invasion invasion code named operation democracy march amphibious assault led backed african union forces including troops logistical support libya france objective invasion colonel leadership island union refused step disputed election defiance federal government archipelago indian_ocean history independence france experiencing attempted invasion occurred early morning march main towns quickly overrun island declared control invading forces day managed escape march requested political asylum subsequently held custody french administration brought island france rejected request asylum french refugee office ruled ousted leader risk persecution background tensions rise federal government delayed holding election alleged irregularities intimidation printed ballots held election june claiming landslide victory percent military build march hundreds government troops began assembling closer larger island provided total troops libya offered logistical support operation addition troops arrive soon france colonial power assisted operation troops area vows resistance self declared president met stern words envoy saying overwhelmed afraid tries end physically necessary interview said national president know concerning military advise solution time army came kicked second time army came kicked means try come time kick promised hold new elections south african president supported way resolve crisis tried stop invasion march disregarded proposal invasion went ahead pre invasion incidents march fuel ship supplying army caught fire port capital cause fire unknown march armed occurred islands members militia loyal president captured taken interrogation diplomacy continued intervention south african president attempted delay planned invasion distinct displeasure government understood spoke head president phone march stall attack intended despite intervention fishing boat soldiers left march conflicting statements sides military sources reporting fishing boat carrying soldiers federal government landed southern attempted capture police station later statement chief staff revised information said reconnaissance team soldiers landed march south island reached southern town soldiers wounded federal source said target operation police station free political prisoners said source troops retreated returned sunday march rescue wounded soldiers according military source federal soldier suffered arm injury minor foot injury sources reported course operation people died result bombardment positions facts disputed administration insisted soldiers attacked positions march fact died police station captured stated forces ambushed forces early stages forced withdraw hopeless situation contrary republican mission national army development army taking innocent citizens hostages wrong addition fishermen kidnapped second aggression national army development forces supported provided iran failed elements self defense wounding gangster attackers including france role crisis brought question march french police helicopter clandestine mission french administered island crashed sea close city reports officials said hurt crash helicopter owned france based air border police force critics helicopter involved attempt bring french exile holding long protected french lieutenant colonel government spokesman declared don know imagine rumors government allow come authorized french said sent air naval assets pick crew french military transported troops tons freight grand march march according reports french diplomat said france ready transport troops diplomatic source said france remains favorable dialogue condition accepts presence african troops port airport invasion morning march boats transporting approximately soldiers left port capital island troops vowed fight man left standing lieutenant stating fight die reported runway airport close blocked baggage atmosphere tense island impending assault telephone lines cut government spokesperson quoted saying decided kill afraid prepared forces ready going work troops landed north bay dawn march shots heard island town near airport presidential residence combined forces quickly advanced town secure airfield bbc reported island capital airport second city overrun dawn scenes local population mid day presidential palace deserted journalists reported invaders struggled progress automatic fire forces afternoon clashes heavy artillery continued shake town army reportedly looking hiding place airport secured invasion force apparently split headed south west engage loyalists capital remainder headed south east capturing port second city resistance early reports indicated government fled interior island hiding later reports government march stated fled island seeking exile comment government government spokesperson said invasion troops told look conducting house house searches aftermath managed escape reports march confirmed presence island stated requested political asylum france associated_press reported paris france considering request political asylum leaders demanded france return anti french protests calling france stated treating asylum request quickly possible march moved french island charged investigated illegally entering french territory carrying weapons followers case rejected procedural reasons remained custody end march prominent supporters arrested including vice president prime minister interim president found hiding near march including minister transport spokesman prime minister advisor president constitutional court april custody president visited early april marking visit island said hoped cease removal power praised african leaders provided assistance invasion contrary previous reports france invasion france gave approval helped air lift troops island french foreign minister bernard stressed april france supported provided protection fully supported african union intervention april close guards released prison returned house arrest military april announced french office protection refugees persons office protection des granted asylum men refused asylum requests rejected sent country returned fears persecution rule cases men asylum request rejected france secretary state overseas said france support government efforts continue act consultation law applied col tried presidential elections occurred june june election won defeated second round


massacre massacre croatian serbian killing residents village november following seizure village yugoslav people army croatian offensive croatian war independence fall town occurred croatian operation capture croatian held pocket centered town southeast bulk civilian population fled surviving croatian forces remained rounded killed expelled bodies victims retrieved mass graves individual graves capture killing expulsion civilian population included international criminal tribunal yugoslavia milan milan high ranking officials croatian declared wartime region following war convicted role events subsequently rebuilt background following electoral defeat government socialist republic croatia ethnic tensions serbs worsened yugoslav people army confiscated croatia territorial defence weapons minimize resistance august tensions escalated open revolt croatian serbs centred predominantly populated areas parts eastern croatia followed unsuccessful attempts serbia supported montenegro serbia provinces obtain yugoslav presidency approval operation croatian security forces january skirmish insurgents croatian special police march supported serbia allies asked federal presidency wartime authority declare state emergency request denied march came control serbian president publicly threatened replace serbian army declared longer recognized authority federal presidency end month conflict escalated croatian war independence stepped increasingly supporting croatian insurgents preventing croatian police intervening early april leaders croatian revolt declared intention integrate area control known serbia government croatia viewed declaration attempt croatian government responded forming croatian national_guard garde development hampered united_nations arms introduced september october croatia declared independence yugoslavia month later renamed croatian army late saw fighting war yugoslav campaign croatia culminated siege battle prelude independent company consisting approximately personnel stationed village croatian police day lakes incident april tensions worsened july month distributed small arms ethnic serbs living region including skirmishes took place near june august targeted artillery mortars positioned barracks bulk civilian population fled early august approximately returned homes month special police troops deployed regular police drawn reinforcements september police arrived final croatian reinforcements arrived october consisting police october pocket croatian controlled territory formed town south boundary regions direct communications held areas regions pocket separated bulk croatian government controlled territory controlled town west turn inaccessible central authorities road ran village situated pocket early october launched joint offensive aimed capturing peripheral areas pocket planned weapons air base raise combat brigade support operation extend control cancelled yugoslav air_force refused follow orders month captured village kilometres miles east turned civilians fled seven civilians killed village looted civilians killed nearby village croatian police including forces based launched failed attempt capture base november resulting deaths number civilians attack force commanded officers including 63rd parachute battalion troops killed civilians village near november timeline early november intensified offensive aimed capturing pocket main axes advance north lakes respectively force assigned offensive organised tactical group command colonel bulk consisted reinforced battalion detached brigade battalion supported 5th partisan brigade 13th corps police unit brigade drawn attacking force supported yugoslav air_force artillery tanks approached village directions morning november main force advancing reached according sources air strikes commenced lasted minutes followed minute artillery bombardment ground forces ordered attack defences breached noon attacking force reached centre village according sources resistance light defending force estimated consist armed troops village secured tanks attached attacking force withdrawn assault resulted death croatian troops attacking forces suffered wounded immediate aftermath fighting control village looted houses attack bulk civilian population remaining croatian police troops fled snow covered terrain poor weather nearby territory bosnia approximately civilians largely elderly people remained troops forced remained leave village killing civilians civilians murdered troops immediate aftermath capture victims shot beaten burned death aftermath destruction continued churches village demolished mid december entire village completely destroyed owned houses badly damaged capture village renamed authorities croatian forces subsequently lost control november rest pocket fell captured november independent company unsuccessfully defended subsequently attached home guard battalion turn amalgamated units form home guard regiment months following recapture area croatia operation storm bodies victims recovered mass graves containing fourteen bodies respectively individual graves indictment milan leader time killings took place international criminal tribunal yugoslavia specified civilians killed november killings pocket including prosecuted charged milan respectively defence interior ministers persecution murder non civilians area transfer civilian population intentional destruction property tried convicted sentenced years prison tried convicted sentenced years prison involvement killings charges brought forward interpreted tribunal campaign ethnic non serbs controlled areas rebuilt war total houses constructed refugees returning village elderly lack employment options site mass graves marked monument victims different commemorative plaques dedicated croatian policemen troops killed placed sites village stolen november missing commemorative plaques replaced november


