little boy little boy type atomic bomb dropped japanese city hiroshima august boeing gay piloted colonel paul commander composite group united_states_army air forces atomic bomb warfare hiroshima bombing second artificial nuclear explosion history trinity test based exploded energy approximately tnt bomb caused significant destruction city hiroshima little boy developed lieutenant commander francis birch group captain william parsons ordnance division manhattan_project los laboratory world war parsons flew hiroshima mission little boy development unsuccessful thin man nuclear bomb like thin man gun type weapon derived explosive power nuclear accomplished shooting hollow cylinder enriched bullet solid cylinder material target means charge powder contained enriched kilogram underwent nuclear components fabricated different plants copy complete design war ended expected inefficient little boy design required plans destroyed site suffering badly effect little boy assemblies produced base navy bureau ordnance built little boy assemblies use lockheed neptune nuclear strike aircraft launched land midway class aircraft carriers little boy units withdrawn service end january naming names atomic bomb design projects world war fat man thin man little boy created robert student los laboratory director robert worked manhattan_project according chose based design shapes thin man long device came detective novel series movies fat man round fat named sydney character falcon little boy came named cook character film referred development known approach bomb development pursued design developed deployed combat known mark vast majority work came form necessary weapon makes natural performed oak ridge tennessee electromagnetic separation plant known fully operational march shipments highly enriched sent los laboratory june necessary production bomb came available thanks ceo high mining union long tons ore transported new_york warehouse long tons ore captured mission bomb little boy thin man previous gun type weapon design thin man feet long designed use capable enriched thin man design abandoned experiments group los newly produced oak ridge site showed contained form far higher spontaneous rate produced original measurements inclusion bred appeared meant background rate high highly likely blow apart initial forming critical mass july research los type weapon overall responsibility gun type weapon assigned captain william parsons ordnance division design development technical work los consolidated lieutenant commander francis birch group contrast type nuclear weapon gun type weapon gun type weapon straightforward trivial design concept pursued case failure develop bomb possible use gun principle gun type design henceforth work enriched allowed thin man design greatly simplified high velocity gun longer required simpler weapon substituted simplified weapon short fit bomb bay design specifications completed february contracts let build components different plants copy complete design gun breech naval gun factory washington target case components naval ordnance plant center line michigan tail mounting expert tool die company detroit michigan bomb ready beginning completed june target july target bomb pre assemblies partly assembled bombs components left hunters point naval shipyard california july aboard cruiser uss indianapolis arriving july target followed air july components tested test gun type nuclear weapon occurred little boy dropped hiroshima test explosion nuclear weapon concept type device employing material took place july trinity nuclear test reasons testing little boy type device primarily little compared relatively large expected produced site additionally weapon design simple deemed necessary laboratory tests gun type assembly unlike design required sophisticated coordination shaped explosive charges gun type design considered certain work danger accidental safety concern little boy incorporated basic safety mechanisms accidental occur tests conducted crash drive hollow bullet target cylinder resulting massive release radiation possibly nuclear showed required impact times gravity highly unlikely concern crash fire trigger explosives immersed water halves subject effect caused explosion created widespread radioactive contamination reason pilots advised crash land sea design little boy inches length inches diameter weighed approximately pounds design gun method force hollow sub critical mass solid target cylinder super critical mass initiating nuclear chain reaction accomplished shooting piece means cylindrical silk bags bomb contained enriched enriched average kilogram underwent nuclear mass transformed forms energy energy heat radiation assembly details inside weapon material divided parts following gun principle target hollow cylinder total mass consisted stack rings inch diameter inch bore center total length inches pressed end thin walled inches long filling remainder space rings disc steel pushed inches inch long inch smooth bore gun barrel insert inches cylinder inches length inch hole comprised total mass insert stack like discs somewhat thicker rings slid inch rod rod extended forward plug impact absorbing nose plug eventually protruding bomb entire target assembly secured ends hollow reached target slid target insert assembled super critical mass completely surrounded steel materials having combined mass base activated impact counter intuitive design years published description drawing little boy mechanism assumed small solid fired center larger stationary target critical mass considerations dictated little boy larger hollow piece assembled core critical masses required pieces critical mass larger piece avoiding prior assembly means shape minimal contact reflecting hole center larger piece dispersed mass increased surface area allowing escape preventing premature chain reaction larger hollow piece minimal contact end contact prior rest surrounded sub critical mass target cylinder called insert designers air space insert arrangement packs maximum material gun assembly design system bomb employed system designed detonate bomb destructive altitude calculations showed largest destructive effect bomb explode altitude metres resultant design stage system ensured bomb explode seconds release quarter predicted fall time ensure safety aircraft activated electrical pull connecting airplane pulled loose bomb fell switching internal battery power starting end seconds radar powered responsibility passed barometric stage purpose barometric stage delay radar firing command circuit near altitude thin metallic membrane vacuum chamber similar design today old fashioned wall gradually deformed ambient air pressure increased descent barometric considered accurate detonate bomb precise height air pressure varies local conditions bomb reached design height stage reportedly metres membrane closed circuit radar barometric stage added worry external radar signals detonate bomb early redundant radar reliably detect final altitude correct height firing switch closed navy gun breech plug set charge consisting silk powder bags containing pounds tube launched opposite end gun barrel eventual muzzle velocity metres second approximately later chain reaction occurred lasting radar modified army air corps tail warning radars nicknamed normally warn fighter pilot plane approaching rehearsals little boy pre assemblies designated expended test drops drop test conducted july dropped sea near order test radar later known big piloted colonel paul commander composite group drop tests sea july units order test components pilot missions time bomber subsequently known dress rehearsal july objective piloted major charles flew emergency procedures loading bomb standby aircraft practiced rehearsal repeated july time different gay piloted bomb test dropped near assembly hiroshima bomb bombing hiroshima parsons gay concerned possibility accidental plane crashed takeoff decided load powder bags gun breech aircraft flight parsons assistant second lieutenant morris way bomb bay narrow port held parsons disconnected wires removed breech plug inserted powder bags replaced breech plug wires climbing altitude approach target switched safety electrical internal battery firing mechanism green red bomb fully armed monitored bomb circuits bomb dropped approximately august falling seconds time barometric started firing mechanism happened altitude feet powerful fat man dropped nagasaki damage number victims hiroshima higher hiroshima flat terrain nagasaki lay small valley according figures published people killed direct result hiroshima blast injured varying degrees deaths members imperial japanese army exact measurement yield problematic weapon tested president harry officially announced yield tnt based parsons visual assessment blast greater seen trinity nuclear test estimated tnt speech writers rounded discussion suppressed fear impact bomb japanese data collected lawrence instrument plane great yield time hostilities ended survey team manhattan_project included william robert george sent hiroshima evaluate effects blast evaluating effects objects structures concluded yield later calculations based pointed yield frederick calculated yield figure official yield project scientists los created little boy known project order answer unanswered questions failed clear issues los created replica little boy original drawings specifications tested enriched safe configuration cause nuclear explosion hydraulic lift experiments run assess based data great yield estimated considering methods report concluded yield pound undergoes complete yield yield little boy bomb produced pounds pounds pit remaining pounds total contributed energy yield physical effects bomb selected april hiroshima spared conventional bombing serve target effects nuclear bomb undamaged city observed damage studied later energy yield little boy design determined moment instruments dropped parachute plane flying formation dropped bomb radio transmitted data instruments indicated yield comparing yield observed damage produced rule thumb called psi lethal area rule approximately people inside area shock wave carries psi greater killed hiroshima area kilometres diameter damage came main effects blast fire radiation blast blast nuclear bomb result ray heated air sending shock wave pressure wave directions initially velocity greater speed sound analogous thunder generated lightning knowledge urban blast destruction based largely studies little boy hiroshima nagasaki buildings suffered similar damage similar distances nagasaki bomb detonated kilometres city center hilly terrain partially bare buildings hiroshima kilometres point directly explosion completely destroyed heavily reinforced earthquake resistant concrete buildings shells remained standing completely windows doors frames ripped perimeter severe blast damage approximately followed psi kpa kilometres later test explosions nuclear weapons houses test structures nearby confirmed psi threshold ordinary urban buildings experiencing crushed toppled force air pressure picture right shows effects nuclear bomb generated psi pressure wave test structure nevada major effect kind structural damage created fuel fires started simultaneously severe destruction region fire effect explosion light accompanied heat hiroshima metres diameter surface temperature near ground zero burst flame famous anonymous hiroshima victim sitting stone steps metres left shadow having absorbed heat permanently surrounding stone simultaneous fires started blast damaged area heat overturned electrical shorts etc minutes fires merged pulling surface air directions feed consumed hiroshima roughly kilometres diameter corresponding closely severe blast damage zone map right blast damaged buildings provided fuel fire structural lumber furniture scattered debris roads fire fighters broken gas pipes fueled fire broken water pipes rendered useless nagasaki fires failed merge single fire damaged area fourth great hiroshima southwest wind pushed fires away city map shows