structure distribution coral reefs structure distribution coral reefs geology voyage command years published charles darwin monograph set theory formation coral reefs conceived idea voyage south_america seen coral island wrote hms crossed pacific_ocean completing draft november time great scientific interest way coral reefs formed captain robert orders admiralty included investigation important scientific aim voyage chose survey islands indian_ocean results supported darwin theory types coral reefs explained vast areas earth crust oceans book volume darwin wrote geology investigated voyage widely recognised major scientific work presented available observations large subject darwin awarded royal society royal medal monograph work darwin theory coral reefs formed islands surrounding areas crust subsided supported modern investigations longer disputed cause areas crust continued subject discussion theory coral formation set formation coral scientific puzzle advance notice sailing given december described investigation topic interesting survey prospect points investigation scientific nature mere occupation surveyor french observed coral organisms lived relatively shallow depths islands appeared deep oceans books taken references henry frederick william charles published opinion coral grown underwater mountains taking shape underlying volcanic admiralty instructions voyage stated formed coral islands pacific occasionally afford excellent land locked sufficient entrance adapted nice astronomical observations require carried quietly proceeding rating interesting inquiry instituted formation coral reefs modern plausible theory forward wonderful formations instead ascending sea raised extinct student university edinburgh darwin learnt marine invertebrates assisting investigations robert grant year university_of_cambridge studied geology adam unexpectedly offered place expedition gentleman naturalist suited aim having companion able examine geology land ship complement carried survey gave darwin volume principles geology left stop ashore island january darwin saw geological formations explained concept forces operation land slowly rise fall immense periods time thought write book geology volume included brief outline idea based volcanic second volume sent darwin voyage gave detail darwin received november surveyed coasts south_america february september darwin trips inland found extensive evidence continent gradually rising witnessing volcano ship experienced earthquake february following months speculated land large areas ocean bed subsided struck explain formation darwin theory followed understanding coral thrive clean seas tropics water agitated live limited depth water starting low tide level underlying land stays grow coast form called reefs eventually grow shore barrier reef land rising reefs grow coast coral raised sea level dies white limestone land slowly reefs pace growing upwards base dead coral form barrier reef reef land barrier reef island island sea level roughly circular growing coral continues sea level forming central land quickly sea level rise fast coral dies depth darwin investigations test theory time set islands september darwin thought theory formation longer favoured concept formed submerged noted points islands supported idea volcanic resembled raised slightly hills appeared roughly equal height considered topic compatible theory lack coral reefs islands possibility lack matter islands main proposal suggested seas cold sailed darwin took note records sea temperature kept ship weather journal glimpse coral passed island november sailed low dangerous archipelago arriving november darwin saw encircled coral reef separated shore channels basins water climbed hills strongly impressed sight island mountains abruptly rise lake separated sides narrow defined line breakers open sea remove central group mountains remains recording findings coral reefs notes island wrote draft theory essay titled coral islands dated left december darwin probably wrote essay sailed new_zealand arrived december described species building coral barrier wall heavy surf breaking waves particularly speculated reasons calm grow high concluded remark general horizontal uplifting proved raising upwards greater america appear likewise america necessity compensated equal world islands instructions set detailed requirements geological survey circular coral investigate coral reefs formed particularly rose sea extinct assess effects tides measurement specially constructed chose islands indian_ocean arrival april entire crew set work new design tide gauge allowed readings taken shore boats sent island carry survey despite strong winds took numerous establish depths noted smooth solid rock like outer wall life thriving surf violent great difficulty establishing depth reached living coral pieces hard break small anchors hooks chains snapped swell soon tried pull success sounding line bell shaped lead weight armed hardened lime shape struck exact impression collect fragments coral grains sand taken personally sounding cut taken board examined darwin impressions taken steep outside slope reef marked shapes living clean increasing depths showed fewer impressions collected grains sand evident living darwin carefully noted location different types coral reef diary described examining interesting simple structure origin islands water unusually smooth far living coral swell open sea breaks beautiful green colored fishes forms admirable grow enthusiastic infinite numbers organic beings sea tropics life cautioned language left islands days darwin wrote summary theory diary group islands single minute particle large fragments rocks bear stamp having subjected power organic arrangement distance little mile shore sounded line feet long found consider summit mountain great depth thickness work coral animal extends uncertain view look monument raised tiny architects mark spot land lies buried depths ocean publication theory returned october darwin celebrity scientific circles december university_of_cambridge professor john stevens fostered pupil reputation giving selected pamphlet darwin geological letters charles met darwin time october enthusiastic support gave wrote john darwin new theory coral islands urged read meeting volcanic crater theory cost accounted theory knocked head shape central coral islands efforts drowning continents lift heads water regions elevation ocean traced state coral reefs darwin presented findings theory paper read geological society london darwin literary project journal remarks natural history expedition known voyage expanded diary notes section theory presence absence coral reefs ocean bed time privately species taking projects finished writing journal end september work tasks included finding experts examine report collections voyage darwin proposed edit reports writing notes contacts lobby government sponsorship publication findings large book treasury grant allocated end august darwin stretched project include geology book conceived april landfall voyage selected smith elder publisher gave unrealistic commitments timing providing text illustrations assured treasury work good value publisher require small commission profit profit october planned multi volume voyage collections began writing geology volcanic islands january smith elder advertised darwin geology book geological observations volcanic islands coral formations single volume published year end month darwin thought geology covering paper time split separate volumes eventually coral reefs published followed volcanic islands south_america doubted treasury funds cover geological writings published february darwin found struggle experts produce reports collections led illness break visit scotland wrote major paper geological roads roy october noted diary began coral paper requires reading november darwin proposed cousin emma married january projects continued work ideas evolution prime hobby repeated delays caused illness sporadically restarted work coral reefs wrote emma telling tired government money gone quicker thought coral volume greater far judge publish remainder know taking funds blue daily growing old cold sly statistics time spent coral volume including work board commenced years months ago scarcely actually spent months period nearly remainder sickness visiting publication subsequent editions structure distribution coral reefs published priced shillings received second edition published extensively revised rewritten account james dwight publication coral islands work joseph structure book book tightly logical structure presents bold argument illustrations integral argument numerous detailed charts large world map marked colour showing reefs known time brief introduction sets aims book chapters describe types coral reef chapter starting section giving detailed description reef darwin information presents typical example type subsequent sections chapter describe reefs comparison typical example chapter darwin describes islands taking typical example detailed findings survey findings islands second chapter similarly describes typical barrier reef compares chapter gives similar description darwin called shore reefs having described principal kinds reef detail finding actual surface reef differ differs barrier reef lacking central island barrier reef differs reef distance land fourth chapter distribution growth coral reefs examines conditions flourish rate growth depths reef building live showing flourish limited depth fifth chapter sets theory unified explanation findings previous chapters overcoming difficulties treating kinds reef separate problem reliance assumption underwater mountains happened exact depth sea level showing barrier reefs form land reefs found evidence land elevated chapter ends summary theory illustrated showing different stages reef formation relation sea level sixth chapter examines geographical distribution types reef geological implications large coloured map world vast areas barrier reefs