operation operation croatian military offensive undertaken croatian army western territorial defense forces mountain western occurring october november croatian war independence operation croatian victory success set stage follow advances croatian forces mountain operation late november december end year gained control securing transport routes eastern rest croatia accompanied displacement croatian population area captured refugees initially fled bosnia majority soon settled yugoslav people army held region eastern croatia offensive provoked accusations croatian troops committed ethnic civil rights abuses accusations european community monitor mission report team tour area captured croatian forces days offensive ended operation retreating paramilitary white eagles massacre war crimes prosecuted international criminal tribunal yugoslavia background yugoslav campaign croatia 5th corps yugoslav people army tasked advancing north western secondary drive essentially consistent line expected reached main thrust advancing eastern week link designed facilitate advance west corps deployed brigade near supporting advance began september reached mountains corps received artillery brigades reinforcements advance morale problems experienced existed corps stopped croatian national_guard garde nova western territorial defense forces units took positions north near support capture seven kilometres miles east kilometres miles north september marked territorial peak held area village recaptured day seven dead wounded october corps began attacks region major effort corps days later advance established defensive positions outside nova october briefly isolated captured kilometres miles northwest town blocking road available supply town recaptured village day driving kilometres miles cost killed captured october captured days later offensive western lost momentum minor advances north west nova october croatian authorities longer considered war situation critical issuing order plan counter offensive october october launched operation positions held near nova order battle forces mountain region officially 28th partisan division commanded colonel reality comprised soldiers armoured vehicles cannons mortars force organised battalions headquartered villages commanded north held area deployed infantry brigade area area south force subordinate 57th independent battalion later renamed independent battalion attacking force colonel consisted troops supported armoured vehicles eighteen cannons millimetre mortars surpassing defending force respect close air support yugoslav air_force originally planned deploy infantry brigade special police company units needed unavailable offensive timeline operation known planned regain control road cutting destroying forces deployed area road northernmost western captured objectives designed deny corps support attempted break control remaining supply route croatian defensive positions improve troop civilian morale offensive originally scheduled october postponed weeks infantry brigade special police plan operation called cut battalions mountain hours second stage offensive destroying trapped force operation authorised colonel commander operational zone october offensive launched october minute artillery bombardment followed advance groups 57th independent battalion south infantry brigade north 1st battalion infantry brigade northwest day captured villages northwest road securing advanced road arriving outskirts kilometres miles east approaching kilometres miles south forces strong resistance especially near battlefield situation described hopeless requested close air support yugoslav air_force aircraft deployed response november conducted operations areas northwest following day force began retreating mountain village kilometres miles northeast road captured croatian force november overcame strong resistance day renamed croatian army villages captured forces advancing met captured village isolated advances road northwest day offensive november operation declared finished secured area follow operations battle november 57th independent battalion advanced east area captured operation capturing village day neighbouring captured following day november captured villages days later killing troops wounding defence held effort recapture reinforced paramilitary white eagles failed despite prepared supported artillery defending force alerted signals intelligence attack reinforced white eagles lost killed battle operation operation planned follow operation advancing south road clearing mountains forces elements 28th partisan division offensive approved november meeting attended inspector general martin colonel commanding officer infantry brigade colonel commanding officer infantry brigade colonel commanding officer infantry brigade commanders units tasked support operation launched november advanced spanning nearly kilometres miles east december detachment infantry brigade route relieve troops manning base ambushed soldiers killed december advanced mountain area north nova offensive captured villages advance improved safety nova road secured right flank nova axis operation december captured cluster villages southeast area captured operation units approaching east captured kilometres miles southeast december badly damaged retreating paramilitary white eagles killed civilians december victims bodies mutilated left presumably warning december operation captured villages kilometres miles south kilometres miles west restricted forces southwestern slopes mountain mountain south following day captured supply depot village halfway attack december advanced southwest advance capturing villages coming kilometre miles village road following days performed operations area december launched unsuccessful attack adjacent village withdrew area north including village december retreating day forces deployed area west advanced east support operation capturing villages december left kilometres miles road separating units advancing west east operation ended december forces brigades met final day advance aftermath soldiers killed operation dozens wounded personnel croatian rebels killed civilians civilians killed weeks preceding operation croatian forces secured square kilometres square miles western including villages secured road failed trap troops deployed area later attributed insufficient manpower infantry brigade independent battalion deployed positions set stage advances western operation sources operations describing operation operation eliminated threat road connecting eastern forces pushed south placing road artillery range operation captured settlements square kilometres square miles territory monument troops participating offensive unveiled monument erected mountain soldiers infantry brigade ambushed operation december operations implemented western late considered offensive liberation operations croatian war independence international criminal tribunal yugoslavia charged number war crimes including killings paramilitary white eagles december trial ended august verdict pending president serbia time killings charged crimes died trial ended refugees croatian civilians fled area affected operation according serbian sources population began evacuate day offensive second day vehicles entered bosnia retreating columns included men military age refused fight substantial number refugees settled houses owned displaced based reports fleeing civilians yugoslav government accused croatia ethnic civil rights violations deputy prime minister wrote european community monitor mission accusing croatia personal property damage displacement civilians accusations countered evacuation plans western authorities october testimony civilians remaining area ordered population flee claiming coming killing serbian media extensively reported alleged atrocities reports compared croatian offensive world war committed independent state croatia november presidency yugoslavia condemned offensive citing destruction villages following day national assembly serbia appealed international community help response situation request presidency yugoslavia team toured area affected offensive november targeting locations media reports indicated atrocities included november report refuted accusations team found couple remaining area denied claims civilians left team reported systematic destruction houses number structures artillery bombardment damage small number houses farms recently team unable determine blame villagers western leaders destruction result earth policy retreating force western conducted late operations created total refugees fled area ordered croatian forces withdraw settled held region eastern croatia refugee coincided croatian efforts change ethnic composition danube area seized late providing secondary motive expulsion non civilians january allowed implementation plan protected civilians areas designated protected areas deployed croatia defined plan western encompassed parts municipalities nova covered area held january additional territory north recaptured late towns western control force united_nations protection force initially expected strong began deployment march


second battle second battle culminating attack battle world war battle took place area western belgian town october november canadian corps relieved exhausted corps continuing advance started battle ultimately capturing village gaining favourable observation positions battle intended gain drier winter positions higher ground assault position directly south inter army boundary british fifth second armies result canadian corps attack support formations british fifth army north corps corps south offensive executed series attacks limited objectives delivered intervals days execution dates phases tentatively given october october november final smaller action november permit time facilitate inter divisional relief planned seven day pause second stages time second army ordered section fifth army adjoining canadian corps central portion assault proceed single command attack successful capturing german held high ground ridge campaign forced end short attempt build momentum attack significant victory austro german forces italian army battle forthcoming battle forced british parallel diversion resources away sector end offensive actions background july british field marshal douglas launched series battle attempt break resistance german fourth army advance initial successes achieved battle subsequent battle ridge torrential rain august interrupted tempo british advance led little progress battle view failure british fifth army august decided transfer offensive weight south east southern half ridge main command switched general fifth army british second army command general planned series limited attacks taking advantage recent experience attempts optimistic semi open warfare version ambitious infantry advances battle road battle wood battle battle ridge produced yard advance weeks german attempts resisting advances led heavy losses especially german command began preparations general withdrawal low ground west ridge months constant blocked normally provided drainage rain began falling night october continued intermittently days battlefield transformed mud making movement extremely difficult apparently told favoured ending campaign account change weather general state battlefield decision continue offensive gain favourable winter positions higher ground battle battle resulted casualties sides failed achieve advance opposite provide slightly better starting line attack divisions