis research published range academic articles books subject 1930s gaining recognition britain foremost expert subject carried archaeological excavation devil sussex second world war joined royal_air_force served egypt acquainted archaeological remains ancient egyptian society war published book egyptian return britain treasurer prehistoric society position held till moving entered archaeological profession assistant christopher stuart victoria county history project worked keeper bristol city museum time continued examination focusing south west england retirement appointed order british_empire published honour course lifetime examined advanced archaeological understanding monuments use non influenced british 20th century willingness pay attention sources information folklore place names deemed ahead time biography early life born london february family moved brighton shortly world war interest encouraged curator brighton museum assistant archaeologist rivers moving london clerk bank developed interest examination stone tools came attention recognising understood prehistoric monuments british landscape studied position amateur time number active southern england encouraged interests prominent figures techniques conducting archaeological entirely self taught start investigations interested understanding distribution chronology 1930s personally visited extant counties surrey sussex hampshire isle establishing pre eminent figure study british archaeologist nicholas thomas later noted despite status amateur established parallel british accomplishments surpassing work professionals like having learned drive conducted visits use buses trains foot attended international prehistoric congress held london introduced close acquaintances sharing interest use maps archaeological met dutch archaeologist albert van discussed bell sussex related netherlands van investigating seeking answer question conducted excavation examination bell collectively known known devil atop bow hill sussex conducted april help members brighton archaeological society publication results delayed published ancient burial england followed bronze age round met painter amateur archaeologist conducting exploration hampshire hand drawn plans influenced style archaeologist began conducting survey kent notes later destroyed air raid second world war published archaeologist clarke conducted survey norfolk findings stored archive published outbreak second world war pilot officer air photographic branch royal_air_force raf conflict stationed egypt spent time studying archaeological remains ancient egypt visiting near cairo based experiences expense published egyptian designed guide sites acknowledged heavily reliant earlier plans additional aerial photographs obtained involvement raf book largely ignored britain establishment life professional archaeologist returning britain went job bank treasurer prehistoric society position retained helped secure organisation post war reconstruction archaeologist christopher invited join stuart project assistant victoria county history order victoria county history wiltshire accepted leaving bank job moving wiltshire town professional archaeologist thomas later stated victoria county history wiltshire represents high point combined powers grasp secondary sources handling great deal detailed information later published book based experience period leaving keeper bristol city museum remaining retirement published number academic articles book reviews holidays visited mediterranean examined prehistoric tombs continued pursuing interest 1970s examples gloucestershire somerset devon bristol university awarded degree basis work appointed order british_empire year issued honour edited published autobiography reviewing folklore journal historian praised noted tell inner life author according archaeologist paul humour sound common sense legendary walking youth penchant traditional afternoon cream variety bachelor married legacy course career examined recorded thomas stated astonishing volume published assured place equal history british archaeological studies recording particularly valuable archaeologists occurred large numbers british heavily damaged result deep land development demonstrated spread particular regions confirmed older assumption heavily concentrated areas chalk geology discovered long previously responsible discovery rock art face early bronze age grave slab pool farm west somerset according thomas career illustrated validity amateur archaeologists importance publishing research significance archaeological excavation archaeologist paul expressed view great extent determined direction field second half 20th century interested sources use documents place names folklore accounts research according later archaeologists amy archaeologists generation interested relationship folklore comparing way continental european scholars paul


