background spanish civil war background spanish civil war dates end 19th century owners large estates called held power land based landowners power unsuccessfully challenged industrial merchant sectors popular uprisings led overthrow queen isabella house isabella replacement king house increasing political pressure short lived spanish republic proclaimed restoration december emerged opposition monarchy helped bring fore poverty particularly acute growing resentment conscription military culminated tragic week barcelona world war working class industrial class military united hopes removing corrupt central government unsuccessful fears communism grew military coup brought rivera power ran spain military dictatorship support regime gradually faded resigned january little support monarchy major cities king second spanish republic formed power remain culmination spanish civil war continue oppose republic revolutionary committee headed provisional government president head state republic broad support segments society elections june returned large majority republicans onset great depression government attempted assist rural spain hour day giving tenure farm workers land reform working conditions remained important issues lifetime republic remained threat helped controversial reforms military december new liberal democratic constitution declared constitution government coupled respond wave anti clerical violence prompted committed catholics disillusioned incumbent coalition government october prime minister minority government right won elections following unsuccessful uprising general august later lead coup started civil war events period following november called black years civil war likely radical republican_party formed government support rolled major changes previous administration granted amnesty general attempted unsuccessful coup moved fascist help achieve aims response socialist party extreme setting revolutionary committee training socialist youth secret open violence occurred streets spanish cities continued increase right start civil war reflecting movement radical peaceful democratic means solution spain problems months government collapses brought members spanish confederation autonomous right government making right wing farm workers wages military republican members reformed popular alliance organised won elections led weak minority government soon replaced president april prime minister failed warnings military conspiracy involving generals decided government replaced dissolution spain prevented organised military coup july started spanish civil war constitutional monarchy 19th century 19th century turbulent time spain favour reforming spain government political power conservatives tried prevent reforms taking place liberals tradition started spanish constitution sought limit power monarchy spain establish liberal state reforms king ferdinand vii dissolved constitution ended short lived liberal government french royalist military assistance successful carried attempts political system match social reality 1850s economy spain primarily based agriculture little development industrial commercial class land based remained powerful small number people held large estates called important government positions landowners power challenged industrial merchant sectors largely unsuccessfully popular uprisings led overthrow queen isabella house distinct factors led uprisings series urban riots liberal movement middle classes military led general joan concerned ultra monarchy isabella replacement king house increasing political pressure spanish republic proclaimed intellectuals republic powerless prevent descent chaos uprisings crushed military old monarchy returned restoration december reform deemed important peace stability despite introduction universal male suffrage elections controlled local political bosses sectors political sphere systematically tried prevent liberal reforms sustain monarchy supporters descendants fought promote spanish tradition catholicism successive spanish governments attempted restore historic liberties broad regional autonomy granted country regional charters times allied nationalists separate national faction civil war including wars periodically popular working class far stronger spain europe time easily defeated clashes government forces 20th century italian assassinated prime minister del motivated growing number arrests use torture government loss cuba spain valuable colony spanish american war hit exports hardest acts terrorism actions agents barcelona decades 20th century industrial working class grew number growing discontent country spain industry based believed government favoured failed represent interests average rate considerable regional variation poverty areas great mass emigration new world occurred decade century spain socialist party spanish socialist workers party spanish associated trade union general gained support grew members branch offices del unions established major cities constantly fearful losing ground respected discipline strikes anti members barcelona late based simple form assumed inevitable revolution character moved headquarters barcelona madrid industrial workers longer able access elements recognised need cooperation republican parties party founded attracted intellectuals figures like leader helped attract wide support working class advocacy anti successful barcelona argued catholic_church system oppression people time came fore military keen avoid break state increasingly inward looking following loss cuba regional nationalism perceived army attacked headquarters satirical magazines believed government military government outlawed negative comments military spain spanish press resentment military conscription grew disastrous war spanish morocco support army aims lost support events culminated