hiroshima jumped natural river channels prepared spread fire stopped reached edge blast damaged area encountering available fuel accurate casualty figures impossible determine victims cremated record existence manhattan_project report hiroshima estimated immediate deaths caused fire persons near center explosion suffered fatal injuries bomb effects particular fire victims received lethal nuclear radiation radiation local fallout dust ash bomb crater contaminated radioactive products falls earth crater produce radiation lethal area larger blast fire air burst products rise dissipate global environment little boy air burst metres ground bomb crater local radioactive fallout burst intense gamma radiation came directly lethal radius kilometres covering half area estimated immediate fatalities people received lethal direct radiation died radiation injuries apparent people survived blast fire died radiation injuries injured survivors radiation injuries recovered lifelong increase cancer risk date radiation related evidence diseases observed survivors children conventional weapon equivalent little boy exploded energy equivalent tons tnt strategic bombing survey estimated blast fire effect caused tons conventional bombs carrying tons bombs tons high explosive bombs tons anti personnel bombs target spread dimensional plane vertical component single spherical nuclear explosion largely wasted cluster bomb pattern smaller explosions energy efficient match target post war war ended expected inefficient little boy design required plans destroyed site suffering badly effect faced prospect new produced ordered number little boys prepared interim measure cure found little boy assemblies available comprehensive set little boy found drawings components stocks spare parts base army officers captains albert richard griffin attempted create little boy supervised expert little boy served project alberta leader group los laboratory division gradually managed locate correct drawings parts figured went eventually built little boy assemblies barrels components tested enriched supplied bombs early problem caused effect way solution officers reassigned navy bureau ordnance built little boy assemblies use nuclear capable lockheed neptune aircraft carrier aircraft launched land midway class aircraft carriers components produced naval ordnance plants idaho louisville kentucky material available build projectiles targets little boy units withdrawn service end january institution displays little boy complete enriched department energy took weapon museum remove inner components bombs stolen detonated material government returned emptied disarmed bombs display united_states imperial war museum london


commonly shortened abbreviated designed light tank mainly nazi_germany world war letter stood german czech service formal designation tank light tank model commonly referred total built germans seized occupied march acquired declared independence czechoslovakia time exported bulgaria romania german service saw combat early years world war notably invasion poland battle france invasion soviet_union retired sold remainder war countries training tank bulgaria 1950s description assembled framework steel angle iron beams armor plates separated engine compartment crew covered openings allow access engine improve ventilation drawing air commander hatch advantage rapidly gun gases firing constant draft generated engine greatly affected crew cold weather danger engine fire reaching crew compartment increased engine noise heat increased crew fatigue driver sat right tank millimetres observation port protected millimetres glass armored millimetres thick right vision millimetres similar thickness glass germans replaced original colored lights communicate driver system radio operator sat left millimetres observation port protection driver radios mounted left wall hull hull machine gun driver radio operator ball mount capable traverse elevation depressing machine gun barrel mount protected armored trough mount spotting open sights plug ball mount removed necessary driver lock mount position fire cable driver hatch exposed direct fire damaged turret ring diameter metres turret flat face center mounted centimetres main armament right millimetres machine gun ball mount commander mirror extend removed armored cover hatch vision sole turret commander responsible loading aiming firing main gun turret machine gun simultaneously commanding tank germans added extra right turret load main gun operate turret machine gun ammunition removed accommodate cylinder water cooled engine produced horsepower rpm fuel tanks fitted main tank capacity litres gal left engine litres gal auxiliary tank engine run gasoline alcohol gasoline mixture alcohol mixture mounted rear speed transmission drove rear mounted drive suspension derived vickers ton tank small pairs road wheels pair sprung single leaf spring wheel track return wheels road wheel located directly underneath wheel improve obstacle crossing transmission brakes steering assisted compressed air reducing driver fatigue feature proved problematic extreme conditions eastern main armament german designation gun muzzle brake prominent armored cylinder barrel called fired kilograms armor piercing shell metres second credited penetrating plate inclined vertical millimetres thick metres millimetres thick metres millimetres thick metres millimetres thick metres quote penetration vertical plate millimetres thick metres machine gun ball mount coupled main gun independently weapons elevate power sights field view initially tank machine guns exchanged adopted germans german use rounds ammunition carried stored round boxes hull wall turret ready box gun turret roof machine gun rounds ammunition carried machine gun ammunition round belts stored box czech service carried rounds rounds machine gun ammunition difference removed room fourth german service german command tank version exchanged ammunition exactly isn known radio set recognized prominent radio antenna mounted rear deck armor gun thick rest armor follows development czech army formulated requirement category light cavalry tanks end proposed improved version light tank service offered new design system engine earlier proved unsuccessful light tank prototype prototype ordered company delivery summer tanks armament man crew smaller tonnes long tons short tons maximum millimetres armor weighed tonnes long tons short tons millimetres armor army thought limit development improved needed production order designated army service placed october deliveries began december additional order follow order placed month later total order tanks split equally works according agreement development rushed defects tanks returned factories repaired repairs involved electrical system complicated system foreign interest august romania placed order bulk delivered end afghanistan ordered sold instead bulgaria total production including army romania designation bulgaria vehicles captured army march britain negotiated production license september march nazi occupation agreement impossible soviets interested shipped prototype production proving grounds evaluation soviets interested buying prototype refused sell license purchased believing soviets simply copy design build paying royalties variants prototype tank built army light tank requirement tank light tank model abbreviated production tanks army army tanks inducted annexation command tanks radios artillery tractor conversions alternative designation tanks ordered army diverted bulgaria designation romania tanks supplied romanian army self propelled anti tank gun romanian tank destroyer conversions tanks mounting captured soviet weapons chassis command tank featured extra radios built artillery tractor removing turret upper hull covering gap canvas converted march onwards built order placed differed mainly improved gun built sold bulgaria delivered quarter tank destroyer built removing turret captured soviet field gun place gun crew protected thin fixed sided partially armor plate salvaged captured soviet tanks prototype completed september older field gun proved reasonably successful conversion additional completed end june project stopped concerns gun inadequate heavily armored soviet tanks proposals gun vehicle romanian built model anti tank gun german gun romania changed sides august operational history czechoslovakia tanks assigned armored regiments belonging mobile divisions regiment supposed tank support infantry divisions border areas times crisis heavily suppressing protests violence instigated german party paramilitary groups trained germany instructors october munich agreement tank battalions sent reinforce 3rd mobile division slovakia repel hungarian polish border battalion strength screened infantry evacuate southern slovakia vienna award november company ukraine declared independence hungary invaded march bolstered czech defenses forced retreat slovakia march turned slovakia day prototype tank returning testing soviet_union fighting began participated counterattack damaged captured hungarians prototype forced retreat romania march czech troops eastern returned months later germany following german occupation czechoslovakia march vehicles army seized germans known january german service iii medium tank assigned battalion 1st light division independent regiment participated invasion poland lost campaign mechanical spare parts available tanks completely rebuilt remain operational 1st light division absorbed 11th regiment redesignated 6th division october took battle france assigned corps von attack lost end replacements issued june preparation fall attack remnants french army began following day total total write offs damaged ability field maintenance workshops repair campaign invasion soviet_union 6th division support 4th group drive september division operational despite having received replacements germany tanks total losses october operational requiring repair november reported non operational average distance driven kilometres special situation regard repair known deemed necessary point repairs accomplished longer spare parts means scattered terrain maximum actually repaired reported needing repair longer rebuilt components worn practical maybe armored hulls cessation production tanks absence spare parts decided summer campaign fighting russia exposed vehicle cold weather operations general weakness addition thin armor inadequate firepower resulted 6th division german tanks withdrawal russia april remaining working condition sold romania vehicles turrets hull machine guns removed chassis serve carrier artillery tractor capacity tonnes long tons short tons romania romania ordered tanks august received diverted czech order april display parade suffered numerous problems hold production issues resolved constantly changing romanian demands didn help situation refused accept vehicles trials conducted romania shipped romania july trials knew chosen prepared vehicle passed tests checks trial tank completed romanian commission approved design august meantime initial batch returned upgraded current standards july shipments romania began september shipped munich crisis forced hold remaining tanks case needed finished tanks finished tanks appropriated shipped slovakia quickly returned munich agreement signed shipment departed february assigned 1st armored regiment 1st armored division participated operation division withdrawn combat battle returned august eve soviet counter offensive november division muster tanks stationed rear division outer edges pocket managed breakthrough western wing lost process destroyed soviets rest abandoned broke couldn recovered arrived romania december reinforcement 1st armored division ordered home early january despite delivery romania muster april august raised march hand july time relegated training duties 1st training armored division company sent hoc mixed tank group february combat withdrawn march company assigned armored detachment king michael coup romanian axis end august