senate roman republic senate roman republic political institution ancient roman republic elected body members appointed later roman magistrate served term office usually followed automatic appointment senate according greek historian principal source constitution roman republic roman senate predominant branch government noted highest ranking regular led armies civil government rome roman assemblies ultimate authority elections legislation criminal trials senate controlled money administration details foreign policy control day day life power authority senate derived precedent high caliber prestige senators senate lineage dated founding republic originally chief appointed new senators power remove individuals senate year gave power roman magistrate censor retained power end roman republic law required appoint newly elected magistrate senate point time election office resulted automatic senate membership appointment life censor senator senate directed especially prosecution military conflicts senate enormous degree power civil government rome especially case regards management state finances authorize public treasury addition senate passed called officially advice senate magistrate technically practice usually emergency senate senate authorize appointment dictator ordinary dictator appointed senate responded passing ultimate decree senate suspended civil government declared analogous martial law venue ethical standards rules procedures roman senate complex ancient rules procedures originated early years republic upheld centuries principle customs ancestors senate meetings place inside outside formal boundary city meeting place mile outside senate meetings place outside formal boundary city reasons example senate wish meet individual foreign ambassador wish allow inside city beginning year senate meeting took place temple venues include temple temple concord meeting outside formal boundary city temple apollo war meeting temple addition senate operated religious restrictions example meeting begin sacrifice gods search divine auspices taken auspices taken order determine particular senate meeting held favor gods senate allowed meet building religious significance ethical requirements senators significant senators engage banking form public contract ship large participate foreign commerce leave italy permission senate addition paid individuals usually sought senator independently wealthy enforced ethical standards senate censor punished senator specific failing possible reasons member included corruption abuse capital punishment disregard colleague veto constitutional precedent auspices senators failed obey laws punished punishment include expulsion senate punishment severe outright expulsion standard high member senate easier deny citizen right join senate moral result allowed join senate including bankruptcy prostitution prior history having law illegal citizen senator convicted criminal offense laws enacted century republic public corruption began reaching unprecedented levels debates meetings usually began dawn occasionally certain events festivals delay beginning meeting magistrate wished summon senate issue compulsory order senators punished failed appear reasonable cause example consul mark threatened demolish house consul reason senate meetings technically public doors usually left open allowed people look senators speak senate directed presiding magistrate usually consul highest ranking magistrate consul unavailable second highest ranking magistrate late republic type magistrate session senate power act presiding magistrate wished presiding magistrate began meeting speech usually brief lengthy presiding magistrate begin discussion referring issue senators discuss issue time order speak senior senator known leader senate followed continued junior senators spoken senators held office spoke equal speak senator brief statement discuss matter detail talk unrelated topic senators speak vote held meetings end nightfall senator talk proposal death debate going nightfall known example senator younger attempt prevent senate granting law given land veterans delaying tactics senators ways influence presiding magistrate presiding magistrate proposing motion example senators consult required magistrate ask opinions senators senator demand cry required count senators present like modern calls usually delaying tactic senators demand motion divided smaller motions acts applause played major role debate senators absolute right free speech senator respond point attacked personally debates underway usually difficult presiding magistrate control presiding magistrate typically regained control debating ended vote taken later years republic attempts aristocracy limit increasing level chaos associated tendencies democratic senators laws enacted prevent inclusion material bills senate laws enacted outlaw called bills bills usually enacted single vote contain large volume unrelated material laws enacted strengthen requirement days pass proposal bill vote bill term dictator enacted laws required publication senate resolutions publication called daily proceedings meant increase transparency minimize potential abuse publication posted roman forum sent provinces votes veto time vote presiding magistrate bring proposals order wished vote proposal negative required votes held known size set senators point motion passed proposed motion vetoed usually handed senate proposed bill magistrate chief representative people agree issued veto backed promise literally person senate comply senate comply physically prevent senate acting resistance prosecuted violation vetoed motion proposed day vetoed day present motion passed general physically present senate meeting physical threat person meaning ultimately veto based promise physical force vote occurred measure passed promise physically person senators meaningless addition couple instances end second war beginning social war legal power known vetoed acts senate ultimately veto matter minor importance voted voice vote hands veto matter significant nature usually physical division house senators voted taking place chamber motion support senate vetoed recorded annals motion passed vetoed recorded vote final document presiding magistrate document included presiding magistrate place assembly dates involved number senators present time motion passed names witnesses drafting motion substance act addition motion capital letter stamped document verify motion approved senate document deposited temple housed treasury vetoed senate motion legal value serve opinion senate conflicted law passed roman assembly law authority based precedent law serve interpret law


witch trials early modern scotland witch trials early modern scotland judicial proceedings scotland early sixteenth century mid eighteenth century concerned crimes late middle ages handful harm passing act consulting capital crimes major series trials new act north witch trials beginning james played major victim investigator interested published defence witch hunting appears increasingly eventually took steps limit estimated people scottish tried period higher rate neighbouring england major series trials seventy cent accused women modern estimates indicate persons executed executed burnt hunts subsided english occupation civil wars period commonwealth led oliver returned restoration causing alarm leading council scotland limiting arrests torture growing later seventeenth century factors contributed trials economic distress subsided occasional local witch hunting recorded executions trial scottish english merged unified british parliament repealed act causes suggested hunts including economic distress changing attitudes women rise state scottish judicial system widespread use judicial torture role local justice prevalence idea pact partial explanations witch hunt led historians concept associated circumstances single significant cause origins legal origins late medieval scotland evidence occasional individuals causing harm high profile political cases included action john stewart earl allegedly brother king james iii evidence political cases indicates half sixteenth century popular belief magic widespread middle ages generally lawyers interested cases harm magic evident late fifteenth century attitudes began change seen powers devil result seen form ideas widely accepted catholics sixteenth century aftermath initial reformation settlement parliament passed act series laws biblical laws similar passed england year earlier practice consulting capital crimes witch hunt act east country angus unsuccessful attempts introduce elements pact hunt collapsed role james james visit denmark witch hunts common encouraged interest study came storms encountered voyage result magic return scotland attended north witch trials major persecution scotland act known successfully involve pact people notably john convicted send storms james ship james obsessed threat posed subsequently believed nobleman francis stewart 5th earl witch fled fear life outlawed traitor king subsequently set royal commissions hunt realm recommending torture dealing suspects james known personally supervised torture women accused inspired personal involvement wrote tract opposed practice provided background material shakespeare tragedy contains probably famous literary depiction scottish james imported continental explanations goal divert suspicion away male elite focus fear female communities large gatherings women thought threatened political power laid foundation policies especially scotland point widespread belief conspiracy devil deprived women political influence power supposedly trait women weaker susceptible devil publication views year revoked standing commissions limiting