ministry justice soviet_union ministry justice union soviet socialist ussr russian formed march important government offices soviet_union known people justice russian abbreviated ministry union ussr wide level established july signing treaty creation ussr turn based people justice russian soviet socialist republic formed ministry led minister justice prior nominated chairman council ministers confirmed supreme soviet member council ministers ministry justice responsible courts prisons responsibilities included criminal justice policy sentencing policy prevention ussr ministry organised union union departments union level divided separate organisations republican autonomous provincial level leadership ministry justice came notable soviet law organisations country duties responsibilities according decree ministry justice prepared proposals law carried management legal work national economy ministry directed coordinated work state bodies public organisations promote legal knowledge clarify law population judicial agencies general management civil registry state legal profession ministry liable party state people ministry main goal strengthen socialist legality rule law soviet judicial institutions ministry organised union ussr wide ministry union leadership ministry consisted notable figures judicial authority soviet military bar members judicial institutions leadership task organise prepare proposals legislation leadership courts control republican autonomous provincial levels government party february union people justice dissolved responsibilities duties functions given general department ministry justice headed republican general responsible limiting powers general grounds stopping unnecessary ministry justice dissolved union union level functions ministry handed supreme_court legal commission council ministers ministry government extensive regulations ministry created council ministers ministry main task direct supervise organs union union level according decree main task ministry develop proposals issues linked judicial system election judges elect judiciary organising judiciary studying coordination supreme_court organise work maintenance judicial statistics according soviet law ministry propose measures improve soviet court system according article people justice main task supervise legal activities soviet central agencies people organisation ministry justice headed minister elected supreme soviet seasons supreme soviet deputy ministers elected council ministers allocation deputies decided ministry justice deputy usually headed department minister deputies senior officials formed leadership circle known board ministry justice members board approved council ministers board ministry held meetings regularly discuss legal matters nationwide decisions board rule implemented nationwide board disagreed sought assistance council ministers solve problem structure number employees ministry approved council ministers central apparatus ministry provisions departments divisions approved ministry justice seal ministry justice state emblem ussr history people justice dealing firmly political opponents allowing capitalism develop outside framework state capitalism outlined new economic policy people justice existed union republican level people justice said january soviet law soviet officials objected infamous ears law flat refusal apply law people judge told bring throw jail stealing ears deep prejudice mother milk mistaken belief people tried accordance party political guidelines considerations higher justice according abolished ministry height attempt restore norms socialist legality disappeared joseph rule tried soviet court independent central authority enforcing constitution country judicial branch according courts independence central authority functions duties responsibilities ministry reassigned supreme soviet legal commission council ministers levels soviet society 1960s clear reforms working planned ministry government ministry majority soviet supposed abolished december orders state soviet happen soviet_union dissolved date ministers following persons headed ministry ministers deputy ministers soviet era


cabinet singapore cabinet singapore forms government executive branch singapore president singapore led prime minister singapore head government prime minister member parliament appointed president person view likely command confidence majority parliament singapore members cabinet ministers members parliament appointed president prime minister advice cabinet members prohibited holding office profit actively engaging commercial enterprise cabinet generally directs controls government collectively responsible parliament significant influence ministers designated prime minister charge particular ministers prime minister office singapore ministers best paid world prior salary review prime minister annual salary million pay ministerial grade officers ranged million million committee appointed prime minister review salaries prime minister president political appointment holders members parliament following recommended wage reductions committee debated subsequently accepted parliament prime minister salary reduced includes removal pension million million nonetheless prime minister remains highest paid political leader world earliest predecessor cabinet executive council straits settlements introduced advise governor straits settlements executive power council ministers created official members elected members legislative assembly singapore appointed governor recommendation leader house following general elections year david marshall chief minister singapore constitutional talks legislative assembly representatives colonial office held singapore gained internal self government governor replaced yang power appoint post prime minister person likely command authority assembly ministers cabinet prime minister advice general elections people action party swept power seats assembly lee prime minister singapore executive branch singapore government remained unchanged following singapore merger malaysia subsequent independence following general election cabinet took place effective respectively retained trade industry prime minister office ministers given new appointments remaining sing elected parliament time respectively assigned posts minister education acting minister community development youth sports history outbreak world war singapore crown colony known straits settlements earliest predecessor cabinet arguably executive council straits settlements introduced letters patent issued crown function different today cabinet council composed persons constituted manner directed royal instructions existed advise governor straits settlements executive power governor required consult executive council affairs importance urgent laid reference prejudice public service urgent cases governor inform council measures taken following second world war straits settlements disbanded singapore crown colony right executive council consisted officials nominated february constitutional commission sir george william appointed review constitution colony singapore rendered report things recommended council ministers created composed official members elected members legislative assembly singapore appointed governor recommendation leader house leader largest political party coalition parties having majority support legislature recommendation implemented general election held year labour took majority seats assembly david marshall chief minister singapore major problems constitution chief minister ministers powers ill defined official members retained control finance administration internal security law led confrontation marshall saw prime minister governing country governor sir john felt important decisions policies remain official members members legislative assembly held constitutional talks colonial office london talks broke marshall agree british government proposal casting vote proposed defence council held british high commissioner singapore exercise emergency marshall resigned chief minister june replaced following year led delegation talks self government time agreement reached composition internal security council constitutional arrangements swiftly settled august parliament united_kingdom passed state singapore act granting colony internal self government singapore new constitution came force june governor replaced yang head state power appoint prime minister person likely command authority legislative assembly ministers cabinet prime minister advice constitution created post british high commissioner entitled receive agenda cabinet meeting cabinet papers general elections people action party swept power seats assembly lee prime minister singapore ministers appointed cabinet british high commissioner role ambassador following singapore independence britain merger malaysia apart executive branch singapore government remained largely unchanged governed state larger federation effect august singapore left federation malaysia fully independent republic separation malaysia singapore government retained executive authority executive authority parliament malaysia ceased extend singapore singapore government yang supreme head state malaysia ceased supreme head singapore relinquished sovereignty jurisdiction power authority executive respect singapore yang singapore republic singapore independence act executive authority singapore newly created post president cabinet minister authorized cabinet structure government singapore inherited westminster system government british systems overlap executive legislative branches government head state president singapore member executive government singapore parliament singapore plays minimal role executive power lies hands cabinet prime minister singapore head government ministers time prime minister ministers members parliament mps following constitutional reforms office president transformed appointed elected post president mps elected posts citizens singapore separate elections appointment cabinet president prime minister judgment likely command confidence majority mps practice prime minister usually leader political party holding majority seats parliament president ministers cabinet mps acting accordance prime minister advice including non constituency member parliament nominated member parliament appointed minister possible person elected voters appointed parliament president minister deputy prime minister said parliament government flexibility appoint right person minister finance government select available house added government intention appoint cabinet minister