operation operation knight combined airborne ground assault german mountain corps allies supreme headquarters yugoslav partisans located town independent state croatia world war operation launched aimed capturing killing marshal destroying headquarters support facilities located allied military missions associated seventh enemy offensive croatian yugoslav history airborne assault known raid croatian operation coup main operation involving direct action combined parachute borne assault parachute battalion planned subsequent link ground forces mountain corps airborne assault preceded heavy bombing town luftwaffe ground forces included home guard forces independent state croatia principal headquarters staff allied military personnel escaped despite presence time airborne assault operation failed number factors including partisan resistance town approaches failure german intelligence agencies share limited intelligence available exact location lack planning commander german airborne force contributed unsuccessful outcome germans background axis case white case black months caused significant setbacks partisans september took advantage capitulation italy managed increase territory control double forces size men captured italian weapons late november held national congress liberated area northwestern yugoslavia designated marshal prime minister established headquarters nearby alps temporarily suspended successful tactic constantly von commander chief southeast europe admitted weeks later dangerous enemy located territory german puppet state independent state croatia included bosnia personal headquarters initially located cave kilometre north centre river ran base ridge line cave creating obstacle movement town cave rail line ran ridge line cave addition partisan headquarters partisan communist_party yugoslavia support training youth organisations based time escort battalion responsible personal safety british soviet military missions partisans stationed villages close united_states military officers missions british mission headed brigadier london time raid included major churchill son winston_churchill time operation german british mission led second command lieutenant colonel street partisan apart partisan headquarters related organisations close partisans area operations subject ground assault mountain corps immediate vicinity 1st corps commanded consisted elite 1st 6th divisions corps headquarters located village kilometres east 6th division west 1st division deployed area east nearest large partisan formation 3rd brigade 6th division based villages kilometres south southwest wider area operations partisan 5th corps commanded 8th corps commanded 5th corps deployed northeast northwest headquarters south road 8th corps positioned southeast headquarters mountains valleys importantly coming battle 4th division 5th corps deployed brigades 4th division brigade 39th division formed defensive arc north running 9th division 8th corps deployed south german intelligence organisations attempted determine location headquarters disposition partisan forces special unit section intelligence service members involved identifying presence town prior german offensive retake town special unit division staffed ethnic germans spoke local languages unit contacts militia tracking october unit responsible locating prior capture established patrol base near got close cave located allied military missions despite german radio confirming site headquarters unable cave location headquarters attached parachute battalion operation second intelligence organisation fat reconnaissance troop section commanded attached parachute battalion contribute intelligence plan raid hitler orders intelligence branch commanded operation rescue september independently involved intelligence gathering lead raid acted behalf obtaining information partisan headquarters cave proposed plan infiltrate small group soldiers assassinate soon discovered plan eliminate compromised operation appears pass useful intelligence gathered kurt commander parachute battalion responsible planning critical airborne aspects operation largely rivalry competition organisations share intelligence gathered significant effect tactical planning execution operation partisan intelligence partisans highly effective intelligence network aware presence parachute battalion yugoslavia time aware general threat airborne assault months aware isolation parachute battalion concentration transport aircraft month operation partisans managed recapture interrogated result early attack main headquarters relocated cave near village kilometres west cave day returned cave night addition precaution elements 6th division moved closer single german reconnaissance aircraft flew number parallel runs valley metres activity consistent conducting aerial photography aircraft paid particular attention villages british military mission american military personnel located observed street acting commander british military mission assumed spotting bombing raid advised americans allied missions moved locations result despite intelligence received observations british partisans appear threat chief staff swearing german attack impossible obvious indicator unaware imminent attack remained cave overnight evening following birthday celebrations instead returning ultra german signal traffic british aware germans planning operation information available include operation occur objectives planning following intelligence collection higher level planning operation began von issued orders hitler gave approval von final plans order mountain corps issued commander 2nd army day leaving days preparation general der von commander mountain corps headquartered responsible conduct operation ground forces von mountain corps significantly reinforced army group 2nd army mountain corps reserves reinforcements included companies reconnaissance battalions 1st mountain division 54th mountain reconnaissance battalion croatian infantry division 7th volunteer mountain division outline mountain corps plan heavy aerial bombardment partisan positions luftwaffe aircraft followed parachute assault parachute battalion task capturing killing destroying headquarters assault included tasks capture destroy allied military missions partisans day ground elements mountain corps converge link parachute battalion small reconnaissance aircraft tasked fly capture retrieve body parachute battalion received outline operation details following day realised transport aircraft insufficient parachute battalion delivered lift came plan involving waves wave troops conduct assault second wave troops follow hours later critically intelligence given suspected location headquarters citadel near cemetery high ground southwest centre nearly kilometres actual headquarters cave far reaching effects planning execution assault plan wave called parachute troops groups red green blue secure town troops borne assault groups carry specific tasks borne group tasks group soldiers capture citadel destroy headquarters land cemetery attacker group soldiers destroy british military mission village kilometres south road group soldiers destroy soviet military mission centre river breaker group soldiers destroy american military mission village kilometres south centre group soldiers including members division officer lieutenant capture crossroads western cross immediately west including nearby suspected communications facility group soldiers seize outpost radio station south assist group second wave troops based training company parachute battalion insert parachute midday appear planned significant errors intelligence location headquarters plan fire red signal order available forces converge position subsequent tasks parachute battalion transported airfields dressed uniforms security reasons troops operation hours launched linked transport aircraft including man deliver borne troops objectives preparations airborne assault complete ground forces plan ground forces von mountain corps separate coordinated area directions tasks infantry regiment croatian infantry division croatian elements 2nd company battalion referred commander advance east village primary responsibility relieving taking command parachute battalion attack direction battalion group croatian infantry division set drive east capture crossroads necessary advance northwest open road regiment 54th reconnaissance battalion 1st mountain division 55th pioneer battalion 1st division armoured car company regimental group 2nd croatian light infantry brigade advance southeast village capture quickly possible destroy partisans location occupy partisan airfield supply installations capturing elements sent prevent withdrawal partisans road link parachute battalion regimental group 7th division advance west area break partisan resistance east advance wide block escape routes east group advance rail line roads reach objective area power station hoc manned officer cadets 1st company battalion command 7th division advance seize crossing point utilised partisans reconnaissance battalion additional company advance occupy partisan supply installations valley prevent partisan withdrawal south attacking reconnaissance battalion croatian infantry division croatian command reconnaissance battalion advance valley partisan forces withdrawing southeast 1st regiment division division advance conduct special operations partisans area operation offensive began advance ground forces assembly areas surrounding assigned operational areas squadrons luftwaffe bombers including dive bombers began bombing targets total sorties flown airborne assault initial response parachute battalion began parachute objectives pilots able land relatively close targets despite smoke dust bombing landed significantly course including landed cave kilometres west landed locality named near confused axis advance regiment occupants landed immediately killed members escort battalion guarding cave occupants fight way landing wave parachute battalion quickly gained control group supported red group overcame minimal resistance cemetery established headquarters cemetery walls sign headquarters group group unsuccessful british american groups moved following aerial reconnaissance parts group landed field immediately south cave came fire members escort battalion high ground area cave group landed western cross assaulted building believed partisan communications centre building actually office communist_party yugoslavia central committee resisted building charges blue group green group consisting parachute troops landed eastern population lived engaged heavy fighting young communist league yugoslavia finished conference delegates staying town youths took arms obtain commenced fighting attempting establish eastern town kilometres east road partisan officer training school students hearing fighting direction students marched west initially armed pistols rifles split groups smaller group crossed advanced west railway line ridge leading cave larger group collected arms ammunition stray german equipment dropped parachute larger group students attacked green blue groups east suffering severe casualties maintained continuous pressure german flank germans largely secured available troops went house house armed photographs brutally questioning civilians find soon commenced realised partisan resistance concentrated north vicinity cave fired red signal rally troops assault direction assault cave partisan counterattack launched frontal attack supported machine gun firing mouth cave germans reached base hill metres cave suffered severe casualties assault running low water prior attack staff taken refuge cave assembling troops attack surrounding partisan forces rushed battalions 3rd brigade 6th division approached southeast battalion attacked german position cemetery swung strike germans west makes escape attack defeated small group gathered escaped cave platform mouth cave climbed rope platform displayed mistress dog caused delays party split following creek leading small groups climbed heights east withdrew village second german attack withdrawal second wave parachute troops dropped groups west cemetery midday drop zone fields