central courts nature trials despite fact scotland probably quarter population england times number estimated entire period times european average overwhelming majority control despite evidence basic magical beliefs widespread highlands large series trials included great scottish witch hunt took place scotland march october people trial forms exact number executed result trials unknown believed later major trials included hunts probably intense witch hunt involved named counties accused cent women modern estimated indicate persons executed older women younger women men accused related accused witch usually daughters husbands men accused folk felt powers folk group targeted settled members communities built reputation years resulted prosecution victim suffered ill fortune particularly curse issued use women means acquiring social power process likely occur took place secular courts provisions act radical regime passed new act ratified existing act extended deal familiar spirits punished death main types court accused tried court edinburgh took cases scotland heavy bias local region circuit courts presided judges central courts held country finally series hoc local courts held commissions council parliament staffed local gentlemen try places accused based known outcomes execution rates local courts higher courts run professional lawyers local courts executing cent accused judiciary court cent circuit courts cent standing commissions pursuit largely taken sessions disciplinary committees run parish elite attack catholic practices central courts launched trial council issued commission council control court judiciary scottish trials notable use suspect skin believed possess devil mark feel pain professional included john john dick actions helped set outbreak witch hunting exposure subsequent imprisonment helped end trials judicial torture high profile cases like john fine accused plotting death king feet crushed press known boots cases relatively rare confessions considered best evidence conviction usually extracted waking witch keeping suspect sleep deprived days individuals tend provided exotic detail trials scotland convicted usually stake having bodies burned instances burned alive witch beliefs belief cure cause harm common social groups early modern scotland elizabeth dick turned away local mill begging cursed mill witnesses testified grain mill turned red people refused help ran gave mill returned normal half accused gained reputation causing harm long period time fact cent recorded accused involved folk healing indicate healing seen major element trials reveal spells purchased success fishing ensure happy marriage life affect weather accusations included gender sexual fears margaret claimed transfer pains woman husband helen gray cast spell man gave permanent erection carry included reading marks shoulder blade slaughtered animal measuring person sleeve waist suffering fever able find answers based way suspended swung margaret accused session stated scottish particularly concerned demonic pact high_court sands women accused admitted baptism receiving devil mark having sex devil local trials demonic elements stuart notes trials devil relatively insignificant indistinct figure number instances meeting look like fairy dancing traditionally disappeared human broke ring gatherings important magical beliefs scotland young wife near tried left gained torture provide detailed insights magical beliefs britain stated met nearby hill transform entertained queen home hill argued beliefs scotland popular belief elite christian ideas demonic action decline seventeenth century growing reality educated elite scotland defeated civil wars forces english parliament led oliver occupied scotland declared commonwealth england ireland council courts ceased exist english judges replaced hostile use torture evidence produced resulting decline attempt gain support orders sheriff courts established justices peace returned result wave cases period limitations fully reversed restoration monarchy flood cases alarmed restored council leading insist necessity commission arrest prosecution banning judicial torture began decline trials tightly controlled judiciary government torture standards evidence raised exposure removed major form evidence lord advocate george efforts ineffective growing popular relative peace stability economic social tensions contributed accusations reduced occasional local like east executions records central courts trial held court sheriff questionable legality british parliament repealed act making legal pursuit impossible basic magical beliefs persisted particularly highlands islands causes reasons scottish witch hunt intense nature england advanced historians older theories widespread pagan cult persecuted period witch hunts result rising medical profession eliminating folk professional historians major periods prosecution coincided periods intense economic distress accusations followed withdrawal charity marginal figures particularly single women accused reformed emerged heavily influenced perceived women moral threat result witch hunt scotland seen means controlling women suggested outbreak hunt mid sixteenth century tied rise state reformed closely linked increasingly scottish crown legal system suggested intensity scottish witch hunting judicial system widespread use judicial torture argues scottish system partly use judicial torture extremely limited similar situation england relatively high level scottish trials employment defence lawyers scottish courts benefit given accused england close involvement scottish trials nature scottish courts local heard cases contrast england small number circuit judges contributed higher rates prosecution pact stated major difference scottish english cases stuart argues central government beliefs local traditions particularly concerned persistent scotland england partial explanations witch hunt led historians concept associated circumstances single significant cause


royal question royal question french question dutch major political crisis belgium lasted coming head march august question stake surrounded king iii resume royal powers duties king amid allegations actions world war gone contrary provisions belgian constitution eventually resolved favour son crisis emerged division government led german invasion suspected authoritarian sympathies taken command belgian army outbreak war considering constitutional position commander chief precedence civil role head state refused leave army join belgian government exile france refusal obey government marked constitutional crisis having negotiated surrender germans widely condemned subsequent german occupation held house arrest palace praised sharing suffering ordinary shortly allies liberated country deported germany nazis belgium liberated king captivity regency proclaimed brother prince charles count flanders elected prince regent king declared officially unable rule accordance constitution country divided political lines king return functions left wing dominant politically went exile switzerland national referendum organised new centre right government decide return result victory produced strong regional split flanders broadly favour king return brussels wallonia generally opposed return belgium july greeted widespread protests wallonia general strike unrest culminated killing workers police july situation fast deteriorating august announced intention resign transition period formally favour july background monarchy constitution belgium gained independence united netherlands established popular constitutional monarchy parliamentary democracy liberal constitution written codified responsibilities restrictions imposed monarch king head state prevented acting approval government minister allowed control military matters capacity commander chief responsibility precedence incompatible left ambiguous uncertainty lie heart royal question king king accepted terms constitution attempted use subtly increase powers continued successors little real success king iii king iii came throne father albert died accident albert known knight king hugely popular belgium commanding belgian army world war country german occupation reign marked economic crisis wake great depression political far left far right parties amid period crisis attempted expand powers monarch widely suspected holding authoritarian right wing political views strong supporter belgium independence policy political neutrality face nazi_germany increasingly aggressive territorial expansion german invasion occupation german forces invaded neutral belgium formal declaration war headed immediately fort headquarters belgian army near control army refused address belgian parliament albert famously outbreak world war speed german advance new approach soon pushed belgian army westwards despite british french support belgian government left brussels break king government soon outbreak war king government began disagree government argued german invasion violated belgian neutrality belgium allies argued belgium neutral country obligations defending borders opposed allowing british french forces belgian territory fight alongside belgian troops breach neutrality met senior representatives government final time van west flanders meeting frequently cited start royal question moment decisive break king government ministers government present paul arthur time meeting backdrop bloody battle belgian government preparing continue fight germany exile france urged king join following examples queen netherlands charlotte grand king rejected arguments hardened position refused leave belgian territory army flanders cost ministers suspected aides negotiating germans meeting broke agreement