time proposed parliamentary debate stand prime minister able draw experience capable expressed view democratic principles singapore parliamentary system placed weight party power individual mps win support ground ultimately ruling party cabinet team electorate elections critics commented adopting practice political culture lead lack legitimacy entering duties office prime minister ministers sign oath allegiance oath execution offices president oath allegiance reads follows having appointed office office swear bear true faith allegiance republic singapore preserve protect defend constitution republic singapore oath execution office prime minister minister follows chosen appointed prime minister minister singapore swear times discharge duties prime minister minister according law best knowledge ability fear favour affection ill cabinet members prohibited holding office profit actively engaging commercial enterprise addition required comply code conduct ministers example counter potential allegations corruption unexplained wealth avoid potential conflicts private interests public responsibilities code requires minister appointment office disclose confidence president prime minister sources income salary minister include assets financial assets real property interests company professional practice substantial personal assets financial including minister avoid actual apparent conflict interest office private financial interests minister permitted accept favour kind persons negotiation seeking obtain licence enter contractual relations government use official information comes minister private profit profit family member associate vacation office president declare office prime minister vacant prime minister office president acting discretion satisfied prime minister ceased command confidence majority mps situation president required inform prime minister evaluation regard prime minister requests president dissolve parliament instead making declaration vacancy general election held months dissolution parliament gives prime minister opportunity consolidate support receiving fresh mandate polls present clear evidence president rely satisfied prime minister ceased command confidence majority mps singapore courts decide issue case stephen decided provisions similar singapore constitution court found phrase ceased command confidence majority members parliament term art formal vote confidence taken legislature contrast court held said yang loss confidence assessed basis evidence legislative vote include instance media reports letters addressed president cabinet ministers vacate office resign appointments revoked president acting accordance advice prime minister person vacated office minister qualified subsequently appointed minister prime minister ministers cabinet vacate offices dissolution parliament continue posts sitting parliament following general election responsibilities executive authority singapore president cabinet singapore minister authorized cabinet president normally plays nominal largely ceremonial role executive branch government president acts personal discretion exercise certain functions check cabinet parliament singapore required act accordance advice cabinet minister acting general authority cabinet cabinet general direction control government singapore follows westminster system government legislative agenda parliament determined cabinet start new parliamentary session president gives address prepared cabinet outlines cabinet intends achieve session constitution cabinet collectively responsible parliament theory parliament acts check power cabinet ministers required justify actions policies questioned mps singapore weak check ruling people action party holds large parliamentary majority party members mps required party discipline vote according party whip instructions cabinet summoned authority prime minister far prime minister required attend cabinet meetings absence appoint minister prime minister ill absent singapore granted leave absence duties functions conferred constitution minister authorized president general president act accordance prime minister advice appointing minister purpose president act discretion opinion obtain advice prime minister illness absence responsibilities ministers prime minister giving written directions charge minister responsibility department subject practice issuing published government gazette instance constitution republic singapore responsibility senior minister minister national security prime minister office states notified general information article constitution republic singapore prime minister directed shall effect 1st april charged responsibility following matters national security issues involving affecting ministry security policy review committee foreign policy issues involving affecting ministry foreign policy issues involve legal negotiation international shall designated senior minister minister national security ministers designated prime minister charge particular ministers prime minister office ministers known ministers portfolio prime minister retain department subject charge prime minister received monthly salary nearly million year ministers earned month year highest paid government ministers world october year government issued white paper entitled competitive salaries competent honest government proposed salaries ministers civil servants thirds average principal earned income accounting banking engineering law local manufacturing firms multinational corporations chosen members general management skills ministers according white paper visible demonstration sacrifice involved minister motivation persons ministers financial sacrifice outstanding committed encouraged risks public responsibilities political career determine pay president prime minister deputy prime minister attorney general chairman public service commission judges following parliamentary approval white paper november government established independent panel examine prime minister salary panel report released january recommended million year said reasonable prime minister paid million view heavy responsibilities government said years planned raise pay prime minister million ministers longer term million thirds respectively february reported survey countries world economic forum magazine world link found political leaders senior civil servants singapore highest salaries pay singapore prime minister million times average pay chief political executives nations surveyed senior civil servants paid times counterparts average pay august view singapore economy growth led rapid increase exports salary prime minister increased ministers response public said spread population rises amounted person equivalent plates fried subsequently late singapore experienced worst recession generation ministerial pay reduced nonetheless reported prime minister earned gross annual salary million variable component taken account april prime minister annual salary increased million million times president united_states george bush earned annual entry level salary ministers increased million million projected rise private sector end half ministers pay packages individual performance bonus decided prime minister variable bonus component based country prevailing gross domestic product capped months minister annual salary pay increases justified government grounds salaries pace private sector attract best talent avoid corruption minister defence minister charge civil service reported saying don want pay reason people join government don want pay reason join leave joining increases sparked debate parliament people seeing ministerial pay high parliamentary debate issue nominated member parliament ann said sad indictment generation came forward serve excessive monetary deep convictions impoverished april prime minister lee told parliament clear moral standing defend policy hold salary present level years government pay salary way system work years increase salary present level donate suitable good causes following day clarified prime minister decided ago influenced pressure arising announcement ministerial pay rise annual salary entry level ministers view economic crisis january prime minister salary cut million pay ministerial grade officers reduced million november public service division announced pay deferred second time uncertain economic recovery minister salary year lower received review december ministers depended ministerial grade lowest highest minister pay package fixed components monthly salary months non annual month salary special month salary public service leadership months salary variable components annual variable component performance bonus gross domestic product bonus annual variable component half month salary paid based singapore economic performance years economic performance exceptional special variable payment minister performance bonus determined prime minister months salary good performers received equivalent months salary bonus depended nation growth rate bonus paid rate maximum bonus months salary paid rate greater addition ministers received medical benefits civil servants annual grade minister actual salary paid grade minister salary annual pay prime minister set fixed ratio salary included fixed service bonus lieu performance bonus assess prime minister individual performance fixed service bonus performance bonus paid good performer grade following general election prime minister announced committee appointed review politicians revised salaries effect date committee review ministerial salaries chaired rendered report december released public january regards ministerial pay committee recommended grade minister salary median income wage singapore citizens sacrifice comes political service recommended removing special public service leadership performance bonuses months salary good performers generally receiving months salary replacing bonus national bonus based equally weighted real median income growth rate growth rate taking inflation account real growth rate lowest 20th unemployment rate real growth rate regards bonus paid minimum targets met bonus months salary paid targets met maximum bonus months salary targets greatly exceeded result reduction grade minister annual salary figure million prime minister concerned committee recommended twice grade minister salary away fixed service bonus instead prime minister receive larger national bonus annual bonus targets met months salary months salary greatly exceeded lead reduction prime minister annual salary million million lee said accepted committee recommendations remains best paid head government world