tragic week spanish barcelona working class groups churches similar institutions burned anti clerical attacks riot finally ended military members groups trial people sentenced death events led establishment national confederation labour spanish del controlled trade union committed million members increasing exports world war led boom industry declining living standards industrial areas particularly country high inflation industrial sector resented central government concerns promotion systems political corruption war morocco caused divisions military popular working class industrial class military united hope removing corrupt central government hopes defeated political parties representing groups suppressed central government eventually backed government way restore order formation communist international growing fear communism spain growing repression government military means split left wing members founding communist_party restoration government failed cope increasing number strikes industrial workers north agricultural workers south rivera came power military coup ran spain military dictatorship handed control trade union power introduced sweeping programme public works public works extremely including hydroelectric dams highways causing deficit double spain financial situation far worse gold standard lost nearly half value brought government set industrial arbitration boards opposed group seen leaders attempted defend industrial coalition formed war significant reform political system particular monarchy instituted forming new government difficult existing problems gradually support faded personal approach political life ensured personally held government increasing frustration interference economic matters didn understand finance minister person withdraw support rivera resigned january little support return system monarchy lost credibility backing military government ordered king form replacement government dictatorship failed provide viable alternative choice annoyed important general believed better choice municipal elections april little support shown pro monarchy parties major cities large numbers people gathered streets madrid king prevent civil war second spanish republic formed second republic second republic source hope spanish society threat richest broad support segments society prime minister republic landowners middle class accepted republic lack suitable alternative elections constituent june returned large majority republicans gaining seats radical party foreign minister government controlled republican socialist coalition members differing objectives conservative members believed removal monarchy leftist republicans demanded wider reforms state financial position poor supporters dictatorship attempted block progress reforming economy wealth supported new government threat richest light recent wall street crash onset great depression government attempted tackle dire poverty rural areas hour day giving security tenure farm workers complained effectiveness reforms dependent skill local governance badly lacking changes military needed education reform problem facing republic relationship central government regions needed decided effective opposition led groups group included catholic movements influence judiciary press rural landowners told think republic communist second group consisted organisations supported monarchy wished new republic overthrown violent uprising group fascist organisations supporters dictator son rivera rivera significant leader spain press foreign jewish plot members willing cooperate republic forced continued oppose government deeply unpopular civil guard spanish civil founded charged putting revolts perceived ruthless violence including december usual parties opposition government gained support church military head church spain cardinal particularly vocal disapproval 20th century catholic_church proved essential spain character internal problems expelled spain june prompted outcry catholic right cited oppression series church burning incidents occurred major spanish cities government refused civil minister war came heavy criticism press military opposed reorganisation including increase regional autonomy granted central government reforms improve efficiency seen direct attack officers retired thousand promotions reviewed including francisco franco served director general military academy closed constitution new constitution approved december draft prepared rejected daring text creating democratic republic workers class contained way language included controversial articles aimed catholic_church constitution liberal democratic nature welcomed republican socialist coalition appalled landowners organised church army officers government believed necessary break control church spanish affairs new constitution removed special rights held catholic_church constitution proclaimed religious freedom complete separation church state catholic schools continued operate outside state system legislation banned monks teaching republic regulated church use property investments provided recovery controls use property church obtained past banned vatican controlled society jesus controversial articles constitution strictly controlled church property prohibited religious orders engaging education supporters church liberal advocate separation church state considered articles articles divorce initiating reforms equally controversial october leading spokesman parliamentary right called catholic spain stand republic commentator stanley argued republic democratic constitutional regime doomed outset far left considered aspects constitution totally unacceptable october interior minister resigned prime minister job alienated radical party switched opposition leaving dependent support favoured reform objected lack progress reforms alienated land