belgian government left france negotiated cease fire germans belgian armed forces officially surrendered following day prisoner war placed house arrest royal palace near brussels furious king ignored government negotiated surrender consulting gave angry speech radio paris condemning king announcing government intention continue fighting alongside allies french politicians notably paul blamed growing disaster battle france angrily condemned criminal king german occupation belgian surrender belgium placed german occupation military administration established general alexander von govern country belgian civil servants ordered remain posts order ensure continued functioning state attempt protect population demands german authorities france defeat installation pro german regime widely believed germany win war hailed martyr symbol national contrast government appeared place ideology interests belgian people senior representative catholic_church belgium cardinal van circulated pastoral letter calling unite king figures king entourage particularly authoritarian socialist man believed democracy failed end war king ruler authoritarian belgian state imprisoned king continued follow political programme believed german victory new order established europe senior belgian figure occupied europe negotiate german authorities corresponded adolf_hitler tried organise meeting hitler remained king november succeeded gaining audience popular support belgium declined sharply december news public marriage deeply unpopular belgian public image prisoner king sharing suffering belgian prisoners war undermined popularity fell sharply especially wallonia home majority belgian prisoners detained popular opinion turned king perceived speak german occupation policies amid german defeats russians eastern king prepared end war ordered preparation document known political testament testament justify behaviour occupation detail behalf belgian prisoners war deported workers continued condemn action belgian government exile based london october june following day deported germany finally liberated american forces regency early crisis declared unable reign day allied troops crossed belgian frontier september german forces little oppose forces september control brussels occupied parts belgian territory liberated february september government exile returned brussels greeted general indifference king longer country political testament presented returned government wished soon circulated publicly time copy presented british king george seen foreign secretary anthony text divisions government largely hidden earlier war king german custody opposition creation regent absence september meeting chambers parliament called article constitution invoked declaring king unable reign brother prince charles count flanders elected prince regent took oath following day action royal question pushed aside pressing economic political issues occupied government time political recovery revival royal question soon liberation belgium began period rapid economic recovery process political reconstruction began traditional party system torn apart war occupation major ideological blocks proceeded create parties created belgian socialist party catholics conservatives created christian social party biggest change early post liberation politics surge support communist_party belgium party belgian politics temporarily displacing liberal party movement emerged war promoting culture economic interests french speaking areas south period saw major reform trade unions following creation large unified union general federation belgian labour april members nationwide political structure belgian state early regency subsequent van governments attempted avoid confronting issue return despite calls communists trade king resignation april soon king liberation van government delegation headed austria negotiate series meetings van insisted king publicly announce support allied cause commitment parliamentary democracy agreement reached meantime took residence near geneva switzerland pretext heart negotiations thoughts return political life impossible belgium political debate royal question continued grew war remained topic popular press notably newspaper general election campaigned pro royalist platform results political landscape communists routed lost seats liberals catholics catholics gained new majority senate chamber representatives best results war took prime minister head liberal catholic coalition parties government supported referendum king return focus political attention culmination crisis referendum march government agreed national referendum known popular consultation consultation scheduled march campaigning vigorous sides little disruption polls results referendum return won clear cent majority national vote seven provinces vote heavily divided region flanders cent voted favour return brussels won minority cent wallonia mere cent voted king final results province majority voted favour king return voted return result confirmed worries including vote sufficiently decisive direction divide country regional linguistic lines march traveled attempt encourage paul van attempted broker new agreement resign favour son april announced willing temporarily delegate authority realised despite referendum result party lack parliamentary majority undermine ability build national reconciliation king long liberal coalition partners socialist opponents unwilling accept king return return belgium april charles dissolved parliament pending fresh elections intention probably prevent formation government van staunch lead return king discussion following election produced absolute majority chamber senate new single party government jean formed acts government introduce bill bringing reign end july returned belgium time june resumed functions general strike voted special budget million belgian establish committee common action action aimed supporting strike action taken event king return union took lead opposition emerged summer trade union leader called insurrection revolution newspaper shortly king return july modern historians noted smell revolution air nationalists called immediate wallonia creation republic general strike began coal mining centres quickly spread workers soon strike wallonia brussels lesser extent flanders port antwerp key sites affected country virtually july workers shot dead near violence intensified staunch government called stronger stance found minority frustrated lack progress government threatened resign situation escalated national confederation political prisoners des des van organisation representing political prisoners detained german occupation offered act different parties respected status succeeded parties reopen negotiations tense meeting king government took place night july august afternoon august publicly announced intention resign favour eldest son avoid age formally prince royal august accession message august reconciliation person eldest son course year seen parties acceptable alternative candidate according law approved august executive powers transferred advance official formally july son succeeded following day assassination july taking oath allegiance constitution parliament unidentified individual communist benches shouted long live republic caused outrage widely suspected culprit noted communist leader leading opponents return august shot dead unidentified assassin outside house near murder shocked belgian public estimated people attended funeral prosecuted murder widely attributed clandestine militia like operated knowledge security services aftermath significance aftermath royal question national priorities shifted political questions september government joseph announced intention belgian volunteers fight korean war negotiations european defence community followed mid-1950s belgium immersed new political crisis known second school war surrounding education modern historians describe royal question important moment belgian recovery world war opposition anti led establishment socialist catholic political parties war question important moment belgian linguistic conflict end belgian institutions regional tensions exposed royal question addition perceived failure realise flemish demands return helped strengthen support flemish nationalist party wallonia legacy trade union socialist political general strike paved way left wing revival movement assassination solved remains contentious political murder belgian history apart death socialist politician suspected individual prosecuted aftermath historians van named alleged culprit final report commissioned belgian government submitted


bristol lower slopes michael hill bristol england established subsequent centuries church built extensive gardens developed establishment dissolved site redeveloped sir john young built great house later boys school founded edward 18th century red lodge survives today museum origins prospect house prior hall venue concerts built site 19th century 20th century office block named built short distance way preserves history founded prince wales future king edward known blessed virgin wore white habits fifteenth century william worcester described church having dimensions yards tower feet high described writing early sixteenth century standing right bank added england large adjoining land extending michael hill sold produce augment income writing thomas richard commissioners visitors charged monastic houses reported contents met debts owed described chapel lead gardens great man bringing fresh water hill later taken john church remaining surrendered possessions commissioner presence mayor post dissolution monastic cells thought belong survive red lodge origins prospect house prior building lodge house mansion great house built late 16th century john young bought bristol corporation dissolution monasteries great house elizabeth stayed guest john young 18th century house acquired edward established original school school moved hall society purchased premises demolished house build hall occupies site excavations building adjacent house early 20th century found medieval walls floor tiles post war redevelopment bristol city centre given large multi storey office development located yards site original adjoining site office complex building thirteen floors stands metres high completed