ocean bed active vast areas reefs volcanic land rising chapter ends findings chapter concludes describing global image magnificent picture movements crust earth late period undergone large appendix gives detailed description information able obtain reefs world logical structure seen prototype organisation origin species presenting detail aspects problem setting theory explaining phenomena followed demonstration wider explanatory power theory unlike origin abstract planned big book coral reefs fully supported material gathered appendix coral reefs arguably volume darwin huge treatise philosophy nature like succeeding works showing slow gradual change account history life presenting types reef evolutionary series demonstrated rigorous historical sciences interpreting patterns visible present results history passage presents particularly view struggle survival old standing reef different kind different parts probably adapted stations occupy hold places like organic beings struggle external nature growth generally slow favourable circumstances reception having successfully completed published books geology voyage darwin spent years major study volumes published working volumes remaining darwin learnt delight royal society awarded royal medal natural science joseph wrote telling proposed coral islands bell followed followed shout hear late 19th century controversy tests theory major scientific controversy origin coral reefs took place late 19th century supporters darwin theory american james dwight early career seen coral reefs hawaii fiji united_states exploring expedition supported rival theory forward scottish john murray participated challenger expedition murray theory challenged darwin notion proposing instead coral reefs formed accumulating marine sediments reached shallow depths support growth murray supporters independently wealthy american scientist alexander financed undertook expeditions caribbean pacific indian_ocean regions examine coral reefs search evidence support murray theory discredit darwin series expeditions test darwin theory drilling islands conducted royal society london purpose investigating traces shallow water organisms found depth coral drilling occurred attaining final depth feet inches coral professor david university sydney member expedition leader expedition time results regarded inconclusive 1950s prior carrying nuclear bomb tests deep drilling feet coral underlying finally darwin theory darwin findings modern views darwin interest biology reef organisms aspects related geological idea particular looking confirmation reef building organisms live shallow depths islands gave depth limit live coral taking account numerous observations darwin worked probable limit modern findings suggest limit small fraction depth ocean floor darwin recognised importance red algae reviewed organisms helped build reefs thought lived similarly shallow depths banks formed greater depths found 1880s darwin reviewed distribution different species coral reef thought reefs exposed wind waves formed massive red algae active area reef growth cause tendency reefs grow reach sea level believed higher temperatures water favoured greatest coral diversity ecological ideas current research details continues assessing geology reef darwin showed remarkable ability collect facts find patterns reconstruct geological history basis limited evidence available gave attention smallest detail having heard living coral specimens find finely ground coral concluded fish coral eating invertebrates account banks fine mud found islands showed living checks growth coral reefs universal law consume consumed holds good forming massive able withstand force open ocean observations played organisms formation features reefs anticipated modern studies establish thickness coral barrier reefs relied old nautical rule thumb project slope land sea level applied idea coral reef slope underlying land fortunate guess maximum depth coral test conducted united_states atomic energy commission coral reaching volcanic foundations darwin time comparable thickness fossil coral found continents raised criticism theory find satisfactory explanation thought fossil reefs usually broken movements continental fossil reef complexes discovered thick findings confirmed argument islands attempts evidence superseded discovery glacial effects cause changes sea level darwin global hypothesis vast areas elevated marked reefs active similarly huge areas ocean floor indicated barrier reefs based inactive views received general support deep sea drilling results 1980s idea rising land balanced ocean areas superseded modern plate

The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs


oil geology oil geology branch sciences studies formation composition oil fine rocks containing significant amounts belonging group oil formation takes place number settings considerable variation oil classified composition minerals minerals environment large lakes shallow marine small lake settings organic matter oil origin include remains land plants major type organic matter oil oil deposits contain metals include copper oil deposits formed middle early middle late late times burial loading swamp deposits resulting conversion organic matter processes largest deposits found remains large lakes deposits green river formation wyoming utah usa oil deposits formed shallow seas continental shelves generally thinner large lake basin deposits classification varieties oil belongs group definite geological definition specific chemical formula boundaries oil vary considerably mineral content chemical composition age type history oil necessarily classified strict sense common feature low low boiling organic generation liquid organic products thermal varying classifications oil depending mineral content type age history organisms derived age oil deposits ranges age range rocks form mixture tightly bound organic materials oil divided categories based mineral composition rich rich derive large minerals minerals found oil majority considered rich oil particularly sourced deposits usually organic rich layers rich layers deposits hard formations resistant difficult process methods oil usually dark brown black rich minerals clay hard weather resistant rich better suited extraction methods usually dark brown black consist organic matter completely mineral grains suitable extraction methods classification according type based hydrogen carbon oxygen content oil original organic matter classification known van classification oil developed adrian university adapting terms coal terminology according classification oil designated terrestrial lake deposited marine ocean deposited based environment initial deposited classification scheme proven useful estimating yield composition extracted oil coal called coal type terrestrial hydrogen rich brown black coal texture composed spores materials derived terrestrial plants varied amounts consist pale brown grayish brown dark gray black oil chief organic constituent derived algae named hill scotland black oil organic matter derived rich related forms marine consist varieties named estonia light brown marine oil principal organic component derived green named tasmania brown black oil organic matter consists derived chiefly algae marine origin gray dark gray black oil marine origin chief organic components derived marine varied composition fuel oil differs lower content organic matter organic matter atomic ratio hydrogen carbon approximately crude oil times higher organic matter oil forms complex structure common organic mixed varied amounts mineral matter commercial grades oil ratio organic matter mineral matter organic portion oil consists largely remains algae spores plant fragments woody plants cellular debris marine land plants terrestrial oil contain spores tissues roots stems terrestrial plants oil include rich organic matter derived algae marine oil composed marine algae marine organic matter oil contains organic average lower proportion nitrogen major types organic matter oil defined structured organic matter composed large colonial thick walled algae includes thin walled colonial algae occur distinct display recognizable structures microscope easily recognized bright shades yellow blue light largely lacks recognizable structures displays relatively low microscope organic constituents include derived matter land plants usually found relatively small amounts oil mineral matter oil contains fine minerals oil deposits contain metals copper formation oil formations took place mid early middle late late periods formed deposition organic matter variety environments including freshwater highly lakes marine basins shelves restricted areas lakes coastal swamps plants die aquatic environment low oxygen levels prevent complete decay organic matter preserved form oil environment remain uniform prolonged periods time order build sufficiently thick sequences matter eventually swamp restricted environment disrupted oil accumulation burial loading swamp deposits converts organic matter following normal processes sediment loading coal leading compression organic matter ongoing heat removal moisture structure plants removal molecular water similar treating wood pressure results produced removing hydrogen carbon oxygen removes groups plant molecules resulting production hydrogen reduced oil similar formation process oil differ distinct ways organic matter oil coal differ sense oil origin include remains land plants commonly compose organic matter coal origin organic matter oil obscure lack recognizable structures help identify precursor organisms materials origin product degradation algae organic matter lower temperature pressure process compared modes generation result lower maturation level oil continuous burial heating pressure result production oil gas oil source rock largest deposits found remains large lakes deposits green river formation wyoming utah usa large lake oil basins typically found areas block mountain building deposits green