dynasty dynasty called muslim ethnic dynasty based region mount lebanon came aforementioned area assigned guard coastal region check power muslim population time period established headquarters served base rule leadership confirmed rulers sultan following ottoman conquest died years later succeeded son turn killed brother ruled death succeeded son long reign accorded ottomans numerous districts mount lebanon tax farms eliminated rivals local power relied support base agents members clan served check muslim peak power realm stretched dismissed replaced son muhammad imprisoned authorities alleged involvement looting raid istanbul bound restored given tax collection authority rural districts tripoli brought conflict clan clients members governor tripoli realm dissipated muhammad killed attempting collect taxes afterward married muhammad widow inherited realm history era muslims ethnic installed tribe lords defeating muslims politically dominated majority population area based village tribe headquarters entrusted maintaining strong cavalry unit patrol region guard entry historian asserts settled conquest specify tribe lords region influence remained majority region continual immigration valley forced coastal areas population declined addition population region largely disappeared throne cairo establishing regime ethnic unlike predecessors resulted relations new rulers tensions authorities contrasted principal rivals mount lebanon embraced sultan briefly toppled revolt fought rebels damascus assaulted surrounding hills engagements executions followed killed seven allies restored power raided hills unable capture villages direction mobilized army troops warriors valley dealt heavy blow nonetheless decided lords albeit weakened state likely kept place avoid giving power mount lebanon avoid extending forces according named primary sources certain ruled brother successor certain ali ibn brother ibn involved rebellion ali killed expedition imprisoned released ottoman era reigns according historian muhammad reliable information early 16th century relatively scarce certain appointed ottoman sultan governor ottomans took control levant sultan assigned chief agents region tripoli confirming control awarding tax farms lived winter ridge prior ottoman conquest moved headquarters village interior away dominated coastal area likely contributed steady deterioration ties fellow time brought closer lived interior areas relocation ibn moved village clans developed strong ties members serving agents chief local tripoli chief agent muhammad subordinate tax collector countryside tripoli including plains stripped power leader imprisoned authorities failure submit allegiance ottomans restored prominence mount lebanon historical account 17th century patriarch historian died succeeded son brother previously served managers father affairs reign son different wife sought power brothers ensuing power struggle forced flee received refuge relocating funds bribe governor damascus replace tax farmer sought reconcile half brother entered killed ambush ordered subsequent assertion control backed ottoman governor damascus despite revolt ottomans subsequent suppression authorities punish alliance death represented loss major political patron downfall clan forced settled sought kidnapped son spared execution lack male organized revolt revolt quickly spread territories financial resources military support ibn tribe valley managed drive opponents died male heir succeeded son spared execution lack male reign ottoman administrative records certain noted local authority death written prompting suggest title member clan led dynasty virtual regent years years minor account mentioned leader regularly assigned tax farms installed members clan chief agents particularly investing patron clan entered region ottoman auxiliary troops installed subordinate tax farmers provoking opposition muhammad killed later year subsequently replaced chief agent tripoli proceeded eliminate muslim rivals killed ottoman official charge couple rival clan ibn tribe executed reception held encouraged settlement viewed threat rule rivals muslim clans majority population tax farmed lowered taxes reduced property prices attracting settlement likely influence sought families village settled villages ridge respectively chief deputy managed control virtual built residences historian william harris asserts precursor din timely delivered taxes authorities ottomans wary power mount lebanon arms venice sultan iii established tripoli centered tripoli included north ostensibly authorities assigned client tripoli governor making independent elevation gave tax rights predominantly reign muhammad complaints lodged authorities ultimately led dismissal replaced son muhammad died according muhammad alleged authorities participated looting istanbul bound egypt passing consequently imprisoned istanbul ottoman sources mention arrived safely istanbul commander backed strong army arrested muhammad suppressing rebel activity mount lebanon route istanbul year later muhammad released assigned tax farm tripoli rural districts including tripoli remained ottoman authorities content muhammad rule muhammad taxation considered tripoli inhabitants refused pay taxes muhammad prompting attempt collecting military means route pressure muhammad shot dead outside tripoli orders muhammad death male heirs marked end rule following death transferred control tripoli expelled clan promoting muslim allies expense muhammad widow acquired wealth concurrently took control properties list ottoman rule


ancient semitic kingdom centered syria kingdom emerged end 19th century ruled dynasty kings counted military diplomacy expand realm beginning establishment kingdom neighbors turned powerful syrian kingdom era actions king middle 18th century syria minus south came authority direct possession nearly century half dominated northern northwestern eastern syria influence small kingdoms borders kingdom eventually destroyed annexed 16th century population typical bronze age syrian culture inhabited substantial population settled kingdom adding influence culture controlled wide trading network gateway eastern iranian plateau region west traditional northwest semitic deities capital considered holy city syrian cities center worship regarded main deity northern syria history little excavated archaeologists abandoned long history modern city situated ancient site knowledge comes discovered establishment likely tribal referring kingdom city religious center northern syria mentioned vassal empire controlled syria middle millennium fame holy city contributed later prominence main temple north syrian storm god located city known city destroyed twice end 3rd millennium power vacuum region caused fall paved way later rise appeared time old period king attested seal ruler land included addition cities consolidated kingdom faced alliance oppose eventually campaigned north threatening kingdom king supported tribes formed alliance syrian states including king defeated enemies eventually killed son rivalry expansion rise proved dangerous king ambitious aim rule levant called king world surrounded alliances north conquering east forcing heir flee welcomed aimed use legitimate heir dangerous alliance king agent borders married daughter son king installed father king apparently killed fight succeeded son consolidated father kingdom turned powerful kingdom syria northern surrounded alliances advanced east conquering installing governor city death king came year later sent army restore ancestors throne ally vassal relationship marriage new king daughter spent years reign expanding kingdom reached upper valley east north syrian city states subdued alliances force remained independent forced peace lost ally late left face sample policy diplomacy war read tablet discovered sent king southern included declaration war der neighbor tablet mentions warships years military support der years accomplishments elevated status great kingdom king title great king succeeded son peaceful reign able force submission sent troops aid alliance ended king sacked destroyed attack relations kingdoms remained peaceful later years succeeded son reign witnessed rebellion city authority prince brother king responded rebellion destroying brother giving throne creating cadet branch dynasty decline end era successors poorly documented time iii century power declined internal dissent iii ruled weakened kingdom imposed weakening obvious independent self declared king spite king remained strongest king syrian states referred great king diplomatic equal king rise kingdom north posed biggest threat iii successor iii able withstand king alliances chose attack directly began conquering allies starting second year syrian campaigns middle