paper war henry fielding started paper war long term dispute constant publication pamphlets attacking writers authors london street began dispute fielding john hill authors christopher smart william arthur murphy soon works aid sides conflict dispute lasted involved london periodicals eventually resulted countless essays poems series mock epic poems starting smart unknown actually started dispute resulted divide authors supported fielding supported hill background fielding started paper war issue garden journal january declaring war hack writers response john hill claimed london daily january fielding met prior january proposed fake paper war involve london writers giving blows hurt sharing advantage silence meeting fielding hill discuss proposed war believed occurred occurred december known hill met fielding legal business december hill robbed hill revealed information attacked fielding london daily january book title character involved accident damaged face hill mocking way fielding described scene claimed charm world help nose response revelation personal attacks fielding wrote january private treaty deserve credit fool doubt treaty think rejected regardless merits hill claim war soon started issue garden journal fielding narrowed satire john hill hill fielding smart murphy involved dispute actual names instead preferred use attacks fielding wrote sir alexander hill wrote inspector wrote smart wrote mary midnight authors soon responded fielding attacks fielding plan universal register office planned center advertisement jobs goods sale items fielding started dispute months philip employee established competing public register office king street garden hired friend smart attack fielding hill hill previously aided fielding matter later hill attacked fielding smart august issue produced work published anonymously commonly known produced hill soon followed pamphlet august inspector column london daily column harshly criticized smart poems occasions fielding eventually left dispute sixth issue garden journal published event possible work war produced smart april possible origins dispute traced hill publications february march fielding paper war issue garden journal january fielding attacked writers street brought quick response hill responded twice claimed fielding planning fake dispute january attacked hill piece january soon responded fielding lane journal january time personal works fielding targets january fielding responded hill supported view garden journal ironically stating famous surgeon absolutely cured booth violent hurt nose scarce left intends bring actions ill meaning people reported said lady nose merely author history hurry forgot inform readers particular hill attack work wrote lane journal published january included fake advertisement parody novel called playing title fielding parody later parodied february piece called new chapter joined published pamphlet anonymously january attacks fielding novel support work anonymous pamphlet written attack hill town praising january fielding defended work bringing novel imaginary court hill critics prosecutors truly trial garden journal served fielding attacks hill hill supporters journal piece called journal present paper war forces sir alexander army street work modelled swift battle books fielding pretended military leader lead english veterans compared characters greek roman classics modern french literature changed roles fourth issue produced january transformed judge february joined paper war production called fun proceeded defend fielding charles followed suit holding benefit april garden act play called garden theater turn play portrayed fielding attacking hill followers town pamphlet london daily published january called march lion links authors involved war introduce smart reference mary midnight pseudonym smart participant smart begin directly participating matter august publication parody hill inspector persona piece smart responded hill attack smart old woman hill claim dead hill quick respond attacked fielding smart piece published august issue work hill claimed authors write wit hungry claimed smart wears ridiculous aspect makes people smile distance mouth opens fed world joins philosopher laughing lips work published anonymously tried claim samuel johnson author hill tried hide authorship attacking essay august inspector soon exposed commonly known hill produced soon followed pamphlet london daily august inspector column hill harshly criticised smart poems occasions hill claimed praise smart manner betty claims managed insult smart encouragement arthur murphy responded essay hill october edition gray inn journal following murphy attacked hill fielding spring garden journal november gentleman journal issue november came quick claimed supported hill espoused cause gentleman sided fielding espoused cause comedian essay accomplished little sides hill responded murphy dispute printed supplement december issue gentleman journal february smart published attack hill critic lance describes broadside war response swift samuel responded directly arthur murphy criticized smart personally attacking hill rules wit tried provoke response smart smart stopped responding assaults soon hill ended attacks final shot december


abbey abbey french set 18th 19th century buildings corner 7th paris abbey convent founded near moved current site paris behest louis reconstruction abbey initiated marie catherine work completed late 18th century abbey prestigious educational institutions paris daughters elite including thomas jefferson abbey provided rooms ladies good standing search rest including case separation husband heard abbey french revolution buildings turned military use home national_guard imperial guard later cent continues occupied exception chapel protestant church temple august ministry defence facing budget cuts policies sold buildings real estate investment trust des paris plans ministry offices abbey end october history philip famed bishop wished found convent order set aside orchard southwest traced plans construction seven acres philip died project completed successor bishop raised rest funds completed pope gregory issued bull palace june sanctioned new abbey declared funds raised protected abbey took meaning mountain slope location foot abbey provided refuge charlotte neighboring abbey saint paul election opposed henry_ii fled arrival king soldiers abbey followed demanded force renounce position request compelled abbey damaged flood economic geographical reasons moved abbey paris time convent sisters previous building demolished returned agricultural work farm paris paris abbey took residence convent recently suppressed sisters word located current site abbey sisters dedicated education young women later added rooms women good standing find rest abbey quickly acquired distinguished reputation time dissolution revenues great sum era final marie iii catherine spent years great deal money rebuilding expanding abbey competition plans reconstruction attracted multiple proposals including royal architect drew praise combination simplicity winning proposal famous students educated abbey included noted princess mistress count future charles france thomas jefferson daughters martha mary educated abbey minister france entry school sponsored wife future lady adams shocked jefferson send girls catholic school assured abbey conditions students despite presence fires water prohibition speaking outside class recreation time school led martha nicknamed write letter father expressing desire nun jefferson quickly removed daughters care convent abbey provided elegant apartments women seeking independence families difficult marriages ladies free come liked constraints hours allowed outside convent children servants spent evenings abbey resident future empress france separation husband court granted temporary independence husband required stay children expense speculated james founder institution born paris illegitimate son duke northumberland born abbey strong connections duke illegitimate daughters educated state property military french revolution abbey suppressed properties confiscated abbey affairs wound properties sold pay state debt abbey state property came serve home national_guard imperial guard building expanded required demolition parts original structure second empire abbey served barracks cent squadron elite cavalry unit provided personal protection napoleon iii palace twentieth century abbey housed ministry war bonuses benefits bunker constructed underneath court honor including stationary intended provide electricity case power loss enemy bombardment courtyard war memorial reads veterans comrades gave lives country home number commemorative plaques including ones protestant church chapel store grain revolution later hay army took abbey provided formal recognition reformed church france decided catholic churches paris turned reformed congregations saint louis marie des chapel abbey protestant worship forbidden paris non catholic services illegal france inaugurated long period persecution french paris able worship dutch swedish chapel abbey churches new era open protestant worship paris actual opening abbey reformed congregation delayed decades bureaucratic obstacles opposition restoration turning catholic building protestant use architect victor began work convert chapel protestant church isolated chapel rest building added new doors place previous windows converted choir nave closed original entrance adding massive organ built installed opening church organ undergone modifications years including restoration restore remaining original elements church underwent restoration commissioned city paris accomplished benjamin chief architect historic monuments firm list gallery