fire partisans west suffered casualties drop collecting remainder mounted second attack pressure flanks heavy assault failed fighting continued afternoon sides taking heavy casualties late afternoon ordered forces withdraw area cemetery formed defensive perimeter withdrawal group troops cut killed wounded grenade blast later evacuated casualties light aircraft intended carry away capture roughly time partisan counterpart milan commander 3rd brigade wounded german machine gun fire germans consolidated position cemetery completely surrounded partisans night 3rd brigade attacked cemetery 1st battalion 3rd brigade 9th division reinforcing assault final partisan attack launched cemetery walls places held ground force assault partisan withdrawal total strength estimated men late 2nd army able rally troops operation increasing partisan activity country germans rely special forces improved tactics partisans defended territory controlled significant demolition mining roads manned patrols smaller detachments task hold enemy reinforcements arrived operation germans rendered tactics ineffective combining strong fast columns adequate pioneer support combination especially successful column led regiment second german tactical innovation employment reconnaissance battalions independent operations deep inside partisan controlled territory ground forces mountain corps able advance quickly planned unexpected resistance partisan 1st 5th 8th corps axes advance poor communication coordination columns ground forces subjected allied air attacks day commenced attack easterly direction aiming cover kilometres quickly possible encountered organised resistance 2nd brigade 6th division day fighting germans captured unable overcome defences hills east village recognising importance task commander division ordered battalion group division abandon advance martin reinforce instead remaining brigade 6th division 1st shock brigade deployed north river 2nd brigade requested assistance 1st shock brigade divisional headquarters ordered send reinforcements instead 3rd battalion 2nd brigade launched successful local counterattack vanguard separating main body decided halt advance place remaining units round defence ordered resume attack reported impossible loss contact units regiment consisted columns western column based regiment eastern column consisting 54th reconnaissance battalion 1st home guard regiment 2nd croatian light infantry brigade western column advanced southeast encountered resistance 6th brigade 4th division end day western column reached halfway fully mobility partisans bypassing main defensive positions west pioneers playing important role keeping column moving eastern column started advance aiming establish contact western column advanced kilometres held defences 8th brigade 4th division forces commanded 7th division organised northern central southern columns northern column consisted included company tanks moved swiftly southwest start point near reached crossroads halfway evening 16th brigade 39th division deployed right flank axis advance rapid advance meant 13th brigade 39th division unable organise effective defence 39th division ordered 13th brigade block road order prevent loss battalion brigade managed reach position dawn central column consisted 7th reconnaissance battalion reinforced battery self propelled guns special task strike penetrate deeply partisans rear destroy 5th partisan corps despite having battalions area facing 13th brigade managed hold thrust southern column based 13th mountain regiment reinforced battalion 7th mountain artillery regiment column launched assault area task reaching kilometres south battalion 13th mountain regiment taken advance halted defences 1st brigade germans deployed columns attack north reconnaissance battalion men 6th brigade advanced reconnaissance battalion company thrust direction reconnaissance battalion column reached village han point attacked 2nd battalion 3rd brigade forced retreat retreat column attacked battalions 3rd brigade pushed way start line heavy losses preliminary german report estimated losses 3rd brigade estimated german losses dead wounded reconnaissance battalion column overcame resistance local partisan units 1st 4th battalions 13th brigade end day reached kilometres evening 13th brigade ordered march reinforce partisan forces area 1st regiment division reinforced pioneer company croatian infantry division division attacked axis pushed local partisan detachment end day reached positions kilometres escorted elements 3rd brigade way met battalion 1st brigade met staff allied military missions british mission signals officer brought surviving radio initially favour continuing attack situation cancelled attacks german intention supreme command small area approaching units destroy land forces apparent reorganisation partisan required german troops observed area companions escorted 2nd army monitoring operation closely report special troop sent partisans rear help disguised days earlier drew particular attention according report received late area halfway ordered commander 7th division immediately form special company strong detachment mission infiltrate partisan lines order kill destroy partisan supreme command detachment formed night 11th company 13th regiment number pioneers group specially trained personnel division detachment failed penetrate partisan territory night tried following night luftwaffe fighter bomber formation engaged partisan troops withdrawing western column regiment ordered help assist eastern column reinforced company morning german columns advancing overcame partisan units paths continued advance facing little resistance regiment advancing took fight continued march relieved parachute battalion established radio contact battalion entered reconnaissance battalion arrived joined 1st regiment division entered eastern sector partisan line defence holding 7th division continued strong pressure 1st division upper river valley failed achieve decisive breakthrough end line north south defeat suffered previous day reconnaissance battalion column resume advance 26th rapidly changing situation communications difficulties degree confusion emerged sides contact corps headquarters 4th division continued retain brigades road despite fact regiment passed route rear critically important road south left supreme partisan headquarters fled mountain corps failed recognise exploit flaws partisan deployments parachute battalion relieved mountain corps ordered units area disperse regiment units ordered return north attack brigades 4th division mountain aim securing main supply road action scheduled start morning division newly 1st regiment division ordered conduct sweep destroy operation area south southeast operation place concurrently operation 9th division managed attacks pushing reconnaissance battalion column tried advance success unhappy development operation point cancelled operations afternoon ordered von units start positions concentric attack area partisan corps headquarters 1st 5th believed located attack scheduled begin morning sent reconnaissance battalion area left wide open defeat reconnaissance battalion thrust staff escort continued travelling foot horseback wagons narrow gauge logging railway trek members soviet mission wounded aftermath escape british mission able contact headquarters surviving radio able maintain contact called air offensive german formations taking operation luftwaffe aircraft skies yugoslavia offensive included thousand sorties newly formed balkan air_force costly ground attack launched combined partisan british force german held island code named operation assault mounted british held island adriatic_sea night june fighting continued late june resulted reinforcement island german troops assault force consisted battalions 26th division british royal marines commando troop royal marines commando american mountain company battery mountain batteries providing artillery support days fighting combined forces returned partisans suffered losses dead wounded missing allied units suffered dead wounded missing commanding officer lieutenant colonel jack churchill captured germans days germans leader soviet mission lieutenant general lost leg battle suggested air evacuation soviet mission expanded street include party days agreed june street arranged evacuation night raf operated airfield near town seven douglas aircraft soviet crew remainder crew carried party allied missions wounded partisans italy late june delivered royal_navy escort destroyer hms established headquarters joined allied missions soviet foreign minister believed british known attack claimed based absence churchill time attack sent message detailing suspicions headquarters partisan organisations temporarily disrupted key staff lost operation partisan organisations quickly located resumed operation reverted partisan control weeks operation operation failure principal headquarters staff allied military personnel escaped despite presence time airborne assault operation failed number factors including partisan resistance town approaches failure german intelligence agencies share limited intelligence available exact location contributed unsuccessful outcome germans failure share intelligence compounded lack planning commander german airborne force parachute battalion operation suffering killed wounded soldiers battalion fit fight morning continued rest war parachute unit later changed parachute battalion operation combat parachute operation according german report ground troops mountain corps suffered killed wounded missing operation report claimed partisans killed according commander 7th division und der partisan losses included confirmed estimated killed taken prisoner claimed allied aircraft shot operation according partisan source total losses killed wounded missing total casualties suffered fighting parachute battalion numbered killed wounded missing ultimately according intelligence historian bennett long term significance raid simply failed film operation depicted partisan film directed books journals


battle ridge battle ridge officially known british action took place november pursuit phase southern palestine offensive palestine campaign world war fighting advancing egyptian expeditionary force retreating army group occurred battle battle operations occurred extensive area north line west road jerusalem strong ottoman army positions foothills hills successfully held british_empire forces week ottoman army defeated day november main ottoman base captured days fighting british cavalry charge captured guns ottoman units line retreat corps desert mounted corps attacked ottoman eighth army extended foothills mediterranean coastal plain november beginning november ottoman counterattack seventh army eventually blocked mounted units november centre cavalry charge assisted infantry captured fortified villages november north ottoman rearguard position successfully attacked mounted units junction station known captured ottoman railway link jerusalem cut result victory ottoman eighth army withdrew seventh army withdrew jerusalem background capture october november strong ottoman rearguard units southern hills maritime plain close mediterranean coast held egyptian expeditionary force heavy fighting time ottoman army able withdraw good order rearguard garrisons retiring cover darkness night november delay caused seriously compromised british_empire advance time conclude military engagements southern palestine winter rains expected start middle month black soil plain currently firm movements large military units rains giant impassable wheeled vehicles heavy marching infantry rains temperatures currently hot day pleasant night drop rapidly cold rains began november infantry began advance hills strength seventh eighth ottoman armies attack october estimated rifles guns force seventh army incomplete iii corps iii corps 24th infantry division near 27th infantry division 3rd cavalry division 16th 19th 24th infantry divisions area east line seventh army commanded eighth army corps 3rd 53rd infantry divisions based corps 16th 26th 54th infantry divisions based centre line supporting corps reserve divisions 