river feet yield gallons oil ton oil deposits formed shallow seas continental shelves generally thinner large lake basin deposits typically meters thick spread large areas extending thousands square kilometers types oil oil commonly found environment oil rich lake deposited oil generally contain gallons ton oil oil deposited small lake environments rarely extensive associated coal bearing rocks oil high yields gallons ton oil small extent considered unlikely candidates commercial exploitation formations united_states united_states significant oil deposits suited commercial development size grade location green river formation covers parts colorado wyoming utah second significant deposit oil eastern united_states places sub basins varying volume quality reserves oil green river formation found basins green river creek sand wash undergone significant exploration attempts oil reserves 1960s green river formation includes deposits large lakes covered area square kilometres early middle period lakes separated basin significant periods life lakes closed systems allowing changes size sediment deposition oil result abundant blue green algae lakes oil square kilometres eastern united_states formed marine environment different green river basins deposits undergone attempts resources natural gas mined low grade oil oil formed late early periods time eastern united_states covered large shallow sea oil thought result slow deposition algae conditions parts basin close shoreline organic mixture helped form oil contains organic rich sediment rising mountains formations brazil brazil significant locations oil deposits size location quality oil deposits valley formation attracted attention contain estimated billion barrels oil total resources billion barrels formation deposit smaller containing estimated million barrels compared million valley formation economically viable formation consists oil beds separated metres limestone upper layer thicker metres thinner lower bed metres greater value weight percent oil yield lower layer compared upper oil yield varies little lower layer upper layer formation fine deposit ranging color dark gray brown black consists clay minerals balance organic matter consensus reached exact nature oil theory suggests organic material oil originated algae deposited environment varying freshwater water theory suggests organic sediment deposited shallow partially restricted marine environment classification describes marine source oil formation estonia oil age estonia baltic oil basin deposited shallow marine basins deposit world highest grade deposits organic content conversion ratio oil gas oil located single layer meters thickness buried depths total area basin km2 oil yield organic matter derived fossil green modern major extant species forms inter tidal shallow waters matrix minerals include low minerals enriched heavy metals reserves source rocks conventional oil oil deposits found world oil provinces deep exploited economically oil gas resources analysts distinguish oil resources oil reserves resources refers oil deposits reserves represents deposits producers extract oil economically existing technology extraction technologies develop continuously planners estimate resources oil occur countries countries possess known deposits possible economic value explored deposits potentially reserves include green river deposits western united_states deposits queensland australia deposits sweden estonia deposit jordan deposits france germany brazil china southern russia deposits given rise expectations yielding oil oil fischer estimate set total world resources oil equivalent yield barrels billion cubic metres oil largest reserves united_states thought barrels billion cubic metres according world energy outlook international energy agency world oil resources equivalent barrels billion cubic metres oil place barrels billion cubic metres technically comparison world proven conventional oil reserves estimated barrels january largest deposits world occur united_states green river formation covers portions colorado utah wyoming resource lies land owned managed united_states federal government deposits united_states constitute world resources united_states russia brazil account world resources terms oil content figures remain tentative exploration analysis deposits outstanding professor university wisconsin madison regards upper oil deposits northwest china absent previous global oil assessments comparable size green river formation


geology scotland geology scotland unusually varied country size large number differing geological features main geographical sub divisions highlands islands diverse area lies north west highland boundary fault central rift valley mainly comprising formations southern lie south southern fault largely composed deposits existing bedrock includes ancient beds interspersed granite created mountain building period commercially important coal oil iron bearing deposits remains substantial formation movements created climatic conditions ranging polar desert tropical resultant diversity fossil remains scotland role play significant discoveries plate development theories formation rocks home important figures development science including james father modern geology hugh miller locations point thrust north west important development geological science overview geological perspective country main sub divisions affected pleistocene highlands islands highlands islands lie north west highland boundary fault runs scotland largely comprises ancient rocks times form mountain chain later foundations interspersed recent age remnants formed mountain significant exception fossil bearing beds old red sandstone found principally coast islands rocks million years old laid period highlands generally mountainous great fault highest elevations british isles found including ben highest peak metres scotland islands divided main groups sub divided inner outer archipelago composed formations heavily elements islands represent remnants long extinct ring volcano rising plateau approximately sea level geology complex numerous faults islands scotland northerly area rocks rocks similar histories scottish mainland similarly old red sandstone deposits granite distinctive feature remnants ocean floor economy depends oil bearing sediments surrounding seas midland valley referred central rift valley mainly comprising formations sediments economic significance coal iron bearing rocks scotland industrial revolution found area experienced intense arthur seat edinburgh remnant larger volcano active period million years ago area relatively low lying hills rarely far view southern southern range hills long interspersed broad valleys lie south second fault line running geological foundations largely comprise deposits laid million years ago post glacial events scotland covered ice sheets pleistocene ice ages landscape affected lesser extent subsequent sea level changes post glacial circa scotland islands experienced metres high caused immense underwater coast norway earth usually slight great active area britain event size chronology oldest rocks scotland formed period million years ago oldest rocks europe world form basement west thrust mainland outer islands rocks largely origin mixed marble later granite forms summit plateau mountain harris granite similar composition rocks found mountains moon laid period contain oldest signs life scotland later times thick sediments deposited highlands scotland era period deposits formed period earlier sediments series composed wide variety materials including area scotland time close south pole fossils north west highlands indicate presence primitive forms life period scotland moved northwards sandstone limestone deposited area midland valley occurred shallow tropical seas margins ocean complex near formed ocean floor similar composition rocks found cornwall nonetheless northern southern britain far apart beginning period gap began close continent broke away collided drifted began forming mountain chain norway ice age southern hemisphere mass extinction life earth took place end period period period continent gradually collided joining scotland area england europe sea levels rose ice sheets melted movements created major faults assembled outline scotland previously scattered fragments faults highland boundary fault separating highlands great fault divides north west highlands southern fault runs marks close ocean joining northern southern britain rocks form southern scotland pushed sea bed collision majority rocks weakly coarse highlands affected collisions creating series thrust faults northwest highlands including thrust understanding played important role 19th century geological thinking volcanic activity occurred scotland result collision plates southern scotland chambers north today form granite mountains period scottish formed old red sandstone continent lay degrees south equator moving slowly north period degrees south old red sandstone laid million years ago created earlier rocks formation eroded deposited body fresh water probably series large river huge freshwater lake lake existed edges mountains stretching southern formations extremely thick metres places subdivided categories lower middle upper oldest youngest result old red sandstone important source fish fossils object intense geological studies 19th century scotland rocks found predominantly basin archipelago southern margins highland boundary fault volcanic activity possibly result closing created hills hills hills parts hills angus coast period period scotland lay close equator changes sea level occurred coal deposits west date time oil near 19th century oil processing industry developed midland valley fire clay deposits significance early industrial revolution fossil grove victoria park glasgow contains preserved remains forest volcanic activity formed arthur seat salisbury edinburgh nearby hills period old red sandstone continent britain continued drift northwards scotland climate arid time