proposed annual pay package exceeding chief executive hong_kong political leader second highest salary world times president united_states barack_obama times committee report discussed parliament january setting position workers party said basic monthly salary pay grade director management executive scheme civil service minister paid times sum prime minister times said ministers obtain average annual bonus months base salaries case months bonus thirds bonus national bonus remaining based individual performance determined according key performance fixed ministry start new government term portion bonuses paid end year payment remainder deferred till end government term minister performance poor withheld bonus proposal criticized number mps minister state health amy expressed view service public service civil servants subject votes citizens need carry ground ministerial salaries civil service salaries adequate mechanism account responsibilities come job rounding debate deputy prime minister said proposal calculating ministerial salaries quantum achieved similar sum proposed committee view approved principles new system requirement pay competitive recognition political service clean wage system ministers receive additional benefits housing medical mps voted endorse committee proposals march public service division prime minister office announced fixed component salary political appointment holder months monthly salary annual variable component salary months plus national bonus months appointment holders receive pro months pay new salaries took effect cabinet appointed following general election targets making national bonus real median income growth citizens real median income growth lowest 20th citizens real growth unemployment rate citizens appointment holder performance bonus determined prime minister present persons reached age years retired mps served capacity years granted pension rest lives annual person highest annual salary completed year service year ceiling thirds member annual salary addition retired years old years held office prime minister deputy prime minister senior minister minister receive additional pension year highest annual salary completed year service year subject ceiling thirds office holder annual salary members reached age years served years ministers granted pension ceased hold office person absolute right compensation past services pension president reduce conviction corruption committee review ministerial salaries recommended political appointment holders abolished favour central fund payments appointment holders appointed receive pension appointed date eligible date paid step retire office removal taken account prime minister annual salary reduced figure grade ministers current cabinet names bold chinese persons personal names indian persons indicate sources prime minister lee statement press conference new cabinet line september prime minister office september archived original september rachel september names cabinet aimed leadership succession coordinating ministers help tackle complex matters mentor younger ministers straits times elizabeth september new faces office holders today archived original september books executive legal system singapore singapore asia isbn cabinet government 3rd cambridge cambridge_university press isbn john paying best reward high public office singapore hood christopher guy lee grace reward high public office asian pacific rim states research comparative politics london isbn archived original tan kevin ann executive tan lee constitutional law malaysia singapore 2nd singapore asia isbn ann government state legal systems singapore asia law association isbn archived original december news reports january price minister years controversy straits times


china women federation china women federation chinese pinyin known women rights organization established china march originally called china democratic women foundation renamed china women federation acted official leader women movement china founding responsible promoting government policies women protecting women rights government history women movement prior predecessors early women movement china focused assumption women inferior men early believed women needed help improve attitudes women generally considered inferior men chinese communist_party shown early interest protecting rights women 2nd national congress issued statement arguing end chinese traditions women released formal letter ensuring equality law men women guaranteed equal pay 3rd national congress entered united fight unite china party established women department time united ended white terror launched attack purge communists laborers ideas chinese women values permitted territory rule territories called soviets places fled following white terror control championed traditional ideals women established new life movement sought counter gender role espoused traditional gender roles supported time soviets gave opportunity develop skills organizing governing greatly facilitated founding later chinese women movement gained new momentum second sino japanese war leaders women movement expressed nationalist sentiments response threat war posed daily lives leaders called liberation women defend nation number official women organization soviets grew invasion march women congress held women federation forerunner different communist controlled area leaders women movement began form nationalist ideas agenda women attendance stated goal women movement unite women work liberate china women congress outlined goals women movement helping women escape abusive marriages improving women health practice foot binding ending domestic abuse protecting women inheritance rights adopt goals founding early years china democratic women federation established march china country wide women organization renamed china women federation later year women dominant women movement included federation leadership prominent leader women movement active member veteran long march chair organization organization began federation regional women groups dual goals building socialist china promoting status women soon developed original mission promoting gender equality tool party women economic political ideological motives early stages organization characterized focus ideology viewed women movement larger chinese revolution feudal past leaders argued women continued domestic work actively participate revolution contradicted ideology contested assertion stating economic conditions point jobs provided women wives mothers dedicated work seen contributing socialism emphasize contribution women good family campaign introduced acknowledge efforts areas education managing household establishing connections neighbors keeping house clean self improvement promoting campaign ideology important encouraged local chapters form women spread message officials working local organizing campaigns entered new phase dropping democratic federation formally incorporated party structure entered administrative hierarchy state declared mass organization formal inclusion state apparatus altered duties responsible spreading political propaganda women inclusion women political campaigns marketing campaigns chinese women organizing meetings demonstrations encourage female participation campaigning sought use promote gender specific ideas create formal channel women established mass movements china women personnel section trade union addition played important role internationally communist country cold war china difficulty establishing diplomatic connections able reach women movements abroad hosted parts world asia women representative conference december enabled diplomatic blockade forge connections countries soon cultural revolution begin china forced policies cultural revolution women movement great cultural revolution like movements period came depend cult cultural revolution women movement viewed originated west considered anti revolutionary party argued women movement needed completely immersed revolutionary movement instead agenda offices occupied army female involved women movement sent labor camps countryside women work ceased function arrest gang committee 4th national women congress met started female sent countryside reinstated completely soon announced support plan agriculture national defense industry technology china newly reformed able strengthen ability set local chapters able resume work early 1970s resume work national level present status reform era following cultural revolution china women federation began protecting women rights promoting equality responsibilities organ party responsible communicating helped women movement began critique previous actions taken women movement having unsuccessful face china dominant increasingly studied women movements countries held debates parameters set campaigns diverse attempted meet disparate needs urban population rural population continues toe party line longer involved mass political campaigns party officially declared body early 1990s responsible analyzing effectiveness government promoting women rights approved found profit businesses reliant government financing autonomous setting agenda new focus women self discovery launched self campaign consisting self respect self confidence self improvement self reliance example balancing government responsibilities responsibility women china seen child policy responsible policy content questioned policy respected rights women end settled requesting comply law set good example country promote child policy chinese women strongly condemn action related policy expanded legal training strengthened finances involved gay rights fought employment discrimination female trafficking introduced legislation meet challenges faced women developed jobs million unemployed women creating small economic profit entities women work family service aides women service groups organization helps china women women remain unmarried age offers alternatives marriage opportunity pursue education changes concerned grass roots organization focused role setting public discourse social political issues women organization branches party declared nominally non governmental organization response criticism women groups abroad international women movement questioned validity declaration federation expanded size increasingly difficult continue reach chinese women traditional channels appeared fill void incorporated federation gain legitimacy end 1990s women associations recreational clubs umbrella continues struggle reach increasingly diverse female population china incorporate groups outside umbrella defend status