holding right conditions labourers remained reforms enforced rural landowners declared war government refusing plant crops agricultural strikes harshly authorities reforms including unsuccessful attempt break large holdings failed significantly improve situation rural workers end king exile stopped attempting prevent armed insurrection spain tried condemned life imprisonment declared spain ceased catholic extent statement accurate politically thing assault taxi driver supposedly left wing views sparked wave anti clerical violence south west urban spain beginning government reluctance declare martial law response comment attributed churches spain burnt single republican harmed prompted catholics believe republic trying prosecute christianity restrictions christian schools hospitals ringing bells came force january state control imposed ordinary catholics began government enemy educational religious reforms government actions denounced corrupt press august unsuccessful uprising general particularly appalled events aims insurrection vague quickly turned generals tried sent spanish colonies men distinguish fighting republic civil war duke martin political left fractured whilst right united socialist party continued support headed political left set new party spanish confederation autonomous right spanish contest election embraced right won overwhelming victory winning seats spent far election campaign campaigned roughly members communist_party point significant black years following elections november spain entered period called black years spanish negro aggressive conservatives turned paramilitary actions official statistics state people assassinated addition failed attempts people wounded political violence figures indicate total general strikes called religious buildings destroyed typically arson immediately election alleged electoral fraud according needed twice votes opponents win seat identified lack unity left reason defeat socialist opposition began revolutionary ideal won seats form majority president declined invite leader form government instead invited radical republican_party backing set removing price controls selling state removing land reforms landowners considerable advantage created growing south spain reforms force went protest came december easily crushed force spain held days spanish republican army employing tanks stopped uprising stepped rhetoric hoping force new elections continued prepare undergoing military drills received backing italian prime minister struggled control youth wing copied germany italy youth movements turned fascist leadership rivera way achieve aims open violence occurred streets spanish cities resigned april president sign amnesty bill let arrested members plot replaced socialist party question youth wing federation young spanish particularly militant called week strike continued mimic german nazi party staging rally march shouts chief italian support anti strike law successfully provoke break unions time attempted undermine republican government attempting continue republic reforms efforts remove local councils socialist control prompted general strike brutally interior minister arrest deputies significant articles constitution socialist federation spanish trade union founded effectively prevented operating september announced longer support minority government replaced cabinet led included members general strike unsuccessful spain leader republican left president saw opportunity general strike declared independent state inside federal republic spain refused arm populace head military domingo charged putting revolt showed similar restraint response arrested autonomy suspended franco directing military madrid franco informal command military effort revolt place succeeded workers called arms days atrocities carried sides franco men brought spain army africa killed men women children carried summary executions main cities workers killed government soldiers left dead failed rising marked effective end republic months retaliation repression followed torture political prisoners moderate sidelined generals charge campaign franco seen heroes unsuccessfully revolutionary criminal right wing opponents prompted cabinet collapse positions new government conceded including awarded farm workers wages military republican members reformed loyal promoted franco chief staff started unify left combat extreme elements staged large popular rallies popular radical government collapsed major scandals including affair allow form government instead calling elections elections won popular vastly smaller resources political right followed nazi propaganda techniques right began plan best overthrow republic taking control government weak influence revolutionary prevented cabinet republicans left govern led minority government reconciliation huge task accepted support communist_party membership acts violence increased early found left influence republic constitution adamant increasingly radical changes parliament replaced april removal grounds constitutional hoped holding positions prime minister president push reforms left deal right wing increasingly isolated everyday politics replacement weak right voted removal watershed event inspired conservatives parliamentary politics wrote spain stable pole removal step revolution held collapse republican government replaced socialist france turned campaign chest army replaced right leading spokesman parliament expanded rapidly members popular joined successfully created sense streets try justify authoritarian regime best avoid revolution promoting series public works civil order reforms including parts military civil guard took different attitude continuing preach inevitable overthrow society workers disagreed idea new republican socialist coalition communists alarmed middle classes quickly taking ranks socialist organisations alarmed middle classes division popular prevented government power prevent right wing came attack attempts moderate reform attacked socialist youth continued best impossible failed warnings military conspiracy involving generals disliked professional politicians wanted replace government prevent dissolution spain military coup july started spanish civil war devised director leader