detachment tasked preventing german units stationed breaking north finding refuge hungary accomplished task withdrawn combat operations following year romania concentrated remaining tanks armored fighting vehicles 2nd armored regiment early unofficial soviet arms began effect hand early february sent soviets confiscated arrived regiment entered april probably destroyed regiment virtually surrounded austria april longer listed regiment vehicles tanks rebuilt tank destroyers soviet gun slovakia army seized tanks declared independence czechoslovakia march organized battalion later incorporated armored regiment tanks participated hungarian war march tank company participated invasion poland didn fighting army upgraded internal communications system tanks german unknown added fourth germans slovakia joined german invasion soviet_union sent mobile group included thirty mobile group reinforced reorganized early july mobile brigade known brigade commander mustered seven tanks despite seven reinforcements caused evacuated slovakia conspiracy tanks needed overthrow regime point couldn wasted combat soviets caused high crew sabotage officers turned blind eye caused tanks withdrawn slovakia beginning august january hand destroyed battle earlier summer seven operational conspiracy tanks slovakia relegated training reserve role germans began supply modern tanks slovakia insurgents national uprising bulgaria bulgaria tanks delivered germany early normal gun tanks powerful gun confiscated order delivered august october supposedly relegated training duties germans began deliver medium tanks apparently remained service fifties claim participated fighting yugoslavia ended war south vienna 1st tank brigade hungary hungary captured ukraine march conquered country fighting march impressed asked quote repair hungarians accept price fixed free hungarians bought license build medium tank august tanks returned hungary march training

Weapons, military equipment and programs


military camouflage military camouflage use camouflage military force protect personnel equipment observation enemy forces practice means applying colour materials military equipment kinds including vehicles ships aircraft gun positions conceal observation appear french slang word camouflage came common english usage world war concept visual deception developed essential modern military tactics war long range artillery observation air combined expand field fire camouflage widely decrease danger targeted enable surprise military camouflage form military deception camouflage practiced simple form mid 18th century rifle units tasks required issued green later colour uniforms advent longer range accurate weapons especially repeating rifle camouflage adopted uniforms armies spreading forms military equipment including ships aircraft modern camouflage address visibility visible light near infrared night vision devices camouflage visual heat sound smell target weapons intentionally concealed forms camouflage elements scale designed disrupt outlines different distances typically digital camouflage patterns camouflage equipment positions extensively developed military use french soon followed world war armies world wars artists recruited camouflage officers ship camouflage developed conspicuous camouflage schemes development radar ship camouflage received attention aircraft especially world war painted different schemes camouflage ground sky respectively military camouflage patterns popular fashion art early camouflage patterns appeared work artists andy hamilton anti war message fashion major designers exploited camouflage style symbolism military clothing street wear symbol political protest principles military camouflage art military deception main objective military camouflage enemy presence position intentions military formations camouflage techniques include disguise applied troops vehicles positions vision main sense orientation humans primary function camouflage human eye camouflage works preventing casting shadows disruption outlines possibly modern warfare forms camouflage example including offer radar infrared sensors camouflage tricks principle cost practical considerations limit choice methods time effort devoted camouflage paint uniforms protect vehicles soldiers elements units need fire weapons perform tasks functional run counter camouflage camouflage dropped altogether late second world war abandoned camouflage paint aircraft lure enemy fighters attack cold war aircraft similarly flew polished metal skins reduce drag weight reduce vulnerability radiation nuclear weapons single camouflage pattern effective effectiveness pattern depends contrast colour tones strong contrasts disrupt outlines better suited environments forests play light shade prominent low contrasts better suited open terrain little structure patterns match local terrain effective terrain general patterns unlike animal civilian hunter military units need cross terrain types like woodland farmland built areas single day civilian hunting clothing photo realistic depictions tree bark leaves patterns based photographs military camouflage designed work range environments cost uniforms particular substantial armies operating globally separate uniforms woodland jungle desert dry terrain american attempt global camouflage pattern environments withdrawn years service end scale terrain specific patterns like berlin applied british vehicles operating berlin cold war square fields gray shades designed hide vehicles concrete architecture post war berlin seasons play role regions dramatic change colour texture created seasonal snowy conditions northern latitudes necessitating vehicles separate snow eastern northern european countries tradition separate winter uniforms second world war went step developing uniforms separate schemes summer autumn white winter movement patterns provide effective solid colour object stationary pattern particularly high contrast stands object moving jungle camouflage uniforms issued second world war british american forces found simple green uniform provided better camouflage soldiers moving war nations returned uniform troops nations notably austria israel continue use solid colour combat uniforms today similarly larger military aircraft traditionally pattern darker lighter lower surface form modern fast fighter aircraft wear gray overall digital camouflage digital camouflage provides effect use patterns range scales meaning camouflage helps defeat observation range distances patterns developed second world war designed number patterns combining patterns scheme german_army developed idea 1970s combines smaller shapes edges large scale pattern making underlying objects harder shapes pre date computer aided design years soviet_union experiments camouflage patterns developed 1970s army officer suggested patterns consisting square blocks colour provide effective camouflage idea combined patterns like german create patterns digital camouflage patterns designed canadian forces digital refers coordinates pattern digitally defined term computer generated patterns like non italian pattern contribute effect style design printing fabric non visual birth radar means detecting military hardware depending human eye came means collectively known stealth technology aircraft ships shaped reflect radar away covered radar absorbing materials reduce radar signature use heat seeking missiles led efforts hide heat signature aircraft engines methods include exhaust ports shaped mix hot exhaust gases cold surrounding air placing exhaust ports upper airframe multi camouflage attempts hide objects detection methods red radar millimetre wave imaging simultaneously camouflage form noise reduction practised ways hull military submarines waves seen form camouflage modern helicopters designed quiet combat uniforms usually equipped buttons snap reduce noise camouflage said rare examples include suits special military strips cloth treated mud smell cover smell sniper magnetic camouflage form second world war protect ships magnetic mines weapons magnetic sensors horizontal parts ship generate magnetic fields cancel earth magnetic field created ship history reconnaissance ship camouflage occasionally ancient times wrote 4th century venetian blue bluish green like sea camouflage years wars sent scout ships gather intelligence coast britain bluish green scout ships carried sailors marines dressed colour emphasis hand hand combat short range weapons musket meant recognition important camouflage combat clothing baroque period introduction infantry weapons longer range especially baker rifle opened new roles needed clothing colonial seven years war rifle armed rogers rangers wore gray green uniforms john graves unit later commanders noted green comparison best colour light troops dark spring autumn nearly fades leaves preserving characteristic scarcely distance tradition continued british rifle regiments adopted rifle green napoleonic wars war portugal fielded light infantry units known wore brown jackets helped conceal brown color considered adequate landscape portuguese regions general arid landscapes central northern europe nations soon followed suit dressing rifle regiments light troops suitable tones usually variations green gray introduction general uniform british corps guides india initially uniform specially imported england reasons invisible land dust larger quantity required army improvised local produce uniform locally type uniform soon known dusty soil coloured indian soldiers similar colour local dress cotton coloured palm example followed british units mutiny dying white drill uniforms tones mud tea coffee coloured resulting varied dark slate grey light brown white improvised measure gradually widespread troops stationed india north west frontier troops campaigning african continent rifle fire long range rifles standard weapon 1830s armies slow adapt tactics uniforms result mainly fighting colonial wars armed opponents boer war major european power meet opponent equipped use modern long range repeating firearms forcing immediate change tactics uniforms coloured uniform standard service dress british british indian army troops stationed british india drill uniform adopted british_army service outside europe general second boer war entire british_army officially known service dress military green rifle units civil war quick follow british going year russia followed partially italian army grey green alps army germans adopted field grey outbreak world war france major power field soldiers dressed traditional conspicuous uniforms world war world war scale industrial conflict fought modern firearms casualty rate western forced french finally relinquish blue coats red trousers adopting grayish horizon blue uniform use rapid firing machine guns long range breech loading artillery quickly led vehicles positions artillery pieces soon painted contrasting bold colours obscure outlines early trend building observation trees steel bark camouflage trees popular british french armies observation tree invented french painter victor led french army camouflage unit kind army invented painted canvas hide machine gun positions quickly taken hiding equipment gun positions million square yards end war world war saw birth aerial warfare need conceal positions vehicles spotted air need camouflage aircraft germany started camouflage covering central powers aircraft possibly earliest printed camouflage similarly splinter pattern earth tones introduced tanks steel helmet use standardized camouflage pattern soldiers american artist amateur zoologist published book coloration animal kingdom widely read military leaders advocacy unsuccessful despite patent submarines surface ships earliest camouflage artists members schools france contemporary artistic movements influenced development camouflage dealt disrupting outlines colour theory french established section camouflage camouflage department headed victor included artists charles mare camouflage schemes world war interwar periods employed patterns