treasure treasure known gold large provided spain finance rising scotland rumoured hidden background prince charles edward stuart prince charlie arrived scotland france claimed scotland england ireland father james stuart old charles asserted venture supported louis france arrival french forces scotland imminent truth france little intention intervene behalf limited financial support supplied spain pope spain pledged louis month cause getting money rebel army difficulty instalment sent charles brother henry resident france dispatched french sloop hazard renamed prince charles successfully landed west_coast scotland unfortunately soon captured clan loyal king george skirmish tongue treasure arrives april ships mars arrived scotland spanish instalment plus large french supplement learning defeat battle april ships left unloading spanish money april place prince disembarked year later embark france seven spanish gold arrived scotland cause lost army scattered prince hiding money assist subjected government forces duke cumberland facilitate escape leading continent having stolen mcdonald men brought north fort william hidden secret entrusted murray murray began distribution clan chiefs government later turned state evidence treasure entrusted chief clan cameron head clan hiding cave ben came known cage charles briefly joined control money hidden treasure hunt charles finally escaped scotland french frigate arrived france september fate money clear believed retained control long years fugitive centre futile plots finance uprising remained hiding highland cage years cash charles constantly looking money came later paying campaign medal said gold recovered charles years later accused case gold source surviving cameron brother acting secretary old sent scotland locate treasure whilst staying secretly betrayed apparently notorious spy arrested charged act uprising sentenced death drawn hanged june executed trail goes cold papers possession queen elizabeth_ii record host claims counter claims accusations highland chiefs exile fate historian andrew people research papers walter scott secured crown recorded book spy tale involvement prince father trying locate stuart papers include account drawn rome cameron indicates account according clan cameron records french gold coins found buried nearby woods 1850s fiction treasure featured historical fiction novel gold prince charlie missing treasure features novel children love story set outer late 18th century published originally


short workers leagues popular movement democratic socialist inspiration arose sicily years gained support exploited classes island frustration discontent coherent programme based establishment new rights consisting sentiment socialist consciousness movement reached apex summer new conditions presented landowners owners sicily concerning renewal share rental contracts rejection conditions strikes rapidly spread island marked violent social conflict rising point insurrection leaders movement able situation getting control landowners asked government intervene prime minister declared state emergency january organizations arresting leaders restoring order use extreme force reforms followed including compensation pension schemes suppression strikes led increase emigration characteristics movement federation scores associations developed farm workers tenant farmers small intellectuals industrial workers immediate demands movement fair land higher wages lower local taxes distribution common land established sicily according sources movement reached membership end constituted autonomous organizations insignia red uniforms musical bands local halls called literally means bundle break single stick break bundle sticks leaders socialist supporters true revolutionaries peasants assembled eager social justice convinced new world born hung red flag meeting places portraits king revolutionaries cheers king heard marches resembled quasi religious italian workers party initial italian socialist party founded conference genoa august rural particular curious phenomenon ancient modern combined aspirations urban intellectual leadership contact workers organizations ideas northern italy according historian socialism preached movement seen new religion true religion christ betrayed priests rich dawn new world poverty hunger cold accordance god included women encouraged belief start new reign justice movement spread like epidemic foundation rapid growth result revolt peasants introduction capitalist relationships rural economy aggravated world depression agriculture 1880s crisis led steep decrease wheat prices island main sources wealth wine fruit suffered heavy blow dominant class economic burden form higher local taxation social tension rose handful young hitherto unknown socialist intellectuals recent graduates university seized opportunity movement grew government prime minister coincided unpopular tax increases ratification series laws personal freedom italian economy sliding deep recession late 1880s new protective introduced agricultural industrial goods followed trade war france badly damaged italian commerce affecting italy agricultural exports potentially dynamic economic sector southern italy farmers suffered severely official founded labour day earlier set march dormant founder arrested july year released reason formed example workers leagues constituted central north italy develop brought individual workers workers associations city retained independence status economic orientation leaders included santo ruling elite depicted men communists seeking overthrow monarchy fact devout catholics movement nature characterised statements jesus true socialist wanted demanding known workers socialist leaders august attended socialist party congress genoa return non socialist members ideal united democratic shared father socialism leader maintained contact leading like important issues friction replaced february succeeded january peasants occupied communal land claimed theirs local authorities killed wounded massacre disturbances continued year started urban movements animated evolved popular mass movement adherence miners later stage involvement peasants autumn labour conflicts cities mines came protests claims farmers movement reached greatest breadth taxes involving lowest tiers city countryside difficult impossible control leaders initial success initial origins eastern sicily especially movement got real impetus establishment june leagues rapidly sicily spring leaders movement decided carry propaganda peasants miners countryside march october number grew members congress held attended delegates nearly leagues socialist circles central committee elected composed members province province province province province piano province province congress decided leagues obliged join italian workers party predecessor psi july peasant conference drafted model contracts labourers tenants presented landowners refused negotiate strike landowners state taxes broke large western sicily called considered historians trade union collective contract capitalist italy september state authorities intervened landowners persuaded strike continued november miners workers followed example winning higher wages better working conditions october congress miners held province attended people including workers small producers miners demanded minimum age raised years worked mines decrease working hours setting minimum wage small producers demanded measures avoid exploitation large owners minimum age measure meant improve situation minors worked conditions near slavery sparked public outrage inspired complaints successful struggle convinced ruling elite stopped seized panic demanded closing schools halt spread subversive doctrines frightened local councils bombarded rome requests immediate suppression despite heavy pressure king army conservative circles rome treat strikes illegal crime dissolve use firearms popular demonstrations policy allow economic struggles resolve condition workers interfere process rising tensions nonetheless acknowledged need onwards leaders arrested occasionally police military reinforcements sent sicily autumn leadership lost control popular got hand peasant seized land violent crowds demonstrated work local tax offices burnt clashes police grew frequent bloody violent social conflict rose point insurrection landowners asked government intervene attitude maintained landowners infuriated government use force peasants annoyed land landowners matched strike peasants probably majority strike centres left planting season ended mid december december failure government restore public order gave rise general demand return power resign november result scandal addition unrest sicily wave rioting spread italy august triggered killing number workers salt southern france escalated working class revolt supported violent riots rome naples italy slipping revolution time returned power december italy appeared brink collapse promised important measures land reform near future blind misery need social reform patron working class associations named chief