byzantine_empire dynasty byzantine_empire byzantium term conventionally historians describe greek ethnic speaking roman empire middle ages centered capital constantinople having survived fall western roman empire late antiquity byzantine_empire continued function conquest ottoman turks context byzantine history period known period dynasty emperors john ruled years presiding sustained ultimately incomplete restoration military territorial economic political position byzantine_empire human institution byzantium played key role history holy land enormous cultural political influence europe near east lands mediterranean_sea emperors particularly john exerted great influence states whilst played key role course crusade helped bring period contact byzantium latin christian west including states crucial stage venetian italian traders resident constantinople empire large numbers constantinople presence numerous latin mercenaries employed particular helped spread byzantine technology art literature culture roman catholic west cultural impact byzantine art west period enormous long lasting significance significant contribution history asia minor region set advance turks centuries process planted foundations byzantine successor states extensive programme fortifications left enduring mark landscape appreciated today crisis era born period great difficulty strife byzantine_empire following period relative success expansion dynasty byzantium experienced decades decline culminated vast deterioration military territorial economic political situation byzantine_empire accession problems empire faced partially caused growing influence power aristocracy weakened empire military structure theme system trained administered armies beginning death successful soldier emperor long series weak rulers disbanded large armies defending eastern provinces attack instead gold constantinople ostensibly order hire mercenaries troubles arise fact money given away form gifts favourites emperor extravagant court expensive imperial family remnants formidable armed forces allowed decay point longer capable functioning army elderly men ill maintained equipment mixed new recruits participated training exercise simultaneous arrival aggressive new enemies turks east west factor originally mercenaries northern parts europe search began attacking byzantine strongholds southern italy order deal mixed force mercenaries formidable george sent italy army conducted brutally successful campaign concluded recalled constantinople angered series wife property rivals proclaimed emperor troops led adriatic victory loyalist army mortal wound led death shortly opposition absent balkans able complete expulsion byzantines italy despite seriousness loss asia minor empire greatest disaster place turks mainly concerned defeating egypt conducted series damaging raids armenia eastern main recruiting ground byzantine armies imperial armies weakened years insufficient funding civil warfare emperor realised time equipment necessary consequently attempted lead defensive campaign east forces recovered defeat suffered surprise defeat hands sultan turks battle captured sultan peace terms fairly battle long term resulted total loss byzantine release found enemies place candidate throne absence defeats battle rebels surrendered suffered horrific death torture new ruler michael refused honour treaty signed response turks began collapse old defensive system meant met opposition matters worse chaos reigned empire remaining resources series disastrous civil wars thousands crossed frontier moved area square miles km2 lost empire partial recovery possible efforts dynasty referred restoration emperor royal line life policies described daughter anna long reign nearly years struggle accession byzantine_empire chaos prolonged period civil war resulting defeat outset reign meet formidable threat robert son taranto took laid siege battle led forces person despite best efforts army destroyed field wounded death robert led norman danger time problems beginning time emperor needed raise revenue possible shattered empire taxation economy complete disarray inflation control heavily fiscal system confused different circulation imperial treasury desperation forced finance campaign wealth eastern orthodox church disposal patriarch constantinople faced new invasion time invaders consisted north danube heading constantinople troops repel new threat diplomacy achieve victory odds having tribe come aid advanced caught surprise annihilated battle april stability achieved west chance begin solving severe economic difficulties empire traditional defences order army began build new force basis feudal grants prepared advance conquered asia minor established despite improvements manpower recover lost territories asia minor having impressed abilities norman cavalry sent ambassadors west ask reinforcements europe mission accomplished council pope urban impressed appeal help spoke suffering christians east hinted possible union eastern western churches pope urban concerned increasing martial nobility western_europe currently deprived major enemies causing chaos countryside appeal offered means energy knights benefit church consolidate authority pope gain east rome crusade november urban called council france amid crowd thousands come hear words urged present arms banner cross launch holy war recover jerusalem east muslims granted took great enterprise promised carry