canadian corps transferred lens sector capture canadian corps relieved corps october position valley ridge heights immediately began planning offensive virtually occupied 1st canadian division april prelude planning preparations canadian corps operation executed series attacks limited objectives delivered intervals days canadian corps position directly south inter army boundary british fifth second army british fifth army mount subsidiary operations left flank canadian corps corps advance protect right flank corps attacked improve local tactical position act diversion main attack north canadian corps commander lieutenant general arthur submitted provisional operational plan october recommended attack executed october sufficient artillery forward anxious avoid unnecessary delays particularly given wished assist french attack start october british second army commander examined situation finally set attack october dates subsequent phases tentatively given october november extensive preparations needed advance number problems found artillery positions transferred australians heavy existed paper found action pounder field guns half action problem mobility caused mud resulted australian artillery badly main clusters germans easy targets furthermore australians unable send damaged artillery pieces repair marshal ordered guns use roads fear blocking traffic situation considerably improved arrival canadian divisional artillery placed additional pounder field guns heavy guns disposal canadian corps early october assaulting units given details german defences respective sectors facilitate early assault planning intelligence officers artillery observers worked jointly observation posts recording newly built german fortifications escaped notice permitting artillery bombard offensive improve transport artillery supplies extensive program road building started field companies seven royal engineer companies army troop companies battalions work repairing extending roads middle october end offensive total miles double road yards heavy line laid canadian corps area brigadier general edward morrison commander artillery secured permission use roads rear getting disabled guns repair moving troops ahead attack nonetheless extremely difficult means approaching line narrow wood wound shell holes slipping deadly unfortunate soldiers frequently drowning mud weight equipment account exhausting nature trip leading assault units entered support line days battle ensure soldiers fresh possible attack preliminary operations october german attack captured post corps british 37th division day patrols british 9th division found germans occupied farm october local assault conducted elements british divisions french division british 18th 34th divisions attacked british 35th french division assaulted forest attack began hour bombardment battalions british 18th division reached german headquarters west church brigades 34th division attacked right brigade taking objectives farm 18th division area left brigade 34th division advanced close row thought captured proved incorrect attacking troops consequently suffered casualties british reinforcements stopped creek flooding heavy german barrage 35th division attacked brigades right brigade reached objective easily left flank brigade reached final objective advance right flank stopped german machine gun fire left brigade captured farm right flank attack centre stopped german machine gun fire left flank brigade reached final objective german counterattack forced battalion retreat start line counterattack caught british artillery fire contained operation british suffered casualties took prisoners october wire cutting began fifth second army fronts cover bombardment 18th division moved forward night october dug shallow trenches saved casualties german counter bombardment ruined farm jumping places caught fire troops october british 9th division sector south corps battalion conducted dummy figures assist attack 9th division attack resumed village taking noble farm house farm total advance yards german counterattack stopped noble farm heavy casualties battle opposing forces canadian corps principal attacking formation immediately north canadians supported corps inter army boundary shift corps second army extreme north advance supported attacks launched british corps 1st divisions french army south advance supported corps south corps supported operation attacking secure tower ridge east diversion ridge area surrounding village defended organized guard corps commander general der alfred defending german units changed battle times consisted 4th 7th 11th 11th 27th 39th 44th reserve divisions stage constant blocked stream creating swamp directly boundary 3rd canadian 4th canadian divisions necessitating attack 3rd canadian division assigned wider advance left included sharply rising ground spur restricted ground south stream 4th canadian division occupy advanced positions man land start offensive decline railway planned attack extensive depth resources remaining units 8th 9th 10th canadian infantry brigades placed support 7th 11th 12th canadian infantry brigades held divisional corps reserve 1st 2nd canadian divisions army reserve assault began morning october troops preceded rolling barrage forward lifts yards minutes permitting infantry negotiating mud left flank 8th canadian infantry brigade captured wolf secured objective line ultimately forced drop defensive flank yards link 63rd royal naval division flanking division british fifth army middle 9th canadian infantry brigade found german barbed wire cut preliminary artillery bombardment hour attack commencing cleared captured germans brought heavy artillery fire abandoned positions brigade right flank retreated start line far right 10th canadian infantry brigade initially captured objectives 1st australian division southern flank day wore positions decline canadian australian objective canadian corps southern boundary gradually abandoned german canadian australian units 9th canadian infantry brigade right flank consolidated position morning october gained established outposts yards short objective 10th canadian infantry brigade captured decline night october german division attacked briefly recaptured following night quickly expelled canadian counterattack stage ended october canadian corps suffered casualties stage completely successful operation placed canadians higher ground good tactical position second stage immediately north canadian corps supporting attack corps involved brigade british 63rd divisions british brigade 63rd division quickly captured farm house centre attack held road farm village dug near source trench dark fell house abandoned line reformed house leaving house source trench objective captured north division took cameron house stopped spider crossroads german machine gun fire exhaustion muddy conditions german north cut foremost troops advanced sunken road farm pushed rest brigade start line germans caught mud pushed british reinforcements extreme north corps conducted activities employing brigade 57th 50th divisions 57th division attack advanced marsh stopped attack close start line division established advanced posts farms yards forward 50th division right battalion got yards objective fire german machine guns forced withdrawal start line north railway line battalion reached hill house crossing start line left battalion advanced yards machine gun fire forced start line fifth army attacks encountered deep mud slowed progress crawl caused barrage lost weapons face german forced attacks start lines south canadian corps activities corps involved formations british 5th 7th division british 7th division commander protesting attack intended pin german reserves stop moving north main attack 7th division attacked 20th brigades 5th division attacked valley immediately north 13th brigade brigade battalion right advanced rapidly protected rise hid german machine gunners nearer road attacked objective fortified mound near farm overwhelmed garrison stationed hand hand fighting battalions brigade suffered far worse having advance forward slope spur running south east tower ridge area dominated group lewis house held machine guns centre battalion pace barrage advance stopped short lewis house troops began converge area near lewis house caused gaps line attempt failed brigade fell assembly positions 20th brigade attacked road right battalion crossed ground progressed waist high mud creek troops right caught german machine gun fire lewis house cross fire road farm found condition ground poor moved left road pinned fire despite machine gun fire advance captured advanced yards church western end village battalions advanced north road managed barrage reached junction railway tracks immediately outside battalions entered time troops cleared johnson trench party got close try rush germans british retreated weapons jammed mud remaining troops formed defensive flank south road tower original line retreat complete british artillery fired protective barrage german counterattack developed 5th division attack valley fire ultimately found valley impassable battalions tried push forward stopped german fire village battalion took forced relinquish weapons mud line germans promptly swept area west machine gun fire pushed brigade start line simultaneous advances flanks canadian corps gone diversion corps resulted casualties 7th division corps suffered casualties 63rd division losing approximately casualties brigade corps casualties october 63rd division retook house repulsed german counterattack reserve battalions reinforced 4th canadian division reached previous day objective day patrols 3rd canadian division scouted farms october 1st australian division established post wood franco belgian operations french army 1st divisions division belgian army planned occupy peninsula stages attack south east peninsula extend attack north october intensive bombardment french troops crossed lower advanced wood farm french forced germans remaining west woods places shoulder high french soon captured opposite occupied road round evening germans rushed 8th reserve division peninsula reinforcement night french engineers water built bridges lower west october french troops right bank joined left bank column advanced attack german defences causeway french extreme right formed flank guard facing east near troops wood protected troops moving fortified villages blocked road north east near forest farm near hamlet village north advance road runs north west parallel lower slightly level surrounding marshes machine guns nests villages commanded causeway ground peninsula soaked large numbers french artillery destroyed quickly captured german garrisons farm held time driven forced german artillery bombarded banks french troops rushed bridges struggled mud objectives attacked captured quickly german garrisons causeway resisted afternoon overwhelmed french belgian advance began soon causeway captured belgian troops employing flat boats north village secured southern edge lake attacked north taking german systematically morning october french completed capture peninsula taken approximately prisoners inflicted casualties german defenders resisted attacks great determination skill french artillery obtained success infantry casualties managed conceal flotilla flat boats despite german advance objectives despite floods german artillery small arms fire second stage second stage october intended complete capture positions canadian corps attacked october gain base final assault objective line blue line approximately yards east objective line previous stage advance meant capture strongly held crest farm southern end advance northern sector hamlet area near corps northern boundary northern flank canadian corps advance link outside farm british fifth army advancing division brigade 63rd royal naval division sides creek