7th 19th infantry divisions eighth army commanded friedrich von time estimated officers men rifles machine guns guns prelude november seventh eighth ottoman armies delayed advance lieutenant general harry desert mounted corps major general smith major general hill 52nd lowland division major general philip 75th division desert mounted corps consisted mounted division major general edward australian mounted division major general henry mounted division major general george 52nd lowland division 75th division formed lieutenant general edward corps coast 52nd lowland division fought fierce action crossing coast north morning november infantry brigades crossed near mouth despite opposition established sand dunes north ridge right stretched held considerable strength ridge covered road railway north afternoon brigade moved attack ridge threatened counterattack left forcing brigade halt face north meet attack brigade arrived brigade attacked southern portion ridge gained darkness fell lost position times fierce ottoman strongly attacking throwing defenders ridge attacking brigades lost men action ottoman able safely away night november following day infantry unit capable advancing 52nd lowland division scottish rifles brigade commanded brigadier general division brigades fierce fighting brigade moved found deserted evening advance troops pressed miles secured abandoned stores water november eighth army retreated miles seventh army lost hardly ground egyptian expeditionary force infantry divisions end lines communication able follow ottoman withdrawal corps 54th east division forced rest imperial service cavalry brigade rear lieutenant general philip corps transferred transport corps corps 60th 2nd london division major general john resting 10th irish major general john major general divisions units field 53rd welsh division major general corps cavalry imperial corps brigade new_zealand mounted rifles brigade deployed line near foothills hills north wrote november battle swing driven turks pursuing troops miles travelling fast lot turks cut don know caught time waste catching huge explosion morning presumably ammunition army place miles flying men having time lives bombing machine retreating columns fancy von nearing jerusalem line mounted troop movements november mounted division moved maritime plain coast soon daylight november having horses previous evening advance led brigades left 1st light horse brigade right 2nd light horse brigade rode line responsible outer flanks attached 7th mounted brigade formed reserve 1st light horse brigade entered hour later 2nd light horse brigade approaching friedrich von eighth army headquarters ottoman soldiers discovered occupying strong position high ground north west village brigade attack capturing prisoners large amounts supplies abandoned german field hospital midday miles north east occupied little difficulty 1st light horse brigade captured prisoners found good steam pump enabling brigade water horses passing ancient town message received desert mounted corps mounted division british corps marching main ottoman road railway leading north cut consequence ordered division advance division duly turned north east 1st light horse brigade entering close mediterranean_sea right 2nd light horse brigade captured villages convoy escort prisoners brigade ottoman guns north opened fire captors captives alike dark 2nd light horse brigade captured prisoners mounted division took night battle outpost line high ground south near journey maritime plain mounted division captured prisoners met large organised ottoman force day progressed captured ottoman units found increasingly soldiers suffering severely exhaustion wrote november things going infantry pushing inland place know guns having taken prisoners went afternoon taken easily attack 6th went rush tomorrow likely critical day pursuit turks stop tomorrow australian mounted division spent november searching water eventually found horses advanced miles line capturing prisoners guns transports way march night november night march ottoman territory campaign australian mounted division led 3rd light horse brigade advanced guard artillery battery attached 5th mounted brigade squadrons charge day followed 4th light horse brigade forming rearguard ensure division maintained night advance guard placed route yards picked following units turn dropped gathered rearguard corps headquarters rear kept informed division movement signal lamp leading brigades intermittently letters divisional signal south westerly direction prominent route arrangements worked division arrived intact vicinity australian mounted division followed 4th light horse brigade field ambulance divisional train brigade transport supply sections carrying rations field ambulance set dressing station treated wounded men moving encountering rugged mountainous miles rough terrain midnight set camp bed mounted division hills north fighting line infantry 53rd welsh division 2nd county london regiment corps corps troops new_zealand mounted rifles brigade ordered rejoin desert mounted corps miles away coast infantry 60th 2nd london division marched afternoon november obtaining water infantry 10th irish divisions remained positions armies november 52nd lowland division ended possibility ottoman stand natural defensive line miles north issued orders november advance attempt turn ottoman line firmly established ottoman columns harassed retreated royal flying corps dropping bombs firing machine guns aircraft dropped bombs railway station detonated ammunition depot november infantry 52nd lowland 75th divisions advanced line leading brigade 52nd division successfully attacking strong ottoman rearguard defending despite difficulties ottoman army successfully carried difficult retreat establish new defensive position extensive chosen position new line stretched miles west east mouth mediterranean_sea far hills ottoman eighth army coastal sector retreating ordered form new line north valley miles inland ottoman seventh army relatively good condition having retired miles interference preparing launch counterattack reinforcements transport supplies problem ottoman armies falling lines communication defensive line ran parallel miles road links railway jerusalem railway connections northwards damascus istanbul line branching southwards branched lines transport supplies reinforcements quickly efficiently ottoman army line general strengthening resistance line concentrated 2nd light horse brigade advanced capturing refugee column infantry capture series engagements leading battle ridge began november near leading brigade 52nd lowland division scottish rifles brigade advanced miles despite encountering stiff ottoman resistance subjected artillery bombardment brigades mounted division followed scottish rifles brigade pushing successfully established ottoman right flank ample water found enlarged following day mounted advance australian mounted division left dark night november bound arrived halted dawn november large pools good water found allowed horses drink fill missed trek water days nights division came position right mounted division reported morning november division ridden halt water 12th light horse regiment 4th light horse brigade advanced north arriving november engineering stores burnt aircraft captured 4th light horse brigade ordered november threaten ottoman force opposing 3rd light horse brigade line 3rd light horse brigade occupied station 4th light horse brigade entered miles north west australian mounted division joined hours later mounted division left early morning came right australian mounted division took extending line little east afternoon november desert mounted corps exception new_zealand mounted rifles brigade line point little east sea australian mounted divisions left half ottoman line running roughly neighbourhood foot hills hills ordered mounted division westward coast leaving australian mounted division right flank commanding australian mounted division aware time division threatened ottoman eighth army infantry divisions 16th 26th divisions corps 53rd division corps holding miles line railway line reorganised striking distance reliance australian mounted division fully justified headquarters november australian mounted division engaged november fighting ottoman trenches dug miles north miles north east east railway line brigades australian mounted division ran ottoman rearguard left flank near village ottoman forces advancing 4th light horse brigade deployed attack 3rd light horse brigade assisting patrols reported strong ottoman positions line trenches extending west village ottoman guns seen placed sited position cover yards require long attack 4th light horse brigade approaching ordered attack north 5th mounted brigade supported 3rd light horse brigade threatening west 3rd light horse brigade headquarters established yards south east railway line owing darkness attack developed night battle outpost lines established 4th light horse brigade holding line linking mounted division ottomans holding ridge near cavalry troops guns infantry mounted infantry cavalry brigades unable advance intense ottoman artillery fire continued day occupied unopposed morning november 4th light horse brigade casualties rank killed officer ranks wounded wounded soldiers probably treated 4th light horse field ambulance field couple miles past ambulance suffered casualties subjected artillery fire hills halted tent dark took patients hit high explosive shells 4th light horse regiment busy midnight seriously wounded soldiers evacuated casualty clearing station rest kept till morning infantry coast got miles cavalry inland ahead mounted troops took guns prisoners yesterday afternoon went khan told head men town farms gardens villagers kept wired turks agents warm position november decided advance junction station easily south west turning ottoman army right flank coast november days preparation battle following day mounted division resting supporting australian_army service corps personnel caught distributed supplies man horse task performed wagons brigades transport supply sections forming improvised divisional train new_zealand mounted rifles brigade rejoined division november supplies advance transported land sea great difficulty infantry divisions corps mounted divisions desert mounted corps maintained advance distances base navy transported stores mouths lines secured pushed forward rapidly possible reach november considerable distance egyptian transport corps worked bring supplies australian mounted division occupied unopposed dawn november unable advance face gathering opposition immediate north east found deserted patrols 3rd light horse brigade australian mounted division 10th light horse regiment 3rd light horse brigade reported ottoman units strength holding high ridge miles north east town time ottoman field guns began position high ground miles east town following instructions australian mounted division received 10th light horse regiment carried active patrolling conspicuous possible seriously engaged remainder division advanced north new_zealand mounted rifles brigade ordered rejoin mounted division brigade left november forced march miles mounted rifle regiment line 53rd welsh division southern hills far forced march miles estimated taken hours halt rest water early november arrived night hours later prepares battle miles defensive line chosen ottoman commanders rally strong army stop invasion designed protect jerusalem railway threatened junction station choice position partly dictated pressure british australian indian new_zealand advance partly terrain line north ran nearly north south parallel miles west railway line branching southwards ran high steep ridge connecting villages surrounded extended north westwards southern ridge commanded flat country west south west distance miles prisoners unit ottoman army captured indicating driven main body ottoman armies line ottoman resistance grew noticeably stronger ottoman line defended eighth army 3rd division corps north 7th division eighth army reserve east 54th division corps near 26th division corps holding von overall commander ottoman armies