pope command word crusade soon spread western_europe anticipated help form mercenary forces west totally unprepared immense hosts soon arrived embarrassment group peter sent asia minor ordering stay close coast await reinforcements refused listen began looting local christian inhabitants marched caught turks man second official host knights led sent asia promising supply provisions return oath loyalty accompanied byzantine general victories able recover byzantine_empire number important cities islands rhodes philadelphia fact western asia minor ascribed daughter anna policy diplomacy good relations believed invalid help siege fact set road persuaded turn stephen assured lost expedition failed set prince briefly went war agreed vassal treaty recovery despite successes years life lost popularity largely harsh measures forced order save empire conscription introduced causing resentment despite pressing need new recruits imperial army order restore imperial treasury took measures tax aristocracy heavily cancelled taxation church previously enjoyed order ensure taxes paid halt cycle inflation completely reformed issuing new gold highly refined coin purpose managed restore order working proper rate exchange new standard byzantine coin years final years reign marked persecution followers acts burn stake leader physician engaged theological controversy renewed struggles turks succession wife wished alter favour daughter anna husband benefit special title honored created intrigue disturbed dying hours despite measures efforts vital survival empire financially militarily bankrupt facing wave wave foreign invasion empire inherited point collapse long struggle protect restore strength empire exhausting successors inherited viable state internal stability military financial resources expand future restoration john son john succeeded rule account mild reign called byzantine marcus john unusual lack cruelty despite long reign killed blinded loved subjects gave john good energetic spending life army camps personally supervising john reign byzantium faced difficulties enemies confronted empire sides invasion nomadic horsemen north threatened byzantine control balkans turks byzantine territory asia minor john soon proved determined energetic predecessor battle john personally led imperial armies invaders aid emperor elite troops guard tribal horsemen decisively crushed emperor victory soon disappeared independent people john marriage hungarian princess involved struggles kingdom hungary giving asylum blinded hungarian throne john aroused suspicion hungarians hungarians led stephen invaded byzantium balkan provinces hostilities lasting hungarians attacked belgrade john near supported naval flotilla operating danube challenging campaign details obscure emperor managed defeat hungarians serbian allies fortress modern nova following hungarians renewed hostilities attacking immediately rebuilt john byzantine military successes mentions engagements resulted restoration peace danube frontier definitively secured john able concentrate asia minor focus attention reign turks pressing forward byzantine frontier john determined drive thanks john energetic campaigning turkish attempts expansion asia minor halted john prepared fight enemy order restore region byzantine control john led series campaigns turks resulted ancestral home quickly earned formidable reputation wall breaker taking stronghold stronghold enemies regions lost empire recovered garrisoned resistance particularly north east strong difficult nature holding new conquests illustrated fact recaptured turks whilst john constantinople celebrating return byzantine rule john soon changed hands advanced north eastern provoking turks attack army unlike john forces able maintain turkish attempt inflict second emperor army sultan failure murdered people john like slow steady armies careful measured gains time rarely exposing excessive risks advancing objectives turks allow decisively defeated engagement knew difficult emperor remain theatre war long time events intervened required attention john consolidated conquests existing byzantine holdings asia building series forts historian paul explains process book empire placing context restoration byzantine_empire points john father fortified places coast john expanded byzantine control interior places guarded approaches valleys asia minor restoration order john enabled agricultural prosperity begin recovery eventually restore war torn regions status productive valuable byzantine_empire end reign john effort secure way captured southern coast asia minor advanced syria head veteran army seasoned lifetime campaigning john fought hard christian cause campaign syria famous incident allies prince count sat playing john pressed siege princes suspicious john wanted gain participating campaign wanted hold agreed hand john campaign successful ultimately john preparing lead pilgrimage jerusalem campaign accidentally hand poison arrow hunting poison set shortly died historian recently argued john reign successful period development army stresses wisdom john approach warfare focused siege warfare risky pitched battles argues john strategy launching annual campaigns limited realistic objectives sensible followed son according view john campaigns benefited byzantine_empire protected empire attack gradually extending territory asia minor turks forced defensive john kept diplomatic situation relatively simple western emperor sicily overall john left empire great deal better found substantial territories recovered successes invading serbs turks attempts establish byzantine states restore reputation empire careful approach warfare protected empire risk sudden defeats determination skill allowed rack long list successful assaults enemy strongholds time death earned near universal respect courage dedication early