described commentators claimed typical yes artists employed traditional representative painters claimed order totally aspect object employ means use represent countries soon saw advantage camouflage established units artists designers architects british established camouflage section late followed suit new_york camouflage society april official company 40th engineers january women reserve camouflage corps italians set command camouflage workshops workers counting working second world war printed camouflage shelter halves introduced italian german armies interwar period italy angular germany war patterns uniforms respective countries british soon followed suit brush stroke type pattern soviets introduced pattern hugh book coloration animals systematically covered different forms camouflage animals protect explicitly drew comparisons military camouflage principle applications modern warfare great war utilized germans introduced strongly marked incidents white black tone conceal contrasts tone sloping sides overhead camouflage screens seen air principle course special application attempt reduce visibility large objects kinds ships tanks buildings british soviet aircraft given wave type camouflage upper surfaces war american ones remained simple colour schemes different upper sides camouflage altogether italian japanese aircraft wore sprayed spotted patterns german aircraft angular pattern camouflage germany experimented different schemes particularly later stages war experimented spray camouflage patterns tanks vehicles allied vehicles remained largely coloured british middle_east command camouflage consisting mainly artists recruited royal engineers developed use camouflage large scale military deception operations combined disguise actual installations vehicles stores simultaneous display draw fire false idea strength forces likely attack directions operation decisive battle dummy armoured division constructed real tanks disguised soft skinned transport covers capabilities developed use western desert europe operation bodyguard deception invasion normandy pacific campaign battle island introduction strategic bombing led efforts camouflage airfields strategic production centres forms position elaborate include false houses cars threat nuclear weapons post war era elaborate camouflage longer seen useful direct hit necessary strategic nuclear weapons destroy infrastructure soviet_union military doctrine literally disguise camouflage defines need surprise deception including camouflage based experiences battle camouflage helped red army powerful enemy application uniforms role uniform hide soldier identify friend foe issue uniforms troops europe second world war halted mistaken patterned german uniform worn camouflage uniforms need distributed large number soldiers design camouflage uniforms involves effect cost armies facing service different theatres need different camouflage uniforms separate issues temperate jungle desert camouflage uniforms common patterns extent adapted different adding means pieces vegetation uniform helmets covers jackets small loops purpose able find appropriate camouflage vegetation ways modify issued battle uniform suit local terrain important skill infantry soldiers countries climates need snow camouflage having uniforms simple simple austrian israeli armies use solid colour field uniforms relying simple camouflage land vehicles purpose vehicle equipment camouflage differs personal camouflage primary threat aerial reconnaissance goal disrupt characteristic shape vehicle reduce shine vehicle difficult identify spotted paint effective measure forms basis techniques military vehicles dirty pattern painted camouflage visible matt colours reduce shine wet vehicle shiny especially viewed patterns designed difficult interpret shadows shapes british_army adopted scheme vehicles operating desert north african campaign greece known scheme colours applied straight lines british_army special air service pink primary colour desert land series patrol vehicles nicknamed pink colour observed indistinguishable sand distance nets effective defeating visual observation traditional camouflage nets use textile generate apparent texture depth shadow created beneath effect reinforced pieces vegetation modern nets tend continuous woven material easier deploy vehicle lack windows patches traditional nets nets remain place vehicles simple nets effective defeating radar thermal sensors heavier mobile camouflage systems essentially thermal radar properties provide degree delay caused having spread nets vehicle ships 20th century naval weapons short range camouflage ships men board paint schemes selected basis ease maintenance aesthetics typically buff polished brass fittings white black hulls start 20th century increasing range naval engagements demonstrated battle prompted introduction camouflage form solid shade gray overall hope ships fade mist second world war camouflage pioneered english artist norman ships disappear smaller faster encourage enemy ships harder hit second world war use radar camouflage generally effective camouflage helped protect warships vietnamese shore batteries optical coastal patrol boats norwegian swedish indonesian navies continue use terrestrial style patterned camouflage aircraft aircraft camouflage faces challenge aircraft background varies widely according observer aircraft background farmland desert aircraft camouflage schemes consisted light colour underneath darker colours camouflage schemes acknowledge aircraft seen angle background combat aircraft painted pattern neutral colour gray second world war maritime patrol aircraft consolidated flying boat painted white aircraft generally appear dark sky including night visible painted light colour possible problem appearing dark sky explored navy lights project counter illumination raise average plane seen head dark shape sky experiments worked enabling aircraft approach miles seen aircraft lights noticed miles away higher speeds modern aircraft reliance radar missiles air combat reduced value visual camouflage increasing value electronic stealth measures modern paint designed absorb electromagnetic radiation radar reducing signature aircraft limit infrared light heat seeking missiles detect target advances aircraft camouflage investigated field active camouflage fashion art fashion ball transfer camouflage patterns battle exclusively civilian uses recent camouflage inspired trend patterns clothing england starting ball held arts club attending wore patterned black white clothing influencing twentieth century fashion art illustration magazine articles illustrated london news announced scheme decoration great fancy dress ball given arts club albert hall day based principles method camouflage war painting ships total effect brilliant fantastic camouflage art artists helped develop camouflage world war disparate sympathies cultures restrained use forms work war artists 1960s artists exploited symbolism camouflage example andy camouflage series major work including camouflage self portrait created camouflage works 1970s work camouflage simply section pioneering italian camouflage fabric frame program hamilton tank ironic parallel idea natural paradise camouflage patterns tank collection describes pseudonym von created nature signs animals dress art thomas world war army dress war protesters 1960s military clothing increasingly common olive patterned camouflage found worn anti war initially groups vietnam veterans war increasingly widely symbol political protest fashion uses camouflage inspiration attracted striking designs patterned disorder camouflage symbolism celebrated use hello versatility early designers include 1960s jean charles stephen prints franco 1990s camouflage significant widespread dress high fashion labels especially use faux camouflage producers camouflage 1990s include john christian louis des tommy saint companies closely associated camouflage patterns include bathing stone island zoo york genuine military surplus fabric use camouflage patterns bright colours pink purple emma created designs integrated camouflage patterns symbols restrictions countries barbados caribbean nations laws prohibiting camouflage clothing worn non military personnel including tourists children civilian possession camouflage banned


horses warfare use horses warfare occurred years ago earliest evidence horses ridden warfare dates illustration warfare depicts type pulling wagons improved harness designs warfare common ancient near east earliest written training manual war horses guide training horses written formal cavalry tactics replaced new training methods greek cavalry officer written extensive treatise effectiveness horses battle improvements technology including invention saddle later horse collar different types sizes horse war depending form warfare type varied horse ridden driven reconnaissance cavalry charges raiding communication supply history horses played crucial role providing support armies field horses suited warfare tactics nomadic cultures central asia east asian cultures extensive use cavalry muslim warriors relied light cavalry campaigns north_africa asia europe beginning 7th 8th centuries europeans types war horses middle ages best known heavy cavalry warrior period armored knight decline knight rise gunpowder warfare light cavalry rose prominence european warfare conquest americas battle cavalry developed multitude roles late 18th century early 19th century crucial victory napoleonic wars americas use horses development mounted warfare tactics learned tribes indigenous people turn highly mobile horse regiments critical american_civil_war horse cavalry began phased world war favor tank warfare horse cavalry units world war especially scouts end world war horses seldom seen battle extensively transport troops supplies today formal battle ready horse cavalry units disappeared united_states_army special forces horses battle invasion afghanistan horses seen use organized armed fighters world countries nations maintain small units mounted riders patrol reconnaissance military horse units ceremonial educational purposes horses historical battles law enforcement equestrian competitions derived riding training skills military types horse warfare fundamental principle form function type horse forms warfare depended work performed weight horse needed carry pull distance travelled weight affects speed endurance creating trade armour added protection added weight reduces maximum speed cultures different military needs situations primary type horse favoured places multiple types needed warriors travel battle riding lighter horse greater speed endurance switch heavier horse greater weight carrying capacity wearing heavy armour actual combat average horse carry approximately body weight horses pull carry weight horses pull varies widely depending build horse type vehicle road conditions factors horses wheeled vehicle paved road pull times weight far pulling loads terrain horses driven varied size trade speed weight riding animals light horses pull small war speed heavy supply wagons artillery support vehicles pulled heavier horses larger number horses method horse vehicle horses pull greater weight horse collar breast collar light weight light oriental horses ancestors modern arabian warfare required speed endurance agility horses ranged hands inches hands inches weighing approximately pounds quickly riders use lightweight carry relatively light weapons bows light spears later rifles original horse early warfare raiding light cavalry relatively light horses cultures including ancient arabs native americans ancient near east small light animals pull designed carry passengers driver warrior european middle ages lightweight war horse known medium weight medium weight horses developed early iron age needs pull heavier loads capable holding people light cavalry evolved heavy cavalry carry heavily armored riders earliest cultures produce taller heavier horses larger horses needed pull supply wagons