resolved stand junction station succeeded deploying forces evening november ordered counterattack british right flank covered australian mounted division plan cut supply lines capture egyptian expeditionary force forward units originally ordered november postponed day plan november turn right flank ottoman line coast despite aircraft cavalry revealing considerable ottoman force inland egyptian expeditionary force right flank assigned task dealing immediate threat australian mounted division ordered big demonstration operations possible focus ottoman attention away coastal sector mounted divisions advance northwards attempt turn ottoman right flank assisted infantry attacks ottoman right centre following day force deployed infantry 52nd lowland division 75th division centre australian mounted division right flank mounted divisions infantry left flank ordered 52nd lowland division extend position ottoman right flank reinforced additional brigades ordered australian mounted division advance encountered determined substantial ottoman counterattack infantry attack brown hill november 52nd lowland division preparatory attack near coast open way attack junction station day attack north villages mounted division acting flank guard objective important ottoman rearguard position ran village brown hill village easily taken necessary extremely difficult attack steep sided brown hill hill topped large commanded long field fire plain southwards time battalion brigade covered batteries brigade royal field artillery south african field artillery brigade 75th division captured crest reduced handful men minutes taking brown hill remnants scots battalion officer men unable withstand ottoman counterattack driven fierce struggle close quarters 3rd rifles ordered renew attack dusk owing poor light artillery longer able assistance quickly retook hill bayonet charge suffering casualties process recovering lewis guns attacking battalion suffered killed wounded defending ottoman 7th division suffered heavy casualties dead ottoman soldiers found battlefield fighting described equal highland light infantry brigade encounter ridge november success operations north opened way main attacks following day ottoman armies line positions ottoman counterattack australian mounted division november australian mounted division advanced direction press left flank ottoman forces strongly possible australian british mounted troops 3rd 4th light horse 5th mounted brigades moved northwards conspicuous demonstration aggression appeared ottoman formations retired altogether 9th light horse regiment 3rd light horse brigade rode troop pressing occupy 5th mounted brigade found rapidly advanced northwards australian mounted division spread miles facing north east divisions ottoman 7th army soldiers began advance southwards railway ottoman infantry divisions began moving south miles east ottoman controlled branch line railway line running southwards direction north railway trains stopping allow huge numbers troops field soon 11th light horse regiment 4th light horse brigade forced retire ottoman units occupied place strength separate columns arms seen advancing north north east minutes later british honourable artillery company battery opened fire shot outnumbered ranged ottoman guns greater power weight approach eighth ottoman army corps 16th 26th 53rd 54th divisions unknown 5th mounted brigade force estimated ottoman soldiers suddenly attacked surrounded mounted brigade attack ottoman columns coming track junction station rail station far heaviest counterattack experienced break egyptian expeditionary force november royal gloucestershire regiments 5th mounted brigade pushed reinforced 3rd light horse brigade sent followed remaining batteries australian mounted division light horse regiment occupied forced retire attack strong ottoman force supported heavy artillery fire batteries available troops australian mounted division engaged ottoman attack continued pressed counterattack forced mounted division territory gained day fighting ottoman army 4th light horse brigade render effective aid 3rd light horse 5th mounted brigades west far railway line heavily attacked ottoman units managed advance yards 4th light horse brigade position end day strong ottoman attack repulsed machine gun rifle fire commander australian mounted division ordered slow withdrawal 3rd light horse 5th mounted brigades high ground line order given ottoman train sighted moving south stopped west fresh force ottoman soldiers deployed rapidly advance left flank 5th mounted brigade batteries australian mounted division action high ground north west firing fresh ottoman force moving open plain view gunners artillery fire effective attacking ottoman advance halted forcing fall little dug trenches fighting steadily withdrawing 3rd light horse 5th mounted brigades reached edge village ottoman attack finally held attack ended darkness ottoman attackers dug line line taken australian mounted division began 3rd light horse brigade facing east line running north half way iraq line turned westward 5th mounted brigade faced northwards 4th light horse brigade left connecting right infantry division 75th division critical situation created strong ottoman attacking forces controlled troops especially machine gun squadrons 5th mounted 4th light horse brigades australian mounted division suffered casualties mainly 5th mounted brigade east von held reserve force 3rd cavalry division seventh army iii corps 19th division eighth army reserve waited day main attack progress beginning advance opportunity powerful ottoman counterattack contained forced invading forces preparations concentration plain complete von forced halt seventh army attack away 16th division plus regiment battle southern palestine wet season approaching thunderstorm heavy rain night november dark cotton soil egyptian expeditionary force advancing need rain turn impassable mud november fine roads dried rolling maritime plain villages low hill tops surrounded turn surrounded pear making strong natural places defence distance right spurs valleys hills visible invading british_empire troops near mediterranean coast november weather clear fine sign ottoman army strong ottoman force deployed defend jerusalem railway battlefield generally cultivated winter approaching bare open prominent feature foot high ridge continues north formed backbone ottoman army mile long defensive position naturally strong ottoman line defended eighth army 3rd division corps north 7th division eighth army reserve east 54th division corps near 26th division corps holding terrain strong defensive positions commanding views countryside located ridge villages villages separated links ottoman counterattack progress november issued orders attack november commanders corps desert mounted corps headquarters near main attack carried corps 52nd lowland 75th divisions westwards junction station road right left right flank corps australian mounted division 3rd 4th light horse 5th mounted brigades reinforced 2nd light horse brigade mounted division 7th mounted brigade mounted division cars 12th battery attack line advancing northwards junction station remainder desert mounted corps mounted divisions cover left flank corps objective second soon junction station captured swing north occupy centre phase attack infantry 75th division corps capture line seize left infantry 52nd lowland division secure line seize pause artillery brought forward second phase attacks final objectives junction station 75th 52nd lowland divisions phase start hours november preceded hour bombardment 4th somerset light infantry 5th regiment 5th hampshire regiment 4th wiltshire regiment 3rd 3rd rifles brigades 75th division advancing main road occupied villages tall 52nd lowland division occupied 75th division proceeded attack lower southward extension ridge situated 52nd lowland division attacking directly villages attacks held strong ottoman defences ottoman army strongly posted high ground near village sited machine guns swept approaches infantry 75th division steady slow progress main body ottoman rear guard eventually falling slight ridge mile north east attack 3rd infantry brigade moved cleared place company rifles suffered heavy casualties ottoman attack flank infantry brigade dusk final stage infantry assault supported troops 11th light horse regiment 4th light horse brigade action infantry right flank gave valuable fire support infantry frontal attack covered machine gun fire drove ottoman defenders ridge enabling occupied soon ottoman resistance broken infantry 75th division pushed took prisoners ordered capture junction station halted short objective darkness flanks australian mounted division covered right flank infantry divisions 4th light horse brigade moved forward held ottoman position covering brigade ordered push forward protect right brigade 75th division attack succeeded advanced occupy order 4th light horse 7th mounted brigade ordered relieve line troops 4th light horse brigade entered miles south south east junction station 7th mounted brigade left miles station 4th light horse brigade ordered push forward infantry advance left progressing occupied following morning mounted division mounted division reserve covered infantry left flank captured 8th mounted brigade advanced northwards 22nd mounted brigade held ottoman units defending 6th mounted brigade imperial corps brigade protecting northern flank directed charge leading battalions south scottish brigade 52nd lowland division advancing heavy machine gun fire shelter yards objective attempt leave stopped heavy fire placed machine guns reserve battalion brought attempt work barred heavy machine gun fire villages agreed 52nd lowland division mounted division 6th mounted brigade attack ridge combination renewed assault 52nd lowland division half hour later royal queen advanced column squadrons extended yards crest ridge gained ridge horses completely exhausted continue pursuit escaping ottoman units far charge cost killed wounded horses cent personnel cent horses ottoman defenders continued hold village squadrons 6th mounted brigade fighting battalions south scottish brigade 52nd lowland division renewed attack fighting village continued succeeded capturing crucial fortified villages cost casualties field guns machine guns captured prisoners dead amounted officers ranks dead ottoman soldiers aftermath junction station occupied morning following days villages area found abandoned units 75th division supported armoured cars occupied junction station morning november cutting jerusalem railway seventeen days operations virtually rest resulted advance miles major minor engagements occurring days mounted units covered miles october capturing prisoners guns machine guns junction station train engines trucks station captured undamaged fully functioning steam pumping plant supplied unlimited easily accessible water junction station branch line running south extensions southwards important centre sides lines communication november 4th light horse brigade entered rest australian mounted division following couple hours later good wells containing plenty water found steam pumps complete horses asked existing time grain practically bulk food scarce water time carrying stone able carry hills limited period rest established remarkable record australian mounted divisional supply train followed fighting units closely moving november november day junction station november november infantry 52nd lowland 75th divisions concentrated reorganised ranks advance taken mounted division crossed railway north junction station mounted division pressed retreating ottoman army northwards near coast november new_zealand mounted rifles brigade commanded brigadier general william ran determined entrenched ottoman rearguard near attacked fierce close quarter fighting ottoman 3rd infantry division continued afternoon severely threatened new_zealand mounted rifle brigade eventually prevailed went occupy days later mounted division ordered cut road linking jerusalem capturing main road coast jerusalem morning new_zealand mounted rifles brigade crossed river close sand dunes 1st light horse brigade