southern advance link corps railway line south vienna cottage southern flank main assault responsibility 4th canadian division planned attack 12th canadian infantry brigade northern flank remained responsibility 3rd canadian division advance 7th 8th canadian infantry brigades night attack battalion assault canadians captured particularly troublesome german northern bank creek held 9th canadian infantry brigade stage action advanced southern edge 3rd canadian division yards line 4th canadian division south main attack began october preceded rolling barrage preliminary artillery bombardment directed largely southern flank quickly captured crest farm begun sending patrols objective line found germans evacuating 4th canadian division commander major general david watson reported objectives railway creek taken northwest crest farm ground badly flooded consolidation carried short objective line northern flank 3rd canadian division met exceptional german resistance 8th canadian infantry brigade managed capture source farm later farm corps boundary short objective line brigade difficulty getting ground woodland plantation resulting division line division 63rd royal naval division infantry caught german artillery fire jumping line slight progress deep mud german machine gun fire unable reach rendezvous objectives leaving canadian troops source farm farm largely positions companies later advanced canadian sector capture source trench able reinforce canadian outpost source farm form defensive flank farm centre assault 7th canadian infantry brigade advancing creek roadway section brigade captured intermediate objective known duck lodge west roadway advance captured farm albeit heavy casualties later afternoon brigade succeeded overcoming number captured crossroads germans continued hold strong position house bank creek producing canadian line directly canadian divisions advance appeared reached limit late afternoon reports large number germans concentrating north indicated possible counterattack result 3rd canadian division having achieved objectives ordered consolidate positions patrol occupy woodland plantation swamp 7th 8th canadian infantry brigades question positions source farm farm maintained support 63rd royal naval division ultimately decided effort hold line hope having retake positions assault night ultimately passed major taking place permitting canadians consolidate positions second stage ended october canadian corps suffered casualties consisting killed wounded taken prisoner north 63rd division casualties october tactical pause time inter divisional seven day pause second stages british second army ordered section british fifth army adjoining canadian corps central portion assault proceed single command november general relieved corps british fifth army corps role corps stage limited providing canadian corps artillery support immediately north canadian corps 63rd division able close attacking night november night november method took ground attacks october loss killed wounded november aided logistical preparations reorganization troops stage hundreds pack animals supplies including gun ammunition 1st 2nd canadian divisions moved forward rail reserve area east 3rd 4th canadian divisions respectively completed morning november south canadian corps viii corps simulate attacks miles extending south night november assault units moved jumping positions ready november germans took advantage break fighting relieve exhausted units 11th division arrived champagne sector november relieve 39th division railway road stage corps objectives november lay green line rough ran yards house centre canadian line encompassed north west 2nd canadian division send 6th canadian infantry brigade attack north battalion 5th canadian infantry brigade attack south 1st canadian division sector 1st canadian infantry brigade advance road northern corps boundary battalion execute subsidiary operation vine cottages strong point germans holding yards south east farm stage began november preliminary bombardment largely clear skies german counter bombardment fell mainly advancing troops attack went canadians 2nd canadian division encountered chief opposition north end hours start battle village secured 1st canadian division encountered stiff resistance defenders vine cottages 1st canadian infantry brigade reached consolidated green line final attack small final action gain nearby remaining high ground north village vicinity hill set launched november road junction yards north highway hill highest point northern end ridge yards possession features permit observation german positions north east attack responsibility 2nd canadian infantry brigade support battalion 4th canadian infantry brigade germans taken advantage break fighting relieve exhausted units regiments 4th division 44th reserve division replaced 11th division november assault launched green line north north east morning november assault good initial progress capturing running venture farm capturing field guns north canadian corps boundary supporting advance british 1st division ran difficulties german counterattack got battalions permitted germans fire british inner flanks resulting significant casualties forcing formations withdraw result 2nd canadian infantry brigade forced fill gap throw defensive flank corps boundary ending progress action november brought end long drawn battle hoped entire ridge winter position line short village aftermath analysis october austro german 14th army general der von inflicted great defeat italian army battle fear italy war french british governments promised send divisions italian troops rapidly efficiently transferred november december good administrative preparations french chief staff ferdinand sent italy april plan emergency battle came unsatisfactory close result diversion british forces forced end advance short november gradual relief canadian divisions viii corps began november resumed command lens casualties german official history der volume historians recorded casualties october casualties november november december casualties recorded subsequent operations local operations continued november german air activity artillery fire remained intense british continued attract german attention assist attack late november german defences consisted line advanced outposts garrisons men yards covering line forward troops retire main line resistance set relatively easy british regularly capture prisoners night november battalions 8th division attacked artillery support advanced line ridge crest increased depth observation german lines yards german counter attack november anticipated stopped german casualties inflicted british small arms fire prompt artillery barrage viii corps corps planned larger operation night december 33rd division faced east ridge 8th division held apex facing north east 32nd division faced north main attack 32nd division intended expand west advance north ridge gain observation valleys north east exploit german practice british attack bombarding british line swiftly moving artillery fire german outpost line plan called infantry cross danger zone artillery support german artillery react consequently british artillery begin firing minutes attack began owing british infantry form outpost line troops got stuck mud caught german artillery fire german machine guns commenced firing soon british infantry attacked slowed advance left troops german barrage zone despite german artillery firing minute start british barrage sides suffered casualties confusion german outpost zone overrun main line defence breached point dawn local truce allowed wounded recovered noon german counter attack forced 32nd division troops start line 8th division dug yards forward left yards right attempts british advance easily stopped germans german counter attack east dispersed british artillery british attack failed gain ground german 25th division suffered casualties relieved 16th division december new_zealand division concurrently prepared attack spur south west assaulted october intended occupy low east running ridge deny german observation area cameron covert north road south west advance yards yard german defenders observation shield new line german observers spur south heavy artillery bombarded november november cut german wire attack set december conducted separate attack corps viii corps battalions planned daylight attack belief unusual time surprise german defenders cover regular fired time day british planned smoke gas spurs local bombardment timed begin time infantry attack british artillery dropped short attack began german defenders proved alert engaging new grounds ridge strong west wind ruined smoke screens british artillery failed suppress german machine guns gradually stopped attack new_zealand machine gunners german parties road attempted counter attack new_zealand advance held yards objective resumption attack dark cancelled german reinforcements seen reaching moon morning german troops assembling counter attack dispersed german artillery bombarded area day dark new consolidated new trench line german counter attack dawn december repulsed german artillery fire resumed clear weather assisted observation balloon german attack later day stopped british artillery captured ground lost german attack december victoria_cross victoria crosses highest military decoration awarded british commonwealth forces awarded actions battle acting captain christopher kelly 52nd new ontario battalion sergeant robert 43rd cameron canada battalion private thomas william holmes 4th canadian mounted rifles battalion private cecil john 49th battalion sergeant george princess canadian light infantry acting major george 5th canadian mounted rifles battalion lieutenant hugh 7th canadian machine gun company corporal 3rd toronto battalion private james peter 27th city battalion commemoration canadian corps participation second battle commemorated memorial located site crest farm southwest fringe village


battle perimeter battle perimeter large scale battle united_nations north korean forces lasting august september major engagements korean war army troops having pushed brink defeat rallied final stand invading north korean army men strong forces having repeatedly defeated advancing north forced perimeter mile defensive line area southeastern tip korean peninsula included port troops consisting forces republic korea united_states united_kingdom mounted stand perimeter fighting repeated north korean attacks weeks engaged cities river massive north korean assaults unsuccessful forcing united_nations troops perimeter despite major pushes august september north korean troops hampered supply shortages massive losses continually staged attacks forces attempt penetrate perimeter collapse line port overwhelming advantage troops equipment logistics navy air forces remained north fight weeks north korean force collapsed retreated defeat force launched counterattack september battle north korean troops advance war subsequent fighting ground war stalemate background outbreak war following outbreak korean war united_nations decided commit troops support republic korea south_korea invaded neighboring democratic people republic korea north_korea united_states subsequently sent ground forces korean peninsula goal fighting north korean invasion prevent south_korea collapsing forces far_east steadily decreasing end world war years earlier time closest forces 24th infantry division eighth united_states_army headquartered japan division equipment reductions military spending regardless 24th infantry division ordered south_korea 24th infantry division unit sent korea mission initial shock north korean advances delaying larger north korean units buy time allow following forces arrive division consequently weeks attempted delay north making time 7th infantry division 25th infantry division 1st cavalry division