fossils reptiles recovered found places principally south west island coast stone national museum scottish parliament buildings edinburgh close period came extinction event marine species vanished diversity took million years recover era period scotland remained desert conditions higher ground highlands southern providing sediment surrounding basins flash floods origin sandstone near isle close period sea levels began rise climatic conditions arid period started began break continents marking beginning separation scotland north_america sea levels rose britain ireland drifted plate north northern eastern scotland including outer remained advancing seas south south west inundated isolated rocks remaining land period coast near forming great group period considerable significance burial algae bacteria mud sea floor time resulted formation north_sea oil natural gas trapped sandstone deposits formed seas fell form swamps lakes home cretaceous period cretaceous split continents north_america sea levels rose globally period low lying scotland covered layer chalk large deposits cretaceous rocks laid scotland survived erosion places west_coast form inner group end period cretaceous extinction event brought age close era period early period volcanic rocks british isles formed north_america greenland separated europe atlantic_ocean slowly formed led chain volcanic sites west mainland scotland including small isles clyde sea levels began fall time general outline modern british isles revealed beginning period climate sub tropical erosion caused chemical creating characteristic features scottish landscape basin howe near vegetation period known deposits isle rich flora included temperate climate tree species plane oak period erosion occurred highlands plant animal types developed modern forms scotland lay present position globe progressed temperatures dropped remained similar today pleistocene ice ages shaped land glacial erosion creating shaped valleys boulder especially western major ice peaked years ago leaving remnant features granite mountain thousand years significant new geological features deposits development coastal post glacial rises sea level combined rises land resulting relative fall sea level areas places changes relative sea level created complex series rare type scottish coastline found largely consists habitat low lying pasture land formed sea level dropped leaving raised beach present day scotland continues slowly north scotland scottish non scots working scotland played important development science especially pioneering period late 18th century 19th century james father modern geology born edinburgh theory earth published proposed idea rock cycle rocks form new sediments volcanic origin tilt mountains found granite penetrating showed granite formed cooling rock precipitation water time believed sight said filled delight geological time scales famously remarked find beginning prospect end john angus mathematician developed interest geology friendship illustrations theory earth influential success john born like studied medicine edinburgh university president geological society best remembered producing geological map scotland published tree foot high fossil lava flows named sir charles angus principles geology built ideas theory interpretation change steady accumulation minute changes enormously long spans time central theme principles powerful influence young charles darwin robert captain hms loaned darwin copy volume edition set voyage buried westminster abbey sir born ross served war main achievements investigation rocks published system deposits russia crater moon geographical locations earth named hugh miller self taught publication old red sandstone bestseller fossils rocks deep religious convictions led oppose idea biological evolution james developed theory climate change based changes earth orbit born near perth self educated interest science led appointed museum college museum glasgow paper physical cause changes climate glacial led position edinburgh office geological survey scotland keeper maps correspondence sir encouraged research eventually fellow royal society sir recognise multiple paper glacial drift scotland landmark theories director general geological survey united_kingdom known work arthur holmes born england professor geology university edinburgh principles physical geology published proposed idea slow moving convection currents earth mantle created continental drift called pioneered discipline lived long theory plate widely accepted regarded influential 20th century important sites point point world famous sites proved views immense age earth rocks vertical younger rocks lie gently indicating enormous span time passed creation beds james hall visited site companion wrote saw phenomenon time impression easily forgotten felt necessarily carried time stood sea sandstone beginning deposited shape sand mud waters ocean mind grow looking far abyss time whilst listened admiration philosopher order series wonderful events sensible reason imagination venture follow john transactions royal society edinburgh vol iii thrust studied geological features world discovery 1880s milestone history geology thrust belts world identified investigations john benjamin peach resolved dispute hand james charles believed older rocks lay younger rocks peach work confirmed classic paper geological structure northwest highlands scotland published statue pioneers erected near hotel played prominent annals early geology area heart north west highlands prominent role play fame small gorge scottish borders contains golden spike official international boundary periods work area especially examination complex rocks comparing fossil crucial early understanding mountains provide classic examples glacial topography subject early published account james forbes fellow royal society edinburgh aged nineteen partnered louis trip scotland subsequently argued forbes went publish important papers alpine glaciers alfred published rocks detailed scientific study extinct volcano hills north village mineral discovered element isolated sir island contains cave massive rectangular columns cave longest sea caves world isolated position regular shape led use caused mass mountain estimate mass earth ground breaking experiment carried following survey mountain mapped lines village site important deposit bulk fossil bed consists primitive plants water conducting cells leaves extinct spider like fossil bed remarkable reasons firstly age find early circa makes earliest sites containing terrestrial fossils coinciding stages land plants animals secondly famous exceptional state preservation individual cell walls easily visible polished specimens example counted remnants detected plant material east quarry disused quarry east hills location fossil aka found earliest known ancestors reptiles specimen purchased public subscription display national museum scotland site originally discovered early 19th century provided fossil sharks variety primitive fish ross ejected material impact crater discovered near ross preserved layers sandstone largest known impact british isles


volcanic central british_columbia canada situated interior plateau large region lies mountains east mountains coast mountains west place experienced active long period time identifiable mid period recorded changes western moving north american plate believed relatively stationary tens millions years formed line called volcanic belt stretching coast interior plateau near migration north american plate pulled away source rate year result progressively older west composition supply change time grow migrate away geological history long history million years ago created volcanic complex coast british_columbia heavily eroded form long long gale passage individual thick compositions mark appearance early middle era passage beneath range created central coast mountains caused reactions north american plate late time rainbow range period period million years highly fluid basic lava flows built gently sloping late rainbow range large shield lie east west trend west central british_columbia lava flows volcanic episodes composite section north flank shield volcano basal flows flows flow sequence thick flows blankets underlying units gives volcano shield like form minor flows scattered north flank flows commonly base account flank zone rainbow shield million years ago range period period million years highly fluid basic lava flows built gently sloping late early range second youngest large shield lie east west trend west central british_columbia diameter shield created separate periods early complex series late sequence lava flows surface outer shield cut deeply radial valleys rises summit area remnants small central numerous exposed outer flanks shield merge flat lying group thought formed arc basin zone volcano ash lava million years ago range period period million years flows built gently sloping late pleistocene range easternmost youngest large shield lying east west trend west central british_columbia diameter broad scale morphology shield given extensive lateral distribution thick flows erupted central vent cover area late stage shield complex erupted rings eastern half complex years ago cone period numerous volcanic activity produced numerous hawaiian created lava small lava flows youngest expression cone formed years ago recent activity cone occurred years ago recent geological terms suggesting volcano ongoing volcanic activity rainbow range largest volcano cone site intense volcanic activity located directly eruption started eruption different lava flows resulted older grey younger darker black lava flow passive followed period explosive explosive activity built broke lava flows near end explosive phase activity phase explosive activity spread north east deepest deposits near cone thin centimetres kilometres away suggests explosive cone fairly small eruption cone started forest fires inside layer analysis chemical composition gives important