organization actions organizations main action china women federation women work federation currently seven functional departments carry work department children international liaison department department women development publicity department department women rights interests human resources development department general office maintains strong connection women committees government committees cover topics ranging systems education science arts medicine party direct control aspects work federation receiving government salary government power promotion affiliated organizations expand influence including china women development foundation marriage family magazine legal assistance center china women activity center china women university china women news china women publishing house women china magazine publishing house affiliated organizations help distribute information women china newspapers magazines major debates women movement occur national journals women china chinese women movements collection women studies structure interaction communist_party china women federation officially labeled longstanding relationship means party interests federation members levels federation coincide state administrative system highest ranking body national congress women meets years national congress women studies reports sent executive committee decide goals women movements changes constitution elect executive committee standing committees national level provincial level women meet years select executive standing committees local level carry directive report committee addition following supposed organization dual structure carrying party orders informing government women interests grass root versus upper levels china women federation run national level provincial municipal county district village levels considered nominal structure party controls level jurisdiction instead direct control higher levels provide guidance ideas levels members complained women trained party promoted rapidly women trained perceived promotion rate grass roots members follow demands party instead demands members believe structure successfully touch women working lines movement little problem upper levels party levels relationship women movement problems china women federation identified women china understand federation contributions significance women movement members identified potential sources lack understanding roles branch organizations contribution making second lacked consistency represented women especially early years problem facing relationship international women movement relationship view feminism current international views feminism viewed contradictory labels feminist movements focuses segment society instead society states capitalism creator gender inequality struggles engage denying borrowed international feminism challenges cooperation outside women groups china women federation largest women organization china women organization existence appeared 1980s recently struggling adequately represent diverse range women interest critics believe women growing needs ought represented diverse group organizations women interest operating china currently listed sought close relationship organization gain legitimacy protection organizations listed outside run women affiliated considerable overlap new women groups freedom exploring sensitive topics alternative theories gender affiliated government manner encouraged groups form brought umbrella extends reach given limited resources available women movement historically representing large organization tensions exists women groups status state officially labeled china women federation applicable term contested given long continuing relationship leaders women movement opposed attending forum manila believe met criteria term china linked anti government groups embraced title internationally international donor agencies generally likely work classification helped obtain financing international organizations believe separated government recent years believes classified definition support modified stance believe complete separation government impossible harmful continues internal external debates title


presidential elections singapore presidential elections singapore president singapore directly elected popular vote introduced amendments constitution singapore potential candidates office stringent qualifications set constitution certificates eligibility issued presidential elections committee particular assess persons integrity good character reputation previously held certain key government appointments acted chairman board directors chief executive officer company incorporated registered companies act cap paid capital million demonstrate held position comparable responsibility public private sector given experience ability managing financial affairs qualifications led elections candidate received certificate eligibility stringent criteria transparency decision making process practice political parties endorsing candidates drawn criticism office president falls vacant incumbent year term president reason unable complete term example death resignation removal office misconduct mental physical office president vacant incumbent term poll election held months cases election place time months incumbent term office procedure elections laid presidential elections act cap process begins prime minister issues writ election returning officer date place nomination day potential candidates obtain certificates eligibility obtain political donation certificates political donations stating complied political donations act cap file nomination papers pay deposit returning officer nomination day candidate nominated declared elected president returning officer issues notice contested election polling day election period candidate spend cents person electoral register greater permits obtained hold election meetings display posters banners number acts unlawful including voting making false statements candidates treating influence legal changes introduced eve polling day cooling day campaigning place day polling day elected president scheme president singapore nation head state president originally indirectly elected parliament largely ceremonial role elected president scheme instituted constitutional amendment transformed office president directly elected people scheme conferred additional powers president enabled act safeguard second key singapore rich financial reserves built government additionally president exercises role integrity public service power veto public appointments check abuses power government qualifications qualifications required person elected president set constitution republic singapore follows citizen singapore years age appear current register resident singapore date nomination election resident periods amounting aggregate years prior date subject specified article constitution include matters mind bankrupt holding office profit having criminal record citizen foreign country satisfy presidential elections committee person integrity good character reputation member political party date nomination election following years minister chief justice speaker parliament attorney general chairman public service commission general general permanent secretary chairman chief executive officer central fund board housing development board town corporation monetary authority singapore chairman board directors chief executive officer company incorporated registered companies act paid capital million equivalent foreign currency similar comparable position responsibility organization department equivalent size complexity public private sector opinion given experience ability managing financial affairs enable carry effectively functions duties office president restriction number times qualified person elected president qualifications strict qualifications required presidential candidates resulted elections incumbent president run second term presidential election saying compelling reason addition eventual winner better known potential candidates tan member opposition workers party singapore private tutor turned real estate executive found met criteria stand election result civil servant ambassador united_states deemed elected president presidential election persons applied certificate eligibility contest election candidate issued certificate elected default nomination day strict requirements justified basis president person integrity moral standing ability monitor financial affairs state management public service sector prime minister lee argued stringent screening process necessary president stand political party nominee subjected internal screening mechanism ruling people action party qualifying criteria criticised pro establishment nature argument allowing electorate elect president candidate choice need candidates meet detailed qualification criteria said government distrust electorate pointed stringent criteria severely limit pool available candidates prime minister press secretary estimated people potentially satisfied criteria contrary principle equality law equal right runs contrary principle democracy demands broad selection people able stand high public office press secretary wrote dignity office president singapore reputation diminished elections unfit candidates participate sake having political endorsement singapore law prevent political parties government non governmental bodies close government ties endorsing candidates presidential election singapore pitted member parliament deputy prime minister chairman national trades union congress general kim showed initial reluctance accepting nomination national duty proclaiming far superior candidate declined campaign saying afford address populace minute broadcasts offered state owned television radio stations appeal based preventing concentration powers asked wanted dominate presidency contrast invested money campaign assisted mobilized members votes union boss backed prime minister appealed vote polling day august received votes votes total votes declared elected president singapore ironically said links cost percentage points votes given strong government support commentators expressed view victory meant victory continuation values style governance votes fell short expected range result seen indicative appetite stronger checks presidential elections elected default eligible candidate nomination day member minority community worked advantage unanimously endorsed cabinet merit overall qualities similarly decision run second term accompanied support government ministers organizations like practice endorsing candidate led