eighth army supporting units position advance elements 24th infantry division badly defeated battle july battle american north korean forces month defeat task force smith 24th infantry division soldiers repeatedly defeated forced south north korean force superior numbers equipment regiments 24th infantry division systematically pushed south battles 24th infantry division final stand battle completely destroyed delaying north korean forces advancing july time eighth army force combat troops roughly equal north korean forces attacking region new units arriving day north korean advance having captured north korean forces began surrounding perimeter sides attempt north korean 4th infantry division north korean 6th infantry division advanced south wide maneuver divisions coordinating left flank extremely spread advanced positions repeatedly pushing south korean forces east north korean army men strong advanced south_korea columns catching republic korea army surprise completely routing smaller south korean army suffered widespread lack organization equipment unprepared war numerically superior north korean forces destroyed isolated resistance south korean soldiers moving steadily south south_korea forces retreated face advance june north captured south_korea capital seoul forcing government shattered forces retreat south steadily pushed south korean forces increased resistance south hoping delay north korean units possible north south korean units control cities inflicting heavy casualties army defended fiercely forced managed repel north korean forces battle west forces pushed repeatedly finally halting north korean advance elements 3rd battalion 29th infantry regiment newly arrived country wiped coordinated ambush north korean forces july leaving open pass area soon west taken pushing 19th infantry regiment leaving open routes units subsequently able defeat push north flank battle notch august suffering mounting losses north korean force west flank withdrew days equip receive reinforcements granted sides days prepare attack perimeter prelude terrain forces established perimeter port city july august roughly miles long perimeter stretched korea sea japan west north west perimeter roughly outlined river curved city southernmost miles turned eastward confluence river northern boundary irregular line ran mountains exception delta south valley terrain extremely rough mountainous northeast south korean line terrain especially movement region extremely difficult established perimeter location outlined sea japan south east river west extremely mountainous terrain north terrain natural defense rough terrain communication difficult particularly south korean forces area forces region suffered casualties related heat summer region little vegetation clean water korea suffered severe drought summer receiving rain opposed normal months july august combined temperatures hot dry weather contributed large number heat casualties particularly american forces forces involved north korean people army forces organized combined arms force divisions originally numbering trained equipped troops july hundreds tanks defensive actions south korean forces delayed north significantly invasion south_korea costing troops large number tanks order losses north rely experienced replacements taken conquered regions south_korea course battle north raised total infantry divisions armored division fight perimeter united_nations forces organized command united_states_army eighth united_states_army served headquarters component forces headquartered weak divisions 24th infantry division brought country early july 1st cavalry division 25th infantry division arrived july forces occupied western segment perimeter river republic korea army force organized corps divisions east west corps controlled 8th infantry division capital divisions corps controlled 1st division 6th infantry division 3rd division placed direct army control morale units low large number defeats incurred point war forces suffered casualties past month south korean army lost estimated troop numbers difficult estimate subsequent research north korean army combat troops committed perimeter august divisions far likely personnel units tanks extensive losses far war reported troops korea august ground combat units south korean combat units ground combat force outnumbered north forces complete control air sea fight air_force navy elements provided support ground units battle virtually unopposed overall command naval force taken seventh fleet bulk naval power provided united_kingdom provided small naval task force including aircraft carrier cruisers eventually australia canada netherlands new_zealand provided ships fighter bombers fifth air_force positioned perimeter japan coast navy aircraft aboard uss valley forge uss philippine sea end battle eighth army air support general bradley twelfth united_states_army group europe world war south northeast north korean units positioned opposite units regiment armored division 6th 4th 3rd 2nd 15th 1st 13th 8th 12th 5th divisions independent infantry regiment september battle forces arrived locations 2nd infantry division 5th regimental combat team 1st provisional marine brigade british 27th commonwealth brigade arrived later fighting large numbers fresh troops equipment including tanks end battle eighth army force gone strength prepared divisions formations equipped ready war logistics logistics july far_east command directed eighth united_states_army assume responsibility logistical support united_states forces korea including army support american south korean armies came united_states japan army presented forces major logistical problems july biggest challenge shortage ammunition logistics situations improved time ammunition short war consumption supplies differed units lack previously drafted plan forced create system fly troops korea logistical challenges confronting early days war rations korea small reserve japan outbreak war general army immediately began moving available rations rations united_states far_east field rations largely world war rations troops equally important difficult problem majority resupply sea conducted cargo ships army navy massive demand ships forced charter private ships bring ships reserve fleet increase number military vessels service major advantage operations developed port korea southeastern tip peninsula port south_korea dock facilities large handle sizable cargo emergency critically needed items began immediately united_states japan fly korea military air transport service pacific division expanded rapidly outbreak war supplies troops flown airfields perimeter japan far_east air forces transports consumption aviation gasoline thanks combat transport aircraft great early phase war limited supply available far_east logistical problems good railroad system built japanese crushed rock river gravel extended northward railroads backbone transportation system korea korean roads secondary nature measured american european standards north korean logistics responsibility north korean logistics divided ministry national defense led marshal gun rear service department commanded general mainly responsible railroad transportation supply rear service department responsible road transportation north relied logistical system lean substantially smaller united_nations system logistics network capable moving far fewer supplies caused considerable difficulty line troops based efficient soviet model ground based network relied primarily railroads transport supplies troops transported items individual units foot trucks second effort versatile substantial disadvantage efficient slow follow moving line units mid july far_east air_force bomber command began steady increasing campaign strategic north korean logistics targets targets east_coast important communications center linked siberia north_korea rail sea rail lines ran north korean build centers great bulk russian supplies north_korea early war came beginning considered major military target july bomber command comprehensive rail plan ready plan sought cut flow north korean troops north_korea combat area cut points yang railroad bridge yards bridge yards completely north_korea rail logistics network destruction rail bridges han near seoul cut rail communication perimeter area july gave bomber command list targets rail program days later similar plan ready highways august began attacks key bridges north 37th parallel korea august light bombers fighter bombers joined campaign north_korea lack large aircraft meant conducted minimal air resupply critical items imported china aircraft played role north korean logistics north able effectively use sea transport ports transport troops supplies remained far support large scale logistical movements port south difficult navigate large numbers ships supremacy fifth air_force skies korea forced north month war resort night movement supplies battle area relied primarily railroads supplies shortage trucks posed problem getting supplies trains individual units forcing rely pack animals north_korea army able maintain transport lines long lines communications despite heavy constant air attacks united_nations air effort failed halt military rail transport ammunition motor fuel took precedence types supply continued arrive smaller amounts best rations meals day units live partially south korean populace food supplies night september food situation bad north korean army soldiers showed loss stamina resulting impaired combat effectiveness logistics remained fatal weakness north korean army costing crucial defeats initial success combat forces north communications supply capable exploiting breakthrough supporting continuing attack face massive air armor artillery fire concentrated troops critical points august push defensive position august eighth army issued operational directive ground forces korea planned withdrawal east river units establish main defensive positions called perimeter intent draw line retreating hold korean people army army built forces launch perimeter stand forces seen successive defeats month war retreat cost eighth army heavy casualties 25th infantry division held southernmost flank 24th infantry division withdrew 1st cavalry division withdrew forces demolished bridges river retreat bridge 1st cavalry division sector division commander attempted times clear refugees bridge continued cross despite warnings attempts clear bridge eventually commander forced demolish bridge taking refugees central defensive plan hold port vital ground supplies reinforcements arriving japan possessed airfields combat cargo aircraft streaming korea supplies installation heavy duty cranes docks allowed easier handling heavy weapons cargo subsequent reduction system similar red ball express world war employed supplies lines hundreds ships arrived month starting july increasing steadily july established highest command general army douglas tokyo japan north korean forces meantime suffering supply lines severely reduced fighting capacity north korean forces possible routes perimeter south pass city confluence rivers southerly route railroad lines route north eastern corridor north_korea mounted large offensive august simultaneously attacking entries perimeter result battle perimeter single engagement series large battles fought north korean divisions perimeter eighth army commanded lieutenant general walker began preparing conducted war august kick attack reserve units area secure north korean 6th division followed larger general push river middle month walker goals break suspected enemy troops near area forcing diversion north korean units southward august eighth army issued operational directive attack task force named 25th infantry division commander william task force consisted 25th division 27th infantry field artillery battalion plus 5th regimental combat team 