chronology slightly later turned attack northeast won spite military support king defeated battle mount sacked cities sixth year syrian wars campaigns finally attacked reign iii attack ended defeat wounding king later death campaigns considerably weakened causing decline status monarch ceased styled great king succeeded grandson conquered destroyed major power levant left sacked assassinated return capital empire rebuilt kingdom expanded include kingdom ruled kings names known son iii king dynasty rule king killed rebellion orchestrated king annexed son fled conquered seven years following conquest peace acknowledged vassal allowed control relocate dynasty residence relinquish title king use ended kings dates estimated given middle chronology people culture people spoke language apart egyptian influences belonged mainly middle bronze age syrian culture culture influenced architecture functions temples mainly political authority invested royal palace contrast important political role temples capital excavated architecture kingdom best represented city subordinate ruled king belonging royal house general built large palaces bear architectural similarities old era palaces adorned grand central throne rooms floors drainage systems walls suggest employment specialized labor evidence exists presence artists painted elaborate scenes walls palaces distinctive syrian clear seals kings gave prominence syrian gods egyptian influence minimal limited interpreted egyptian rituals merely substitute cup held deity special pattern trim called style favored reign king queen daughter fall empire began settle city surroundings constituted sizable portion population presence large population brought culture religion evidenced existence certain religious festivals bear names economy location factor prominence economic center economy based trade iranian plateau cyprus city port proximity sea port mediterranean actions alliance proved vital kingdom economy secured trade northern syria king protecting crossing persian gulf attracted merchants lived city lasting impact local conventions late 14th century texts called syrian type preserve distinct traits markets source copper imported mountains probably cyprus invasion negative impact trade kingdoms road dangerous loss protection led king build strongholds river valley establish colonies mercenaries known houses protect middle area colonies later evolved semi independent waged war king caused trade temporarily stop religion people practiced religion mainly northwest semitic deities important considered father gods important deity head kingdom known land famous storm god beginning middle 3rd millennium main temple located citadel hill center city remained use 24th century 9th century title beloved king titles kingdom patron god treaties concluded threaten kingdoms declare wars presence grew religious influences deities found place king mentioned receiving support goddess main deity tablet associated later started identify storm god general gods kings head god deity intimate connection king described god state deity sin god head son likewise


called syrian german protestant operated jerusalem structures built outside old city jerusalem russian compound paved way expansion jerusalem 19th century institution offering academic training hundreds orphaned abandoned arab children exerted strong influence arab population jerusalem middle_east graduates spread discipline german language region provided academic training orphaned boys girls palestine syria egypt armenia turkey russia iran germany graduating students skilled trades pottery painting printing farming school blind opened premises including classrooms workshops operated printing press flour mill laundry clothing repair service pottery factory tree plant nursery brick tile factory located high ground surrounded high stone wall distinctive dome tower buildings decorative power influence european christians jerusalem mid-19th century continuous building land acquisitions increased size grounds nearly acres world war beginning world war british mandatory government deported german teachers turned compound closed military camp largest ammunition middle_east march british abandoned camp brigade base operations israeli war independence years site served israeli army base known camp army vacated premises compound developed luxury housing remains jewish settlement late second temple period discovered site archaeologists unearthed ancient roman large wine production facility history mid-19th century english german protestant missions operating old city jerusalem german lutheran missionary came jerusalem wife members saint switzerland order manage german protestant mission october bought people parcel land outside approximately kilometres northwest gate intention living local arab population drew plans construction home family house constructed family took occupancy house attacked times arab village forcing retreat safety old city end decade turks erected outposts dispatched armed guards horseback patrol road route jerusalem port city lay near compound family able return home thousands christians lebanon syria traveled intention rescuing battle orphaned children rebuffed local community trust foreign protestant missionaries managed bring orphaned boys jerusalem october decided open home end enrolled boys known syrian german years expanded property acres erected metres stone wall expanded added new infrastructure creating kitchen dining room storage cellar living areas began accepting girls funds construction expansion clothing blankets protestant communities germany switzerland collected total donations determined orphaned abandoned arab children complete education including teaching trade end employed academic teachers primarily germany led professional workshops pottery painting printing farming children stayed years graduating age came parts palestine syria egypt armenia turkey russia iran germany differing religious denominations including protestant greek orthodox catholic notwithstanding ethnic diversity student body language instruction german arabic teachers employed years german arabs enrollment students aged enrollment stood students time death october students passed doors actual number graduates totaled 50th anniversary german noble bequeathed entire fortune marks establishment school blind opened space children plus workshops teach blind weaving spinning classes workshops operated printing press produced textbooks books german language newspapers operated flour mill produced bread year laundry clothing repair service pottery factory produced clay tree plant nursery beginning 20th century large brick tile factory erected premises produced million bricks tiles annually acquired acres salem today order develop agricultural school land settlement students graduates acres added original parcel agricultural school grain fruits vegetables produced farm supplemented diet food shortages world war gave operation consortium based eldest son manager institution youngest son took management institution british architecture like european christian institutions built jerusalem 1800s situated high ground surrounded high stone wall iron gate locked night property power influence european christians jerusalem buildings clock tower decorative façade including stone engraved façade main building verse jesus compassion german arabic institution syrian german stone relief lamb carrying flag cross following visit kaiser jerusalem received bells tower architectural style main building combination southern german local arabic tile roof dome tower mounted square base reflects wide rounded arches doors windows reflect lightning rod extends dome shaped main building interior held water garden play area entire building covers area square feet square meters stories main building housed central dining room kitchen study hall library reading room small museum lutheran church students staff brought skilled arab laborers construct total buildings constructed stages completed early 20th century year completion german city donors building lived engraved building façade buildings called red house model house built entirely materials produced grounds including bricks floor tiles wrought iron work existence continual state expansion modernization notes shop changed location complex times period changed place modernized times similar way functions uses rooms changed seventy years institution existence purchased land vicinity constructed houses workers houses stand street main entrance original homes built yards west near present corner streets plaque home bears german city donors cities munich hamburg birthplace 20th century educational facility grown buildings included school blind workshops youth jubilee year founding