criticisms improper government essentially revealing supervisor received endorsement elections revealed later interview swing support opponent especially educated class issue wanted man president check government better neutral independent like voted government support open support furthermore endorsements said undermine principle candidate president political formation reflected requirement candidate member political party election procedure president holds office term years date assumes office office president vacant term incumbent event things president dies removed office misconduct mental physical office president falls vacant incumbent term poll election held months cases election place months date incumbent term office article constitution provides president shall elected citizens singapore accordance law legislature presidential elections act lays election procedure singapore issuance writ election initiate election process prime minister issues writ addressed returning officer responsible overseeing election writ election states nomination day days month date writ place nomination returning officer required public writ election issued day time place nomination candidates publishing notice government gazette clear days nomination day application certificate eligibility potential candidate president apply presidential elections committee certificate eligibility time office president falls vacant end incumbent term months incumbent term deadline applications days date writ election issued tasked ensure candidate necessary qualifications set constitution committee consists chairman public service commission chairman accounting corporate regulatory authority member presidential council minority rights chairman chairs committee satisfied candidate person integrity good character reputation candidate indicates wishes qualify basis held office organisation department given experience ability managing financial affairs enable effectively carry president functions duties possesses necessary experience ability demonstrate good character reputation candidate submit references persons immediate relatives candidate committee issue later day nomination day decision candidate requirements mentioned final subject appeal judicial review court required provide justification decision absence committee immune suit functions presidential elections act non nature decisions criticised contrary rule law external body operations transparent thinks fit request appear committee makes decision ask provide information takes steps candidate right insist committee hear submissions consider information potential candidates presidential election andrew running executive search firm blue arrow international leader member chief financial officer town corporation joint venture thrust media announcing bid financially sound reports reflecting range reactions bid surfaced saw arrogant spoke warmly followed reports having ousted position chairman management committee reports performance employers surfaced reported needed appropriate asked resign asserted performance rated good months received performance bonuses employer member parliament founder united test assembly centre said performance consultant unsatisfactory lodged suit eventually withdrew eventually denied grounds lacked financial credentials responsibility required constitution given opportunity interviewed despite negative media reports speculated contributed decision issue prime minister press secretary said public hearings decision affect independence argued decision issue cast character lack procedure candidate respond negative findings public setting contrary principles natural justice given immune actions addition said independence decision making process affected political endorsements candidate expressed prior issuance political donations political donations act candidates presidential elections receive political donations singapore citizens years old singapore controlled companies carry business wholly mainly singapore anonymous donations prohibited anonymous donations totalling received period starting date months date candidate makes declaration referred ending nomination day date writ election clear days nomination day candidate prospective candidate provide political donations report stating donations received donors received months preceding declaration mentioned sentence submit declaration stating best knowledge belief receive donations required mentioned donation report donations donors anonymous donations accepted order issue political donation certificate later eve nomination day stating candidate complied provisions act nomination person received certificate eligibility entitled nominated presidential candidate submit nomination paper returning officer noon nomination day political donation certificate addition time date writ election noon nomination day behalf hand returning officer deposit amounting times total preceding calendar year rounded nearest presidential election deposit deposit returned person nominated candidate eventually elected candidate unsuccessful election deposit polled eighth total number votes polled including rejected votes nomination day candidate stands nominated shall declared elected office president occurred elections deemed elected candidate considered eligible state affairs questioned basis elected president mandate protect reserves veto proposed public appointments desirable receive minimum percentage votes cast electorate endorsement allowing election default arguably places decision eligibility candidates electorate choice commentator said true contest needed institution elected presidency hand argued contest presidency affect president right legitimacy hold office long believe constitution principal source political legitimacy candidate occupies office virtue consistent constitution moral authority wins contested election nomination day candidates nominated election returning officer immediately election poll taken assign candidate approved symbol printed candidate ballot paper announce publishing notice contested election government gazette information forthcoming poll including candidates names symbols date polling day earlier 10th day later 56th day date notice locations polling stations campaigning election period candidate permitted spend cents person electoral register greater amounts illegal practice pay transport voters poll pay voter use premises display notice voter advertising agent transaction carried ordinary course business illegal practice person borrow lend hire rent use motor vehicle convey voters family members poll committing illegal practice criminal offence penalty fine disqualification years voter candidate parliament office president following acts prohibited number acts induce person vote refrain voting reward having giving lending money giving office employment amounts person promise voter exercise vote certain way candidate elected president return money knowing use money election accept voting voting agreeing induce person consent nominated candidate refrain withdraw candidate return penalty fine imprisonment exceeding years disqualification registered voter voting election elected parliament office president seven years voting attempting dissuade person voting verbally writing nomination day polling day criminal offence fine months jail false statements offenders publish false statements fact personal character conduct candidate false statements candidate withdrawal election liable conviction fine jail months referred treating treating act giving providing paying food drink cigarette entertainment thing money ticket means enable things obtained order influence person vote refrain voting induce person attend election meeting reward having penalty fine imprisonment exceeding years referred influence person makes use threatens use force violence restraint threatens inflict temporal spiritual injury damage harm loss person induce vote refrain voting punish having uses abduction fraudulent scheme prevent person free exercise vote induce vote refrain voting amounts offence influence penalty fine imprisonment exceeding years referred permit commissioner police required candidate wishes hold election meeting nomination day day eve polling day display banners posters candidates campaigning period authorized returning officer impose conditions places objects things manner banners posters displayed returning officer determines maximum number banners posters bearing mind number need treat candidates equally authorization required candidate wishes display banner poster contents medium internet newspaper magazine periodical television broadcast election banners posters displayed way obscure view banners posters metres shorter distance determined returning officer polling station making inscriptions buildings roads prohibited offence display banner poster breach law terms imposed returning officer destroy remove authorized banner poster eve polling day polling day legal changes introduced turn eve polling day presidential parliamentary elections cooling day campaigning permitted prime minister lee justified changes enabling voters think candidates stands issues raised reducing chance public disorder eve polling day election advertising prohibited following activities remain unaffected distributing book promoting sale book commercial value book planned published regardless election publishing news relating election licensed newspaper medium licensed radio television broadcast conveying political views non commercial basis individual electronic transmission election advertising published displayed start eve polling day internet changed publication display continued display posters banners displayed start eve polling day flags symbols sets colours advertisements posters replica voting papers carried worn displayed person vehicle political propaganda candidates wear symbols allotted election purposes addition holding election meetings permitted day polling day polling day involves trying persuade person vote vote particular way visiting voter election related purpose home workplace offence exercise influence person near polling station example trying find identity person entering polling station recording voters waiting outside metres polling stations polling day public holiday voting compulsory returning officer decides polling stations open polling day vote voters polling stations assigned applying ballot paper voting amounts offence person claiming voter named electoral register turns polling station claiming voter voted second person permitted cast called vote ballot paper different