long long welsh known burial chamber partly restored tomb identified type long burial chamber built years present early seven miles west south west wales known peninsula rubble upper earth covering removed feet long feet widest low dry stone wall bell shaped south facing formed wall leads central lined limestone set end human remains placed pairs stone chambers lead corpses placed nearby caves bones moved tomb discovered digging road stone excavation later year revealed human bones known belonged people animal remains pottery samples site tomb use years north west european lifestyles changed nomadic lives hunter settled life agricultural farming revolution analysis human remains found long people interred continued hunter agricultural farmers long lies medieval deer park established lord enclosed area acres mainly farmland floor dry narrow limestone gorge containing acres km2 woodland free pedestrian access asphalt track leading park entrance free parking cars yards site long maintained welsh government historic environment division history end ice age hunter began migrate northwards central europe area known wales free glaciers time sea levels lower today shallower parts north_sea dry land east_coast present day england coasts present day denmark germany netherlands connected known forming british peninsula european mainland post glacial rise sea level separated wales ireland forming irish sea submerged north_sea british peninsula island beginning sea levels bristol channel feet lower today historian john davies story drowning tales water wales ireland narrower shallower distant folk memories time warmer climate caused major changes flora fauna great_britain encouraged growth dense forest covered island human lifestyles north west europe changed middle stone age nomadic lives hunting gathering new stone age life agriculture settlement john davies notes transformation developed people living north west europe independently grain necessary crops animals suitable indigenous area recent genetic studies conclude cultural changes introduced britain farmers migrating european mainland cleared forests establish pasture land developed new technologies textile production similar tradition long construction began continental europe 7th millennium free standing structures supporting sloping known common atlantic europe according john davies substantial permanent constructions man massive constructions needed large labour force men suggestive large communities nearby contribution history wales archaeologist notes communities simultaneous marked material culture ideology technical practices known revolution tombs sites identified belonging category long tomb known group excavations tombs built sites gained significance archaeologist julian thomas sites long lived woodland landmarks meeting places constructed tradition share characteristics elongated wedge shape feet long mound deliberately placed stones rocks erected memorial marker retaining wall carefully constructed dry stone defines widest end huge supported chamber chambers human remains placed accessible completed way gallery diverse internal chamber plans exist group earlier tombs contained multiple chambers set pairs chambers leading central later tombs contained single chamber implies concentrated mainly east river present day england similar type structures identified south east wales near north wales england wiltshire england monuments house honour departed ancestors communal ceremonial sites according archaeologist francis people met meet new partners acquire fresh livestock exchange ceremonial gifts long tombs discovered commonly known oldest surviving examples architecture great_britain long built years great pyramid egypt completed features known long type tomb built early known miles west wales miles north bristol channel alternative names include burial chamber long giant grave consists north south aligned long mound locally obtained rocks mainly limestone dry stone fine standard inner wall built heavier stone shaped feet long feet wide southern entrance feet northern end wall right section missing collapsed rubble leaving previously covered exposed entrance tomb sweep form pair deep horns forming narrow bell shaped straight central gallery feet long feet wide north south leads lined thin limestone known placed end feet high dry stone pairs rectangular chambers lead averaging feet east west feet according south west chamber shallow limestone entrance archaeologist believed unusually tradition long built stream flows underground noted stones eastern marked signs erosion rounding laden flood water originally chambers covered large smaller chambers containing human remains earth covering upper removed leaving lateral chambers fully exposed record having discovered excavation digging road stone discovered site john excavated year believing round excavation revealed human bones broken regular arrangement animal remains deer teeth plain western pottery bones initially thought disturbed repeated access subsequent thought individuals adults archaeologists michael note estimates commonly based numbers recent analysis shown bones individuals following excavation human remains clay beneath original contexts held museum university_of_oxford england animal pottery remains whereabouts remainder excavation led professor daniel identified site long recently long defined having long wooden internal structures tombs covered long mound internal chambers built stone long wooden internal structures identified southeast wales long usually built suitable stone long variety practices evident deliberate ordering skeletal parts noticeable note cremated human remains placed right south east chamber females males age ranges represented south east chamber unusual contained nearly times individuals chambers contained remains representative groups younger children entrance recorded finds deposited groups including flint burnt leaf shaped burnt pieces pieces missing pottery cremated bone fragments speculated originated cat hole cave tooth hole cave note possible source following excavation led