architect fall exposing scandal offered ministry agriculture refused sent sicily mission good intentions got lost outcry strong measures weeks uncertainty government formed rapid spread violence drove local authorities ban use firearms december peasants lost lives clashes police army government building burned flour mills refused lower prices taxes lowered abolished people killed december rally asked abolition taxes food disbandment local field guards carried portrait king taken municipality burned tax files december people wounded troops fired manifestation killed december january people killed wounded january dead day dead wounded days january thirteen dead wounded closed series santa disorders product revolutionary plot chose believe basis dubious documents reports claimed organised conspiracy separate sicily italy leaders financed french gold war invasion crackdown january declared state siege sicily army recalled general dispatched troops old order restored use extreme force including summary executions outlawed army killed scores protesters hundreds wounded thousands including leaders jail sent internal exile persons deported islands trial working class societies dissolved freedom press meeting association suspended solidarity revolt republicans crushed government seized opportunity revise electoral registers struck exactly early days january meeting central committee took place discuss position movement sharply contrasting positions emerged known tendencies supported need advantage situation unrest provoke revolution island majority took opposite view arguing need proceed peacefully revolt inappropriate detrimental movement meeting condemned violent incidents parts island launched appeal stay calm end accepted position majority die cast authorities arrest arrested board steamship leave february presented evidence widespread conspiracy parliament called international treaty signed french government russia vatican goal sicily rest country franco russian radical deputy ridiculed conspiracy fun famous treaty emperor russia president french republic called treaty named signed town invented director public safety trial trials central committee took place april final blow movement spite defence turned court political platform thrilled socialist country condemned heavy sentences imprisonment leaders movement received sentence years years jail told judges provided documents evidence innocence friends thought necessary support defence legally confidence law concern defend sentence elements destroy sacred institutions sentence logical human pay tribute loyalty friends outside ask pardon ask amnesty socialist civilization begin act demand condemnation ask mercy useful holy cause propaganda condemn heavy sentence aroused strong reactions italy united_states group students went asked orchestra perform hymn theatre applauded march resign defeat italian army battle italo war new government prime minister recognized excessive brutality repression members pardoned released jail clear reorganization tolerated release met large crowd supporters rome released horses form carriage dragged hotel cheering socialism denouncing aftermath brutal repression extent leaders military reported speeches defence revolted liberal northern italians attempt regain left wing introduced bill july large estates land idea rent land long medium sized holdings given reduced credit tax concessions bill failed convince democrats good intentions angered landowners suppression unwilling concessions leadership battled bill fell power march proponent prime minister landowners safe revolt inspired social reforms measures social legislation passed minister treasury cabinet industrial compensation scheme employer bearing costs voluntary fund disability old age created adherents left sicily life grown hard employment difficult find involvement movement sicily wanted change life better days alternatives rebel failure rebellion peasants choice vote feet opted emigration remained year later protests taxes issue communal land resumed towns sicily disbandment troop postponed according prime example primitive movement modern socialism communism leaders continued socialist party continued struggle land rights land reform released despite defeat permanent movements set areas sicily modern socialist models organisation dissolution unrest sicily january peasants demanding work bread town hall fall peasants following example numerous strikes affecting italy set wave unrest conscious fact way resumed march abruptly interrupted repression movement main goals strikes revision land undermine economic power world war communist movement sicily built structures inspired social struggle sicily 1950s role women role women substantial regularly overlooked historical accounts women forefront demonstrations strikes taking word meetings conferences municipal elections sure men going vote women right vote time patrolled prevent men duty bottles wine took care organizational aspects particularly active movement stage rallies preparing ceremonies inauguration opening flag welcoming leaders came towns flowers women ardent municipalities women organized women sections exclusively female strongest numerous presence women thousand members women town inhabitants women abandoned church religious sentiment protest priests tried threat women organised boycott annual religious procession protest priest opposition movement congress union sicily decided maria urged audience ensure registration women presence political female representatives congress surprised editor believe spoke loudly clearly ease astonishing courage prominent women daughter founders movement years old accompanied father sicily help setting interior animated spirit socialism spoke people missionary sex age commanded fascination masses authorities watched closely report government rome noticed female san considered dangerous women developed highly successful propaganda activities revolutionary exercised considerable influence region mafia involvement historians emphasize leagues engaged class struggle coalition landowners ignore evidence strategic alliances mafia leagues led run local gentry mafia bosses led alliance mafia needed enforce flying credible threats violence strike costly landowners destroying property order strike teeth protect harm member mafia group little brothers great strike september mobilized boycott providing necessary manpower work lands peasants refused broke away according police reports bitter enemy killed mafia mayor literature film novel old young history failure repression period active member movement close ties friendship leading film san saint day directed based massacre january celebration saint firing squad killed peasants claimed right state owned land won golden globe presented venice film festival play monologue depicting peasant woman husband killed events written performed february raise money victims


literature early modern scotland literature early modern scotland literature written scotland scottish writers renaissance early sixteenth century beginnings enlightenment industrial revolution mid eighteenth century beginning era geographical decline centuries begun second class language confined highlands islands tradition classic poetry survived middle scots language nobility majority population establishment printing press easier scottish literature probably aimed scottish national identity james creation renaissance court included patronage poets mainly included douglas complete translation major classical text language james major patron poets george founded tradition neo latin poetry reign mary queen scots minority son james cultural pursuits limited lack royal court political turmoil discouraged poetry nature secular poetry survived james promoted literature scots patron member loose circle scottish court poets musicians later called band david complete play survive reformation major influence continental theatre impact scotland limited choice latin medium isolated scottish plays system professional companies players theatres developed england period absent scotland accession james english throne meant loss court centre patronage increasingly favoured language southern england number scottish poets accompanied king london began written language tradition classical poetry declined new tradition vernacular poetry began emerge undertaken women tradition neo latin poetry reached fruition publication anthology period marked work named female scottish poets elizabeth dream book published woman scotland period ballad emerged significant written form scotland seventeenth century literary form aristocratic authors union use scots discouraged authority education led vernacular revival laid foundations interest older scottish literature led trend pastoral poetry pastoral opera gentle shepherd influential works era community poets working scots english poet playwright best known novels seen scotland novelist early eighteenth century period innovation vernacular poetry mixed traditional forms influences drama pursued scottish london scotland drama supplied visiting english players actors clashes instrumental establishing small theatre edinburgh closed soon passing licensing act new theatre opened operated licence sixteenth century background early modern era geographical decline centuries begun second class language confined highlands islands tradition classic poetry survived longer scotland ireland fully competent member dynasty hereditary poets lords isles working early eighteenth century interest sponsorship poetry declining clan leaders gradually overtaken middle scots language nobility majority population middle scots derived substantially old english french influences usually