1st provisional marine brigade attached force men plan attack required force west positions held near seize pass secure line far river offensive relied arrival entire 2nd infantry division battalions american tanks task force launched attack august moving notch northern pass city site previous battle 35th infantry regiment encountered north korean infantry defeated task force forward inflicting casualties north korean 6th division headquarters rest advance slowed enemy resistance task force pressed area resulting confused battle fragmented force rely effective offensive collided meeting engagement simultaneously delivered north korean 6th division heavy fighting continued area days august task force retake aided air power americans initially advanced quickly north korean resistance heavy august marines picked advance inadvertently discovering north korean regiment armored division 1st marine air wing repeatedly retreating north inflicting casualties destroying regiment equipment vehicles 1st provisional marine brigade withdrawn force august perimeter task force continued forward supported naval firepower field artillery capturing area eighth army requested units particularly attempt 25th infantry division division trains valley mud night august attacked morning north driven american forces high ground confusion north korean armor able penetrate assault supporting artillery positions surprise attack successful field artillery battalions equipment north korean american armor scene marines aircraft continued provide cover able gains despite inflicting massive numbers casualties american forces unsuccessful positions artillery overrun suffering numerous casualties failed attempts later inspection bodies men field artillery field artillery found executed area came american control task force forced withdraw unable hold gains august approximately position started offensive task force failed objective north korean troops north failed objective reaching pass offensive considered significantly increased morale troops 25th infantry division performed extremely subsequent engagements 6th division reduced ranks south korean fighting region continued rest month miles north confluence rivers curves westward opposite wide loop span river meters wide feet deep allowing infantry wade difficulty preventing vehicles crossing assistance perimeter manned network observation posts high ground american forces 24th infantry division major general john church monitored river area forces reserve counterattack attempted crossings north korean forces artillery mortar fire dispersed large amounts fire poured spot division spread extremely presented weak line north korean crossing midnight night august north korean soldiers 3rd battalion 16th regiment river ferry site miles south west carrying light weapons supplies heads second force attempted cross river north hit machine guns artillery falling confusion morning august north began engaging forces 3rd battalion 34th infantry moved forward small fight attempting penetrate lines north korean infantry forced 3rd battalion american battalion abandoned command post consolidate positions north korean attack caught americans expecting attack north surprise subsequently north able capture large american equipment attack threatened split american lines disrupt supply lines north regimental headquarters ordered 1st battalion counterattack north 1st battalion arrived 3rd battalion command post ambushed north korean soldiers higher ground heavy casualties incurred company unit battalion reach post half company casualties fight companies north korean positions tanks armored vehicles eventually rescuing company company contact company 3rd battalion positions river north penetrated eastward north river road elevated position known cloverleaf hill crossed south road ridge north penetrated miles east halfway american continued morning august gains slow hampered hot weather lack food water north able press forward regain cloverleaf hill ridge critical terrain main road area day 9th infantry regiment 2nd infantry division newly arrived unit sent region church immediately ordered attack 9th infantry troops fresh equipped rested inexperienced number despite attack 9th infantry able regain cloverleaf hill intense fighting stalled movement order effect destruction north korean church assembled large force 9th infantry regiment dubbed task force hill force comprised 9th 19th 34th infantry regiments 1st battalion 21st infantry supporting artillery attached units assigned drive north east bank river august commanding task force hill colonel john hill 9th infantry commander 4th division meantime constructed underwater bridges logs rocks finishing day moved trucks heavy artillery river bridge additional infantry tanks morning august estimated north korean regiments river occupying fortified positions supplies continued stream task force hill mounted attack unable progress newly established artillery directive attack quickly dig hold ground nightfall entire 4th division river august units began south american lines task force hill day scattered elements north korean forces attacked north korean forces repeatedly attacked lines night american soldiers resting greater difficulty resisting north korean defeat 1st marine provisional brigade conjunction task force hill mounted massive offensive cloverleaf hill august supported aircraft artillery offensive kicked august forces disposal north korean positions artillery mortars tanks supported infantry marines north korean defense halted marines push artillery cloverleaf hill force north positions marines task force hill proceed eventually overwhelming north hill time destroyed resistance slope barrage tanks heavy resistance caused large numbers casualties marine force withdraw attack 18th regiment charge hill mounted disastrous counterattack following hopes pushing marines division tactics cutting supplies relying surprise provided success point war lost face massive numerical superiority nightfall august north korean 4th division annihilated forces huge numbers weakened numbers fight time cloverleaf hill forces scattered groups north korean soldiers fled pursued american planes artillery fire day remains 4th division withdrawn completely river hasty retreat left large number artillery pieces equipment americans eastern corridor terrain south korean eastern corridor movement extremely difficult major road ran miles east korea east_coast major north south road intersecting line moved south midway natural entry line town gang miles west situated near valley natural rugged terrain major rail hub staging post moving supplies walker chose heavily reinforce area felt terrain meaningful attack impossible preferring respond attack reinforcements transportation routes air cover airfield south triple offensive early august north korean divisions mounted passes area 8th division attacking 12th division attacking 5th division conjunction independent infantry regiment attacking gang 8th division attack stalled immediately division drove attack failed reach corridor surprised 8th division fighting heavy 8th division forced hold ground week trying advance stalled south korean resistance halted wait reinforcements attacks successful catching forces surprise east 8th divisions 12th division crossed river moving mountains small groups reach division artillery batteries send guns north ammunition planners anticipated 12th division able cross river effectively unprepared forces region heavily meantime 3rd division heavily engaged 5th division coastal road divisions clashes centered town capturing town times august north launched attack taking town south korean forces pushing south august south launched retake town aircraft ships town rockets artillery shells south korean troops 22nd 23rd regiments town 5th division forces able infiltrate coastal road south effectively surrounded 3rd division trapping miles independent regiment advanced 3rd division took area august eighth army organized task force consisting 17th 25th 26th regiments 1st anti guerrilla battalion marine battalion battery 18th field artillery battalion task force given mission clear north korean forces mountainous region time eighth army formed task force bradley consisting elements 8th infantry regiment 2nd infantry division command brigadier general joseph bradley 2nd division assistant commander task force bradley tasked defending north korean independent regiment town followed complicated series fights large region gang south korean ground forces aided air forces engaged groups north korean forces operation vicinity 12th division operating valley west able push task force capital division line east time infantry regiment elements 5th division fought task force bradley south naval fire able drive troops town contested man land fighting moved surrounding hills fight august north korean troops operating mountains west southwest airfield air_force commanders wary enemy attack evacuated 39th fighter squadron 40th fighter squadron wishes general event remained protection ground forces came direct enemy fire squadrons moved island japan meantime 3rd division evacuate position surrounded 5th division division forced south village navy planners began preparations withdraw division division sail miles south bay join forces coordinated attack push north region evacuation carried night august covering fire navy august large forces 5th 12th divisions independent regiment focused entirely taking unable hold air superiority naval bombardment town north korean supply chain completely broken food ammunition supplies available forces began final stalled north korean forces august intense fighting ensued days suffered large numbers casualties forth battles august forces able push north korean troops gang areas putting supply road immediate danger independent regiment men forced withdraw north prevent surrounded 12th division evacuated having exhausted heavy casualties units merged received replacements emerging man 12th division august north korean forces completely withdrawn offensive shortly perimeter battles began walker established eighth army headquarters right center perimeter stood entrance river valley area north korean forces advance large numbers close support natural barriers provided river south mountainous terrain north major transportation hub major south korean city aside remain hands south north city defended 1st cavalry division 1st division 6th division corps 1st cavalry division spread long line river south 5th cavalry 8th cavalry regiments holding meters line river 7th cavalry reserve artillery forces ready reinforce crossing attempted advance north korean divisions amassed oppose south north 10th 3rd 15th 13th 1st divisions occupied line north planned use natural corridor valley main axis attack push south elements armored division supporting attack night august 13th division began crossing river miles northwest crossing discovered august artillery mortar fire called crossing north korean soldiers river carrying weapons equipment heads division regiments crossed foot course nights entire division august miles 1st division prepared defenses troops attacked 13th division immediately completed crossing forcing north korean troops mountains division east launched night attack broke defenses began advance carried miles southeast main road week 1st 13th divisions area miles north 15th division north korean divisions line south received replacements august brought strength men day 45th regiment marched northeast river regiment passed august crossed river southeast town attack aircraft river regiment headed mountains initially encountering opposition regiments 48th 50th departed later began crossing dawn august constructing underwater bridges vehicles north supported crossing direct tank fire west river tanks evidently succeeded crossing