right occupied new_zealand mounted rifle brigade pushing ottoman encountered orange hills sand dunes noon 1st light horse brigade drove ottoman rearguard ridge facing mounted division night occupied village called time new_zealand mounted rifles brigade fought strongly entrenched rearguard conceding considerable ground ottoman soldiers vigorous counterattack finally defeated november midnight november ordered general withdrawal days following ottoman seventh army fell hills jerusalem eighth army retreated north ottoman armies suffered heavily subsequent withdrawal resulted loss substantial territory miles invaded british north old line wake ottoman armies left prisoners war guns day action 75th division australian mounted division advanced jerusalem road enters hills mounted division occupied ottoman rearguard blocked right flank advance rearguard position charged overwhelmed 6th mounted brigade mounted division november captured british unit enter new_zealand mounted rifle brigade mounted division occupied city opposition administered representatives director occupied enemy territory arrived marking end british_empire advance palestine ottoman eighth army retired northern bank river miles north seventh army retreated hills advance began heavy casualties losses inflicted invasion spread miles northwards ottoman territory ottoman prisoners war guns captured victorious egyptian expeditionary force desert mounted corps medical support divisional receiving stations australian mounted divisions operated soon evacuated wounded rear moved ahead divisional receiving stations repeat process beginning problems evacuating casualties caused lack linking infrastructure receiving station lost transport light motor disappeared greatest difficulty communication traveling including mechanical rough roads tracks quickly impassable motor traffic advance hills advance jerusalem began november city captured battle jerusalem december weeks later


bombing bombing occurred saturday april provisional irish republican army detonated truck bomb major london financial district city london news photographer killed explosion people injured damage cost million repair result bombing occurred year bombing nearby baltic exchange ring steel implemented protect city firms introduced disaster recovery plans case attacks similar disasters background early northern_ireland peace process delicate stage attempts broker ongoing adams john social democratic labour_party engaged private dialogue view establishing broad irish nationalist coalition british prime minister john major refused openly enter talks declared risk attack city london increased lack progress political talks resulting warning circulated police forces britain highlighting intelligence reports possible attack felt sufficient personnel equipment funds launch sustained campaign england troubles bombed financial targets london number occasions notably april truck bomb exploded outside baltic exchange mary axe baltic exchange bombing caused million worth damage equivalent million million total damage caused explosions occurred troubles northern_ireland point bombing march truck stolen newcastle white dark blue bomb south brigade smuggled england placed truck disguised underneath layer approximately april volunteers active service unit drove truck containing bomb parked truck outside hong_kong shanghai bank located junction street street left area car driven accomplice series telephone warnings delivered county northern_ireland recognised stating massive bomb clear wide area police officers making inquiries truck warnings received police began evacuating area bomb exploded causing extensive damage multiple buildings significant stretch cost repair estimated time billion buildings metres away damaged office space affected tonnes glass broken tower time city tallest skyscraper structures badly damaged windows east tower destroyed daily_mail said black gaps punched floors like mouth bad teeth damage extended far north liverpool street station south street church seven metres away bomb collapsed result explosion civilian casualties low saturday morning city typically occupied small number residents office workers security guards builders maintenance staff people injured bomb news world photographer killed ignoring police warnings rushing scene truck bomb produced explosive power tnt reaction business community media called increased security city leading city figure calling medieval style walled prevent terrorist attacks prime minister john major received telephone francis lord mayor london reminding city london earned billion year nation operating environment future preserved major chancellor norman public statements business continue normal city bombing achieve lasting effect major later gave account public stance taken government bombing frankly thought likely bring process end told repeatedly case assumed bombed pressure british outrage affect negotiating position advantage judgment wholly wrong time harder easier movement settlement hardened attitude believed actions fundamental mistake successive british governments quarter century john adams issued joint statement day bombing stating accept irish people right national self determination view shared majority people island people exercise self determination matter agreement people ireland reaction appeared april edition highlighting bombers exploited security having spotted breach usually tight security city message leadership calling british establishment seize opportunity steps needed ending futile costly war ireland emphasise pursue path peace resign path war attempted apply indirect pressure british government statement sent non american foreign owned businesses city warning intention mount future planned attacks political financial heart british state context present political realities attacks city london inevitable feel bound convey directly allow fully informed decisions city london corporation chief planning officer called demolition buildings damaged explosion including tower seeing opportunity rid city 1970s architecture build new state art structure symbol defiance comments endorsed corporation remarked tower integral city skyline aftermath city london police confirmed planned security city conceived commissioner owen kelly july ring steel introduced routes city closed exit remaining routes city manned armed police cameras introduced monitor vehicles entering area including cameras entry point read vehicle registration plate monitor driver passenger police controlled cameras monitored city increase coverage public areas camera watch launched september encourage operation surveillance police private companies corporation london months scheme launched buildings camera systems cameras separate systems operational city bombing resulted number companies changing working practices drawing plans deal future incidents documents blown windows multi storey buildings force explosion prompting police use destroy documents found resulted risk managers subsequently demanding clear desk policy end working day improve information security attack prompted british american financial companies prepare disaster recovery plans case future attacks world trade center bombing new_york_city february caused bankruptcy affected companies years attack according report analysts result baltic exchange bomb attacks city based companies prepared deal aftermath september attacks spokesman corporation london stating bombs firms disaster recovery plans city recovered remarkably quickly left city pretty prepared sort thing initial estimate billion worth damage later downgraded total cost reconstruction million subsequent insurance companies resulted suffering heavy losses causing crisis industry including near collapse lloyd london market government backed insurance scheme pool subsequently introduced britain government acting resort losses million bombing mounted cost major bombing england phase northern_ireland conflict campaign bombing financial centre described author journalist possibly successful military tactic start troubles suspended allow political progress adams john continue carried number smaller bomb mortar attacks england remainder early declaring complete cessation military operations august ended february killed people bombing targeted london secondary financial district wharf subsequent events july announced punch magazine prosecuted contempt court publishing article agent david article claimed stopped bombing spokesman attorney general lord williams claimed breach court injunction preventing information security intelligence matters november punch editor found guilty fined respectively march editor successfully appealed conviction fine appeal judge accusing attorney general acting like press censor ruling injunction breach european convention human rights december decision overturned house_of_lords law lords ruling editor james publication article contempt april commemorative dinner held fund charity bomb disposal experts families merchant hall street mark years bombing


battle battle engagement united_nations north korean forces early korean war august september vicinity south_korea battle perimeter large engagements fought simultaneously battle ended victory united_nations large numbers united_states republic korea troops repelled strong north korean attack holding line north gang called corridor republic korea army corps unexpectedly hit attack north korean people army corps wider great offensive south korean troops struggling maintain strong defensive line easily pushed positions army units called assist south repel attack fighting heavy sides fought capture recapture gang north seeking break corridor way attack base large amounts air naval support south korean ground forces able rout force north korean troops weeks fighting background perimeter outbreak korean war invasion south_korea known republic korea north north korean people army enjoyed superiority manpower equipment republic korea army united_nations forces dispatched south_korea prevent collapsing north korean strategy aggressively pursue south korean forces avenues approach south engage aggressively attacking initiating double flanks unit allowed north surround cut opposing force forced retreat disarray leaving equipment initial june offensive fights july early august north strategy effectively defeat force push south forces eighth united_states_army established perimeter august troops held continuous line peninsula north korean troops flank advantages numbers decreased daily superior logistical system brought troops supplies army north approached perimeter august attempted frontal assault technique main avenues approach perimeter august 6th division later 7th division engaged 25th infantry division battle initially battles battle mountain attacks stalled forces equipped plenty reserves repeatedly repelled north korean attacks north 4th division 24th infantry division area battle north korean division unable hold river large numbers reserve forces brought repel august 4th division forced river percent casualties region north korean divisions repulsed divisions attempts attack city battle particularly heavy fighting took place battle bowling alley 13th division completely destroyed attack east_coast north korean divisions repulsed south battle north korean troops defeats time war strategies working september push planning new offensive north korean command decided attempt flank force impossible thanks support navy instead opted use frontal attack breach perimeter collapse hope achieving success battle fed intelligence soviet_union north aware forces building perimeter conduct offensive soon win battle secondary objective surround destroy south korean units city mission north korean units cut supply lines august north korean commands distributed operations orders subordinate units north called simultaneous attack lines attacks defenders allow north break lines place force forces battle ordered easternmost 12th 5th divisions break capital division 3rd division battle north korean attack struck right flank korea east_coast corps general attack north east planned september 12th division strength men