colour taking oath confirm identity poll closes presiding officer polling station seals ballot boxes opening candidates polling agents seals ballot boxes ballot boxes taken counting centres opened ballots counted candidate counting agent ask returning officer votes difference number votes candidate votes candidate number votes excluding rejected votes counts recounts completed returning officer total number registered vote overseas difference number votes candidates highest number votes returning officer declares candidate highest number votes elected president overseas votes decisive returning officer states number votes cast candidate date location overseas votes counted officers candidates candidates agents polling stations maintain secrecy voting stations poll closed communicate voted identification number electoral register prohibited communicating information obtained counting votes candidate voted particular ballot paper furthermore person allowed try find polling station voter intends vote voted communicate voter given ballot paper placed ballot box declaration election void person claiming candidate presidential election right elected person voted right vote presidential election apply election judge candidate election president declared void following grounds majority voters prevented preferred candidate general occurrence treating intimidation form misconduct circumstances failure comply presidential elections act affected result election corrupt illegal practice connection election committed candidate agent candidate knowledge consent candidate personally hired election agent agent aware person found guilty corrupt practice seven years engaged time candidate elected disqualified standing election chief justice supreme_court judge nominated acts election judge election avoided ask declaration election void particular candidate declared elected candidate duly elected request scrutiny examination ballot papers unsuccessful candidate majority votes scrutiny conducted election judge order vote struck voter register assigned polling station vote recorded authorized vote station vote obtained treating influence voter committed induced commit offence vote disqualified candidate disqualification matter voter aware sufficiently publicized widely known scrutiny vote shown valid added poll party proceedings asks vote added hand registered vote struck scrutiny qualified electoral register returning officer decision ballot paper rejected questioned election judge empowered exempt illegal practice particular act omission candidate election agents agent person paying sum expense entering contract good faith accidental like similarly judge order allowing authorized excuse failure file proper return declaration relating election expenses candidate principal election agent shows acted good faith reasonable explanation illness absence death illness misconduct agent clerk officer particular judge relieve candidate consequences act omission principal election agent took reasonable means prevent election judge decision final prime minister judge report prime minister corrupt illegal practice established committed knowledge consent candidate agent judge intends report person party proceedings candidate claiming declared elected person given opportunity heard evidence report candidate agents found guilty treating influence illegal practice candidate proves offences committed contrary orders election agents reasonable means taken prevent corrupt illegal practices election offences trivial limited nature respects election free corrupt illegal practice election void depending judge determined election valid void election return confirmed altered election declared void prime minister empowered order election held months determination election results information table obtained presidential elections results elections department november archived original september retrieved september legislation constitution republic singapore reprint political donations act cap presidential elections act cap presidential elections amendment act parliamentary elections forms fees regulations cap archived original september presidential elections certificate eligibility regulations cap archived original august presidential elections posters banners regulations cap archived original september secondary materials singapore elected presidency political motivations tan kevin lee managing political change singapore elected presidency singapore isbn ann elected president legal control government tan kevin lee managing political change singapore elected presidency singapore isbn ann president democracy international journal constitutional law icon


polish pronunciation occasionally translated lithuanian local history poland regional assemblies kingdom poland gained significantly influence later era polish lithuanian commonwealth arose late 14th early 15th centuries existed end commonwealth following commonwealth limited form existed poland later second polish republic modern poland term revived referring elected council varied time geographical differences numerous different types governance structure presided marshal elect delegates national binding instructions attained peak importance turn 18th century effectively supplanted inefficient national etymology word derived old czech means bring summon history traditions traced institution actually polish state originated gatherings nobility formed military purposes historians disagree specific date origin proposed dates privilege statutes geographically arose central poland greater poland province century spread provinces poland finally 16th century grand lithuania legally recognized statutes privilege granted polish nobility king king agreed consult nobility concerning certain decisions recognition stemmed attempt limit growing power counteract middle nobility creation national took powers taxation previously granted importance regional governance somewhat diminished continued play important role governance poland direct form political nobility union polish lithuanian commonwealth grand lithuania notes trend increasing number time 15th century late 18th century nobility sought meet places required travel time estimates turn 18th century elected deputies lithuania elected deputies exceptions notes late 18th century poland proper crown kingdom poland lithuania province role grew late 17th century central power weakened attained peak importance turn 18th century set time limits extended authorized periods operation face inefficient central government national disrupted veto office losing importance administered portion taxes raised military period known rule brought end acts day silent polish removed taxation military affected veto abolished case decided majority rule middle nobility leading force 16th century increasingly influential 18th century stemmed ability bribe masses poorly educated nobility known magnate clients nobles eligible vote lithuania dominated greater extent poland proper lithuanian powerful polish counterparts magnate dominated gathered impoverished nobility described concerned eating drinking debate nobility rare occasion participate sponsored met drunken nobility known fight occasion led fatalities significantly reformed act regional passed march subsequently recognized constitution law introduced major changes electoral ordinance reduced noble class voting right tied property qualification eligible vote noble lease land pay taxes closely related eligible nobles displeasure document lists independent existence commonwealth ended poland institution continued albeit somewhat restricted fashion warsaw elected deputies warsaw similarly congress poland elected deputies congress poland lithuanian territories incorporated russian_empire judicial allowed elect lower court judges representative institution survive lithuanian territories partition prussian partition provincial near turn century limited local representative institutions existed russian partition austrian partition bear poland regained independence provincial restored second polish republic called included short lived central lithuania parliament greater poland preserved tradition prussian partition county existence institutions interrupted occupation poland second world war era communist poland revived fall communism modern poland term refer elected council regions word chosen order eliminate term council memories people councils communist poland era polish lithuanian commonwealth features usually held large open field nobility elect presiding officer marshal role analogous marshal national term revived refers chairman executive board presiding officer originally convened king soon exploited limit number issues discussed pretext later time chosen marshal ability reforms constitution nobility residing territory holding eligible participate estimated drew eligible participants types historians distinguish types depending geographical scope general polish latin held western poland greater poland southern poland little poland warsaw red lithuania general composed delegates elected provincial senators goal agree position general issue instructions deputies supposed vote general general defined precedent custom law rare instances external circumstances prevented national convened general seen competent national matters 15th century general reserved right accept reject national legislation 16th century tasked preparing drafts legislation discussed 17th century general abandoned exceptions royal prussia prussian estates instead provincial deputies meet special sessions proper provincial territorial county polish latin names varied depending administrative level local traditions lists county territorial provincial theoretical hierarchy existed practice drawn starting moving upwards general provincial ending final national importance varied based given autonomous common lithuania rare crown poland instead common hold single covered importance local began diminish formation national local relegated dealing local matters deputies general rose importance second half 17th century central grew weaker quoting adam argues type difference purpose convened nonetheless scholars distinguish different types example divide based purpose follows pre polish convened king sent writ outlining reasons held elected deputies depending size importance territory ordinary general polish held years extraordinary general called time emergency pre referred electoral cases called case elect deputies deputies given instructions vote proper occasion instructions vague deputies freedom arose late 15th century polish heard reports