placed ministry public building works partly restored minimal excavation records report published detailed report suggest corpses placed caves near bones moved tomb process known analysis human remains survive great_britain early comparatively preserved black mountains individuals interred men women children skeletal remains individuals recovered showed evidence biting animals suggests corpses lay exposed interred burial chambers parcels bone skeletal remains articulated showing sign animal suggesting placed corpses note human remains bones dogs cat red deer pig sheep cattle speculate caves near corpses prior bones collected caves lying cave gathered dated samples tomb accessed generations period years human bones remains complete skeletons individuals male female adults children red deer bones dated showing bones entered long site deserted lifestyle examination bones stature estimated indicate male population big men report notes males gigantic proportions females short notes males analysed long particularly robust compared females prior publication report bones teeth population long examined indications lifestyle diet analysis showed significant gender lifestyle variation greater leg muscle development found males possibly result hunting confirming sexual found previous analyses remains contrast variation noticeable remains found excavations nearby sites example burial chamber variation stress markers indicate mobile lifestyle males analysed evidence obtained stable analysis shows plant foods including formed small proportion protein majority derived animals meat milk blood contained marine sources remains human teeth analysed evidence arrested development decay arrested development implies periods shortage indicate failed decay implies periods food shortage diet consisting high proportions softer cooked meat dental analyses showed sign periods decay arrested development considerable wear indicating lifestyle dependent farming bone report notes good condition teeth noted slight presence tooth lost death conclude skeletal dental analyses lifestyles people interred continued hunting gathering likely pastoral life based farming cave cave cat hole cave rock cave steep limestone yards north valley near gorge feet valley floor cave deep triangular penetrating entrances natural platform outside larger cave shelter bands hunters excavation cave finds medieval periods proceedings prehistoric society archaeologist charles notes post glacial period cave hunters conclusion confirmed john campbell excavation excavation green revealed earliest finds cave points date period late pleistocene roughly contemporaneous red lady lady discovered cave port miles west cave dated oldest known human burial great_britain rock art upper thought represent discovered wall cave september measuring approximately dated according george nash discovery oldest rock art british isles north western_europe late glacial tool finds upper date flint blades known points smaller known points flint bone bone needle flint rarely occurs wales small beaches flint tools brought areas known southern eastern england finished tools incomplete remains red fox arctic fox brown bear possibly found level upper tools providing evidence climate animal remains excavated 19th century late glacial finds include red deer giant deer finds date bronze age including bronze axe human skeletons pottery burial vessels tooth cave excavation tooth cave tooth hole cave bronze age site cave yards north north west carried harvey revealed remains people dated early bronze age culture contemporary finds held national museum wales cardiff include pottery knives flint bone needle animal bones remains animals including cat dog note period occupation significant respect long broadly contemporary secondary use tomb location seven miles west south west wales near centre midway villages nearest village small rural settlement mile south east long lies floor dry narrow limestone gorge elevation feet sea level miles south coast acres woodland called remnants medieval deer park derives alternative burial chamber established enclosed area acres john lord park mainly farmland 19th century hunting lodge yards north east long converted hotel pony horse riding centre called owned managed forestry commission wales site open public free charge parking cars feet away facing car park opposite lane kissing gate allows wheelchair access level asphalt track running past length gorge passing feet long maintained english welsh government historic environment division


archaeological site archaeological site located valley state archaeological excavations revealed phases cultural significance periods represent era period era massive stone wheel turned red pottery period relates early historical period post period findings recorded cultural deposits representing prehistoric human activity based detailed investigations cover aspects physical evidence site including ancient flora fauna site revealed transition subterranean ground level housing features people structures people large tools bone stone found site shows inhabitants hunting farming unearthed art architecture customs rituals indicate prehistoric people established contact central asia south west asia links plains india interaction local foreign influences demonstrated art architecture customs rituals language demonstrated pottery artifacts historians stated culture extended archaeological investigation support theory location site prehistoric settlement