fire destroyed floor wooden roof main building damaged second floor church housed son founder administrator time managed collect marks donations germany rebuilt entire structure upper story building rebuilt stone building expansion continued world war time occupied acres land grounds reached way present day planted forests land eventually housed jerusalem biblical zoo holdings gradually reduced acres sale land new neighborhoods world war compound turkish army allies barracks resumed management overseeing modernization property electrical sewage installations new machinery workshops son directed british_army german funding sources severely curtailed 1930s nazi government germany banned citizens sending funds abroad military base british military camp world war broke british shut deported german teachers british turned compound closed military camp known barracks installing camp housed largest ammunition middle_east grain royal army pay corps battalion occupied barracks late 1940s british camp targeted attack occasions june paramilitary group placed letter bomb attached outside wall subsequent explosion collapsed wall injured arabs vicinity march penetrated camp pre dawn operation detonated explosives buildings protest martial law jerusalem british soldier killed injured martial law lifted days later israeli military base march british abandoned camp brigade home base israeli war independence years compound served training base israel defense forces army clinic point served headquarters home command israeli army summoned representatives world lutheran church remove religious artifacts church church representatives removed bells windows pipe organ left heavy marble altar wooden chest church converted basketball arena soldiers october tour facility army vacated grounds evangelical german lutheran church noticed chest asked opened exposing altar negotiated moved lutheran church victoria hospital inaugurated november years occupancy israeli army base served army halls main building including balcony door set stained glass windows depicting tribes israel current use army base relocated base near mount jerusalem municipality preservation construction plan compound calling historic buildings developed public use orthodox jewish community nearby november grounds designated public parking lot municipality ease parking problems neighboring commercial district parking spaces available hours israel land administration approved plans development luxury apartments property preserving historic buildings parts complex girls school training area urban combat police municipal waste storage successor schools philosophy mission continued world war successor schools middle_east school western district lebanon started lebanon students established present location grandson like jerusalem provides academic training impoverished local children today school owned operated national evangelical church school founded kilometres northwest jordan graduates jerusalem providing academic training orphaned impoverished boys funded schools society auspices episcopal church jerusalem refugee camp established nearby called camp proximity school


dynasty dynasty spelled turkish prominent family palestine southwestern districts damascus province damascus 16th 17th centuries ottoman rule dynasty based members continuously served hereditary district governors provincial district century members ruled different provinces districts ottoman_empire held additional titles different times period considered city golden age dynasty founded served governor number provinces district including career dynasty named son served governor succeeded office son ibn served years time chief stronghold dynasty jerusalem domain intermittently rule reassigned damascus son inherited governorship occupying office years rule impoverished dynasty son successor appointed office served leadership prosperous secure diverse city deposed executed ottoman authorities brother appointed post serving office governor son governorship ended history founding dynasty founded later known ethnic slave magnificent ottoman system received education inner service palace gradually promoted high ranking positions government having served governor personal tutor sultan son temporarily appointed governorship capital district maintaining importance previous era promoted governorship egypt succeeded governor son gave dynasty served treasurer promoted governor general years returning rule short period time deposed new sultan brother rival power died shortly according historian jean governor promoted provincial governor coastal succession second son high ranking official ottoman government governor century time promoted damascus later commander making responsible muslim pilgrimage stronghold replaced son ruled nearly years times rule jerusalem attached family stronghold base power leadership 17th century era enlarged transformed family fortress governor palace intermittently served struggled gain promotion ottoman government having lobby istanbul based large sums money gifts unlike predecessors eventually appointed governor damascus son subsequently inherited governorship later died nickname derived family good relations reputation keeping tribes check commissioned sultan help suppress long running rebellion din units proved effective battle period gained additional governorship tripoli deposed rule impoverished family heavy debts according historian contemporary muhammad numerous wives fathered children lifetime sons served governor jerusalem dismissal inherited governorship administered district able guarantee safety main roads countryside securing maintaining close relations local tribes cities palestine able develop extensively reign city importance elevated point considered capital palestine french consul developed friendly relationships city christian jewish communities allowing construct new churches restore existing ones appointed son governor jerusalem died military expedition clans lebanon fall sent expedition assist governor damascus rebellion failed left battle petitions enemies ottoman government summoned istanbul imprisoned killed shortly afterward according historian ottoman state wary growing power believed eliminating enable destroy remnants extended dynasty imperial authorities uncomfortable ties french consul local christians according elimination result special relationship succeeded brother governor central palestine length tenure exactly known document jerusalem listed governor according historian jean rule ended discontinued liberal policies non muslims cautious ottoman wishes rule ibn succeeded father governor serving following end rule dynasty stripped hereditary governorship afterward officials appointed ottoman government came rule gradually declined importance coincided general withdrawal support local sublime ottoman imperial government modern day descendants dynasty known house culture family modeled dynasty imperial ottoman household military engagements carry battle standards representing dynasty bring marching bands family saw leaders wider region patrons ruling families governor jerusalem founder prominent dynasty slave soldier dynasty ruled century dynasty major aide governor damascus son gained governorship office known family members preferred use arabic turkish communicate arabic speaking people living districts ottoman officials spoke turkish apparent arabic language customs command arabic literature possessed governors close ties maintained local arab family tribes exception imperial provincial court records jerusalem allies ruled recorded arabic typically imperial turkish speaker turkish language records required socio political ties maintained created new ottoman hybrid culture evident court life dress probably language according historian alliance 16th 17th centuries families controlled constituted region palestine presided presided respectively common interests prior military slave relationships families forged close ties course rule dominant faction emerging unified dynasty evidence families indicated ottoman registers example granddaughter ibn founder dynasty mother governor wife daughter governor deaths sons muhammad ali entered custody brother governor daughter sister married brother ali sharing common property helped sustain families unity alliance treated territories palestine times hereditary troublesome periods families unite forces confront challenges rebels local rivals military relationship originated protection annual particular governor assigned role require depart extended time periods order protect districts raids tax personal property damage departing governors normally entrusted authority rulers neighboring example requested ibn temporarily replace governor damascus beginning tradition lasted 17th century mutual trust families developed firm military alliance early 17th century result increasing strength din ottoman syria backed grand duke din briefly repaired relations ottoman government gained control governor appointed tax collector forces proceeded head jerusalem traversing palestine coastal plain din moves threatened rule families encouragement sublime istanbul formed coalition stop advance armies muhammad ibn ibn successfully routed din army river forcing withdraw palestine building works reign dynasty accumulated vast wealth including agricultural lands real estate properties family allocated large wealth religious fund construction maintenance public buildings members dynasty buried family graveyard located south great mosque cemetery contained marble graves family restored quarter great mosque rebuilt mosque constructed confines fortress later came known castle light function residence fortress outfitted additional defenses including arrow slits narrow openings extended employ use cannon rule market quarter reconstructed khan ordered construction main fountain century temple mount jerusalem ibn known built local headed study islamic architect ibn worked projects jerusalem established fund management list governors