deputies returned general usually presenting law decreed passed specific instructions regards execution local resolutions receive special requests king happened deputy bound instructions vote certain issues subsequently voted passed national cases king request reconsider decision support national legislation arose 16th century electoral polish elected higher officials judges particular convened irregularly offices usually held life candidates nominated king final appointment arose 15th century judicial polish met yearly basis elected deputies crown tribunal lithuanian tribunal times king onwards starting poland lithuania administrative economic polish oversaw self government held day following known specific issues addressed included dealing taxation distribution national taxes tax collectors managing local taxes treasury recruiting local military election deputies treasury arose early 16th century polish special powers organized elect confederation officials derived worn period royal mourning began assessment historiography notes institution gained negative reputation following poland described dysfunctional elements polish political system contributed fall commonwealth simplistic assessments traces 18th century publications negative views rarely challenged stereotype group drunken fighting nobility found literature seen representative particularly outside period decline 18th century argues descriptions outright bloody violence survived seen exceptions long uneventful usually proceedings common remarks myth poland notes similar institutions self governance regional parliamentary participation nobility found places hungary german provinces prussia locations provincial territorial following list locations provincial territorial held province lesser poland envoys elected land envoys elected envoys elected lands envoys elected envoys elected envoys elected envoys elected envoys elected envoys elected envoys elected lands envoys elected envoy elected envoys elected province greater poland county envoys elected land envoys elected land envoys elected county envoys elected land envoys elected land envoys elected land envoys elected land envoys elected county envoys elected land envoys elected envoys elected envoys elected envoys elected land envoys elected land envoys elected land envoys elected envoys elected envoys elected land envoys elected land county envoys elected land envoys elected land envoys elected land envoys elected royal prussia county envoys elected envoys elected envoys elected county envoys elected county envoys elected counties land envoys elected envoys elected county envoys elected county envoys elected grand lithuania county envoys elected county envoys elected county envoys elected county envoys elected county envoys elected county envoys elected county envoys elected envoys elected county envoys elected county envoys elected county envoys elected county envoys elected envoys elected county envoys elected envoys elected county envoys elected county envoys elected county envoys elected county envoys elected county envoys elected county envoys elected county envoys elected county envoys elected county envoys elected according bill regional took place cases swedish conquest moved nobility county formally equal nobility commonwealth elect envoys


government japan government japan constitutional monarchy power emperor limited relegated primarily ceremonial duties states government divided branches executive branch legislative branch judicial branch government runs framework established constitution japan adopted state containing seven administrative divisions emperor head state role ceremonial powers related government instead cabinet composing ministers state prime minister directs controls government cabinet source power executive branch formed prime minister head government designated national diet appointed office emperor national diet legislature organ legislative branch consisting houses house upper house house_of_representatives lower house members directly elected people source sovereignty supreme_court inferior courts judicial branch independent executive legislative branches history prior restoration japan ruled successive military period effective power government resided officially ruled country emperor hereditary military governors modern rank equivalent emperor sovereign appointed roles ceremonial took governing country compared present role emperor official role appoint prime minister restoration led resignation agreeing instrument carrying emperor orders event restored country imperial rule proclamation empire japan constitution adopted strengthen japan level western nations resulting parliamentary system asia provided form mixed constitutional absolute monarchy independent judiciary based prussian model time new aristocracy known established merged ancient court nobility period feudal lords subordinate established imperial diet consisting house_of_representatives house peers members house peers imperial family nominated emperor members house_of_representatives elected direct male suffrage despite clear powers executive branch emperor constitution ambiguity contradictions constitution eventually lead political crisis notion civilian control military meant military develop exercise great influence politics following end world war constitution japan adopted intention replace previous imperial rule form western style liberal democracy emperor emperor japan head imperial family ceremonial head state defined constitution symbol state unity people nominal chief executive possesses certain important powers real powers related government stated clearly article constitution article constitution japan delegates emperor following ceremonial roles appointment prime minister designated diet appointment chief justice supreme_court designated cabinet cabinet source executive power power exercised directly prime minister powers exercised emperor powers exercised emperor stipulated article constitution amendments constitution laws cabinet orders treaties diet dissolution house_of_representatives proclamation general election members diet appointment dismissal ministers state officials provided law powers credentials ambassadors ministers general special amnesty punishment restoration rights awarding honors instruments ratification diplomatic documents provided law receiving foreign ambassadors ministers performance ceremonial functions emperor known hold nominal ceremonial authority example emperor person authority appoint prime minister diet power designate person fitted position example prominently seen dissolution house_of_representatives house expected dissolved advice prime minister temporarily unable general election emperor empress visiting canada manner emperor modern role compared period japan history emperor held great symbolic authority little political power held nominally appointed emperor today legacy somewhat continued retired prime minister considerable power called shadow unlike european counterparts emperor source sovereign power government act instead emperor represents state high officials state japanese people hold sovereignty article constitution accordance imperial household law allows regency established emperor emperor unable perform duties historically imperial house japan said oldest continuing hereditary monarchy world according japan founded imperial house emperor emperor emperor japan ancestor emperors followed according japanese mythology direct descendant sun goddess native religion great grandfather current emperor japan officially november styled imperial majesty reign bears era crown prince japan heir apparent throne executive executive branch japan headed prime minister prime minister head cabinet designated legislative organ national diet cabinet consists ministers state appointed dismissed prime minister time explicitly defined source executive power practice mainly exercised prime minister practice powers responsible diet cabinet lose confidence support office diet diet dismiss cabinet motion confidence prime minister prime minister japan designated national diet serves term years limits imposed number terms prime minister hold prime minister heads cabinet exercises control supervision executive branch head government commander chief japan self defense forces prime minister power present bills diet sign laws declare state emergency dissolve diet house_of_representatives cabinet dismisses cabinet ministers houses national diet prime minister ballot cast run system constitution houses agree common candidate joint committee allowed established agree matter specifically period days exclusive period houses agree decision house_of_representatives deemed national diet designation prime minister presented commission formally appointed office emperor candidate designated diet required report diet demanded prime minister civilian member house diet october cabinet cabinet japan consists ministers state prime minister members cabinet appointed prime minister cabinet law number members cabinet appointed excluding prime minister fourteen increased nineteen special need arises article constitution states members cabinet civilians majority chosen members house national diet precise wording leaves opportunity prime minister appoint non elected diet officials cabinet required resign continuing functions till appointment new prime minister following situation arises diet house_of_representatives passes non confidence resolution rejects confidence resolution house_of_representatives dissolved days vacancy post prime minister diet general election members house_of_representatives legitimacy diet responsible cabinet exercises power different ways practice power exercised prime minister exercised nominally emperor article constitution japan cabinet perform following functions addition general administration administer law conduct affairs state manage foreign affairs conclude treaties shall obtain prior depending circumstances subsequent approval diet administer civil service accordance standards established law prepare budget present diet enact cabinet orders order execute provisions constitution law include provisions cabinet orders authorized law decide general amnesty special amnesty punishment restoration rights constitution laws cabinet orders signed competent minister prime minister formally emperor members cabinet subject legal action consent prime minister right legal action october japan consist cabinet office ministry headed minister state mainly senior legislators appointed members cabinet prime minister cabinet office formally headed prime