village district kilometres northeast road elevation site metres sea level northernmost excavated site india site ancient pleistocene lake bed location high terrace river soil clay formation site commanding view lake kilometres away language means birch tree species generally grows elevation range metres found excavated housing area form material confirming existence tree pre historic times history excavation site limited exercise carried yale cambridge expedition headed frontier circle archaeological survey india detailed investigations site carried associates extensive excavations site cultural deposits type director general archaeological survey india conducted archaeological excavations lines geological model sites based similar model site named northern culture view distinctive structural features tools bones stones tools representing practices represents related site area near town area related skeletal remains people found similar found valley civilization historians stated culture extended archaeological investigation support theory management protection site including zones jurisdiction archaeological survey india state department ancient monuments sites remains act amended site nominated april inscription world heritage site approved discovery excavation carried vertical depth wise horizontal directions depth provided features provided horizontal excavations periods continuous sequence site documented period years investigations periods period called period called origin particularly characterized dwelling pits largest measuring metres metres base depth metres period iii sequence noted free standing large stone installed site shifting manually hills period early modern period skeletal remains humans found similar found valley civilization industry hunting based culture different chinese pottery economy people found based hunting gathering nascent stage cultivation practices pottery showed close affinity found valley pakistan particularly respect shapes decorations black pottery burial practices type tools recovered site having close resemblance found north chinese culture period remarkable find period pits dwelling units circular oval shape dug compact natural soil formation deep pits steps ladder access level pits revealed ash layers denoted human occupancy post holes sides pits surface level denoted presence covered birch shallow pits circular shape centimetres diameter adjoining housing pits found contain bones animals tools bones making tools stones eyes carbon dating established culture site 3rd millennium earliest occupation site dated pottery found site early stage hand crafting coarse variety steel grey dull red brown buff colours mat prints shape bowl stem reveal signs sites late type found belonging period period period finds excavated revealed people moved pit dwelling structures built ground level pits associated chambers formed base floor superstructure filling pits covering mud plaster occasionally painted red post holes pits revealed wood built soil floors period brought time burial customs people human animal skeletons found deep oval shaped pits located floors dwelling units pits filled ash stones human found bored hole marks pits bones dogs deer found human skeletons skeletons humans found burial pits sitting position bones animals pottery finds showed better finish compared earlier period polished black form dish stand high forth found wheel turned red pot contained items sale thought belong later period impressive painted pottery recovered period red pot painting pot wild goat black colour long horns hanging ears pottery item interest polished black shape long neck mouth interesting find period standalone finished flat stone carving distinct stone slab centimetres depicts polished sketches hunting scenes hunter deer hunter process releasing arrow sketch movement sun levels carved figures distinctly visible agricultural practices noted periods crops grown wheat finding established link people central asia crossing people resided characterized long headed female different male reported finds indicate external ethnic entire period showed affinity people represents southernmost extent known northern culture asia period iii period pits suggesting gradual transition phases formed varying temperatures brought hills great effort people installed mark notable events community rough shape huge considerable weight height free standing superior period finds wheel hard red copper objects tools bone stone structures rubble found finds copper indicated knowledge period period dated 3rd 4th century phase human occupation related early historical period structures built superior compared earlier period mud bricks pottery superior red type slips wheel turned iron found preservation site maintained form excavated representing natural setting people exposed pits layout protected