glass glass arabic refers glass produced art industry established city roman rule palestine old city contains quarter named glass quarter glass continues serve tourist attraction city traditionally glass melted local raw materials including sand neighbouring villages dead sea coloring iron copper recycled glass instead glass production family trade secrets preserved passed palestinian families operate glass factories located outside city products include glass jewellery rings stained glass windows glass lamps palestinian israeli conflict glass production suffered decline history glass industry established roman rule palestine ancient glass industry exposed cities eastern mediterranean coastline industry migrated inland particular glass artifacts dating 1st 2nd centuries found exhibit drake collection stained glass windows glass dating 12th century found structure built cave served church era palestine example stained glass windows produced dome rock old city jerusalem medieval reputation christian pilgrims visited city centuries monk noted great works art glass late 15th century german companions stopped exceeding ancient city described came forth inn passed long street city work people divers crafts particularly workers glass place glass clear glass black colors dark light acknowledging production glass palestine dates roman period director centre architectural conservation contends practices today glass industry likely emerged 13th century corresponds foreigners observed like mentioned acre tyre glass producing cities visited city described passing long street city work people divers crafts workers glass place glass clear glass black colours dark light notes alternate theory assigns today techniques venetian glass tradition researchers claim extant time carried europe possibly originating syria glass produced factories typically functional items including drinking eating vessels olive oil later petrol based lamps factories produced jewellery accessories arabian desert primary jewellery large exports expensive glass items sent guarded egypt syria marketing communities glass established southern jordan cairo egypt 16th century glass industry principal employer generator wealth owners known glass production arab world western travellers palestine 19th century provided descriptions glass industry example noted travels palestine persons employed glass industry later new complete history holy bible contained old new robert writes population considerable inhabitants manufacture glass lamps exported egypt provisions abundant considerable number shops later century production declined competition imported european glass products continued sold particularly poorer populace particularly travelling jewish traders city world fair vienna represented glass ornaments report french consul suggests glass making remained important source income factories making tradition continues 21st century factories located outside traditional quarter old city north south neighboring town generally produce functional household factories owned family displayed large halls close factories glass attraction domestic foreign tourists today ongoing export problems decline tourism restrictions palestinian freedom movement aftermath second industry production suffered according director centre architectural conservation circumstances survival glass industry question production glass traditionally produced sand village east taken dead sea instead sand recycled glass primary raw material glass today precise production process trade secret maintained palestinian families run factories continue produce glass today passed generations children master craft said learn play age begin child master according holy land cooperative society blowing technique employed ancient archaeologists historians glass agree common centuries bce glass withdrawn end iron pipe blown metal tool called shape glass returned process detached pipe placed cooling chamber jewellery glass jewellery traditionally blue glass eyes use considered particularly effective evil eye museum mankind collections exist glass mandate period earlier blue green eyes examples small hands called representing hand daughter prophet muhammad woman jewellery given marriage early 1920s glass considered necessary jewellery bride trade english traveller william george mentioned production coarse glass called palestine large smaller glass trade export primarily africa early mid-19th century spread west_africa nigeria grounded edges round fit strand suitably picked originally produced 1930s value decreased recorded sold song women traders


syrian coup état syrian coup état referred syrian government march revolution arabic successful seizure power syria military committee syrian regional branch arab socialist party planning conspiracy inspired iraqi regional branch successful military coup coup planned military committee party civilian leadership leader party conspiracy leading members military committee planning process immediate aftermath taking power muhammad committee enlisted support muhammad independent coup originally planned march postponed day government discovered conspirators planning assemble background events leading coup modern syria established arab kingdom syria king state planned new arab kingdom syrian state espoused arab nationalism pan islamic policies british helped establish state world war secret agreement france established french mandate syria lebanon area functioned france colonies newly established state viewed vessel european stage movements tried establish syrian identity notably syrian social nationalist party advocates communism majority continued arabs mandate feudal character rested semi liberal social base system remained unchanged establishment united arab republic system created class society reflecting urban rural living patterns estimated thousand families owned half land syria majority small medium properties owned middle class thirds peasants agricultural revenues highly percent population received percent income middle class merchants middle groups percent population earned percent agricultural revenues percent received remainder landowner peasant alliance based class differences social lead landowner downfall mandate dissolved british ultimatum france syria independent country april elite governed syria mandate continued power governed manner failure arab israeli war led downfall traditional elite rise military politics military dictator syria military officer gained power scenes established military dictatorship military introduction syrian political scene destroyed enabling middle class participate syrian politics powers weakened traditional elite retained majority wealth produced environment ideology came arab movement established din 1940s played notable role early stages movement founded arab socialist party party established merger arab party delegates founding congress arab party majority middle class professionals intellectuals 1950s party managed acquire urban middle class base party purely middle class party beginning sent party rural areas recruit new members form new party organisations party organized labour protest syrian history party strong decision recruit members society led party party leaders opted democratic norms procedures party faced major dilemma power competitive elections forceful takeover liberal democratic inclined founding leaders partial forceful takeover citing corrupt electoral process taking power party allowed share power united arab republic prove