later artillery pieces europe horses limited extent maneuver cannons battlefield dedicated horse artillery units medium weight horses greatest range size hands inches hands inches weighing approximately pounds generally combat raw speed endurance lighter horse middle ages larger horses class called resembled modern baroque heavy breeds later horses similar modern carried european cavalry heavy weight large heavy horses weighing pounds ancestors today draught horses particularly europe middle ages onward pulled heavy loads having power pull weapons supply wagons disposition remain calm fire historians believe carried heaviest armoured knights european late middle ages dispute claim indicating knight battle horse medium weight animal disputed class included draught animals breeds smaller end heavyweight category included ancestors size physically able manoeuvre battle british_army 2nd hands inches hands inches scouts formed mounted highland british_army recruited world war use pack artillery animals british territorial army experimented use pack animals finding better job horses support human warfare pack animals antiquity present commonly especially pack animals pull wagons occasionally riding horses particularly useful support tasks hauling supplies difficult terrain gunfire cooperative horses generally haul artillery size work depended largely breeding mare produced lightweight medium weight produced draught horse moderate heavy weight training deployment horse training oldest known manual training horses warfare written ancient manual subject training riding horses particularly ancient greek cavalry written greek cavalry officer earliest texts asia written horses trained pull ridden light heavy cavalry carry armoured knight training required overcome horse natural instinct flee noise smell blood confusion combat learned accept sudden unusual movements humans weapon avoiding horses close combat taught permitted kick strike bite weapons warriors carried cultures war horse riding animal trained controlled limited use responding primarily rider legs weight horse accustomed necessary protective armour placed learned balance rider laden weapons armour developing balance agility horse crucial origins discipline came need train horses high school movements classical taught today spanish riding school roots manoeuvres designed battlefield airs ground unlikely actual combat exposed unprotected horse weapons foot soldiers horses warfare trained combat conditions pulled team horses learn work animals close quarters chaotic conditions technological innovations horses probably ridden driven evidence simple images human figures horse like animals drawn rock clay earliest tools control horses sorts invented nearly soon horse evidence bit wear appears teeth horses excavated sites culture northern dated harness vehicles invention wheel major technological innovation gave rise warfare horses wheeled means manner similar design incompatible anatomy limiting strength mobility animal time invasions egypt horses pulling improved harness design use allowed horse faster pull weight obsolete tool war need technological innovations pulling technologies horses needed pull heavy loads supplies weapons invention horse collar china 5th century southern northern allowed horses pull greater weight vehicle breast earlier times horse collar arrived europe 9th century widespread 12th century riding equipment major innovations effectiveness mounted warriors battle saddle riders quickly learned pad horse backs protect horse spine fought horseback centuries little blanket pad horse rudimentary help distribute rider weight protect horse cultures created stuffed resembles panels today english saddle pads added felt attached horse barrel increased security comfort mentioned use cloth cavalry mounts early 4th century saddle solid framework tree provided bearing surface protect horse weight rider widespread 2nd century critical difference horses carry weight distributed solid saddle tree solid tree predecessor today western saddle allowed built seat rider greater security saddle romans credited invention solid saddle invention cavalry particularly effective toe loop held big toe india possibly early later single mounting aid set paired appeared china dynasty following invention paired allowed rider greater leverage weapons increased stability mobility mounted nomadic groups adopted technology developed decisive military advantage 7th century primarily invaders central asia technology spread asia europe invaders viewed primarily responsible spreading use central europe known europe 8th century literary references use date 9th century widespread use northern europe including england credited spread 9th 10th centuries areas tactics archaeological evidence horses warfare dates today ukraine hungary romania long horse people locations began live large fortified towns protection threat horseback riding raiders attack escape faster people cultures follow horse mounted current day eastern_europe spread european languages conquered tribes groups use horses organised warfare documented early recorded history depictions war panel standard dated showing horses possibly pulling wheeled wagon warfare earliest evidence use horse remains culture modern russia dated approximately oldest documentary evidence probably warfare ancient near east old text 18th century mentioned teams horses siege known ancient world prowess widespread use warfare approximately development composite bow known improvements wheels innovations weaponry soon resulted driven battle bronze age societies china egypt invaders brought ancient egypt 16th century adopted use time forward oldest preserved text related handling war horses ancient world manual dates describes conditioning horses existed civilization storage lists crete dating china far dynasty appear high point use china spring autumn period continued use 2nd century descriptions tactical role ancient greece rome rare possibly referring practices describes use transporting warriors battle actual fighting later invading britain noted british throwing leaving fight foot cavalry earliest examples horses ridden warfare horse mounted spear throwers dating reigns rulers iii riders sat far horses position moving quickly horses held ground keeping archer free use bow type mounted infantry true cavalry developed cavalry response invasions nomadic people north entered asia minor 8th century took parts reign approximately mounted warriors influence region 7th century reign learned sit forward horses classic riding position seen today said true light cavalry ancient greeks light horse scouts heavy cavalry extensively possibly cost keeping horses heavy cavalry believed developed ancient argue time persian military tactics required horses riders completely armoured bred heavier horse carry additional weight type heavily armored cavalry distinct tactics armour weaponry time middle ages ancient greece credited developing tactics allowing cavalry charges famous greek heavy cavalry units companion cavalry alexander great chinese 4th century states period began use cavalry rival states fight nomadic raiders north west chinese han dynasty developed effective mounted units cavalry extensively romans roman republic period time roman empire use heavy cavalry backbone roman army infantry horse artillery gunpowder invented major use horses draught animals heavy artillery cannon addition field artillery horse drawn guns attended gunners foot armies artillery batteries gunner provided mount horse artillery units generally lighter pieces pulled horses pounders pulled horses heavier artillery pieces needed team individual riding horses required officers support staff pulling artillery guns supply wagons artillery battery guns require horses horse artillery usually came command cavalry divisions battles horse artillery rapid response force attacks assisting infantry agility important ideal artillery horse hands high strongly built able quickly asia central asia relations settled people central asia marked conflict nomadic lifestyle suited warfare cavalry militarily potent forces world limited frequent lack internal unity periodically strong leaders organise tribes force creating power unified groups included invaded europe conducted campaigns eastern france northern italy miles apart successive campaign seasons unified nomadic forces included attacks china conquest india literature ancient india describes numerous horse earliest references use horses south asian warfare texts refer attempted invasion india joint cavalry forces called captured throne king later texts appear recognise efforts taken breed war horses develop trained mounted warriors stating horses regions finest quality expert fighting horses technological innovation early toe loop credited cultures india use early long cultures ancient greece clashed central asia india wrote mercenaries empire recruited army emperor persia led greeks century later men mountain land north river served army iii persia fought alexander great battle alexander forces included cavalry recounted cavalry helped defeat ruler throne laying foundations dynasty northern india cavalry gunpowder weapons slow replace traditional composite bow impact european military successes india indian rulers adopted european system cavalry charges 18th century indian armies continued field cavalry mainly heavy variety east asia chinese horse based warfare light cavalry forces common states era major proponent change riding horses conservative forces china opposed change cavalry dominant europe cavalry china benefit additional attached military branch dominated nobility japanese fought cavalry centuries particularly skilled art horseback skills mounted developed training originated reached peak period switched emphasis mounted mounted period middle_east period islamic controlled middle_east parts west_africa peninsula muslim armies consisted cavalry fighters local groups mercenaries considered particularly skilled mounted 9th century use slaves raised soldiers muslim rulers increasingly common mobile tactics advanced breeding horses detailed training cavalry highly efficient fighting force use armies consisting cavalry continued turkish people founded ottoman_empire need large mounted forces lead establishment cavalry soldiers granted lands exchange providing military service times war mounted muslim warriors conquered north_africa peninsula 7th 8th centuries following muhammad influence expanded middle_east western north_africa light cavalry muslim warriors reached spain controlled peninsula mounts oriental types including north african arabian horses come settled valley strain horse came islamic invaders horse muslim invaders travelled north spain france defeated ruler charles battle tours europe middle ages european middle ages primary types war horses differed size usage generic word describe medieval war horses appears terms medieval war horse moderate size rarely exceeding hands inches heavy horses difficult maintain varied early middle ages moderately larger accommodate heavier armoured knights large draught horses averaging hands inches hands inches european continent need carry armour mounted enemies led developing heavier bigger horses armour equipment increased later middle ages height horses increased late medieval horse skeletons horses hands natural aggression use european warriors likely position enemy preferred war horse invaded parts southern europe 15th century war knights known monk horses german advantage captured enemy improve local maintaining knights superiority uses heavy cavalry charge effective common occurrence battles rarely fought land suitable heavy cavalry mounted riders remained effective initial attacks end 14th century common knights fight horses sent rear kept ready pursuit pitched battles avoided possible offensive warfare early middle ages taking form later middle ages mounted raids called lightly armed warriors swift horses war horse seen martial war games began 11th century