minister agency handles day day affairs cabinet influential daily exercised executive power ministers serve year necessary grab hold organisation power lies senior cabinet office national public safety commission national police agency consumer affairs agency financial services agency fair trade commission food safety commission imperial household agency manages imperial household ministry internal affairs communications environmental dispute coordination commission fire disaster management agency ministry justice public security examination commission public security intelligence agency public prosecutors office ministry foreign affairs reconstruction agency ministry finance national tax agency ministry education culture sports science technology agency cultural affairs promotes arts culture manages funding cultural events music theater dance art exhibitions film making making improvements national language ministry health labour welfare pension service central labour relations commission ministry agriculture forestry fisheries fisheries agency forestry agency ministry economy trade industry agency natural resources energy small medium enterprise agency patent office laws relating patents utility models designs ministry land infrastructure transport tourism japan transport safety board japan tourism agency japan meteorological agency japan coast guard ministry environment nuclear regulation authority ministry defense self defense forces ground maritime air national security council october board unique body government board totally independent diet cabinet reviews government expenditures annual report diet article constitution japan board act gives body substantial independence controls legislative legislative branch organ japan national diet legislature composing lower house house_of_representatives upper house house empowered constitution highest organ state power sole law making organ state houses directly elected parallel voting system ensured constitution discrimination qualifications members based race creed sex social status family origin education property income national diet reflects sovereignty people principle popular sovereignty supreme power lies case japanese people diet responsibilities includes making laws approval annual national budget approval conclusion treaties selection prime minister addition power initiate draft constitutional amendments approved presented people ratification referendum emperor people constitution enables houses conduct investigations relation government demand presence testimony witnesses production records allowing house diet demand presence prime minister minister state order answers explanations required diet able court judges convicted criminal irregular conduct constitution specify voting methods number members house matters pertaining method election members allowed determined law provisions constitution law adults aged eligible vote secret ballot universal suffrage elected certain diet session speeches debates votes cast diet enjoy parliamentary privileges house responsible members public thirds members present passes resolution agreeing diet requires presence membership house order constitute decisions decided majority present stated constitution case tie presiding officer right decide issue member expelled majority thirds members present passes resolution constitution session diet convened year cabinet extraordinary sessions diet required quarter total members house demands election house_of_representatives dissolved house dissolved closed times national emergency emergency session emperor diet house_of_representatives advice cabinet bills law passed houses national diet signed ministers state prime minister finally emperor specifically giving emperor power oppose legislation house_of_representatives house_of_representatives japan lower house members house elected years dissolved year term december members members elected multi member party list system proportional representation elected single member seats required majority house_of_representatives powerful house able bills imposed house thirds majority dissolved prime minister members house japanese aged years older vote aged years older run office lower house legislative powers house_of_representatives considered powerful house house ability veto decisions house_of_representatives delayed includes legislation treaties budget selection prime minister prime minister collectively cabinet turn dissolve house_of_representatives intended house_of_representatives considered officially dissolved preparation document house formally dissolved dissolution ceremony dissolution ceremony house follows document rubber stamped emperor wrapped purple silk cloth indication document state act behalf people document passed chief cabinet secretary house_of_representatives president reception room document taken chamber preparation general secretary general secretary prepares document reading speaker speaker house_of_representatives promptly declares dissolution house house_of_representatives formally dissolved customary dissolution house members shout cheers house house japan upper house half members house elected years year term december members elected districts single non votes elected nationwide list proportional representation open lists house dissolved prime minister members house japanese aged years older vote aged years older run office upper house house veto decision house_of_representatives house cause house_of_representatives reconsider decision house_of_representatives insist decision veto house thirds majority members present year required national diet house advice cabinet extra ordinary session emperor short speech usually speaker house_of_representatives emperor proceeds diet speech throne judicial judicial branch japan consist supreme_court lower courts high courts district courts family courts summary courts divided basic tiers court independence executive legislative branches guaranteed constitution stated extraordinary tribunal shall established shall organ agency executive given final judicial power feature known separation powers article constitution states court judges independent exercise conscience bounded constitution laws court judges public removed declared mentally physically incompetent perform duties constitution explicitly denies power executive organs agencies administer disciplinary actions judges supreme_court judge dismissed majority referendum occur general election national diet house_of_representatives following judge appointment general election years lapse trials conducted judgment declared publicly court unanimously determines publicity dangerous public order morals exception trials political offenses offenses involving press cases rights people guaranteed constitution deemed conducted privately court judges appointed cabinet emperor chief justice appointed emperor nominated cabinet practice known recommendation chief justice legal system japan historically influenced chinese law developing independently period texts changed restoration largely based european civil law notably civil code based german model remains effect quasi jury system recently came use legal system includes bill rights collection codes makes main body japanese statutory law statutory laws japan required rubber stamped emperor seal japan law effect cabinet signature prime minister emperor supreme_court supreme_court japan court resort power judicial review defined constitution court resort power determine law order regulation official act supreme_court responsible judges lower courts determining judicial procedures oversees judicial system overseeing activities public prosecutors judges judicial personnel high courts high courts japan jurisdiction hear appeals rendered district courts family courts excluding cases jurisdiction supreme_court criminal appeals directly handled high courts civil cases handled district courts high courts japan tokyo osaka hiroshima high courts system system japan operated ministry justice criminal justice system intended reform offenders ministry bureau adult prison system juvenile system women guidance homes rehabilitation bureau operates probation parole systems local government local governments japan local jurisdictions largely depend national government financially established act constitution matters pertaining local self government allowed determined law specifically local autonomy law ministry internal affairs communications significantly local government chiefly financially local government jobs need funding initiated national dubbed thirty percent autonomy result power high level organizational policy different local jurisdictions allowing preserve city town jurisdictions tokyo experimented policies areas social welfare later adopted national government local authorities japan divided seven administrative divisions metropolitan district tokyo urban osaka rural district large cities subdivided split towns counties cities self governing units administered independently larger jurisdictions located order attain city status jurisdiction inhabitants percent engaged urban self governing towns outside cities urban like cities elected mayor assembly villages smallest self governing entities rural areas consist number rural containing thousand people connected formally imposed framework village administration villages councils elected year terms structure local government jurisdiction chief executive called governor mayor municipalities jurisdictions assembly towns villages opt direct governance citizens general_assembly executive assembly elected popular vote years local governments follow modified version separation powers national government assembly pass vote confidence executive case executive dissolve assembly days automatically lose office following election executive remains office new assembly passes confidence resolution primary methods local local ordinance local regulations similar statutes national system passed assembly impose limited criminal penalties violations years prison million fines regulations similar cabinet orders national system passed executive superseded conflicting impose fine local governments generally multiple committees school boards public safety committees responsible overseeing police personnel committees election committees committees directly elected chosen assembly executive required maintain departments general affairs finance welfare health labor departments agriculture fisheries forestry commerce industry optional depending local needs governor responsible activities supported local taxation national government