egypt dominated party forced dissolve collapsed military coup syria establishment dissolution party divided supported opposed opposed supported traditional leaders party convened party congress established party branches followed orders dissolved years instead deeply hostile pan thought radical instead military committee launch march revolution shared views economic social context march revolution viewed mere military coup ingredients national revolts revolution led anti alliance lower middle class strategic members officer corps minorities significant number peasants conflict international context revolution took place state boundaries established france artificial hostility newly established syria creation israel traditional elite took power syria country gained independence come power french mandate syria lebanon external arbitrary state boundaries syria corresponding popular acceptance led discontent national struggle shaped arab nationalism pan greater character struggle radical spawned radical solutions problem growth new middle class syria fueled discontent traditional elite dominated sector largest sector economy created wealth new middle class consisted opposed traditional elite power traditional elite led new middle class military countries conservative syria military wanted greater power believing traditional elite unable defend country significant group military personnel recruited new middle class syria ethnic minorities specific ethnicity belonged specific social class instance ethnic groups low social class began embrace radical form arab nationalism revolution syria new middle class produce instability revolution possible inequality urban rural capitalist penetration sector traditional large revenue sources led establishment peasant movements fought change opposed system syrian branch arab socialist party able recruit young peasants radical peasant movements able large sectors population planning military committee syrian regional branch arab socialist party spent time power conventional military coup military committee decided capture military camps seize control armoured brigade military academy city damascus radio station conspirators military committee young sitting regime slowly traditional elite lost effective political power coup successful military committee needed gain support syrian officer corps collapse coupled transfers left officer corps complete disarray open anti government time officer corps split different factions damascus faction supported supporters faction faction group damascus faction enemy military committee support regime considered rivals stance pan allies supported military committee alliance led establishment secret contact colonel head military intelligence colonel muhammad commander brigade military committee ordered group junior officers recruit leading independent colonel commander facing israel cause group successful promised succeed chief staff fail supported committee prime minister syria planning planned coup military committee members civilian reason army party alliance place safeguard party repression military committee look favourably civilian leadership led dissolution party years needed military committee seize power committee needed hold power support base 5th national party congress held decided party secretary general national command muhammad leading member military committee delegate 5th national congress told military committee intentions coup agreement committee share power coup coup february iraqi regional branch led ali took power iraq far formidable opponent iraqi regional branch managed power alliance military officers segments middle class downfall changed rules arab politics arab nationalist movement takeover party force contrast iraqi regional branch syrian regional branch mass support significant support base middle class cautioned party lack support failed share worries launched coup march day military intelligence raided apartment planning assemble given task reporting units coup postponed march night march tanks units loyal conspiracy began moving damascus led brigade syrian israel able gain control second brigade stationed caught movement commander armoured brigade lieutenant general surrendered took acting commander armoured brigade potentially hostile unit stationed south west damascus intervene probably taken control communications damascus area forces defeated forces marched damascus began set road blocks city time seizing critical facilities central post office captain party officer seized radio station ministry defence headquarters seized fight general din commander chief arrest easily tracked arrested city morning captured bureau officers affairs later personal led small group conspirators capture air base kilometers north east damascus force resisted coup planes ordered bomb rebel positions plan lead company brigade capture air base dawn prevent air strikes surrender armoured brigade took longer expected putting forces schedule forces reached outskirts base broad daylight sent tell commanders start base surrender negotiated surrender according forces defeated combat later morning convened army headquarters celebrate coup generally met indifference population large later known poet revolution wrote announced ninth reinstated members military committee armed forces senior members newly established regime people reported killed takeover executed shortly immediate aftermath act new rulers syria establish man national council revolutionary command composed march ordered din party founders form government implement policies later civilians given membership change balance power officers controlled country beginning military committee members formed state policies backs members civilian leadership found said gentlemen speak suggest appoint liaison officer communicate views day gave civilians faint idea committee members planning beginning signs destroy military committee time members bound goal building prosperous nation march released jail promoted rank lieutenant general appointed commander chief chairman facto head state appointed chief staff held powerful posts possess personal political power threaten officers given notable offices muhammad minister defence deputy chief staff military committee expanded membership new members ensured controlled real powers committee decided state policies sessions real seat power given command 5th brigade promoted june commander armoured brigade head bureau officers affairs appointed friends senior positions enemies appointed senior positions new members military committee appointed head military intelligence head military police military academy control including brother given crash course military teaching given command facto head syrian air_force promotion man considering members military committee young perceived real leaders syria populace military committee appointed colonel post minister interior failed coup july pressure consistent pro demonstrations northern syria damascus pro union leaders like arab nationalist movement coupled weakness popular level syria led unification efforts new government governments egypt iraq anti government overthrown pro officers april new stage based unity agreement reached include states federal union president commander chief armed forces dominated military committee virtually renounced agreement officers high ranking positions armed forces leading wide scale propaganda campaign egypt radio denouncing leaning newspapers previously shut mass pro union rioting damascus parts country followed prompted protest officials including defense minister deputy chief staff cabinet members later june chief staff led high ranking delegation included prime minister education minister algeria state visit away committee opportunity undertake purge elite officers political command ordered direct flight syrian embassy united_states reassigned embassy military instead returned syria flight june protest committee unsuccessful left country france self imposed exile july committee virtual viewed military able check committee domination government maintained relatively high level strength military despite july leadership help egyptian intelligence attempted launch daytime coup new government army headquarters personally defended broadcast station attacked ensuing battle left hundreds people dead including civilian coup attempt failed participating officers arrested executed executions rare action deal participants failed coup syria typical punishment exile imprisonment foreign diplomatic post president subsequently resigned signalling disapproval executions authorities short period chief conspirators muhammad brought military trial found guilty treason sentenced death released exactly year later exiled lobbying iraqi president failure revolt marked end significant influence syria military civilian institutions pro forces largely defeated military committee sole power center country relations egypt immediately popular syrian masses issuing broadcasts denouncing murderers representing forces reference party embrace strict numerous leadership positions held non muslims announced withdrawal april unity agreement