sport provide training battle specialised bred purpose expense keeping training kept majority population owning historians suggest tournament theatrical event 15th 16th centuries argue continued help cavalry train battle thirty years war transition decline armoured knight probably linked changing structures armies economic factors new technologies historians attribute demise knight invention gunpowder english link decline technologies argue technologies actually contributed development knights plate armour developed resist early medieval bolts harness worn early 15th century developed resist arrows 14th century plate hardened steel resisted early musket ammunition addition stronger designs plate heavier harness musket proof plate 17th century weighed pounds significantly 16th century tournament armour infantry based battles linked improved infantry tactics changes weaponry 16th century concept combined arms professional army spread europe professional armies emphasized training paid contracts change ransom knights past coupled rising costs involved maintaining armour horses traditional classes began abandon profession light horses scouting reconnaissance provided defensive screen marching armies large teams draught horses pulled heavy early cannon horses pulled wagons carried supplies armies early modern period early modern period shift continued heavy cavalry armoured knight light cavalry including light cavalry facilitated better communication fast horses quickly ratio horsemen increased period infantry weapons improved mobile versatile particularly musket bayonet replaced pike era mounted units included heavily armoured equipped light cavalry wore mail bore light pistols carried early heavy cavalry use declined armour increasingly abandoned horses rarely combat common mounted infantry provided reconnaissance escort security generals heavy mounted charge late 17th century early 18th century sword wielding wedge formation shock troops penetrated enemy lines early 19th century armoured heavy employed light cavalry continued play major role particularly seven years war started play larger battles leaders preferred tall horses mounted troops prestige increased shock ability troops typical horses averaging hands cavalry tactics altered fewer mounted charges reliance manoeuvres use firearms range elaborate movements developed facilitate use firearms horseback tactics greatly successful battle protected deny cavalry room manoeuvre advanced required survives modern world restricted cavalry rendered obsolete infantry formations developed tactics skills artillery essential break formations turn cavalry required combat enemy artillery susceptible cavalry deploying charge enemy infantry formations broken artillery fire successful warfare depended balance arms cavalry artillery infantry regimental structures developed units selected horses uniform type royal scots specified colour rode distinctive horses stood regional armies developed type preferences british hunters central europe field lack supplies typical wartime meant horses types horses vital component armies early modern europe instituted state stud farms breed horses military wartime supply rarely matched demand resulting cavalry troops fighting foot 19th century 19th century heavy light cavalry significant end war heavy cavalry performing scouting outpost duties previously undertaken light cavalry end 19th century roles effectively merged armies time preferred cavalry horses stand hands inches weigh pounds frequently heavier horses lighter horses scouting raiding cavalry horses generally obtained years age service years barring loss losses common campaign conditions march enemy action preferred easily managed french revolutionary wars napoleonic wars cavalry main offensive role shock troops defence cavalry attack harass enemy infantry flanks advanced cavalry frequently prior infantry assault force infantry line break reform formations vulnerable infantry artillery infantry frequently followed order secure ground won cavalry break enemy lines following successful infantry action mounted charges carefully managed charge maximum speed moving faster resulted break formation horses charges occurred clear rising ground effective infantry march deployed line column foot battalion formed line vulnerable cavalry broken destroyed formed charge traditional cavalry functions altered end 19th century cavalry units transferred title role mounted rifles troops trained fight foot retaining mounts rapid deployment patrols scouting communications defensive screening troops differed mounted infantry horses transport perform old cavalry roles reconnaissance support sub africa horses warfare central 9th century considered precious following slave conclusive evidence horses playing major role warfare west_africa dates 11th century region controlled muslim dynasty 13th 14th centuries cavalry important factor area coincided introduction larger breeds horse widespread adoption increased mobility played formation new power centers empire today nigeria authority african islamic states empire rested large ability subject neighboring peoples cavalry despite harsh climate conditions endemic diseases african horse sickness unsuitable terrain limited effectiveness horses parts africa horses continuously imported areas vital instrument war introduction horses intensified existing conflicts people 19th century african slave trade closely tied imports war horses prevalence decreased fewer horses needed raiding significantly decreased mounted warfare seen west_africa time scramble africa introduction modern firearms 1880s use horses african warfare lost effectiveness nonetheless south_africa second boer war cavalry mounted troops major combat force british horse mounted moved quickly infantry engage presented mobile innovative approach warfare drawing strategies appeared american_civil_war terrain suited british horses resulting loss animals campaign wore losses replaced african horses australia americas horse extinct western hemisphere approximately years prior arrival spanish early 16th century consequently indigenous peoples americas warfare technologies overcome considerable advantage provided european horses gunpowder weapons particular resulted conquest speed increased impact cavalry contributed number early victories european fighters open terrain success limited mountainous regions maintained roads enabled quick mounted raids undertaken spanish resisting siege indigenous populations south_america soon learned use horses chile began cavalry war drove spanish beginning 17th century later conducted mounted raids known spanish chilean argentine settlements 19th century north_america native americans quickly learned use horses particular people great plains renowned horseback fighters 19th century presented formidable force united_states_army american revolutionary war continental_army relatively little use cavalry primarily relying infantry regiments united_states congress eventually authorized regiments specifically designated cavalry newly formed american cavalry adopted tactics based experiences fighting vast distances mexican war indigenous peoples western frontier abandoning european traditions american_civil_war cavalry held important respected role hold american military field artillery american_civil_war highly mobile horses pulled guns horses battlefield beginning war experienced cavalry officers south joined confederacy leading confederate army initial battlefield superiority tide turned battle station campaign union cavalry largest cavalry battle fought north american continent ended dominance south union cavalry decisive achieving victory important horses individual soldiers surrender terms allowed confederate horse home unlike union counterparts confederate provided horses service instead drawing government 20th century cavalry extensively world 19th century horses important warfare beginning 20th century light cavalry seen battlefield beginning 20th century formal mounted cavalry began phased combat immediately world war units included horses military uses world war world war world war saw great changes use cavalry mode warfare changed use trench warfare barbed wire machine guns rendered traditional cavalry obsolete tanks introduced began role shock combat early war cavalry skirmishes common horse mounted troops widely reconnaissance western cavalry effective flanking force race sea useful trench warfare established examples successful shock combat cavalry divisions provided important mobile firepower cavalry played greater role eastern trench warfare common eastern ottomans cavalry literally british_empire cavalry proved trained fight foot mounted european cavalry relied primarily shock action fronts horse pack animal railway lines withstand artillery horses carried ammunition supplies rear trenches horses generally actual trench zone role horses critical horse fodder single largest shipped countries following war cavalry regiments converted armoured divisions light tanks developed perform cavalry original roles world war nations horse units world war polish army cavalry defend armies nazi_germany invasion germans soviet_union maintained cavalry units war particularly eastern british_army horses early war final british cavalry charge march burma frontier force encountered japanese infantry central burma american cavalry unit world war 26th cavalry challenged japanese invaders holding armoured infantry regiments invasion philippines repelled unit tanks successfully held ground allied armies retreat war horses essential form transport especially british rough terrain italy middle_east united_states_army utilised cavalry supply units war concerns americans use horses campaigns north_africa generals george lamented lack saying possessed american cavalry division pack artillery tunisia sicily german escaped german soviet armies horses end war transportation troops supplies german_army transport factories needed produce tanks aircraft million horses world war german infantry division normandy horses soviets million horses recognition statues memorials erected human heroes war shown horses created specifically honor horses animals general example horse memorial port elizabeth eastern cape province south_africa horses honored animals war memorial london park horses times received medals extraordinary deeds charge light brigade war surviving horse named drummer boy ridden officer 8th given unofficial campaign medal rider identical awarded british troops served engraved horse inscription service formal award medal animals equivalent victoria_cross awarded people sick animals charity united_kingdom horses served world war modern uses today historical military uses horse evolved peacetime applications including exhibitions historical work peace officers competitive events formal combat units mounted cavalry thing past horseback units modern military reconnaissance ceremonial crowd control purposes rise technology horses formal national militias displaced tanks armored fighting vehicles referred cavalry active military organised armed fighters horseback occasionally seen best known current examples militia groups seen region notorious attacks unarmed civilian populations conflict nations maintain small numbers mounted military units certain types patrol reconnaissance duties extremely rugged terrain including conflict afghanistan beginning operation enduring freedom operational detachment alpha teams inserted afghanistan october horses suitable transportation difficult mountainous terrain northern afghanistan soldiers ride horses battle january army 26th cavalry regiment charged advanced guard 14th japanese army advanced manila remaining operationally ready fully horse mounted regular regiment world indian army 61st cavalry law enforcement public safety mounted police 18th century worldwide control traffic crowds patrol public parks order ceremonies perform general street patrol duties today cities mounted police units rural areas horses law enforcement