river day 15th division seized hills east river crossing site advancing eastward mountains miles away day 1st division regained high ground crossing sites forcing north korean forces eastward mountains august regiments 15th division east river vicinity san miles east crossing site miles northwest 15th division quickly locked combat san 1st division hill south north korean divisions stood ready cross coordinated attack divisions north experienced 3rd division concentrated vicinity 10th division concentrated area divisions crossed 1st cavalry division line 3rd division 7th regiment started crossing august near miles south bridge discovering crossing elements 5th cavalry regiment directed automatic weapons fire north called pre registered artillery fire crossing site enemy regiment suffered casualties bulk reached east bank safely moved inland hills thirty minutes later 8th 9th regiments began crossing river south 5th cavalry regiment supporting mortars artillery fully alerted spotted regiments troops turned west bank small number north reached east captured hid river following night dawn august 1st cavalry division commander major general gay learned enemy crossing division sector south reports vague decided action found situation quickly discovered north korean infantry gathered hill known hill miles southeast miles northwest gay ordered division counterattack enemy gathering force river walker believed north korean attack larger attack come north hill important proximity lines communication main korean north south highway main double track seoul railroad base artillery fired preparatory barrage hill 1st battalion attacked orders continue southwest hill hill covered thick brush feet trees feet high north repulsed attack morning august air strikes artillery hill devastating north korean battalion trapped air bombs artillery shells started vacate positions american infantry attack reached hill trouble battle american artillery mortar fire shifted westward cut north korean retreat white shells fired 61st field artillery battalion caught north village attempted retreat routed american infantry suffering killed evening 1st battalion 7th cavalry reverted division reserve elements 5th cavalry finished securing hill estimated survivors retreated river night august 3rd division attempted crossing south ended survivors 7th regiment rejoined division august powerful 3rd division reduced disorganized unit men north korean army placed division reserve rebuilt replacements north korean plan attack west southwest demanded 10th division coordinated attack 3rd division 10th division ordered cross river vicinity penetrate east cut forces main supply route division assembled area august north 25th regiment component 10th division started crossing august vicinity road 2nd battalion 7th cavalry regiment covered crossing site miles southwest daylight north korean force penetrated 2nd battalion company engaged close combat grenade automatic weapons attack north overran advance positions company mortar observation post heavy machine gun positions north apparently attempting control high ground east order provide protection main crossing follow 2nd battalion supported field artillery battalion air strikes drove north troops dispersed days august river dropped feet shoulder deep places lack rain attempt crossing river considerably easier determined north korean crossing vicinity blown bridge began early morning august north korean artillery tank fire west river supported infantry crossing large number north korean reinforcements crossing barges near bridge fire american air strikes artillery attack stalled deepest north korean penetration reaching miles blown bridge combined fire light weapons mortars artillery drove river large groups north trying river west american artillery continued causing heavy casualties nightfall 7th cavalry regiment eliminated north korean 7th cavalry regiment estimated north korean troops succeeded crossing river killed combat mission crossing 10th division suffered casualties carpet bombing mountains northeast hill 1st division continued suffer north korean attacks mid august north korean pressure division ceased long command brigadier general sun division fought extremely bloody defense mountain approaches planners believed main north korean attack come west forces west mistakenly believed north korean troops near number actual troop numbers north_korea men entire perimeter august general ordered lieutenant general george conduct carpet bombing square mile km2 rectangular area west river opposite 1st division intelligence estimates placed greatest concentration enemy troops area estimates high enemy divisions armored regiments men reportedly area stage attack think aircraft successfully carpet bomb area larger miles square complied order august bombers feet dropped approximately tons pound bombs area attack required entire bombing component dropped pounds bombs pounds bombs comprised largest air_force operation battle normandy world war walker reported day damage north bombing evaluated smoke dust ground forces unable reach area north korean fire information obtained later north korean prisoners revealed enemy divisions far_east command thought west crossed east bombed area evidence found bombing killed single north korean soldier bombing appeared destroyed significant number north korean artillery batteries artillery fire positions waned substantially following mission ground air commanders opposed future massive carpet bombing attacks enemy tactical troops precise information enemy concentration situation critical instead recommended fighter bombers dive bombers better support ground forces subsequently canceled second bombing area east scheduled august september push north korean army pushed limits original units reduced strength effectiveness end august logistical problems north devastated shortages food weapons equipment replacement soldiers late august command combat soldiers korea north superiority air sea meant north disadvantage growing daily north korean tank losses hundreds fewer tanks september compared americans tanks end august north remaining advantage initiative north korean troops retained high morale supplies allow large scale offensive planning new offensive north korean commanders decided attempt flank force impossible thanks support navy instead opted use frontal attacks breach perimeter collapse hope achieving success fed intelligence soviet_union north aware forces building perimeter conduct offensive soon battle secondary objective surround destroy units city mission north korean units cut supply lines north korean planners enlarged force anticipation new offensive army originally numbering divisions corps enlarged divisions independent brigades new troops brought reserve forces based north_korea marshal gun served deputy commander north korean army general kim charge headquarters beneath corps east commanded lieutenant general kim corps west lieutenant general kim corps controlled 10th 2nd 4th 9th 7th 6th divisions armored division 16th armored brigade security brigade support corps commanded 3rd 13th 1st 8th 15th 12th 5th divisions 17th armored brigade support force numbered approximately men comprised raw recruits forced south_korea lacked weapons equipment august facing force combat troops plus support troops august north korean commands distributed operations orders subordinate units orders called simultaneous attack lines defenders allow north break lines place push forces battle ordered follows 6th 7th divisions break 25th infantry division 9th 4th 2nd 10th divisions break 2nd infantry division 3rd 13th 1st divisions break 1st cavalry division 1st division 8th 15th divisions break 8th division 6th division 12th 5th divisions break capital division 3rd division august north korean premier kim sung ordered war september scale offensive allow groups begin attack august groups begin attacks september attacks closely connect order troops point simultaneously forcing multiple places unable reinforce north relied primarily night attacks counter major advantages air superiority naval firepower north korean generals thought night attacks prevent forces firing effectively result large numbers friendly fire casualties attacks caught planners troops surprise august troops believed destroyed threats perimeter anticipated war ending late november units meantime suffered low morale thanks failures defend effectively far conflict cautious lieutenant general walker ordered major general john area shore corps falling apart thanks low morale troops preparing operation amphibious assault port september north mount offensive great offensive brutal fights korean war north initially successful breaking lines multiple places substantial gains surrounding pushing units september situation dire troops eighth army army moved headquarters elements prevent overrun losing heavy communications equipment walker remained small forward detachment prepared logistics systems retreat smaller defensive perimeter called line september walker decided retreat necessary offensive led heavy fighting river san north korean attacks gains forced troops perimeter form thin line defense relying mobile reserves strength push north korean attackers september fighting intense battle costly armies september north korean troops caught unaware operation forces remained intact days fighting forced retreat total rout isolated north korean resistance continued september date troops mounting scale breakout offensive pursuing retreating north korean units north ending fighting perimeter aftermath medals honor awarded servicemen fight air_force major louis person branch receive medal army recipients include master sergeant private class brown corporal gordon private class joseph sergeant class master sergeant travis lieutenant frederick henry private class story sergeant class charles turner private class david smith sergeant class private class william thompson sergeant william corporal john awarded medal breakout offensive commonwealth servicemen awarded victoria_cross breakout offensive major kenneth casualties course battle north korean forces suffered massive numbers casualties 5th regimental combat team killed wounded captured battle 1st cavalry division suffered killed wounded captured 2nd infantry division suffered killed wounded captured missing 24th infantry division suffered killed wounded captured missing 29th infantry regimental combat team suffered killed wounded captured missing 25th infantry division suffered killed wounded captured missing non divisional units army total casualty count battle killed wounded captured died captivity missing adding casualties marine_corps suffered killed navy suffered killed air_force suffered killed killed wounded missing breakout offensive perimeter official count casualties killed wounded missing captured south korean casualty numbers nearly impossible estimate known twice total casualty count lost tanks fight bringing total number lost war date small number british casualties campaign including soldiers killed naval rating casualty killed august aboard hms ship attacked north korean aircraft august lieutenant commander commander naval air squadron killed aircraft accident aboard hms triumph additionally british troops 27th brigade killed near private killed september captain private taylor died september british soldiers wounded area war killed campaign morrison reporter times christopher reporter daily_telegraph killed august near vehicle struck indian armed forces officer killed incident colonel representative united_nations commission korea north korean casualties battle impossible estimate precisely lack records difficult determine south korean citizens forcibly battle deserted opposed killed larger engagements destroyed entire regiments divisions north korean troops strength estimated