clues source dynamics occur thick continental crust trapped dense continental crust heated form hot form violent despite low water content found western volcanic belt contrasts material cone area suggests north american plate moves westwards thinner continental crust hypothesis verified observation regime compression margins structures found near margin north american plate compressed regions away margin case thinner crust represent travel time reducing time available end products origin eruption contain materials rock types composition unlike occur small flows extremely rare lava flows high iron content temperatures values higher common rocks high temperature lava flow lava extremely fluid low allowing lava travel long distances source volcano vent extremely fluid flow speeds depend heavily underlying terrain maximum kilometres hour mph underground lava channels flow independent channels tubes moves bit slower averaging speeds hour flow speed changes considerably flow speeds depending heavily depth degree cooling flow experienced essentially distance vent area flows highly like found iceland hawaii lower depths unlikely normally higher volcanic centers vicinity gale passage helmet peak hill members sound group represent westernmost ages significantly different provoking going questions origin connection regional volcanic activity center believed suggesting volcanic field responsible origin source matter controversy linked upper mantle common deep mantle small size gale passage prefer attribute cracking northern edge juan explorer plates zone interpreted edge effect plates mantle far suggested critics controversy sudden appearance record number models suggested explain cracking origins earth prominent unified flood lava flows appear merge group surrounding volcanic belt particular nature connection group unknown volcanic chemistry composition volcanic belt distinguish rift setting future present appears ceased western parts volcanic belt correct future activity expected cone area east future likely creation typical eastern portions volcanic belt ruled notable earthquake zone canadian away british_columbia coast series magnitude earthquakes began october lake region near cone signal resumption intense subterranean volcanic activity area thirty magnitude earthquakes observed october small earthquakes recorded thought originated surface felt people cause seismic activity believed area close faults plate boundaries indication potential volcanic activity canada northwestern british_columbia recent earthquake aroused interest began october earthquakes detected seven stations monitoring area activity region earthquake given rise speculation possible eruption possibility estimated eruption region cause fatalities region people engaged logging region risk greatest threats forest fires possible health risks area volcanic ash columns released situated immediate proximity major air traffic route volcanic ash reduces visibility cause jet engine failure damage aircraft systems


geology somerset somerset rural county southwest england covering square kilometres bounded north west bristol channel north bristol gloucestershire north east wiltshire south east south west west devon broad central plains ranges low hills landscape divides main geological sections influence landscape water related features low lying areas north somerset levels somerset levels subject thousands years flooding man attempts control flow water north county limestone hills dominates landscape south hills rise levels highest areas wide variety landscapes led areas designated sites special scientific interest geological reasons support range flora fauna seen list sites special scientific interest somerset rock ages oldest rocks age million years ago southerly known rocks age britain sequence volcanic ash narrow northeast eastern hills rocks million years ago found including sandstone folded masses hills period million years ago rocks represented limestone forms hills rising abruptly flat landscape somerset levels contain evidence abundant marine life existed time creation including fossil sea end million years ago periods resulted formation mountainous areas including south area million years ago red rocks age million years ago somerset form solid geology somerset levels glacial deposits rocks consist red spread older rocks old beach age beds fossils invasion sea consists famous fossils blue burnt locally provide source lime making lime mortar decorative building stone blue believed hills early 15th century early 19th century local cement works closed lower series chiefly limestone famous bath stone obtained great bed oxford clay chief member middle series upper cretaceous rocks upper chalk flats occupy centre somerset coastline prehistoric times coastline somerset different present sea level glacial maximum feet lower today bristol channel non existent bristol channel largest tidal ranges world metres sea example bay bay canada normal high tide enhanced metres metres storm feature meant large areas county liable flooding sea present coastline partly belt marine clay coast partly built reclaim areas previously flooded high tide coastline contains sediments west adjoining classic sediments structural features extend eastward estuary forming cliffs coastline near near low near sea sandy beaches mainly sea super mare storm ridges salt marsh sand dunes main river valleys main valleys hills filled deposits hills sea county small rivers flow bristol channel rivers local control sea tidal way inland main exception river tidal bore flow forms northern county boundary gloucestershire flows flows devon axe rise somerset flow courses rivers somerset axe run somerset levels generally changed improve flow river axe rises hole caves water draining ground holes river passes mark reaches sea near super mare bay river rises close county border wiltshire flows joined rivers river flows past east west turns north street south originally joined axe flows west mark joined north drain river linked man river artificial river reaches sea near sea river originates castle east somerset flows south west river turns north west north turn south join passes crosses kings artificial channel king drain joining north river originates border somerset enters somerset joined broad river passes east south flows north level joined isle rivers flows middle joined river tone passes level south continues north level past level coast near sea river tone originates pond hills west somerset flows south reservoir changes course north east continues east west hay stan meets river rises flows south east joined river flows south meets passes devon levels north somerset levels east super mare axe valley separated isle valley separated hills main wetland tone valleys low narrow ridge blue alternating bands limestone clay nature levels significant visual impact somerset levels run coast kilometres inland wetlands cover square kilometres higher metres sea level coastal marine clay deposits inland areas wetland landscape slightly raised inter glacial islands called settled onward wooden linking higher ground rocky housed ancient settlements water levels levels controlled series small narrow canals called known gloucestershire pronounced larger drains gates pumping stations field boundary ditches instead parts allowed flood winter area mainly grazing extraction carried northern area river north axe valley north somerset dominated hills area outstanding natural beauty stretching east peak west hill steep bristol channel highest point black metres facing south levels dip slope north broken north bath hills bath noted thermal waters rich calcium old red sandstone series red rises appears gorge limestone marine origin covers sandstone appears gorge super mare contains volcanic rocks outlying hills middle hope ridge hill main geological component limestone represents remnants higher range hills existed hundreds millions years ago allowed formation features gorge gorge wide variety caves holes caused dissolution rock water east limestone thrust sediment filled classic cretaceous chalk topped remnants including stones sediments yielded fairly rich fossil fauna indicating deposited shallow marine sea rocks hill near michael aggregate coal measures appear district surrounding somerset largely concealed newer rocks series coal bearing separated pennant sandstone locally beds folded mines areas closed areas world undergo systematic geological study mapping john william smith 18th century observed rock layers strata led smith creation hypothesis termed principle succession mined lead silver coal fuller earth finished stone notably bath today major source southern south somerset series rolling valleys east hills designated area outstanding natural beauty west complex area limestone honey coloured limestone hill known hill particularly important fossils contains features displays way relates rocks equivalent age close vicinity roman times south west border somerset extending devon composed upper faces north steep wooded south facing dip slope open plateau high hills kilometres long broad ridge coast near north near south reach metres high neck separated rift valley hills eastern end formed thick sequences age deposited large built shallow sea hills largely formed rocks period consist sediments originally laid shallow sea slowly compressed solid rock higher north western areas older early rocks known seen exposed rock west quarry worked road building south newer middle late rocks known beds include sandstone limestone near great south limestone cave limestone north devon west somerset lower fringes hills composed younger rocks period known new red sandstone rocks represent deposits large river systems crossed desert plain contain irregular masses veins worked west dip slope east west cut broad valleys east hill tops open woods slopes areas younger rocks period found area falls blue anchor site special scientific interest considered international geological importance remains red