mounted patrols rugged terrain crowd control religious border patrol rural areas law enforcement operates outside incorporated cities mounted units include specially paid volunteer mounted search rescue units sent areas horseback locate missing people law enforcement protected areas use horses places transport difficult prohibited horses essential overall team effort faster ground human foot transport heavy equipment provide rested rescue worker subject found ceremonial educational uses countries world maintain traditionally trained historically cavalry units ceremonial exhibition educational purposes example horse cavalry detachment army 1st cavalry division unit active duty soldiers weapons tools equipment techniques united_states cavalry 1880s seen change command ceremonies public appearances similar detachment governor general horse guards canada household cavalry regiment remaining mounted cavalry unit canadian forces king household cavalry ceremonial unit horses remainder cavalry existed 19th century important ceremonial use military horse procession symbolize warrior ride horses historical try recreate conditions battle tournament equipment authentic possible equestrian sport modern day olympic equestrian events rooted cavalry skills classical equestrian events olympics introduced competition restricted active duty officers military horses warfare reduced number military riders civilian riders allowed compete traces origins works cavalry training methods developing renaissance response need different tactics battles firearms phase competition known developed cavalry officers needs versatile horses jumping developed largely fox hunting cavalry considered jumping good training horses leaders development modern riding techniques fences came military ranks olympic disciplines events military roots competitions weapons mounted shooting tent test combat skills mounted riders


disney bomb disney bomb known disney officially concrete piercing rocket assisted bomb rocket assisted bunker bomb developed second world war british_royal_navy penetrate hardened concrete targets submarine resist conventional free fall bombs devised royal_navy captain edward bomb fitted solid fuel rockets accelerate descent giving impact speed miles hour substantially miles hour gravity propulsion impact velocity comparable purposes ability penetrate solid concrete attributed propaganda film produced disney studios provided inspiration design disney bomb saw limited use united_states_army air forces europe february april technically successful initially lacked accuracy required bunker targets deployed late war little effect allied bombing campaign germany background second world war barnes developed large earthquake bombs royal_air_force grand slam use targets heavily protected affected conventional high explosive bombs enormous weapons designed strike close target penetrate deeply earth cause major structural damages making repair shock waves transmitted ground practice proved capable penetrating significant thickness concrete scored direct hit despite designed purpose work accuracy limitations current resulting low accuracy bombings disney bomb contrast designed start directly penetrate thick concrete roofs fortified earthquake bomb target bunker disney bomb target bunker contents end composed unusually thick steel shell containing comparatively small explosive shaped usual aircraft dropped bombs cluster rockets accelerated weapon fell struck target velocity greater free fall terminal velocity features accord newton impact depth design equation known young equation state deepest target penetration achieved dense long thin large density strikes high velocity description disney bombs long weighed pounds diameter body bomb diameter tail composed sections forward section explosive charge pounds contained armour piercing thick steel fitted british tail pistol base nose second section nineteen rocket motors inches rocket essentially metal tubes filled rear section tail cone contained circuit ignited rockets powered small generator spun going past falling bomb rocket controlled time delay switch barometric switch small fins rear bomb bomb suspended aircraft weight bearing wires connected bomb aircraft bomb dropped brief wires arm rocket circuit unlock electrical generator allowing spin freely accuracy bombs dropped precisely pre determined height usually feet free fall seconds feet rockets ignited causing tail section expelled rocket burn lasted seconds added feet second bomb speed giving final impact speed feet second equivalent miles hour approximately post war tests demonstrated bombs able penetrate inch thick concrete roof predicted ability penetrate feet inches concrete development testing according idea arose group royal_navy officers saw similar fictional bomb depicted disney animated propaganda film victory air power disney consequently given weapon royal_navy developed bomb fleet air arm operated aircraft capable carrying navy interest concrete penetrating weapon explained german_navy extensive use fortified submarine protect boats boats air attack docked disney bomb devised british naval officer captain edward royal naval volunteer reserve served miscellaneous weapons development war lawyer recorder enthusiastic inventor filed patents pre war including ones vegetable knife bottle fountain pen ink bomb development began september support idea highest levels admiralty production weapon come ministry aircraft production map road research laboratory provided theoretical formula penetration data performance inch shells reinforced concrete chief engineer armament development fort prepared preliminary design present map face opposition sea lord prepared memorandum anti boat committee churchill chairman visited churchill scientific adviser lord convince feasible technically prime minister absence illness january churchill expressed desire bomb considered committee number departments involved meetings involving large numbers technicians scientists confirm technical feasibility air technical section received support able admiralty wing boeing flying fortress air ministry opposed development technical grounds took meeting war cabinet attended decide favour giving plus priority effect meeting focused attention issue boat shelters raf directed attacks dropping august year despite british weapon united_states_army air_force bombs joint project american eighth air_force british_royal_navy raf bomber command bombardment group initially tasked use bombs dropped bombardment group bombardment group bombardment group prepared use bombs flew operations war europe ended flying fortresses operated units carried bombs pairs wing long carried bomb bay carried external mounting bomb cameras fitted aircraft bombs trajectory effect recorded testing disney bombs began early bombs initially dropped bombing range near southampton record trajectory necessary flight path rocket accelerated bomb differed considerably free falling bomb test drops conducted bunker german west known large german concrete bunker near northern france ideal purpose area captured allied forces september damage structure inspected bomb tests bombs carried hits scored target resultant damage considered satisfactory royal_navy observers ground combat disney attack port netherlands site separate fortified german_navy house fast torpedo boats known allies boats submarines older structure protected foot thick concrete roof newer feet concrete foot layer separated air gap boats laid shelters day safe air attack sea cover night attack allied shipping priority targets torpedo boats protected considerable threat supply lines serving allied forces western_europe august attacked times squadron squadron raf total ton earthquake bombs numerous attacks bombers carrying smaller conventional bombs aircraft bomb group carrying attacked february royal_navy intelligence learned concrete penetrated time attack carried attack pen aircraft march march aircraft eighth air_force including bomb group attacked submarine massive bomb hardened concrete shelter construction small port near bremen germany location disney bombs shelter nearing completion factory assembly type boats construction way forced labour concentration camp prisoners prisoners war foreign civilians suffered high death rate horrific conditions worked metre roof penetrated ton grand slam bombs dropped raf days earlier march eighth air_force attack launched hit target little effect installations bunker received considerable damage bombing germans limited attempts carry repairs abandoning complex area captured british_army weeks later april attacked fortified targets hamburg target obscured cloud radar guidance launch bombs mission cancelled total bombs dropped end war aircraft lost disney combat missions post war development june air council wrote lords admiralty expressing appreciation work rocket bomb raf initiated bombing tests disney june bunker target actual bombing carried 8th air_force behalf raf proved small satisfactory target french objected continued bombing territory peace time testing took place project joint anglo american programme test range concrete penetrating bombs wartime german bunker small island submarine bombs tested included grand slam british versions american pound amazon pound bombs disney bombs dropped objective observe effects bomb explosions test concrete penetration strength bomb resumption peace safety civilians living consideration time small population evacuated war site boat pen foot thick roof test bombs loaded explosive sure explosives shock sensitive prematurely detonate impact target peace time testing bomb far extensive carried prior wartime deployment total dropped loaded variety explosive charges composed tnt thirty dropped rockets rockets firing previously dropped bomb range test accuracy sure land outside safety exclusion zone set trials penetration performance feet inches concrete disney found satisfactory predicted maximum penetration feet inches bombs penetrated concrete roof foot thick concrete floor coming rest completely buried sand structure foundations problems bombs reliability rocket considered unsatisfactory failure rate trials bombs broke impact target flaws steel bombs struck angle increasing effective thickness concrete penetrate furthermore noted bomb comparatively small large bunker complex required penetrating hits sure destroying contents comparison effective concrete penetration grand similar disney feet bombs directly penetrated seven feet concrete remaining thickness blown bomb enormous explosive charge roof penetrated grand war ended occurred inside bunker post war examination revealed little damage complex aside large holes roof installations inside bunker remained comparatively unscathed conclusion project bombs tested completely suitable development new concrete penetrating bomb recommended disney rocket assist viewed worthwhile feature incorporated new bomb designs target penetration increases strike velocity found increases marginally bomb dropped higher feet january body inactive disney bomb pound explosive charge extracted roof bunker private museum embedded test drops bomb transferred ammunition depot kilometres centre recovered chemical ammunition equipment world war processed