started forward mountains earlier planned reorganized defeat area division low food supply weapons ammunition men suffered low morale august american south korean officers area optimistic congratulated having repulsed thought threat perimeter early attack facing 12th division capital division august north korean attack overran company 17th regiment capital division north caused regiment retreat 18th regiment east fell exposed flank 17th regiment lost town pulling entire capital division fell miles south valley briefing august eighth army commander lieutenant general walker showed concern development present major general john arrived korea month earlier half hour briefing ended walker ordered observe south korean troops east flew arriving day walker meantime formally appointed deputy commander eighth army placing command corps controlled capital 3rd divisions 21st infantry regiment 3rd battalion 9th infantry regiment medium tank battalion company designated units task force jackson established headquarters building corps commander officers command post arrived day found corps rapidly low morale walker instructed issue orders corps commander advice mission eliminating north korean penetration area seizing organizing high ground extending north coast miles north line passed miles north attack soon possible task force jackson gain high ground north 21st infantry regiment moving position north morning august walker revoked orders instructed turn proceed rapidly possible report regiment departed arrived afternoon immediately sent 3rd battalion north gang went position capital division counterattack plan attack august postponed major general kim corps commander told attack casualties south korean exhausted 5th division begun press south 3rd division began signs pulling 28th adviser 3rd division time deemed favorable advised south korean brigadier general kim won division commander counterattack kim refused day kim said going command post adviser replied group going stay hearing kim decided stay time avoid loss face day august walker issued special statement addressed army meant south korean minister defense sung called troops hold lines perimeter rest troops defend ground firmly possible necessary prevent north consolidating gains great face continued north korean pressure task force jackson launch planned attack 21st infantry assembly area north gang ready attack morning 28th night 17th regiment lost position high ridge northward bend valley attack canceled south regained position afternoon night lost time elements 5th division penetrated 3rd division southwest directed 21st infantry repel penetration day august company 21st infantry supported platoon tanks company medium tank battalion successfully northwest southern edge distance miles south korean troops following american units withdrew night withdrew day american infantry tank force repeated action day 21st infantry took 3rd division sector extending north northwest august capital division american tank artillery support recaptured held night north korean lose dawn american air attacks continued increased tempo area south korean troops reported finding bodies north apparently killed air attack found suits white clothing scattered ground abandoned north korean soldiers changed civilian military uniforms air action area naval vessels continued efforts help stop 5th division east_coast cruiser destroyers concentrated firepower area miles north 5th division troop assembly forward supply center located august vessels fired inch shells targets support 3rd division despite aerial naval support august battle continued forces recaptured aerial observation september discovered north moving southward mountains day major attack forming north northwest afternoon advisers capital division estimated north korean soldiers penetrated gap 17th 18th regiments time north korean pressure built steadily north 5th division fed replacements hill 23rd regiment hill notorious hill near earlier continuous bloody fighting control aided air attacks artillery naval gunfire 3rd division able capture hill suffered casualties effort september 21st infantry attacked northwest effort help south recapture hill platoon tanks followed valley road regimental commander assigned company hill objective 21st infantry slow progress attack casualties heavy afternoon company account men rest killed wounded missing company unable hill dug north threw large numbers hand grenades repel efforts reach tanks 6th tank battalion lost attack field thrown track dusk north korean penetration occurred boundary capital 3rd divisions miles east morning september 12th division executing coordinated corps general attack struck capital division high hill masses south valley attack threw 18th regiment left area hills 17th regiment right area hill dawn september north korean penetration reached vital east west corridor road miles east gang result gain night 12th division advanced miles capital division collapsed forced withdraw 21st infantry line northwest concentrate vicinity 2nd battalion joined regiment august held task force reserve gang battalion took shaped defense position town elements high ground miles east protected highway rest regiment closed assembly area north time walker started newly activated 7th division north korean penetration 5th regiment closed afternoon 3rd regiment 1st battalion closed evening walker authorized use 3rd battalion 9th infantry 9th infantry regimental tank company 15th field artillery battalion deemed units held airfield defense previously available commitment fall gang day september advisers sent message 3rd division commander preparing withdraw went immediately corps commander order 3rd division withdraw checked half hour division stayed positions night september remainder corps collapsed north korean tanks overran battery artillery scattered battalions newly arrived 5th regiment following mortar preparation north entered gang hour later command post capital division withdrew town fighting increasingly confused american tanks ceased firing remnants capital division north korean forces daylight company 21st infantry discovered gang nearly surrounded north troops disappeared company withdrew town dug road eastward near rest 2nd battalion 21st infantry bridge gang north held town extended southward railroad receiving orders withdraw join regiment 2nd battalion 21st infantry fight north korean east gang miles southeast gang arrival discovered company missing battalion turn company 2nd battalion fought way north found company bridge reunited battalion fought way tanks firing road ahead column hills sides north korean fire knocked tracks tanks artillery destroyed prevent north korean use 2nd battalion arrived area shortly threatened september north korean units established gang road miles miles gap existed 3rd capital divisions area big break united_nations line high mountain mass west valley southwest gang area northwest miles gap capital division 8th division west direction north posed threat railroad road net running south corridor faced big gap left flank 21st infantry broad valley bordering hills northwest block approach direction situation evening september tense kim south korean corps commander proposed evacuate town said north miles away hills north attack overrun town night told command post tanks building command posts located roads stationed officers round positions edge town major stopped troops fleeing south having pistol expected north korean attack came north turned east crossed highway north town headed airfield day air_force attacking north korean gun positions miles north road found targets triangle caught north advancing open fall september lieutenant colonel corps advisers airfield conferred lieutenant colonel commanding 3rd battalion 9th infantry stationed informed situation obtained platoon tanks returned town placed tanks position awaited expected north korean armored attack received information elements 22nd regiment retreated face north korean attack north korean troops entered gap american tanks heavy north korean machine gun fire self propelled guns approached began firing range city block tanks knocked lead gun killing crew members ensuing exchange fire withdrew directed air strikes artillery fire destroyed guns afternoon order came evacuate supplies night september events reached climax inside midnight rounds north korean mortar artillery fire struck near 3rd division command post moved location north korean fire followed new location indicated observed directed fire south korean division commander brigadier general lee members senior staff claimed sick division withdrew september north korean hands south korean army relieved corps 3rd division commanders time new commanders appointed major commands brigadier general kim took command corps capital division came command colonel song 3rd division came command colonel lee big gap capital 8th divisions impossible corps direct action 8th division army transferred division control corps september attached 5th regiment 7th division shift command came 15th division penetrated 8th division lines enter corridor west gang 3rd regiment drove attempting close gap 24th infantry division arrives gains north east september caused walker shift troops area day ordered 24th infantry division reserve position near lower river relieve 1st provisional marine brigade area 2nd infantry division night banks near susan morning 4th begin relief marine_corps forces 24th infantry division received new order proceed assistant division commander brigadier general garrison proceeding arrived evening division troops 19th infantry regiment started day september traveling muddy roads arrived midnight major general john church 24th division commander arrived day division units arrived september knew 15th division crossed lateral corridor heading direction september ordered 21st infantry attack day valley bordering hills lead northwest high mountain mass direction attacked september 21st infantry encountered virtually opposition eighth army redesignated task force jackson task force church departed resume planning duties church command eastern afternoon september church canceled order 21st infantry attack mountains felt useless troops wanted regiment concentrated near church change disposition task force 8th moved command post vicinity miles south believed command post easily defended open attacked town traffic congestion near fighting continued north capital division hills bordering valley gang 3rd battalion 19th infantry involved midnight september north korean force attacked company drove hill defensive position midway gang north held hill september counterattack farther north left valley 17th regiment attacked support 13th field artillery battalion captured hill held north korean opposite east valley 18th regiment limited gains battles took place typhoon rains low hanging clouds allowed little air support rains finally ceased september second week september elements 5th division spread hills west southwest south north korean force estimated number men reached hills miles southwest airfield facing force regiments 3rd division held defensive position hills bordering west valley south airfield north korean pressure threatened penetrate regiments evening september church formed task force eliminate threat airfield middle august emergency landing planes evacuation air_force equipment bombs petroleum products progress commanded task force composed 19th infantry 3rd battalion 3rd battalion 9th infantry 13th field artillery battalion battery 15th field artillery battalion company 3rd engineer combat battalion 9th infantry regimental tank company batteries automatic weapons miscellaneous units north having cut approaches area task force spent september making southern approach objective arrived assembly area mile south airfield evening early morning flown ahead meet light plane landed road flight looked north korean soldiers told north driven troops hill hill southern boundary regiments holding defensive position agreed troops recapture hill night task force attack 3rd division capture main north korean positions hill thought task force establish troops hill able hold