arabic modern tell earliest kingdoms syria remains constitute tell located southwest near village important center millennium half second millennium discovery proved levant center ancient centralized civilization equal egypt ruled view important centers near east early bronze age moore described kingdom recorded world power starting small settlement early bronze age developed trading empire later power imposed northern eastern syria language considered earliest attested semitic language destroyed 23rd century rebuilt mentioned records dynasty second continuation ruled new royal dynasty destroyed end millennium paved way tribes settle city forming kingdom flourished trade center subject ally modern day final destruction king maintained prosperity vast trading network artifacts cyprus egypt far afghanistan recovered city palaces political organization features different model women enjoyed special status queen major influence state religious affairs gods mainly north semitic included deities exclusive city excavated starting famous archive found dated written archive allowed better understanding language provided important information political organization social customs mid millennium levant history possible meaning word white rock referring limestone city built settled growth supported satellite agricultural settlements city benefited role growing international trade probably began increased demand wool archaeologists designate early period ended followed second kingdoms era designated consider civilization cultural entity east semitic speaking populations stretched center western levant kingdom kingdom period prominent kingdom syrian states especially second half 3rd millennium known age archives early period early period designated general knowledge city history prior written archives obtained excavations stages identified building structures form building apparently royal palace built end period years war started gained upper hand actions king conquered cities century king defeated state power declined following reign archive period archive period designated lasted end period known destruction mainly referring destruction royal palace called palace built earlier archive period political military dominance syrian city states northern eastern syria mentioned archives date period economic matters include royal letters diplomatic documents written archives date reign saw paying tribute extensive invasion cities middle region led king recovered king prosperous launching successful counter offensive concluded peace trading treaty earliest recorded treaties history greatest extent controlled area roughly half size modern syria north area damascus south coastal mountains west east half kingdom direct control king administered governors rest consisted vassal kingdoms paying tribute supplying military assistance important city mentioned vassal kingdoms city states including king chief official holder office possessed great authority powerful campaigned term predecessor reign continued war defeated ally blocking trade routes southern upper conducted regular military campaigns rebellious including attacks campaign southern city close order settle war allied campaign headed led combined armies victory battle near alliance attacked occupied leaving son governor suffered destruction years campaign probably following death destruction destruction occurred palace burned clay royal archives preserving theories cause high early dating hypothesis supports early dating destruction preferring date later accepted event happened scholar suggests city destroyed boasted taking tribute claimed reached mediterranean hypothesis kings grandson sin claimed destroyed town called considers likely culprit view supported rejected michael revenge according maria destruction happened approximately years battle destruction caused retaliation defeat view supported mario says king destroyed ascending throne city natural says natural caused blaze ended archive period says destruction limited area royal palace convincing evidence looting dates fire middle chronology second kingdom second kingdom period designated spans period second kingdom lasted second destruction occurred dating mere formal date descendant sin invaded northern borders aiming forests mountain separated roughly years areas attacked attached accept mentioned annals sin syrian consider responsible destruction ended archive period time sin city northern syria destroyed king new local dynasty ruled second kingdom continuity kingdom heritage maintained earliest features including architectural style kingdom religious sites new royal palace built lower town transition archive period marked destruction palace little known second kingdom written material discovered aside inscription dating end period second kingdom attested contemporaneous sources inscription asked brought mountains indicating territory included north modern day turkey texts dates seventh year sin ruler iii empire mention messenger second kingdom considered vassal iii government nature relation unknown included payment tribute formal recognition appears condition right trade empire second kingdom end 21st century ended destruction city fire evidence event found outside called temple rock area palace reason destruction known according result invasion led vassal city destruction mentioned legendary epic song release discovered considers describing destruction second kingdom epic assembly led man called prevents king showing mercy prisoners vassal provoking wrath storm god causing destroy city kingdom kingdom designated iii divided periods period quickly rebuilt planned city foundations covered remains new palaces temples built new fortifications built circles low city city laid regular lines large public buildings built construction took place period known king kingdom described statue bearing inscription discovered helped identify site tell ancient kingdom king view probable inhabitants kingdom predominantly inhabitants syria time beginning 18th century vassal kingdom centered written records available period city vassal iii reign known rulers period received gifts egyptian indicating continuing wide connections importance city mentioned vassal city modern day turkey princess married son king belonged branch royal dynasty destroyed king probably king seal crown prince discovered western palace according song release epic describes destruction kingdom preserves older elements later periods recovered destruction small village phase designated mentioned records vassal dynasty rural early iron age settlement grew size later periods development occurred lasted vii began 3rd century lasted 7th century site abandoned organization city layout consisted lower town raised center kingdom city area hectares protected mud brick fortifications divided districts gate outer wall included king palace temples city dedicated called red temple lower city included second temple southeast called temple rock second kingdom royal palace archaic palace built lower town northwest addition temple built destroyed red temple kingdom large city nearly hectares size protected fortified double gates fortified separated lower town new royal palace built temple constructed red temples area lower town divided districts palace replaced intermediate palace building included palace western palace area temple temple temple temple northern palace built intermediate palace north lower town second temple built temple rock replaced temple beneath western palace natural caves constituted royal burial ground includes tombs tomb lord goats tomb princess government kingdom government consisted king styled grand headed council elders administration central administration located queen shared running affairs state king crown prince involved internal matters second prince involved foreign affairs affairs including military ones handled administration consisted court dignitaries controlled men forming bureaucracy people quarters lower city governed chief inspector deputies smaller cities governed governors authority grand women received salaries equal men important positions head government agencies second kingdom monarchy little known lack written records kingdom city state monarchy reduced importance authority kings dead kings gods kingdom monarchs listing offerings kings mention names list mentions kings kings known second kingdom