brick built discovered found cliffs rich oil blue anchor coloured found cliffs gave rise colour blue plateau rock rising metres beacon extends devon majority area somerset area national park landscape rounded hills cliffs coast geological movements high rainfall areas chains geological conservation review site recognised nationally important south western lowland heath communities transitions ancient semi natural woodland heath blanket chains provides record mid late vegetation history sequence dating area demonstrates formation sandstone group sandstone represents middle sequence north devon somerset unusual freshwater deposits mainly formed desert conditions area britain subject plateau remains remarkably old iron detected underlying rocks covered supported wet acid soil highest point beacon metres highest point somerset kilometres coastline including highest cliffs england reach height feet hill crest coastal ridge hills kilometres sea cliff defined having slope greater degrees highest cliff mainland britain great near martin metres high cliff face metres sister cliff metres little marks edge woodlands reach shoreline especially form single longest stretch coastal woodland england wales coastal recognised site special scientific interest diversity plant species present high ground forms area numerous rivers streams miles named rivers river takes rises head near village close bristol channel coast flows directly south length lies devon river valley designated biological sites special scientific interest tributary river flows lake action streams cut hills sea wooded open north hill near iron working carried probably roman period onward royal forest hunting reserve medieval times house built 19th century farms built hills east separated valley river landscape reach height metres hill iron ore mining carried roman times early 20th century


fossils fossils like formed million years ago mid period discovered canada charles collected specimens series field trips period neglect 1930s early 1960s new excavations examinations collection continue discover new species statistical analysis suggests discoveries continue future stephen jay book wonderful life describes history discovery early 1980s analysis implications evolution largely superseded fossil beds series layers averaging millimetres totalling metres thickness layers deposited face high limestone cliff features later raised metres current sea level creation rocky_mountains fossils preserved distinctive style known type preservation preserves fairly tough tissues cuticle thin films soft tissues solid shapes quickly decay destroyed moderately soft tissues muscles lost scientists unsure processes created fossils little doubt animals buried catastrophic flows sediment uncertain transported flows locations lived area buried mixture local transported specimens issue closely related conditions burial sites moderate supply oxygen conditions generally thought favourable imply animals lived buried 1970s early 1980s fossils largely regarded evidence familiar animals appeared rapidly early called explosion view known charles darwin regarded greatest difficulties theory evolution presented origin species early 1980s method evolutionary family trees persuaded researchers weird wonders evolutionary cousins present day types animal rapid separate short lived debate vigorous relationships groups animals discovery collection examinations fossils found mount stephen canada rocky_mountains construction worker reports reached richard geological survey canada found beds unusual fossils reported superior named unusual turned pieces puzzle took years solve similar fossils reported nearby mount field stephen formation charles visited mount field taking photographs found slab fossils described crustaceans late august early september team including family collected fossils opened quarry colleagues visited bringing specimens total secretary institution death kept busy trying time analyzing finds years death drew attention exceptional detail specimens known fossils soft bodied animals period research interests early canadian took great majority time fossils algae bacteria assigned importance fossils animals managed publish preliminary papers fossil animals articles years death associate charles produced package additional descriptions notes classifications fossils rejected supported time accepted change conclusion disputed later comments benefits techniques concepts unknown time opened briefly excavated quarry metres bed little interest fossils 1930s early 1960s collected stored high rooms institution mid-1970s examined collection suggested new interpretations beginning early 1970s harry associates david christopher hughes graduate students simon conway morris began thorough examination collection assigned groups fossils member team decided fossils investigate order publications stephen jay work book wonderful life aroused enduring scientific interest public interest explosion apparently rapid appearance moderately complex animals early continuing search fossils mid-1970s led description 1980s looked like small shell chain mail long curved spines round edges recent discovered species formally described named unearthed better fossils animals discovered earlier example years known poorly preserved specimen discovery formed basis detailed description analysis examination collection continues led reconstruction large marine animal geology series sediment deposits spread vertical distance hundreds metres extending kilometres deposits originally laid floor shallow sea late cretaceous mountain building processes sediments upwards current position metres elevation rocky_mountains rocks containing fossils border partially overlapping bands rock run western face canadian eastern border cathedral formation platform limestone formed algae western surface cathedral formation steep consists resistant rock originally limestone platform mid late transformed flows replaced limestone calcium layer lies partly partly west cathedral formation layer called thin stephen formation lies cathedral formation thick stephen formation lies west thick stephen formation generally known formation alternating fine layers compressed hardened mud originally ground rock originally animal shells layers contain relatively shells occasional non fossils tubes soft bodied organisms famous layers millimetres thick averaging millimetres defined bases opinions vary layers produced mudslides cathedral limestone platform edge collapsed occasionally possibly storms created currents abruptly washed large volumes mud platform layer result greater bed metres thick sequence consisting famous bed plus metres contains layers deposited thousand years environment essentially stable fossil preservation processes responsible exceptional quality fossils far clear interpretation preserved depends partly issues animals buried lived washed long distances sediment flows water burial sites provided oxygen sustain animals traditional view soft bodies organs preserved conditions oxygen breathing bacteria rapid imply sea floor organisms lived jackson concluded sea floor animals buried lived main reasons fossils represented partially decayed soft bodied animals died shortly burial event fragmented transported significant distance storm sediment evidence burial animals lived includes presence tubes assemblies animals preserved fed group round new cuticle hardened swimming organisms buried immediately lived fossil tracks rare sea floor far found support idea water near sea floor possible water sea floor water sediment possible simply deep animals fossils right way suggests transported far odd angles fossils animals components rarely contain remains soft tissues suggests distances corpses transported varied genera buried lived fossils known represent members mat communities appears jackson studied cases presents elephant skin texture typical present provided food grazing animals possibly helped preserve soft bodies organs creating oxygen free zones bacteria cause animals probably killed changes environment immediately preceding mud buried proposed killing mechanisms include changes poisoning chemicals hydrogen changes availability oxygen changing consistency sea floor death event necessarily related burial multiple death events burial events organisms killed immediately burial event stand chance instead rotting eaten type preservation defined non organisms flattened films marine animals started tissues collapsed weight sediment buried typical flattened fossils outlines tougher parts jaws resisted long soft elements muscles gut contents organism produce dark fossils organisms lack tougher structures shell preserved process soft active tissues preserved different processes instance bacteria modify unusual mid gut organisms mineral change happens extremely quickly corpse compressed leaves dimensional mold tissues gills preserved close original dimensional shape process preservation mechanisms appear fossil like organisms parts soft muscles generally lost extremely soft fairly tough preserved preservation different body parts different ways help suggesting body fairly tough like limb preserved flat film soft active like gut preserved solid piece mineral differences help identify fossils excluding consideration organisms body parts match combination types preservation found particular fossil bed suggested type preservation possible sediments disturbed animals anchors plants similar type preservation found fossils late period million years ago known fossils end start suggests little appearance disappearance type preservation preservation depend presence clay like minerals ocean chemistry favoured production minerals limited periods time impossible sure animals known fauna appeared extinct fossils animals similar found found rocks early periods words million years composition depth studies mix fossils published simon conway morris jackson jackson commented conway morris rely set specimens representative discarded specimens found