death meant work went unfinished historian speculates campaign resulted real gains byzantium christian cause john chosen heir fourth son according historian byzantium chosen elder surviving brother ability listen carefully advice known lively charismatic personality known love things western_europe arranged matches participating unusual experience byzantines generally considered brilliant emperors dynasty unusual byzantine ruler reputation particularly good west states especially death latin historian william tyre described beloved god great man energy memory held robert generous worthy man dedicated restore glory empire regaining status foreign policy ambitious expansive reaching corners mediterranean world alliances pope western christian kingdoms successfully handled passage potentially dangerous second crusade empire establishing byzantine kingdoms campaigned aggressively neighbours west east facing muslims palestine allied kingdom jerusalem sent large fleet participate combined invasion egypt effort restore byzantine control ports southern italy sent expedition invade italy operating coalition byzantine rebel papal forces armies achieved initial success disputes coalition led expedition eventual failure despite military setback armies successfully invaded kingdom hungary defeating hungarians battle highly successful balkans hungary historian paul argues emperor dominated region effectively late antiquity east achievements ambiguous suffered major defeat battle turks marching turkish capital forces ambushed ensuing defeat entered popular imagination legendary disaster exaggerated accounts battle describe destruction entire byzantine army end byzantine power influence modern consensus byzantine historians battle humiliation emperor certainly way equivalent battle century earlier fact emperor army emerged battle damage units involved battle documented campaigning asia minor following year imperial frontier remained remainder reign clear indication turks unable gain advantage victory byzantines inflicted major defeat large turkish force valley programme fortification byzantine asia praised byzantine historian largely regarded important success demanded tribute interior winter pasture imperial territory improved defenses cities towns established new garrisons fortresses region result cumulative efforts emperors domination asia minor effective emperor historian paul makes clear end reign byzantines controlled rich agricultural peninsula leaving mountain plateau areas turks religious sphere disputes roman_catholic_church eastern orthodox church occasionally harmed efforts cooperation certainly byzantine emperor came closest healing breach churches pope innocent iii clearly positive view told iii imitate outstanding predecessor famous memory emperor devotion words works successful expanding influence particularly states example participated building greek monasteries holy land including church holy jerusalem efforts byzantine clergy allowed perform greek day reinforced position overlord states jerusalem secured agreement prince king jerusalem success gaining influence allies western states pope regarded impressive achievements reign military reform beginning period byzantine_empire reduced smallest territorial extent history surrounded enemies financially ruined long period civil war empire prospects looked grim combination determination military reform years campaigning john managed restore power byzantine_empire important factor success establishment reconstructed byzantine army new military system created known army army played important role providing empire period security enabled byzantine civilization flourish new force professional disciplined contained formidable guards units guard unit heavy cavalry stationed constantinople recruited sons dead byzantine officers provinces included cavalry macedonia provincial forces black_sea coast asia minor cavalry unit recruited valley alongside troops raised paid directly state army included armed followers members wider imperial family extensive connections seen beginnings byzantine military granting holdings land held return military obligations beginning notable element military infrastructure end period important subsequently byzantine army numbered men altogether closing years era death frequent campaigns grand scale army probably considerably larger reign field army numbered men increased men john reign end reign byzantine field army risen men john division maintained new native byzantine troops recruited provinces byzantine asia minor began john soldiers raised provinces south east soldiers drawn defeated peoples cavalry serbs settlers stationed native troops organised regular units stationed asian european provinces armies reinforced allied contingents serbia hungary generally consisted thirds byzantine troops foreigners units infantry cavalry grouped provide combined arms support emperor heavily influenced queens beginning reign equipped native byzantine heavy cavalry western lines introduced lance technique close order charge increased use heavier armour personally took tournaments western fashion considerable prowess impressed western observers permanent military camps established balkans described reign john main camp near river near sea european equivalent west great military camps innovation emperors played important improvement effectiveness byzantine forces seen period camps transit stations movement troops concentration points field armies training troops preparation armies campaign twelfth century renaissance recently argued 12th century renaissance occurred byzantium term enjoy widespread usage doubt 12th century byzantium witnessed major cultural developments largely rapid economic expansion 12th century time significant growth byzantine economy rising population levels extensive tracts new