dates estimates according middle chronology people language culture second kingdoms periods shared culture population estimated numbered capital people entire kingdom said language west semitic language said east semitic dialect closer language academic consensus considers east semitic language exhibits west semitic east semitic features held religious social festivals including rituals succession new king normally lasted weeks based solar year divided months discovered old calendar reign new calendar introduced months named honor deities new calendar month year meant month lord year given instead number imported draw carriages royalty high officials diplomatic gifts allied cities society centered palace temple kingdoms palace designed courtyard open city making administration contrasts palaces resembled narrow entrances limited access external courtyard music played important society musicians locals hired cities hired later reduced number kept train local kingdom iii population semitic mentioned kingdom neighbors rural subjects came dominate destruction second kingdom formed bulk population city witnessed great increase construction palaces temples fortifications built deities earlier periods maintained center city kingdom royal ideology influence culture received deities instead evident seals period economy kingdom period palace controlled economy wealthy families managed financial affairs government intervention economic system palace distributed food permanent seasonal workers estimated persons contributed system general unlike land stayed hands villages paid annual share palace agriculture mainly pastoral large cattle managed palace city inhabitants owned head sheep goats cattle derived prosperity trade wealth equal important cities main commercial rival main articles trade probably timber nearby mountains appear major export evidenced quantity artifacts recovered palaces city possessed wide commercial network reaching far modern day afghanistan shipped cyprus possibly port trade directed river boat chiefly main palace found contain artifacts dating ancient egypt bearing names continued center trade second kingdom evidenced surrounding cities appeared period destroyed city trade continued main economic activity kingdom archaeological finds extensive exchange egypt coastal syrian cities religion state kingdom genres deities common pairs gods deity female consort divine couples deities cooperate create egyptian second genre included single deities genre consisted divine pairs actually single deity names deities preferring northern semitic gods unique genre included eastern semitic chief god consort wife patron gods city unique consort major deities included consort consort second genre included syrian goddess goddess royal family mentioned times monthly offering lists far important appearing times deities included exclusive god goddess sun temple dedicated cult genre included god planet venus represented twin mountain gods morning star evening star practiced dead kings city gates named gods unknown gate overall offering list mentioned deities receiving sacrifices kingdom common northern semitic gods unique deities disappeared important god took place city important deity apart biblical connection theories beginning process claims possible connections bible citing alleged references existence biblical references initial media excitement supposed connections bible based preliminary widely exceptional claims great amounts leaked public studies focus shifted away comparisons bible studied civilization right change came bitter personal academic conflict scholars involved described political interference syrian authorities discovery library italian archaeologists university rome direction began tell recovered statue dedicated goddess bearing mentioning king identified city long known inscriptions decade team discovered palace palace dating finds palaces include small sculpture precious materials black stones gold artifacts included wood furniture mother pearl composite statues created colored stones silver bowl bearing king recovered tomb lord goats egyptian egyptian ceremonial presented kingdom example early syrian centralized states considered earliest scholars including samuel finer moore consider recorded world power discovery changed view syria history bridge egypt proved region center civilization right consisting preserved complete thousands fragments discovered site written usual combination signs exhibited innovative purely representation previously unknown semitic language called bilingual vocabulary lists found allowing translated close link southern script developed highlights contemporaneous links semitic cultures provide important insights cultural economic political life northern middle 3rd millennium provide insight everyday lives inhabitants containing information state revenues school texts archive provisions tribute law cases diplomatic trade contacts copied texts contain writings hymns legends scientific observations magic library constitute oldest archives libraries found evidence arrangement classification larger originally stored shelves fallen floor palace destroyed locations fallen allowed reconstruct original positions shelves found originally shelved according subject features absent earlier excavations sophisticated techniques arrangement texts coupled composition evidence great antiquity archival library practices far older assumed case discovery library sizable portion contain literary texts evidence suggest collection served partially true library collection archives intended solely use kings ministers bureaucracy evidence early texts foreign languages scripts classification easier arrangement size form content provided scholars new insights origin library practices use years ago current situation result syrian civil war excavations stopped march large scale looting occurred site came control opposition armed group tunnels dug human remains discovered remains scattered discarded hoped find jewelry precious artifacts digging mound conducted nearby villagers aim finding artifacts villagers removed soil suitable making liners bread tunnels


revolt revolt known revolt northern revolts occurred western countryside purpose drive french military forces northern syria support revolt driven opposition establishment french mandate country revolt named leading commander mainly consisted allied revolts areas rebels led rural leaders engaged guerrilla attacks french forces sabotage key infrastructure revolt coincided revolt syria coastal mountains led ali ali jointly referred revolts general national movement western despite early rebel victories guerrilla operations ceased french occupation july dissolution arab government revolt key forces renewed revolt november securing large amounts military aid turkish forces fighting french control southern revolt peak established quasi state region mediterranean rebels dealt major blows battlefield december agreements french turks turkish military support rebels largely dissipated spring french forces overran stronghold july tried french mandatory authorities ultimately acquitted low level led rebel leader persisted major military engagement french forces occurring august occurred amid great syrian revolt began summer collapse revolt marked significant turning point political configurations prior revolt political elite aligned turkish national politics betrayal leaders felt withdrawal turkish support prompted embrace pursue shared destiny rest syria influenced support syrian unity strengthening ties damascus aftermath franco turkish major market goods supplier food raw materials ceded turkey effectively severed commercial relations economy background october allied forces army control syria ottoman_empire british military support leader army formed rudimentary government damascus extended control northern inland syrian cities france claimed special interests syria agreement british sought establish french mandate region prospect french rule opposed syria inhabitants french forces landed northern coastal city november began push inland coastal mountains faced revolt led ali feudal political cultural sentiments time arab revolt aftermath political elite divided embraced arab nationalist movement led sought political autonomy ottoman state number factors distinguished attitudes elite populace damascus economic inhabitants dependent open commercial access predominantly populated turks southwestern principal market goods principal supplier food raw materials furthermore political elite considerably diverse entirely arab muslim populated damascus culturally closer turkish ottoman society numerous members elite descent factors political class support arab revolt joined felt revolt negatively exceeded