based accounts north captured september north korean army numbered approximately south_korea number suspected south_korea aftermath perimeter battle soldiers returned north_korea end month upwards attacking force casualties fighting mean north korean casualties september range roughly killed captured unknown number wounded addition killed bowling alley unknown number september north korean casualties likely topped end battle lost tanks self propelled guns virtually armor possessed war crimes instances war crimes alleged occurred sides conflict troops north_korea involved high profile incidents north korean troops occupying south_korea accused instances abuse prisoners war captured fighting accusations captured prisoners tortured executed isolated incidents prisoners beaten burned death bayonet practice arose region groups captured soldiers found executed hands bound known occurred isolated instances prisoners human shields troops known taken place critically wounded troops known killed instance unarmed attacked despite wearing proper identification north known forcibly south korean civilians armies large scale killing attempted desert infamous war crime hill massacre august prisoners war killed north driving crime led commander douglas warn north broadcasts held responsible crimes historians agree evidence north korean high command sanctioned shooting prisoners early phase war hill massacre similar atrocities believed conducted small units individuals unfavorable increasingly desperate situations confronting captors military historian wrote analysis event north korean troops committing acts likely accustomed torture execution prisoners decades rule oppressive armies empire japan world war north korean commanders known issued stern orders treatment prisoners war incidents atrocities continued troops particularly south korean accused killing attempting kill captured north korean soldiers south korean civilians leftist communist known systematically imprisoned killed league taken place battle years fight evidence surfaced indicating military killed south korean civilians shortly fight perimeter began fearing north korean gun massacre evidence debated books published matter implications historians contend goals north perimeter beginning according historian americans better equipped north easily able defeat opponents chance form continuous line time north break perimeter points able exploit gains short time week momentum offensive slowed north strength attacks saw actions remainder battle landings crushing blow north korean army catching completely unprepared breaking weak forces perimeter virtually equipment exhausted manpower low morale north severe disadvantage able continue pressure perimeter attempting repel landings september north retreat perimeter forces rapidly pursuing north lost ground way destruction north korean army communist continuation war impossible north korean troops massive equipment manpower losses army stages war north totally collapsed fighting force remainder routed military retreated north_korea offering weak resistance force offensive overwhelming superiority land air sea north korean units simply surrendered having reduced units thousands men successful perimeter holding action victory set motion moves shape remainder war joint chiefs staff pushed leaders washington decided aggressively pursue shattered north korean people army north_korea eighth army ordered advance far north possible north_korea border china primary objective destroying remained north korean army secondary objective uniting korea agitated china threatened stand aside invade territory neighbor warnings nations cross 38th parallel went began offensive country north_korea refused surrender eventually result chinese intervention troops reached river originally known home christmas offensive turned war continue half years


operation eagle pull operation eagle pull united_states military evacuation air april beginning april remaining strongholds republic surrounded totally dependent aerial resupply airport victory imminent government plans evacuation nationals allied helicopter ships gulf thailand operation eagle pull took place morning april tactical success carried loss life days later republic collapsed occupied beginning republic united_states supported military government controlled area string towns river provided crucial supply route food munitions coming south vietnam dry season offensive frontal attacks set cut crucial supply route january attacked key national armed forces defensive outpost january seven vessels survivors ship convoy come attack kilometres journey south vietnamese border february convoy heading hit naval mines laid approximately kilometres naval branch national navy sweeping capability control sweeping impossible best extremely costly lost quarter ships percent sailors killed wounded february republic abandoned attempts reopen supply line future supplies come air airport united_states quickly food fuel ammunition support republic limited case church amendment company contract government controlled mixed fleet planes flying times day march artillery leap north west shelled airport troops recaptured leap march ended forces continued close north west city soon able fire march rockets hit supply aircraft forcing embassy announce march suspension security situation improved embassy realizing republic soon collapse supplies reversed suspension march increased number aircraft available april overran ban remaining positions communists concentrate forces premier resigned day went exile final collapse republic imminent planning evacuation plan developed refined military forces closed starting early june seventh air_force published plan eagle pull covering evacuation options option evacuation embassy personnel citizens designated regular chartered civilian airport option action forced cancellation civilian flights airport security police 56th security police squadron royal thai air_force base flown provide security evacuation approximately embassy personnel citizens designated fixed wing aircraft helicopters needed option closed traffic 56th security police squadron landed secure landing zones central towns required use helicopters 21st special operations squadron helicopters 40th rescue recovery squadron airborne mission command performed king aircraft 56th rescue recovery squadron option later revised provide use helicopters helicopters airborne mission command based thailand ground security force marines air_force security police adjacent embassy january placed 31st marine amphibious unit hour alert evacuation fleet position previously gulf thailand implementation operation eagle pull february reaction time reduced hours meaning evacuation fleet maintain hour cruising radius reduced february hours effectively meaning fleet remain gulf thailand march embassy predicted far exceeding original estimate approximately necessitated development new evacuation plan marines secure airport helicopters ferry central flown planes thailand plan quickly overtaken events supply coming return journey quickly reducing number need moved final evacuation april given deterioration defences ambassador john dean requested deployment man operation eagle pull command element landed plane command element supervised ongoing fixed wing evacuation seven days face rounds artillery rocket fire day april fire heavy fixed wing evacuation ended command group turned attention selection helicopter landing zones evacuation controlled east bank opposite command group selected hotel soccer field metres north east embassy masked river row apartment buildings direct fire weapons making location embassy staff prepared leave april evacuation delayed following day order allow uss join evacuation fleet evacuation fleet march amphibious ready group alpha task group 31st marine amphibious unit task group embarked arrived designated station gulf thailand force comprised task group movement transport group alpha uss okinawa carrying comprising helicopters uss vancouver uss escort ships naval gunfire escort area defense uss uss henry wilson uss uss march joint chiefs staff concerned marine helicopter squadron insufficient evacuation ordered uss air wing proceed pearl harbor march marine heavy lift helicopter squadron comprising helicopters embarked uss proceeded bay taking helicopters bay uss temporarily assigned amphibious ready group standing south vietnam april joined amphibious ready group alpha gulf thailand marine evacuation contingent comprised battalion landing team 2nd battalion 4th marines air_force limited anti aircraft capability fleet air cover necessary evacuation supported aircraft based thailand suspected possess shoulder launched surface air missiles evacuation helicopters painted red low reflective paint equipped evacuation afternoon april 31st received orders execute operation eagle pull april launched deck uss okinawa minute intervals descended pick marines elements companies command group embarked uss okinawa elements company boarded helicopters uss vancouver giving total ground security force marines helicopters completed loading formed groups task force ambassador dean notified acting chief state prime minister long leaders including prince personnel officially leave country hours asked desired evacuation case embassy declined successor president republic left telling fellow leaders prince prime minister driving force formation republic rejected offer evacuation said ambassador dean committed mistake believing americans man command group proceeded drive vehicles hotel purposely block vehicle access city road embassy command group proceeded contact king bird plane 56th rescue recovery squadron control flow helicopters group helicopters crossed coastline hour later traversing kilometres hostile territory initial wave set hotel marines quickly established defensive perimeter large crowds soon gathered curiosity interfere having established perimeter defense marines began process moving crowds order clear began moving groups waiting helicopters hotel hold time flights arriving initial build held point oscar kilometres south called king bird evacuation proceeded smoothly number substantially anticipated estimate indicated nationals country nationals evacuated nationals country nationals embassy closed diplomatic relations november including ambassador dean president lifted helicopters helicopters operating uss began land extract ground security force approximately rocket fire began vicinity hotel minutes later received mortar fire soon fire commenced controllers zone notified air_force forward air controllers flying overhead tactical air support squadron immediately low passes east bank spot fire coming known enemy positions location element 2nd battalion 4th marines left zone marine helicopter landed uss okinawa super green giants 40th rescue recovery squadron scheduled extracted eagle pull command element small arms fire final extraction caused minimal damage aircraft millimetres machine gun round hit second helicopter tail climbed zone despite severe vibrations helicopter safely air base thailand launched uss okinawa carry ambassador dean air base thailand april flown air base thailand helicopters amphibious ready group alpha proceeded south china sea rendezvous task force stood implement operation frequent wind evacuation aftermath henry observed vietnam war memoir ford administration fact officials refused leave country included premier long non prime minister brother advertised death list april entered bringing civil war end long non officials republic government executed troops city disarmed taken olympic stadium executed 2nd battalion 4th marines amphibious ready group alpha operation eagle pull served small scale dress rehearsal complex operation frequent wind days later popular culture operation eagle pull depicted film killing fields