hill fort hill fort prehistoric site north west england dates british iron age situated hill greater manchester western edge peak district hill fort plain settlement founded iron age evidence exists activity site far bronze age hill area practices performed artefacts bronze age amber necklace indicate site high status residents took long distance trade settlement occupied roman period site abandoned probably 4th century forgotten 1990s location lies western edge peak district metropolitan borough grid reference known site iron age settlement partially thomas church extends gardens nearby houses spur metres sea level valleys drop away run west small streams valleys meet river approximately metres sea level site commands views plain edge south range hills north higher points locally site access water supply river valleys flat land west background 19th century little known hill forts excavated original purpose long forgotten medieval period origin ascribed iconic figures king arthur king alfred giants 18th century thought hill forts roman origin opinion changed 19th century following large scale investigation rivers concluded hill forts built iron age study hill forts popular 19th century revival 20th century excavations 1990s settlement discovered site lack tell tale earthworks circular ditch indicate ancient activity excavations began unusual marks noted drought instead medieval ditch marks thought denote ditch iron age hill fort revealed excavations ongoing excavations began relatively little known area generally thought areas untouched prehistoric human activity including british period little known iron age activity north west england pottery rare sites excavated region settlement sites hill forts found england relatively northwest known sites led archaeologist describe region black hole iron age hill fort greater manchester known iron age settlement sites county history evidence human activity site pre dating iron age far period site flint tools produced seasonal camp recovered range early late high proportion bladed tools indicating people produced hunter bronze age artefacts rare site definitive indication period despite likely long term site roots late bronze age flint dagger discovered site type rare greater manchester nearest comparable site presence taken indication bronze age site practices hills near bronze age monuments brown low low supporting possibility site dating bronze age found site rare high status amber necklace amber occur naturally britain nearest source baltic traded long distances necklace discovered year old burial hill fort built iron age demonstrated finds site span period occupants lived site spread long period common hill forts site probably divided separate areas industry agricultural activities storage layout areas changed time excavations indicate area enclosed inner ditch mainly area inner outer ditches agricultural separation necessarily fixed outer area shows signs living space roman fort nearby fragments glass possibly roman origin pottery date 1st 2nd centuries indicate site british period roman structures discovered nature roman activity site source speculation position indicate easily defended local finds indicate high status settlement military outpost similar feature located nearby reason roman structures identified british inhabitants buildings typically roman style difficult differentiate iron age imply continuation local culture roman style possible romans simply influenced area actively occupying site site later abandoned forgotten 1990s investigation sites modern built environment extensive excavations undertaken establish general layout modern settlement extends iron age hill fort archaeological investigation survey performed establish extent settlement methods ground penetrating radar successful identifying eastern northern sections ditch site excavations concentrated old trenches trial trenches test pits investigation site revealed ditches external ditch larger area smaller dimensions internal ditch chronological relation ditches uncertain internal ditch cut sandstone bedrock wide deep inner edge ditch point ditch inserted possibly relating gateway artefacts recovered ditch indicate inhabitants site links salt producing communities lowland coarse pottery contain salt similar fragments recovered iron age site castle layer dated latest deposits ditch include hundreds fragments roman pottery dating 1st 4th centuries bronze roman roman nails outer ditch wide deep like inner ditch cut local bedrock rare iron age pot recovered outer ditch found material pot originated away pot found earliest contexts ditch dates iron age probably deliberately placed ditch ritual significant event digging ditch inner ditch ditch bank associated archaeological excavations undertaken funded metropolitan borough council grants heritage lottery fund received news coverage site training excavation students community dig introduce people ancient history participation archaeological trust students ridge sixth form college built replica standing site artefacts discovered excavations permanent display museum site open public annually week september people view work past season digging


simply fortress town roman province settlement evolved chester county town england fortress built initially 70s roman army advanced north completed decades factors including presence elliptical building unique fortresses method construction unusual size fortress larger roman fortresses britain suggest intended base potential invasion ireland eventually capital unified british isles rome fortress contained barracks military headquarters military unusual elliptical building acted governor britain headquarters fortress rebuilt stone end 1st century occupied early 3rd century legion probably remained fortress eventually fell late 4th early 5th century civilian settlement grew fortress factors leading construction south east fortress chester roman seated people largest known military britain civilian settlement remained romans departed eventually present day city chester peripheral settlements roman including source garrison water supply site sandstone