gun gun heavy german gun mounted german capital ships built shortly world war designed fired shell slightly greater inches diameter entered service class battleships carrying commissioned high_seas_fleet fitted subsequent class class battleships class battlecruisers guns great effect battle jutland june class ships destroy british battlecruisers queen mary invincible gun eventually superseded german naval use larger powerful world war guns islands defend germany north_sea coast battery war defend port occupied flanders guns destroyed victorious allies end war battery survived intact guns transferred island second world war guns transferred france employed coastal defense positions english channel specifications naval turrets guns mounted twin gun turrets class ships turrets roofs sides later ship classes improved designs kaiser class carried gun houses subsequent class carried turrets type primary improvement turret increase armor thickness roof armor remained turret roofs mounts reduced sides remained thickness half sister carried improved type mounts thick roofs thick sides turrets newer thickness roofs increased sides preceding type weights gun houses ranged tons metric tons variations depended primarily thickness armor class ships gun turret working chamber beneath connected revolving ammunition leading magazine turrets electrically controlled guns elevated effort reduce possibility fire turret constructed steel layout preceding battleships class battlecruisers forward superfiring rear turret configuration gun turret magazine shell room inverted german gun turrets initially allowed elevation degrees battle jutland modified allow elevation degrees centerline turrets warships train degrees direction wing turrets kaiser classes limited arc degrees direction coast defense mounts island received twin gun turrets exact type unknown battery kaiser built protect port occupied flanders world war consisted guns concrete barbettes mounted firing platforms manually powered mounts rotated pivot mount rear supported resting semi circular rail equipped gun shield capable fire manned sailors naval artillery regiment regiment end world war guns mounts equipped battery friedrich august island transferred hitler renounced treaty versailles island equipped battery von manned troops second naval artillery battalion marine later naval artillery battalion marine french defeated guns transferred near sur france assumed battery friedrich august guns initially open barbettes traverse later rebuilt concrete casemates overhead cover elevate degrees train degrees direction ammunition guns fired types shells world war armor piercing high explosive types world war guns fired wider variety shells including armor piercing types high explosive shells specially designed coast defense artillery projectiles rounds weighed coastal artillery projectiles weighed shells world war main charge weighed smaller fore charge weighed gave guns muzzle velocity meters second feet second coast defense guns charges weighed main charge fore charge increased shells rounds shells fired muzzle velocity lightweight coast defense shell muzzle velocity performance degrees elevation gun hit targets yards armor piercing shells turrets improved allow elevation degrees range increased range armor piercing shells fired gun expected penetrate armor plate effectiveness shell decreased able pierce plate range world war guns significantly greater guns world war shell degrees guns maximum range shell degrees range lighter round degrees maximum range weapons comparable role performance era inch naval gun british contemporary guns pattern gun russian contemporary gun


project project given world war manhattan_project heavy water production program plant trail british_columbia upgraded produce heavy water plants constructed united_states ordnance works near west_virginia river ordnance works near newport indiana alabama ordnance works near alabama american plants operational closed canadian plant trail continued operation nuclear built heavy water produced project chicago pile chalk river laboratories canada origins heavy water form water contains larger normal hydrogen known heavy hydrogen common makes hydrogen ordinary water discovered later able concentrate water mentor gilbert newton lewis isolated sample pure heavy water scientific curiosity start considerable interest heavy water aroused von suggested heavy water nuclear natural carried experiments ordinary water found hydrogen absorbed preventing desired chain reaction heavy water ideal office scientific research development hugh taylor british physicist princeton_university charge heavy water research taylor began looking means producing heavy water industrial scale project arthur requested stone heavy water project project october problem heavy water scarce scientists readily acquire quantities required columbia_university united_states attempted use instead turned possible pure particularly tended absorb december team initiated artificial self sustaining nuclear chain reaction experimental known chicago manhattan_project crucial step manufacture use atomic bomb larger required mass production trail involved heavy water research produced plant trail british_columbia february canadian national research council ability produce heavy water followed july letter taylor offered national defense research committee contract produce pounds prepared pay pound low grade high grade heavy water time selling pound president cautious post war demand heavy water patent process held albert profit sharing agreement required response taylor offered plant modifications matter rested december meeting british physicist informed taylor discouraged decided find alternative source heavy water invited taylor visit trail january soon found common ground agreed produce heavy water trail quickly secured approval chairman board sir edward contract signed august existing million plant consisting cells consuming hydroelectric power secondary cells added increase concentration water process taylor developed platinum carbon catalyst stages developed fourth stage tower seven new parcels land acquired totalling acres leased government construction undertaken stone final cost million canadian government officially learn project august shortly construction began following month completed june cost production rose steadily pounds june pounds january pounds january pounds january running cost plant averaged month period june december manhattan_project replaced atomic energy commission worked pound trail heavy water production continued american sites director manhattan_project brigadier general november recruited prime contractor construction production complex preferred designs nuclear cooled expressed interest heavy water backup case design proved reason purpose estimated short tons heavy water required month plant trail construction produce short tons month capacity required authorized establish additional heavy water facilities ordnance works near west_virginia river ordnance works near newport indiana alabama ordnance works near alabama known ordnance works paid ordnance department contracts built operated united_states_army corps engineers locating ordnance plants saved cost acquiring land owned government personnel utilities including steam generating equipment american plants process different trail heavy water extracted taking advantage slightly higher boiling point heavy water considered efficient process known work scale industrial process represented risk proposals alabama expected produce short tons short tons short tons respectively heavy water month concentration works undertaken cost plus fixed fee contract works alabama construction commenced january substantially completed ahead september scheduled date facilities progressively brought operation august cost fixed fee originally voluntarily reduced cost construction considerably originally estimated finishing plant established plant control division plant output plants heavy water broken hydrogen oxygen light hydrogen tends drawn leaving heavy water process repeated stages yield finished product heavy water construction commenced january substantially completed october stages plant operational june september total cost including fee voluntarily reduced plant constructed substantially allocated alabama construction commenced february completed november stages plant operational september total cost including fee voluntarily reduced plant constructed substantially allocated production american plants achieved intended production pounds month series suggestions improving production considered promising carried successful reconstruction stage towers reduce resulted considerable improvement performance time early decided production sufficient expense plants justified plant alabama closed june july august finishing plant closed september intermediate product remaining plants closed sent trail resulted approximately pounds extra production trail february august finishing plant finished product plants produced average pounds month total pounds finishing plant processed pounds heavy water recovered germany manhattan_project mission average monthly production cost alabama total heavy water cost pound excluding cost plants included cost pound compared pound trail intermediate product shipped alabama rail sealed metal containers finished product shipped rail railway trail canadian pacific railway manhattan_project laboratory university_of_chicago heavy water trail chicago pile heavy water natural designed eugene built direction walter went critical allocation heavy water chalk river laboratories build direction went critical september followed rector heavy water like scientific research production demand heavy water increased early 1950s heavy water facility renamed plant atomic energy commission reopened resumed production heavy water site pilot plant new production process hydrogen heavy water facility closed early facility larger complex savannah river site fulfilled purpose supplying heavy water production savannah river


quick loading cannon caliber barrel german railroad gun originally naval gun adapted land service ships disarmed beginning served western coast defense duties occupied flanders world war belgium received guns war germans guns world war belgium surrender battle france coast defense duties estuary rest war design history guns main armament class pre dreadnought battleships transferred army navy kaiserliche_marine ships began relegated training duties battle jutland proved suitable contemporary naval combat change land service placement large forward counteract weight breech heavy simpler adding perform function guns sms placed firing platform coast defense duty island firing platform semi portable mount weeks labor prepare position rotated pivot mount rear supported resting rail generally equipped gun shield guns battleships mounted railroad firing platform und mounts successfully german railroad guns fire suitable section track curved track wheel absorb gun cradle backwards built underside mount large fitted underside mount rear seven cars carry portable metal firing platform central pivot mount outer rail assembled aid crane took days railroad tracks laid slightly past firing platform accommodate gun gun moved firing platform lowered position central section rail removed gun firing platform pivot mount entire carriage trucks sections rail removed carriage lowered rear rested outer track concrete versions traverse ammunition ammunition moved means overhead rail shell carried individual shells placed loading fixed breech rail raised place allow shell reach shells placed ground ammunition car mount ammunition car overhead rail shells forward mount reach hatch roof shell powder manually rammed gun gun loaded zero elevation needed aimed shot german naval system ammunition base charge held metallic cartridge case supplemented charge silk bag rammed combat history navy kept coast defense duties mainly occupied flanders protect ports sailor artillery regiment german regiment defended batteries guns sources disagree number guns assigned batteries guns defending command sailor artillery regiment battery guns saw service british spring offensive march april given army served battery battery german gun mount carried captured australian_army august barrel preserved today canberra australia gun armistice signed november battery stationed belgium sought asylum netherlands given belgium destroyed military inter allied commission control surrender belgium battery june fire gun destroyed shell detonated prematurely barrel firing targets end assigned battery stationed sur defending mouth estuary command artillery group south german battery able retreat germany september invasion normandy began june known activities