exact level rock sequence recorded making chronological analyses impossible studies noted set species bed conway morris expanded version greater bed jackson different found parts conway morris commented sites resembled quarry recent greater bed abbreviated conway morris found fossils bed abundant fossil deposits accounted bed fossils assuming modern marine ecosystems species lived early seas unsuitable estimated fossils probably represent animals alive time fossils found parts north_america cases wider range fossils including soft bodied ones probably diversity expected sites type preservation found jackson found known species abundant widespread time range majority species rare occurred small area short period time layers abundant species accounted individual animals species wide ranges time space rest specialists particular types environment alternatively wide ranging species quick area burial event species appeared layers probably burial event layer species generally times individuals second common accounts individual fossil animals common species layer greater number layers appears species account individual specimens number species suggests majority species existence shorter periods ones species cover shorter periods time occur mainly higher younger layers shows overall trend increasing diversity time progresses layers abundant diverse group fossils followed individuals species lived surface sea bed group mobile deposit extracted food particles sediment accounted total number individuals total species smallest sub group mobile hunters rest suspension animals lived sediment species individuals largest sub group mobile hunters dwelling animals capable swimming comprised species individuals organisms spent life swimming rare accounting individuals species patterns common species rare ones dominance percentage frequencies different life styles apply identity dominant species differs sites example credited animal abundance specimens collected abundant organism greater bed rare overall community ecology similar suggesting global pool species burial events occurred jackson computer software simulate numbers species found smaller numbers specimens included found number species discovered kept increasing number specimens increased reaching plateau suggests probably contains species probably rare ones recently discovered species known nicknames like bear familiar collecting teams formally described named team nicknamed discovery animal described formally named notable fossils soft bodied fossils jackson survey covered species found greater bed list recent discoveries species central major scientific debates fossil examined gave indication surprises way clearly walked sea floor different known marine groups crustaceans structure legs gills number positions head main feature classify fossil provided earliest clear evidence presentation audience laugh reconstruction showed soft bodied animal slim body pair like segment gills flaps eyes backward facing mouth head long flexible like extended head ended fringed spines concluded fit known mid-1970s main reasons stephen jay book wonderful life considered early life diverse experimental later set animals explosion truly dramatic event possibly driven unusual evolutionary mechanisms regarded important understanding phenomenon originally wanted book homage subsequent research concluded closely related possibly closer ancestors discovery abnormal shrimp comedy errors initially given fossil looked like rear end shrimp like classified ring like fossil called kind poorly preserved fossil called sea plot twists started ill defined fossil thin found pair like structures end specimen specimen attached specimens finding similar configurations concluded represented single animal named earliest assigned parts animal body fragile usually complete animal tough tough ring like mouth teeth inner edge long body flaps sides enabled swim mexican wave motion turn quickly putting flaps reverse monster feet long animals inches suggested animal capable taking heavily armored apart possibly grabbing end prey jaws quickly rock end animal forth causing prey allowing predator access found showed little wear suggests come regular contact shells computer modeling suggests fact better suited smaller soft bodied organisms concluded fit known research 1990s concluded closely related ancestors fossil named apparent relative found early period million years later conway morris gave reconstruction looked bizarre worm like animal walked long rigid spines row science fiction author bear says way stories scaled versions reconstruction late 1980s literally turned found paired legs spines defensive equipment classified worms legs considered closely related current view armored words closely related closely related fossils armor plates spines examining dozens conway morris reconstructed like animals covered rows overlapping armor plates rows longer spines projecting upwards intense debate closely related supporters close relationship maintained pair bars running mouth armed backward pointing teeth rudimentary form toothed tongue use food convey throat nicholas academic far published articles placing closer stated row feeding apparatus performed sophisticated functions multi row belt suggesting instead apparatus like pair toothed bars found later found fossils million years regarded convincing early described armor plates spines similar internal structure hairs supporters link stated shows signs mouth legs typical features writer adopted neutral position saying saw strong grounds classifying thought objections classification stronger years toothed known specimen oval slab hints tiny conical teeth new finds years immediately preceding detailed description possible pair slightly shaped tooth rows ahead mouth like pitched middle debate closer lineage resulting frank exchange views dawn hair discovered formally described animal soft underside upward facing surfaces armored small shell near end zones armor plates fitted close body ran way round animal long upwards curving spines body arrangement armor plates similar contemporary shell similar shell types labelled forward shell fossils dated early early fossils similarities suggest intermediate form taxa formed clade words group consists common ancestor descendants drawn complex debate closely related worms years fossil known poorly preserved counterpart fossil puzzle head looked like body fins belly looked like smith described specimens good reconstructed earliest unlike later cephalopods arms eyes mounted soft funnel similar ones propulsion modern cephalopods classified worm recent microscopic examination indicated surfaces legs animal fossils humans belong rare sediments conway morris classified fossil rudimentary rod evolved backbone doubts raised important features like repeated blocks muscle sides shaped clear evidence like gills throat appears upper body lower head unlike living best stem group words evolutionary aunt living found repeated shaped structures sides represent muscle blocks celebrated mid-1970s earliest known fish found fossils million years older trace fossils trace fossils rare recovered significance analysis fossils important interpretation fossil records scientific understanding nature early evolution english william realised dramatic change fossil record occurred start period million years ago earliest fossils million years old diverse widespread suggesting group long hidden history earliest fossils widely accepted appeared time darwin contemporaries insufficient information establish relative dates rocks impression animals appeared charles darwin regarded solitary existence total absence intermediate fossils problem theory natural selection devoted entire chapter origin species matter speculated phenomenon known explosion product gaps sequence fossil bearing rocks contemporary knowledge rocks geological evidence presented suggest earlier fossils exist long time evidence widely rejected fossils period immediately preceding found scientists time assumed life dismissed products physical processes discovered fossils accepted time albert charles dismissed claims found fossils noticed rocks australia hills recognized coming period thought time formed onwards small fossils millimeters size found early rocks later found rocks dating end preceding period scientists started 1960s recognize left wide range animals recognized darwin view gaps fossil record accounted apparently sudden appearance diverse life forms scientific support century later early 1970s durham martin argued animal kingdom long history hidden lack fossils preston cloud held different view origins complex life writing evolution animals early explosive explosive view supported hypothesis punctuated developed early 1970s views evolution long intervals near punctuated short periods rapid change fossils hidden store rooms 1960s colleagues began publish finds early 1970s fossils central debate quickly animals arose interpreted evidence living appeared early extinct end time appeared 1950s starting change scientists approach biological classification unlike previous methods attempts consider characteristics organism chosen important result gives significance unique bizarre characteristics shared demonstrate relationships concept group words consists common ancestor descendants example regards traditional term useless mammals birds descendants different groups reptiles considered reptiles concepts crown groups stem groups presented english consequences approach crown group group living organisms stem group non set organisms shared features crown group distinguish clearly close relatives crown groups simple terms evolutionary organisms crown group crown groups fact characteristics considered defining features simply consequence fact ancestors survived closely related extinct started experimenting results convinced offered reasonable prospects making sense animals fossil beds discovered small produced similar collections fossils types animals represent lived seas world appears major animal arisen time million years earlier similar fossils found explosion complete 1990s suggested fossils million years ago start primitive primitive new fossil discoveries filling gaps family tree weird wonders seen stem members total group included living