quarry shrine shrine rock cut roman shrine britain history foundation according 1st 2nd century lands celtic tribe lands bordered north west included parts north wales romans treaty celtic tribe occupying northern england failed romans decided best way ensure long term peace military conquest campaigns led later expansion north reign meant romans needed new military base close new chester strategic site fortress commanding access sea river dividing chester began construction fortress mid 70s fortress positioned sandstone bluff dominating bridge river close natural harbour today occupied bend river provided protection south west river sandstone ridge positioning fortress access harbour difficult fortress required litres imp gal water day supplied fresh water natural springs suburb kilometres east lead discovered chester indicate construction probably way military buildings site demolished allow construction fortress buildings built wood probably convenience gradually replaced permanent structures built locally sandstone defence provided metre wide ditch metres wide metres deep turf laid sand clay rubble layers logs fortress traditional playing card shape rectangular rounded corners gates north east south west covered hectares acres making largest constructed britain 70s estimated metric tons long tons short tons timber phase fortress construction buildings outside associated fortress harbour required additional metric tons long tons short tons fortress contained barracks military headquarters blocks buildings metres long metres wide derives goddess roman fortress named goddess river latin goddess diva alternative source naming settlement suggests roman fortress adopted directly british river thought title fortress taken title based latin victorious city chester derives latin word meaning fort army camp common names english cities began roman camps emperor ordered lower danube deployed garrison abandoning fort building scotland arrival began rebuild timber end 1st century stone new stone fortress walls metres thick base metres thick located regular intervals approximately metres apart walls towers metres square defensive ditch dug metres wide metres deep estimated metric tons long tons short tons stone build new fortress defences timber barracks replaced stone buildings similar size 2nd century took construction wall leading sections fortress abandoned allowed fall disrepair probably went campaign leaving garrisoned suffered heavy losses returning britain following attacks early 3rd century fortress rebuilt time estimated metric tons long tons short tons stone located early 4th century roman aaron city generally identified 4th century size legion garrison diminished line rest empire forces decline abandonment fortress major buildings maintained second half 4th century barracks inhabited soldiers chester paid coins imperial soldiers removed invaded written record military units garrisoned indicating fortress longer military stage military ended romans retreated western roman emperor told cities britain look defences invaders civilians probably continued use fortress defences protection raiders irish sea chester continued lesser scale left buildings fallen disrepair larger structures known survived time town probably remained military administrative centre region arrival anglo settlement known meaning city old english medieval believed church saint peter saint paul later site chester cathedral roman origin evidence discovered support chester anglo saxon walls fortress repaired incorporated defences roman masonry stolen reused later periods 14th century monk chester described roman remains including began interest remains 17th century interest continued grow 18th century fed accounts roman chester discoveries altar version celtic god equivalent god thunder william recorded roman arches east gate demolished century accidental discoveries continued parts roman bath complex outside fortress destroyed century housing development chester archaeological society founded acquired artefacts discovered chester undertook excavations possible museum opened allow public view society collection society continued work chester recording information fortress surrounding settlement building works destroyed sites excavations carried fortress revealing new information excavations progress behalf chester city_council association english_heritage civilian settlement gradually established outside walls fortress probably began collection traders prosperous dealing fortress settlement administered elected council legion retired settled effectively making veteran colony located alongside roads leading settlement built areas museum largest collection roman single site britain repair north wall 4th century settlement extended fortress east south west shops fronted metres fortress walls east legion parade ground civilian built west south large coaching house travelling government officials buildings originally timber early 2nd century began replaced stone built structures settlement expanded 2nd 3rd centuries population increased legion left civilian settlement continued eventually town chester scholars christopher believe 5th 6th centuries approximately roman withdrew canterbury arrived southern britain preserved sub roman society able survive attacks anglo use vernacular latin called british latin active culture possibility vernacular latin lasted late 7th century area chester archaeological remnants local british culture found quarry roman fortress