control situation took meet 3rd division commander told command area informed plan attack night south korean troops succeed hill restoring lines attack 3rd engineer battalion fought infantry leadership guidance captain walter adviser battalion contributed heavily success north repulsed morning september 19th infantry passed left hand regiment south hill 1st battalion leading attacked west captured opposition hill mass miles west starting point 2nd battalion passed 1st battalion continued attack hill san mile westward steep sided gorge north held entrenched positions machine gun fire checked 2nd battalion rest day morning september australian pilots squadron raaf struck north korean positions artillery preparation followed strike 2nd battalion launched attack secured hill afternoon forces relieved task force hill mass task force descended valley southwest night september task force returned action progress near airfield week long battle hill north came end regiment 3rd division captured hill september 3rd battalion 19th infantry relieved south korean troops scattered hill lay counted north korean dead great quantities abandoned equipment weapons american fighting hill 3rd battalion 19th infantry men killed september considered day north korean offensive east ended date 12th division virtually destroyed 5th division trying consolidate survivors near aerial observers reported sighting north korean groups moving north east 3rd division followed withdrawing 5th division capital division advanced retreating survivors 12th division september elements capital division reached southern edge gang reports indicated north korean troops retreating threat east eighth army dissolved task force church effective september army resumed control corps eighth army ordered 24th infantry division southeast forces 21st infantry regiment moved 14th 9th infantry remain temporarily eighth army reserve aftermath north south korean forces suffered heavily battle inflicted large numbers casualties exact numbers casualties impossible determine sides known suffered heavily following counterattack north korean units sector fled north thousand troops 5th 12th divisions known returned north_korea casualties meantime relatively light eastern battles weeks september south korean troops ground fighting american tanks artillery ground units supported aerial supremacy naval gunfire offshore supported south korean troops probably factors tipped scales favor initial phase september offensive north proved difficulties supplying forward units north korean system supply resolve problems logistics communication necessary support exploit offensive operation sector breakthrough severe eighth army considered pulling days eventually deciding stand ground


operation operation given airborne operation undertaken british military occurred february world war british airborne establishment formed june order british prime minister winston_churchill response successful airborne operations conducted german military battle france training began immediately shortage proper equipment training facilities bureaucratic difficulties meant small number volunteers immediately trained parachute troops airborne unit formed actually trained commando unit commando subsequently renamed special air service battalion numbered approximately officers ranks september battalion finished training december february thirty members battalion known troop selected conduct airborne operation intended test capability airborne troops equipment ability royal_air_force accurately deliver target chosen operation fresh water near southern italy supplied water large portion italian population ports italian military hoped destruction italian military efforts north_africa albania airborne troops delivered converted armstrong medium bombers target february equipment failures navigational errors meant significant portion troops explosives team royal engineer landed wrong area despite setback remaining members troop successfully destroyed withdrew area captured italian authorities short time italian translator tortured executed managed escape captivity rest remained prisoners war rapidly repaired local water reserves ran ensuring local population ports deprived water consequently italian war efforts hampered served morale boost fledgling airborne establishment technical operational lessons learnt operation helped development airborne operations background german military pioneers use airborne formations conducting successful airborne operations battle france including battle fort impressed success german airborne operations allied governments decided form airborne formations decision eventually lead creation british airborne divisions number smaller units british airborne establishment began development june prime minister winston_churchill directed war office memorandum investigate possibility creating corps parachute troops despite prime minister desire airborne troops short period number problems rapidly encountered war office existed britain light military purposes shortage suitable transport aircraft tow carry august churchill informed volunteers selected train airborne troops currently begin training limitations equipment aircraft war office stated memorandum prime minister december parachute troops probably trained ready operations spring figure purely arbitrary actual number trained prepared period rely entirely creation training establishment provision required equipment training establishment parachute troops set raf near manchester june named central landing establishment initial volunteers began training airborne operations royal_air_force provided number armstrong medium bombers conversion transport aircraft number military designed starting general aircraft british operation freshman organizational plans laid war office calling parachute brigades operational immediate development airborne formations initial volunteers training hampered problems threat invasion war office officials senior british_army officers believe sufficient men spared effort rebuild army battle france create effective airborne force believed force raiding value affect conflict useful way material problems armed services expanding rebuilding particularly army british industry organized sufficient war support services fledgling airborne force finally airborne forces lacked single coherent policy clear idea organized come command army raf inter organizational rivalry war office air ministry charge raf major factor delaying expansion british airborne forces preparation april prime minister shown demonstration airborne force britain currently possessed informed parachute troops trained deployment severely limited lack suitable aircraft transport prospective targets primary airborne formation existence time special air service battalion numbered approximately officers ranks formed commando commando unit selected conversion airborne unit commando began intensive airborne training june originally strong reduced officers ranks september despite receiving rigorous training failed training refusing conduct parachute drop senior raf officer central landing establishment believed large number refused combination inexperience fear parachute open jumped aircraft november commando officially renamed special air service battalion reorganized form battalion headquarters parachute wing wing december battalion officially completed parachute training including taking number demonstrations military observers considered ready active duty airborne resources available british_army unit trained available airborne operation special air service battalion transport aircraft available transport airborne force raf flight crews experience parachute operational experience specialized overseas facilities cater exclusively airborne operations decided form airborne operation carried reasons mounting operation resources fold firstly successful raid demonstrate rest world britain force defeated secondly raid test fighting ability battalion equipment raf ability deliver location required time target chosen operation crossed river province southern italy near town carried main water supply province time inhabited approximately million italians included strategically important port taranto hoped destroying population regular water supply damage morale impact italian war efforts north_africa albania significant distance italian coast making unlikely sea borne raiding party reach believed strongly constructed destroyed aerial bombing airborne raid conducted parachute troops thought ideal way eliminate small force thirty men seven officers thirty ranks selected battalion designated troop commanded major royal italian speaking attached troop duration operation squadron leader lucky rifle brigade civilian named hotel training operation began january lasted weeks order allow time bombers converted drop scale model built early february allow troop practice assault training enlisted man killed ice covered pond drowned rescued plan operation called squadron raf transport troop malta target area february bombers carry raid railway yards approximately miles north troop dropped objective attack demolish withdraw miles coast mouth river submarine hms triumph pick night february battle february troop boarded converted bombers transported miles malta incident despite significant portion journey occupied france troop aerial reconnaissance photographs objective provided photographic reconnaissance unit showed actually area larger brief discussion decided larger targeted february took malta carrying officer ranks troop flight target area uneventful clear weather perfect visibility lead reached drop zone approximately metres men equipment containers landed metres drop zone men aircraft bombers failed drop containers release mechanisms sixth aircraft failed locate drop zone eventually dropped men containers hours later valley miles men landed drop zone royal engineer supposed rig demolition carrying explosives operation despite losses troop gathered remaining containers took positions examining found piers supporting reinforced concrete brick expected leading suspect remaining explosives insufficient demolish closer inspection ordered majority explosives placed western pier rest hope cause damage destroy small explosives placed nearby bridge river february explosives detonated western pier destroyed causing effectively break half bridge successfully destroyed leaving man broken ankle landed nearby farmer remainder troop withdrew area splitting groups heading coast groups moved fast possible coast captured hours demolished group commanded major spotted farmer raised alarm nearby village leading local unit surrounding group little ammunition heavily outnumbered decided surrender groups including landed miles objective fared little better groups soon located italian soldiers ambushed forcing surrender brief group found group civilians moved coast attempting bluff way past claiming german soldiers special field exercise failed local mayor demanded identity papers captured stripped weapons equipment transported naples exception italian translator handed fascist paramilitary group tortured executed groups managed way coast rendezvous point picked hms triumph conducting raid suffered engine trouble bombing railway yards pilot malta informing airfield mouth river coincidentally area rendezvous occur fearing message monitored italians submarine sail trap decision senior officers send rendezvous point aftermath destruction effect italian war effort north_africa albania create water supplies taranto ports water supplies local lasted short period needed repaired operation create certain alarm italian population caused stringent new air raid precautions introduced italian government place italy surrendered major general julian thompson criticized operation claiming great deal planning terms insert airborne troops insufficient planning devoted extracted critical lack information gathered despite hardly difficult obtain lessons taken operation provided british military valuable operational technical experience helped shape future airborne operations operation biting demonstrated range flexibility airborne troops proved pose threat axis powers provided morale boost british military fledgling airborne establishment terms technical experience found containers drop equipment troop manufactured soft skinned material flight blocked bomb bay doors opening future containers constructed metal ensure occur surviving members troop remain prisoners war repatriated italian surrender exception lieutenant anthony managed escape captured eventually returned england joining newly formed 1st airborne division airborne establishment expanded special air service battalion renamed 1st parachute battalion eventually formed nucleus 1st parachute brigade created september