agricultural land brought production archaeological evidence europe asia minor shows considerable increase size urban settlements notable new towns athens medieval town experienced period rapid sustained growth starting eleventh century continuing end twelfth century second city empire hosted famous summer fair attracted traders balkans market stalls silk production thriving economy asia minor areas turkish raiding late eleventh century emperors built extensive fortifications rural areas twelfth century countryside took place overall given population prosperity increased substantially period economic recovery byzantium appears strengthening economic basis state helps explain emperors particular able project power influence widely time new wealth generated period positive impact byzantine cultural life artistic terms twelfth century productive period byzantine history revival mosaic art regional schools architecture began producing distinctive styles drew range cultural influences according byzantium introduction east roman civilization fall death september marked turning point fortunes byzantine_empire died succeeded young son empress maria conduct excited popular consequent disorders amounting civil war gave opportunity ambition estranged cousin son left retirement marched constantinople army according non byzantine sources included muslim contingents arrival soon followed massacre latin inhabitants focused venetian merchants settled numbers constantinople believed arranged poisoning elder sister maria husband maria encouraged intervene said soon empress maria imprisoned killed constantine compelled acknowledge colleague empire death killing carried stephen sole emperor married france child years age daughter king louis vii france wife champagne november associated younger legitimate son john throne man contrasts handsome new emperor time known exploits energetic able determined true capable terrifying brutality violence cruelty began reign particular measures took reform government empire praised historians provinces reforms produced marked improvement fierce determination root corruption abuses admirable sale offices ceased selection based merit officials paid adequate salary reduce form corruption eliminated ferocious zeal people felt severity laws time acknowledged justice found protected superiors energetic efforts oppressive tax collectors officials empire alleviate lot efforts check power nobility considerably problematic infuriated matters worse increasingly executions violence increasingly common reign turned reign terror seek aristocracy struggle aristocracy turned wholesale slaughter emperor resorted ruthless measures shore regime revolts leading invasion king william sicily september absence capital stephen moved arrest loyalty suspect killed took refuge church appealed populace arose spread rapidly city arrived found authority overthrown proclaimed emperor deposed emperor attempted escape boat wife mistress captured handed city mob days exposed fury resentment right hand cut teeth hair pulled eyes boiling water thrown face led constantinople hung feet pillars latin soldiers competed sword penetrate body deeply died september news emperor death son emperor john murdered troops rule constantinople david founded empire role collapse empire controversial historians disagree extent brief reign influenced events death coup violent death weakened continuity solidarity strength byzantine state come rely furthermore called anti latin policy criticised historians failure view increasing hostility caused byzantium west particular failure prevent massacre constantinople seen especially significant henceforth byzantine foreign policy invariably perceived sinister anti latin west argued attempts crush aristocracy damaging empire military power aristocracy defences state hand reforms provinces wise beneficial internal health prosperity empire period followed dynasty oversaw crucial period decline byzantine_empire quarter century constantinople fall invading force time history final loss empire great power status death dynasty having lasted years finally come end

Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty


history edinburgh zoo edinburgh zoo park edinburgh scotland opened july edinburgh previously home garden failed thrive new zoo owned run royal society scotland initially opened scottish national park modern methods allowed animals survive edinburgh cold climate edinburgh zoo united_kingdom incorporated royal charter zoo world house breed zoo famous history 1950s performed daily parade park zoo largely unaffected war animals safety reasons second world war war park housed brown bear named served polish military zoo king adopted norwegian military 21st century edinburgh zoo briefly forced close foot mouth outbreak received threats animal liberation plan complete redevelopment zoo begun scotland zoo called royal edinburgh gardens modern edinburgh zoo years death james wealthy scottish publisher gardens country house hall converted park occupying acre site park situated mile north east central edinburgh near east street naturalist john graham original promoters project eventually president board directors gardens opened collection stock zoo animals including lions tigers bears elephant time animals typically held poor conditions small cramped gardens presented exception result animals frequently afflicted disease suffered harsh easterly winds edinburgh climate despite setbacks attempted maintain popularity putting concerts shows displays fireworks balloons children carried park zoo elephant giving rare opportunity exercise gardens eventually forced admit defeat park closed site sold property developer remains house gardens foundation edinburgh zoo created thomas solicitor dreamed establishing park scotland told tropical animals able live cold climate