constructed local sandstone river south fortress traces quarry visible 2nd century shrine roman goddess carved quarry protection quarry workers despite heavy figure seen holding spear shield owl left shoulder wisdom carving altar offerings left rock cut roman shrine britain shrine grade listed building large bath complex soldiers maintain good use leisure time sited near south gate measured metres metres completed end reign complex constructed concrete faced stone walls metres thick barrel vaulted buildings rose high metres bath complex featured entrance room exercise hall room cold room cold pool warm room hot room hot bath exercise yard formed complex mosaic floors heated floor system connected required metric tons wood day operation hours day estimated litres imp gal water day water supplied springs underground lead pipes linked main near east gate water held large tanks concrete foundations fed complex large area destroyed building works construction shopping mall sandstone columns exercise hall measuring metres diameter present roman gardens pepper street columns originally stood metres high section remains display cellar bridge street market hall inscription fragment larger inscription finely carved welsh slate discovered close fort archaeologist david mason said inscriptions type comparatively scarce likely belong administrative class inscription generally written set public record official decisions taken highest level government examples important inscriptions nature include treaties local tribes rights text inscription reconstructed small fragment appears talk fortress conclusion regime discovered protected chester archaeological society support prime minister construction road site excavations revealed traces late iron age cultivation phases construction constructed timber soon building fortress measured metres major axis metres minor axis factors indicating timber phase intended temporary evidence repairs structure building substantially built metres deep foundations smaller later stone phase replaced period stone measuring metres major axis metres minor axis grew seating extended arena latest excavations indicate structure capable spectators size indicator large civilian population presence wealthy citizens second phase building produced largest known military britain scheduled ancient monument served variety purposes owing proximity fortress venue weapons training hosting spectacular involving wrestlers professional walls metres thick stood high metres buttresses structural decorative slate depicting net fighter discovered likely dating 2nd century probably tomb finds included small bronze parts roman bowl depicting scenes contest sword handle masonry reused construction john church monastery mary elliptical building paving walls unusual elliptical buildings discovered atop elliptical buildings partially uncovered chester market hall similar buildings found fortresses buildings located near centre fortress bath buildings range store rooms outside presence second bath building unusual fortresses generally set internal construction site began confirmed length lead served central water feature fountain stamped emperor building prestigious concrete foundations finely dressed stonework probably finest building entire fortress technically speaking elliptical central hall formed intersecting arcs makes unique roman empire function unknown seating arcs theatre best guess archaeologists contained images gods temple dedicated primary gods roman alternatively oval shape represented shape known roman world supporting evidence completed building measured metres metres oval courtyard water feature centre metres metres surrounded wedge shaped rooms traces concrete foundation water feature lead pipe work excavated rooms surrounding courtyard large arched entrances metres wide metres high certain building completed certainly destroyed 90s site subsequently fortress rubbish dump decades second elliptical building built foundations architect aware exact layout previous building design second slightly modified looks similar different arc achieve slightly design second elliptical building constructed confirmed coin emperor pavement thought second building survived end roman rule influence britain foundations buildings destroyed construction forum shopping centre capital elliptical building differences fortress chester roman fortresses province larger hectares acres fortresses york later capital inferior stone curtain wall chester constructed mortar large sandstone blocks required greater skill effort methods build walls usually reserved important structures temples city walls town walls presence unusual buildings heart fortress accounting hectares acres larger fortresses taken evidence construction specifically ordered provincial governor governor pro construction started lead found elliptical building bears evidence britain building direct control differences suggest administrative headquarters effect capital speculated investigation factor pointing provincial capital presence port ireland accessible land plans conquer launched expedition ireland unclear dynasty closer making administration quicker easier furthermore historian believes chosen possible future capital roman britain practically placed centre british isles located geographically nearly distance westernmost shores ireland easternmost lands channel regardless empire plans province economic trading centre emerged capital reflecting change imperial policy consolidation