called close language spoken northern england sixteenth century established literary norms largely independent developing england mid sixteenth century written scots increasingly influenced developing standard english southern england developments royal political interactions england increasing influence availability books printed england writing scotland came english fashion establishment printing press royal patent begin easier scottish literature probably aimed scottish national identity scottish press established edinburgh merchant walter andrew press relatively short lived law codes religious works press produced editions work scottish demise probably recorded press thomas long line king produced editions works james creation renaissance court included patronage poets court poets mainly included robert worked medieval classical sources works testament william produced lyrics dream visions established vernacular flexible medium poetry kind douglas bishop injected concerns classical sources poetry landmark work reign james douglas version complete translation major classical text language finished overshadowed disaster brought reign end patron poets authors james supported william stewart john translated latin history scotland compiled verse prose david diplomat head court prolific poet wrote narratives george major influence latin poet founding tradition neo latin poetry continue seventeenth century contributors tradition included royal secretary john reformer andrew john david reign mary queen scots minority son james cultural pursuits limited lack royal court political turmoil heavily influenced discouraged poetry nature poets period included richard produced satirical verses style john wrote tradition douglas minister alexander corpus work includes nature poetry verse alexander scott use short verse designed sung music opened way poets james adult reign unlike predecessors james actively despised culture strongly promoted literature country birth scots treatise rules observed scottish published aged poetic manual description poetic tradition mother tongue applied renaissance principles patron member loose circle scottish court poets musicians later called band included william john stewart alexander translated key renaissance texts produced poems french forms including short narrative nature description satire love later poets followed vein included william alexander alexander robert late king native scottish tradition extent prospect english throne produced interlude palace king queen thought version play corruption church state complete play survive reformation major influence continental theatre plays influenced jean neo classical tradition french drama impact scotland limited choice latin medium anonymous play published london isolated examples surviving plays vernacular scots comedy errors probably designed court performance mary queen scots james system professional companies players theatres developed england period absent scotland james signalled interest drama arranging company english players erect perform seventeenth century poetry having virtues scots accession english throne james increasingly favoured language southern england adopted english authorised king james version bible declared longer necessary port london scots far different described james creating tier system english loss court centre patronage major blow scottish literature number scottish poets including william alexander john murray robert accompanied king london continued write soon began written language james characteristic role active literary participant patron english court defining figure english renaissance poetry drama reach pinnacle achievement reign patronage high style scottish tradition largely sidelined significant court poet continue work scotland king departure william tradition classical poetry declined new tradition vernacular poetry began emerge classical poetry language largely fixed twelfth century vernacular continued develop contrast classical tradition metre vernacular poets tended use stressed metre shared classic poets set complex metaphors role verse number vernacular poets women mary harris tradition neo latin poetry reached fruition publication anthology published amsterdam arthur sir john scott containing work major scottish practitioners period marked work named female scottish poets elizabeth dream popular religious book published woman scotland anna daughter david adapted love death period ballad emerged significant written form scotland ballads date late medieval era deal events people traced far thirteenth century including sir patrick thomas known existed eighteenth century probably composed transmitted began written printed later recorded noted books collectors including robert burns walter scott seventeenth century literary form aristocratic authors including robert lady elizabeth lady theatre loss royal court meant force counter dislike theatre struggled survive scotland entirely extinguished theatre purposes schools slow suppress popular folk dramas surviving plays period include william alexander written departure king england closet dramas designed read performed indicate alexander preference southern english scots language attempts revive scottish drama edinburgh lawyer william wrote discovery play restoration legitimate dynasty florence years civil war performed tennis court theatre palace parliamentary high commissioner john earl thomas coffee house performed london edinburgh year drew spanish comedy relative physician wrote assembly reformation satire morals presbyterian circulating manuscript published helping secure association professional drama discouraged creation professional theatre early eighteenth century vernacular revival union shift political power england use scots discouraged authority education scots remained vernacular rural communities growing number urban working class scots literature developed distinct national identity began enjoy international reputation considered important literary figure era described leading vernacular revival laid foundations interest older scottish literature publishing green collection included major poetic works stewart period led trend pastoral poetry helping develop stanza later robert burns poetic form tea table contained poems old scots folk material poems folk style scots poems english neo classical style pastoral opera gentle shepherd influential works era play leading role supporting drama scotland attempt found permanent theatre capital verse prose community poets working scots english included william hamilton robert alexander ross william hamilton poet playwright james thompson famous nature poetry seasons poet playwright best known novels adventures random adventures seen scotland novelist work major influence later early eighteenth century period innovation vernacular poetry major figures included rob mac duncan ban significant figure tradition mac interest traditional forms seen significant poem gallery mixed traditions influences including thompson seasons helped inspire new form nature poetry focused relations human concerns drama drama pursued scottish london catherine born london scottish parents later moving plays included verse tragedy fatal friendship comedy love loss history revolution sweden david plays included restoration comedies courtship mode love sight developed character stage clown loyal hamilton born ireland scottish descent produced comedies lovers later wrote closely based john james thompson plays dealt contest public duty private feelings included international success david accused coded play later work indicates opposition administration opera alfred collaboration thompson composer thomas thompson supplying lyrics famous work patriotic song rule scotland troop english players came edinburgh performed series restoration comedies soon left objections local english actor anthony friend performing edinburgh fallen foul scottish master licensed plays companies soon left attacked theatres immoral edinburgh company players able perform regular performances taylor hall edinburgh protection royal patent instrumental establishing small theatre close edinburgh passing licensing act activities illegal theatre soon closed new theatre opened operated licence


scotland commonwealth scotland commonwealth history scotland declaration kingdom commonwealth england february restoration monarchy scotland position independent kingdom june execution charles scottish parliament declared son charles_ii king great_britain ireland english responded invasion led oliver resulting defeats scots worcester opening way english conquest country tender union scotland declared commonwealth england ireland despite repeated attempts act passed westminster union terms union scots gained members parliament posts filled fell english agents government little westminster initially government run commissioners adopted policy political power nobility favour sort replaced new council scotland headed irish peer lord began attempts win traditional regime built series major minor forts immense cost scottish legal system suspended courts institutions gradually restored generally regime successful enforcing law order suppressing major royalist rising highlands led william earl john initial success suffered internal divisions defeat battle commonwealth extended including significant group small number established reformation largely united declaration divided hard line protesters issue operation crown regime tended favour giving control universities country relatively highly gained access english markets era remembered prosperity economic expansion attempt create national symbols revival union flag unite coin death oliver fall son richard