crater crater known young located mount state washington formed eruption location body ice grew rapidly unknown public nearly years contained ice caves smooth ice volcanic activity growth lava dome volcanic significantly altered appearance time period agencies decided official later decision crater official despite volcanic activity continued advance completely encircled lava addition new glaciers rock ice formed crater description true lies inside north facing crater left eruption mount elevation massive central lava dome occupies center crater formed shape dome terminal eastern western sides heavy winter snowfall repeated snow sun surrounding cliffs south led exceptionally rapid growth composition estimated tenths ice tenths rock average thickness feet maximum thickness feet nearly deep mount carbon ice older year volume new pre glaciers combined surface looks dark dirty summer numerous steep unstable crater walls ash help protect growing volcanic activity created series nearly split south end crater spite year lava dome building period remains north_america youngest fastest growing joining termini north end crater body ice completely lava gives rise creek eruption caves crater caves discovered smooth surface caves big explore like caves summit mount caves located near 1980s lava dome hot steam volcanic gas emissions hidden crater floor lava dome melted holes young glacial ice feet underground caves mapped studied glaciers new rock glaciers new glaciers formed crater wall crater feeding rock ice crater addition rock glaciers north eastern lobe crater north western lobe rock glaciers merged crater west east rock eastern slopes crater wall close touching evolution months eruption crater floor remained hot unstable minor volcanic lava dome construction october ceased winter crater floor cooled snow ice accumulation beginning snowfall winter began grow rapidly shadow crater rate high year advanced northward year growth discovered scientists working crater seven years later existence publicized crater covered square mile km2 area glaciers western eastern lobe flowing 1980s dome gas emissions crater floor caves ice caves smooth glacial ice explored late 1990s volcanic activity pushed aside growth new volcanic streams ice compressed wall new lava ice moved rapidly downhill like container resulted rapid advance termini western arm merged rock western crater wall arms crater joined north 1980s lava dome despite volcanic activity addition volcanic activity modified surface transformed free chaotic heavily crossed movement crater floor lava dome growth south end new split crater separate glaciers melted volume ice cold rock edge ice lava lava concerns catastrophic caused melting nature crater floor reduced flowing volcanic activity 2000s thickness continues increase slower rate year continues advance day latest aerial imagery taken shows entered upper reaches creek canyon creek ice mixed rock debris canyon creek pushed east nearby slopes eastern crater wall touches rock glaciers close merging rock seen interface eastern western arms crater evolution naming observed forming actively flowing late 1980s scientists working mountain referred informally crater wide use public aware existence decades formed appeared scientific publications single scientific paper complete published study date referred despite numerous observations publications growing late 1990s early 2000s permanent official late current cycle began new dome began split time proponent tribe suggested language word ice march washington state board geographic names chose contenders crater spirit facto board geographic names decision official united_states submitted consideration crater honored killed flow june chose crater decade precedent common use despite objections state washington united_states forest service preferred scientists volcano observatory strongly supported crater commented appropriate volcano lies inland region native language decision controversy erupted following editorial local newspaper protesting decision state washington indicated continue appear state products feature soon anticipated great concern despite protests official remained crater shortly june decision received follow proposal arms east crater west crater point time dome building nearly split east west arm action taken matter merging ice streams north 1980s lava dome rendered unnecessary


coal manchester england manchester correspond closely crossed number fault lines principally fault reactivated mining activity mid-1960s coal mined early 17th century area pits largely rural increasingly built nearby manchester expanded 19th century coal transported canal railway consumed locally adjacent mid-20th century yard underground tunnel dug supply coal directly stuart street power station damage buildings area caused led despite sitting large reserves high quality coal closed site cleared occupied city manchester stadium geology isolated rest manchester coal laid period dip average south correspond closely upper coal measures foot horizon worked foot known parker foot doctor new yard foot quarters charlotte mines parker known group charlotte closest surface charlotte worked group parker middle deep mines feet roger middle deep mines correspond major bland great mines western corresponds roger total contained million long tons million short tons coal crossed number fault lines principally fault extraction coal caused fault 1960s resulting seriously damaged hall residential complex built early 20th century building subsequently demolished early history situated south canal built north new road short arm canal filled built lock lock lock coal mined early 17th century profitable albeit significant financial risk thomas recorded having invested reign king james equivalent time producing long tons short tons coal year probably average long tons short tons year course 17th century early mines shallow exploiting close surface largely rural area growth nearby manchester records date hall granted year lease mining rights shaft deep sunk ownership thomas foot diameter shafts parker depth yards providing ventilation known company employed underground surface workers producing house coal coal manufacturing parker high price coal end 19th century persuaded newly created fine cotton association effects members purchasing ensuring cheap supply fuel steam powered mills expansion new owners embarked programme expansion installed earliest electrical plants type ventilation fan powered electricity steam provided deepening shaft access deep yards started coal reached massive timber built shaft twin cylinder vertical winding engine built robert installed engine house coal holding cwt coal wound time double deck shaft winding men smaller horizontal winding engine earlier shaft forge pit yards deep pumping water workings winding shaft end 19th century site crowded included pit surrounded housing factories industrial parts manchester ready supply coal encouraged development manchester chemical industry northeast city generally factory producing acid coal tar established acid produced nearby later site division coal transported canal railway connection lancashire yorkshire railway branch built early 1900s locally transported road horse motor destined adjacent company bought saddle tank locomotive engine company bristol wagons siding later years acquired manchester large reserves high quality coal roger exploited mines dry relatively gas free pit manchester initially improved coal screening plans develop output long tons short tons day involving complete replacement surface works parker shaft deepened yards winding installed accommodate long ton short ton capacity transport coal underground improved installation ton cars hauled battery powered locomotive system foot reinforced concrete winding tower built house type friction wheel built metropolitan vickers new winding engine built deep pit shaft ventilation means type fans installed underground chamber yard tunnel yards ground level driven stuart street power station provide coal direct tunnel delivered long tons short tons small coal hour power station bunker developments begun manchester completed national coal board reconstruction coal extracted mining coal cutting machinery type mining creates void roof allowed collapse waste insufficient fill void brought pits incorporated takes coal reserves moss redeveloped closed shafts moss retained winding men equipment closure mid-1960s apparent considerable caused mining built area manchester buildings affected particularly village miles council houses severely damaged demolished government approved order restricting mining operations ordered determine mining continue compensation loss production paid time required planning permission city manchester gave evidence stating ton coal extracted paid compensation surface damage highest pit region contrasted national average ton plans included extending mines beneath risk causing proved unacceptable despite sitting vast reserves premium coal closed final year operation workers employed produced long tons short tons coal acre site renamed cleared deep shafts capped reinforced concrete scheme costing million redevelopment site occupied city manchester stadium incidents francis taylor recorded fatality killed roof fall coal mines relatively gas free gas related incidents working light died burns received explosion died incident gas exploded fuse lit number transporting miners hauled surface pit prop causing roof collapse known locally men killed injured heat fire main winding engine house caused winding cables snap sending coal carrying crashing main shaft trapping men underground managed reach smaller shaft yards away subsequently brought safely surface