like edinburgh view extent borne failure royal gardens encouraged read pioneering methods employed allowing tropical animals thrive recently opened hamburg germany founded registered charity royal society scotland society president lawyer politician edward son norwegian merchant christian connection prove significant later years series lectures given society arthur gave momentum modern approach spearheaded germany remained find suitable site new zoo hoped site plenty sun shelter north east winds intended zoo quickly accessible public transport society secured option purchase acre hill house estate house built home scottish william keith current scottish architecture thanks family society found having difficulty gathering necessary funds approaching purchase option edinburgh city_council stepped purchasing site outright february society granted use estate return percent annual cost raised help society members set aside construction park initially zoo occupied southernmost acres land north golf course park designed town patrick son law frank following vision modeled park open designs like new_york park zoo hamburg modern parks promoted natural environment animals stood stark contrast steel typical built victorian era scottish national park initially called opened public large collection donated borrowed animals july weeks work zoo occupies area land today park extensively redeveloped early history opening year zoo incorporated royal charter granted use royal title following visit king george june edinburgh zoo zoo britain royal charter original charter defined society mission promote facilitate encourage study subjects foster develop people interest knowledge animal life thanks society connection family zoo animals king arriving south georgia christian expedition docked early seen world outside south atlantic zoo successfully hatched captive king chick continued arrive ships years today king zoo famous animals tropical bird house added followed paid grant house famous pool constructed rebuilt include new viewing area golf club finally evacuated acres north estate allowing zoo expand significantly new area park designed partner wilson completed modern zoo techniques proved effective edinburgh quickly gained reputation good animal conditions saw captivity sea lion beaver baby followed litter wolves born soon born britain war years edinburgh zoo bombed twice second world war remained unharmed bombs reported killed edinburgh like britain affected war bombs fall time considered safe dangerous animals escape damaged recently born wolves collection dangerous snakes guard possible danger public despite war zoo continued grow land east purchased construction lake beginning soon post war era retired post director succeeded gilbert fisher took director secretary society effectively gained control zoo time edinburgh zoo famous parade established accidentally left gate pool open followed zoo train visitors delighted procession regular occurrence today thirds zoo parade round park day zoo famous inhabitants post war period syrian brown bear sold group polish soldiers war learned help soldiers carrying ammunition unofficial mascot polish corps sailed italy join british 8th army officially drafted polish army order secure passage british transport ship corps settled scotland camp near retired edinburgh zoo lived death time army developed liking cigarettes contributed popularity attraction zoo zoo gained military credentials king adopted norwegian king guard norway connection edinburgh began family links zoo renewed interest sparked lieutenant called visited zoo king guard return arranged unit adopt named honour king norway given rank lance corporal statue stands outside zoo year old polar bear mercedes given zoo rescued churchill canada begun wandering town search food danger posed residents mercedes tagged number tracked persuaded return wild decision taken shoot member edinburgh society collaborated cousin canada able rescue mercedes finding new home edinburgh zoo bear zoo popular attractions society acquired highland wildlife park acre park zoo near miles south opened wildlife park goal showcase animals native highlands scotland today focus changed primarily houses species including animals moved edinburgh zoo 21st century october zoo begun explore possibility relocating order improve february zoo scrapped plans relocate instead announcing redevelopment entire site foot mouth scare forced zoo close protect animals possible infection zoo welcome visitors faced significant financial losses questions posed zoo future end park able reopen weeks help came form million donation anonymous resident city early april zoo reopened new house unveiled living links human evolution centre britain behaviour research site scientific breakthrough edinburgh found use word like vocal labels food late animal liberation threatened action holding captivity mercedes britain polar bear zoo initially planned retire polar bear exhibit mercedes died zoo officials announced plans create new attraction citing responsibility ensure survival species threatened damage zoo workers property scare tactics edinburgh treatment polar bears subject criticism punctuated incidents like death mercedes partner plastic child toy thrown enclosure zoo carried plans create new exhibit improve conditions mercedes moving highland wildlife park joined young male polar bear named walker mercedes grounds suffering severe council troubles january zoo forward plans sell acres land order raise funds ongoing redevelopment plans rejected council october single vote leaving society extremely disappointed november zoo announced planned fight council decision rumor circulated later month zoo considering glasgow zoo officials insisted rumor truth organised opposition sale resulted zoo allowed sell small portion originally proposed land