regime general marched army scotland south facilitated restoration charles_ii background having supported parliament english civil war league government scotland came control second english civil war invaded england support royalist defeated new model army oliver battle preston leaders captured engagement regime fell raid radical presbyterian party returned power execution charles january england declared commonwealth soon news charles execution reached scotland son proclaimed king charles_ii great_britain scottish parliament failure attempted highland rising led james graham charles accepted offer support arriving june signing english responded army crossed border july english fleet acted support september english army defeated scots david battle taking prisoners occupying edinburgh taking control charles easily alliance moderate crowned january new army assembled june advanced scots scots army king set england rising favour army caught worcester forces september decisively defeated bringing civil wars end charles escaped continent english army george remaining garrisons scotland emerged important figure commonwealth constitutional status days victory worcester committee english parliament established aim drafting bill declare right commonwealth scotland force december plan simple annexation considering good island scotland incorporated free state commonwealth england tender union proclaimed cross edinburgh february days later king arms taken cross hanged public eventually tender oath scotland incorporated commonwealth england april bill act incorporating scotland commonwealth england given second reading parliament failed return committee stage dissolved similar act introduced parliament failed enacted parliament dissolved april council state issued ordinance uniting scotland commonwealth england commonwealth england scotland ireland authority instrument government lord protector remained legal basis union ordinance act union second parliament june terms union scotland received thirty seats enlarged westminster parliament scottish members parliament sent protector parliament protector second parliament thirty sent richard parliament thirty elected scots remainder army officers scots westminster treated general ignored faced repeated motions exclude englishman described wooden leg tied natural body administration tender union scottish parliament removed monarchy institution meet westminster parliament initially country run english commissioners oliver john sir henry richard george john richard robert george early stages regime deliberately attempted break influence scottish nobility organised invasions england exile prison deprived office heavily fines debt instead commonwealth attempted promote called sort particularly urban small irish peer lord arrived scotland act president new council scotland attempt recast government civilian lines begin win major regime council samuel charles howard adrian thomas cooper scots john william later joined sir edward rhodes ninth member late passes needed area country ownership firearms restricted necessitating license highlands administration fell ancient making clan chiefs responsible conduct followers security regime depended armed force men built perth smaller forts built far away control highlands secured built massive cost money manpower citadel begun stone shipped far away cost unfinished garrison centre new administrative region remote scottish legal system effectively suspended english occupation courts derived charles stuart including sheriff courts suspended sessions continued meet largely sanctioned recognised commonwealth legal functions council court session taken seven commissioners scots proved previous judges probably tied major families political factions patronage local courts jurisdictions officially abolished sheriff courts established justices peace returned result small flood cases compares scottish courts fully established generally regime seen successful enforcing law order suppressing moss claimed man ride scotland pocket years resistance major royalist rising highlands led william 9th earl soldier john particularly threatening regime coincided dutch war given command royalist forces scotland charles_ii convened meeting scottish august present john murray 1st campbell eldest son lord cameron john graham colonel mustered supporters form small army horse force foot governor castle colonel suppress force defeated victory boosted morale rising gained support lowland scottish lords forcing commonwealth government adopt attitude groups gained recruits rising began suffer internal divisions particularly bulk forces lowland nobles officers commanders early months revolt lowland officer veteran battle worcester arrived commission command charles_ii despite objections followers surrendered control forces reached foot horse evening sir george aide insulted forces result duel wounded arrested eventually released retire conflict series disputes undermined leadership campaign remainder rising adopted strategy raid successful distracting commonwealth forces causing disruption soon began prove counter productive growing led drying recruitment return scotland brief naval command dutch began campaign rising making forced marches miles day difficult terrain july force command thomas morgan caught army resulting battle scattered wounded forced escape highlands end dutch war meant possibility foreign aid government reinforcements available combat rising result royalist military effort eventually surrendered escaped continent join court exile rising forced change policy regime instead attempting replace classes looked reconciliation resulted act grace pardon proclaimed edinburgh instead blanket implicated resistance named persons mainly nobility lands seized retain estates paying fine names treated fines reduced abandoned religion established reformation largely united declaration period defeat divided partly search defeat different factions tendencies produced rival resolutions protests gave names major parties willing accommodation hard line protesters wished purge associations subsequently divide rival camps groups appointed permanent agents london terms union promised gospel preached promised freedom religion regime accepted valid system accept legitimate form church organisation result civil penalties longer backed sessions functioned administration tended favour protesters largely inclined desire restoration monarchy general_assembly claimed independence state act holding public prayers success insurrection led largely members assembly marched edinburgh armed guard assemblies period commonwealth met informal clergy universities largely seen training school clergy relatively funded came control patrick principal glasgow extend catholics attention largely left extend independent group establish scotland period small number general period commonwealth looked flourished ministers largely barred politics spent time flocks placed emphasis preaching emulated presbyterian noted souls converted christ short period time season reformation economy taxation commonwealth country relatively highly gained access english markets charles scotland paid sterling year taxes civil list cost sum month county assessment demanded regime scotland failed fully supply reduced year total year addition country contributed year despite annual deficit covered english revenues scotland suffered considerable economic disruption period civil wars caused loss manpower dozen armies free quarter troops civilians payment heavy taxation number merchants particularly ruined wars east coast towns probably lost fifth population outbreak plague occurred slow recover edinburgh reduced free trade major economic incentive union beneficial scotland compete highly developed english merchant fleet economy began revive prosperity spread evenly country glasgow prospered ports continued decline financing military building spending wages soldiers benefit new industries included glass production troops traditionally credited bringing north planting good order imposed armed presence encouraged trade manufacture alexander later archbishop commented years time great peace prosperity symbols creation union led revival union flag sponsored james fallen death form quarters 1st 4th england 2nd scotland irish 3rd clearly suggested incorporation heart union replaced version flag favoured james crosses george irish placed centre unite coin originally struck james revived reign charles sides civil war revived struck bore english text commonwealth england displayed cross george irish piece piece issued image lord protector crosses george andrew irish union flag despite attempts produce union michael lynch argues commonwealth largely lacked symbols consent nation state expressed fall regime death remained political london led brief establishment regime protector son richard fall subsequent contest power army leaders proved incapable producing stable government monk opened negotiations charles_ii began slow march south army reaching london restored english long parliament existed beginning civil wars body having received assurances charles_ii voted restoration monarchy england dissolved created facto restoration monarchy scotland constitutional position country scottish weak position negotiations crown settlement event scotland regained independent system law parliament lords articles crown controlled parliamentary business bishops king visit country ruled largely reference parliament series commissioners began earl ended king brother heir james duke york known scotland duke albany legislation revoked act removing gains bishops wars discipline sessions renewed excluded general pardon executed prominent including james