battle battle called battle madagascar action fought madagascar british french frigate squadrons napoleonic wars action final engagement mauritius campaign saw destruction french attempt reinforce garrison mauritius news reached europe february reinforcement squadron left brest mauritius captured december british invasion fleet french defences hampered lack supplies troops carried aboard frigate squadron command commodore heavily laden ships reached mauritius discovered island british hands following day narrowly escaping trap laid squadron british frigates ordered hunt destroy british squadron command captain charles marsh discovered french attacked sides hampered light winds movement day period calm weather early battle french better positioned british squadron ships inflicted severe damage british vessels increasing breeze allowed press home attack evening approached french attempted escape sacrificing flagship ultimately life allow frigates badly damaged escape days later squadron rediscovered persuaded town commander surrender fight battle action mauritius campaign confirmed british dominance seas east cape good hope rest napoleonic wars background august french squadron isle france mauritius achieved significant french naval victory napoleonic wars captured destroyed royal_navy frigates battle grand port battle fought inside grand port isle france french squadrons dominant indian_ocean steadily pushed blockaded pressure british squadron commodore british defeat noticeable effect british french naval commands recognised campaign won reinforce resupply forces french achieved significant victory naval bases isle france lacked military stores food supplies repair battle damage ships supply lengthy raiding british trade routes british reaction immediate ships dispatched regional bases madras cape good hope rodriguez replace losses larger force collected rodriguez preparation major invasion isle france intended permanently eliminate island raiding base french response squadron isle france based port napoleon commodore exercise regional superiority attacking british reinforcements actions september september despite inflicting severe damage british frigates french lost captured aboard suffered damaged supplies reinforcements replace losses french unable resist british invasion november island fell days french preparing reinforcements region nearest naval bases france thousand miles away oceans totally controlled royal_navy distances delayed arrival news indian_ocean word reached france fall isle france february reinforcement squadron set sail brest squadron consisted powerful frigates commodore captain saint captain jean ship carried soldiers isle france garrison significant food military supplies refit squadron resupply island french authorities aware possibility isle france captured ordered island british hands squadron continue dutch city java operate british february royal_navy enjoyed worldwide naval supremacy french including seas immediately french coast avoid attacked left brest french ships attempt slip cover darkness storms drove british away dangerous coastline forced french ships fight wind leave result ships covered nautical miles days february squadron captured portuguese merchant ship discovered lisbon newspapers aboard announced british invasion outcome march ships crossed equator april passed cape good hope distance good weather strong breeze stages journey days leaving brest french convoy arrived entrance grand port british idle months occupied isle france renamed mauritius invasion fleet broken soon island fell command remaining naval forces island given captain philip beaver january small french dispatch ship captured port louis port napoleon messages aboard nature destination squadron discovered information received describing second french force prepared operations region consisting frigates aware impending arrival french reinforcements admiral robert cape good hope sent captain james hms reinforce beaver mauritius beaver ordered hms captain hms captain james prepare arrival convoy beaver began eliminating french western indian_ocean sending brig hms eclipse attack madagascar captured february end hurricane season march beaver personally sailed hms invade collecting madras economy absence mauritius came command captain charles marsh hms ships appeared grand port ships harbour ready sail short notice ensured french flying landmarks hope french lured shallow waters bay defeated similar manner british defeat battle grand port previous year signals exchanged french squadron shore wary signals date knew british invasion lisbon newspapers captured months waiting offshore french commodore sent boats ashore night instructions discover situation island seizing black inhabitants boats returned morning captives learned british captured island months earlier landing parties captured british troops return trap uncovered raised french colours turned eastwards away grand port emerging harbour chase escape realised ships slow squadron nautical miles gaining rapidly decided turn meet british ships head overtaken aware squadron weaker held anticipation arrival port louis sent urgent message night british fell northeastern shore mauritius declined follow dangerous gap instead sailed southwards escaping join supported crew members board pursuing french british commander persuaded slipped away british retired port louis arriving squadron sailed westwards initially planning raid eastern coast island food supplies running low british garrison eastern island weak plan thwarted heavy surf landing beaches continued eastwards half rations reaching madagascar british garrison men 22nd regiment foot afflicted malaria surrendered town french squadron gathered water food supplies squadron arrived port louis captain immediately assumed command led squadron following french eastwards heading straight resupply point cape good hope rapidly gained french dawn broke french sight harbour day commanders frustrated light winds periods calm ships able completed ships pulled away harbour battle line followed british initially intending form line head gradually broke loose formation created wind battle firing began attempted engage extreme range british returned fire joining attack advanced long distances slow speeds involved meant little damage caused british squadron gradually drifted range french desperately unsuccessfully attempting turn british ships began close distance breeze position close british ships position french able destructive fire concentrating ship unable manoeuvre successfully light winds remained effective range despite direction hours advanced british frigate opponents exposing destructive fire squadrons rendered lack wind ordered use boats tow range main engagement brig mile away breeze picked able advance engaging close quarters stranded light winds unable come assistance half hour killed captain inflicted severe damage opponent longer return fire fought concentrated fire causing severe damage vessel breeze strengthened advanced firing french pulled away steering battered ship westwards informing damage continue action continuing west rigging masts disarray distress signal flying ship disappeared growing darkness fell french attack joined wind strengthening forces advanced squadron french support crew attempting hasty repairs squadron northwesterly direction madagascar following french lights pursued french darkness lost man overboard stopped rescue forced fall protect consort overwhelmed steering directly opened fire close range soon surrounded stern ferocious minute engagement killed french flagship suffered severe damage surrendering shot ignited british ships badly damaged unable launch boat possession fallen deck boats badly damaged shot leaked severely short row stricken french vessel surrender final battle saint remained range british refusing support commodore surrendered sail north abandoning attempt escape closely pursued damage suffered prevented gaining french ship eventually disappeared darkness night gathered rejoined dawn prize crew seven men sufficient exercise control french frigate remove french crew replace british sailors following morning sight dawn unsure identity approaching squadron decided sail directly port louis risk combat superior enemy force making repairs ships particularly battered transferring prisoners investigate situation port returned informed harbour town hands french garrison despite sailing directly ships delayed gale arrive afternoon aware british squadron intimate knowledge coral reefs surrounded entrance bay poorly positioned attack french chose resist sent harbour flag truce presented french commander lieutenant demand surrender demand falsely stating struck brave defence refused instead proposing ship crew garrison repatriated france conditions frigate town gun battery surrendered squadron accepted proposal surrendered conflict aftermath undamaged battle comfortably british pursuit safe harbour entire indian_ocean saint initially sailed hiding islands june june landed diego collected fresh water beginning return journey france defiance orders continue issued convoy left brest august passed cape good hope saint provisions raiding british american merchant ships atlantic september encountered british blockade squadron brest chased gun ship line hms captain sir john gore came close discharge broadside frigate gore unable catch elusive french ship eventually forced retire open waters coming fire batteries anchored brest harbour saint heavily criticised failure support ignoring orders sail mauritius captured march brought court martial examine behaviour found duty dismissed service expelled legion honour sentenced years imprisonment napoleon reported suggested saint shot commanding officer british squadron praising recommendations post battle report captain particularly offended implied distress signal face enemy despite casualties greater rest squadron combined subsequently requested court martial clear suggestion admiralty refused commenting fully satisfied conduct historian william james claims opinion navy excessively harsh criticism variable winds ships heavily engaged result casualties action spread according french account battle suffered killed wounded including commodore dead lieutenant commander troops board badly wounded british accounts figure casualties french accounts demonstrate suffered severely losing dead including captain wounded british accounts differ stating suffered casualties caused severe damage british ship failed support lost man killed wounded british losses severe significant losing wounded seven dead wounded dead wounded despite badly damaged masts rigging reportedly suffered casualties captured ships purchased royal_navy recommissioned hms java hms madagascar nearly decades later battle actions recognised attached naval general service medal awarded application british participants living action marked end final french attempt operate indian_ocean napoleonic wars bases british hands deployment region require significant quantity ships supplies time france unable protect entrances principal brush demonstrated action ended threat british merchant ships especially large east attack indian_ocean requirement significant royal_navy presence region exception small dutch ports east indies world east cape good hope british control hands neutral powers britain allies order battle key symbol indicates officer killed action subsequently died wounds received ships ordered sequence formed battle british_royal_navy french_navy