expectations ultimately ended ottoman rule broke bonds islamic unity initiated separation resentment ottoman rule administrative center province equal damascus political stature political dominance damascus held influential positions damascus based government leading political authorities damascus iraq french officials incorrectly believed rivalry damascus elite embrace french rule instead according historian vigorously resisted french occupation order voice heard new political climate dignitaries supported late october following army entry branch arab club founded city arab club ideology mix arab nationalism promoted concept syrian national unity served political support base arab club founders president presidential council governor wealthy merchant physician city leading muslim scholars prelude early rebel actions november soldiers army entered welcomed city arab inhabitants late november french troops landed coast gulf entered city prompting anti french uprisings area december french troops occupied replaced arab flag governmental headquarters french flag revolts continued city countryside vicinity local uprisings spread region countryside far rebels consisted small disorganized bands launched guerrilla style attacks french targets engaged highway early attempt coordinate rebel groups took place leaders uprising notable developed contacts rebel leaders areas british forces withdrew syria palestine december agreements france dividing control ottomans predominantly arab territories later april france given mandate syria san conference left rudimentary state vulnerable french occupation french demanded control instead opted support organize northern rebels prevent french advances coastal areas syrian interior arab government entrusted natives northern syria ottoman military instructor municipal official notable expanding organizing local uprisings blown revolt initially supported guerrilla operations french region later decided organize rebellion countryside motivated act saw syrian national congress legislative body state member preventing french rule encouraged arab government district governor supporting ali dominated revolt leading french syrian coastal mountains syrian national congress proclaimed establishment arab kingdom syria march france wary popular nationalist movement kingdom spread lebanon french territories north_africa moved end state anti french resistance manifested local level committees national defense began committees founded members local elite sympathetic ottoman rule committees quickly fueled populist french gained backing committee national defense consisted numerous educated professionals wealthy merchants muslim religious leaders committee provided arms funds helped promote armed campaign city muslim scholars touch head arab army second division orders arab government damascus formed consisting seven men native armed hand held bombs rifles assistance later expanded fighters known fighters holy struggle organized equal sized units according historian small size unit highly mobile able inflict chaos french troops family farm regional administrative center headquarters branch committee national defense revolt phase battle revolt coincided turkish revolts french military presence cities ash related revolt captured held arab week starting march french air_force bombarded days rebels withdrew april taking advantage diversion french forces major battle french turkish forces taking place decided attack french garrison stormed town word attack spread nearby villages forces subsequently attempt unify northern syria rebel groups single resistance movement french allegiance government damascus formed alliance semi nomadic region following battle assistance committee national defense collected gold pounds funds rifles men aides trained french occupation april coordinated shipment turkish arms ali forces revolt french coastal mountains south government aided movement financially local arab nationalist french general demanded rebels northern syria end resistance french military advance continued oppose french rule government launched campaign soldiers country ditch effort defend damascus french invasion recruitment campaign unsuccessful july issued ultimatum makeshift arab army recognize france mandate syria later mid july french forces broke resistance lines capturing town way late july french escalated push syria major inland cities july french troops led general commander army levant fourth division captured resistance lack resistance criticized commander memoirs aftermath occupation organized rebels french city plan consequent flight arab nationalist leaders countryside french forces military superiority managed potential revolt city july french forces captured damascus day routing small arab army contingent armed volunteers led battle following loss damascus arranged meeting rebel leaders divided advocated following continuing revolt surrendering french approaching turks support meeting chose defect french afterward fighters continued revolt area operations left served urban base went village continue revolt rallying support leadership active western countryside revolt subsequently expanded include rebels area near rebels mountains northeast rebels commander fighters district area operations centered extended far north far south far_east far west area led din formed revolt french military authorities considered group relocated headquarters village early unit commanders operated different sectors unit active early soon french forces landed left syria british held palestine battle avoid capture french issued warrant arrest second phase alliance turkish forces arab government damascus destroyed exiled rebels sought compensate consequent loss aid arab government period following arab defeat rebels began appointing administrators territory oversaw institution taxes support revolt monthly salaries fighters supply services sought military training turkish officers aides traveled ash request support insurgents september signed deal recognized representative arab government syria promised military aid course month began receiving significant financial military support military advisers remnants ottoman second army despite mutual suspicion nationalists turkey leading respective revolts sides agreed confronting common french enemy addition turkish struggle french forces popularly supported syria inhabitants northern syria particular widespread feelings religious solidarity turks second week september ali announced ready coordinate rebels turkish forces led established contact chief ottoman world war veteran landlord met late summer meeting agreement concluded launch propaganda campaign funded turks french occupation campaign began december urban revolt place aftermath city occupation french forces inhabitants engaged passive resistance french provided material aid rebels fighting rural areas west city addition rebels propaganda campaign anti french sentiment growing socio economic factors included disruption trade routes countryside flour rising unemployment partially result influx armenian refugees fled villages turkey armenian genocide led soaring prices bread subsequent food riots famine city neighborhoods french authorities declared martial law restricting travel speech frustrating inhabitants result deteriorating conditions city attributed french governance unpopular establishment martial law propaganda efforts rebels turkish neighborhood leaders decided recruit men join rebels city landowners merchants donated funds rebel cause presence french troops prevented urban revolt specifically targeted french forces numerous incidents muslims lower income neighborhoods violently assaulted members city large christian minority viewed associated french interests renewal revolt relative fighting followed french occupation damascus forces resumed guerrilla campaign november forces grew months prior november offensive rebellions area syrian coastal mountains resumed temporarily tapering armed action allies included assault police station village north rebels september stated report september rebels control road city mountains rebels telegraph lines railroads captured disarmed french troops disrupted french military movements city repeated destruction railroad telegraph lines ali rebels placed rebels position control northwestern syria end november rebels gained control towns villages districts prepared capture towns districts man major scenes fighting occurred areas time tribal forces countered french east forces commanded ottoman officer declared support began guerrilla actions french forces general vicinity late winter rebels assaulted french forces according british consul looted town killed christian inhabitants victory arrival turkish military assistance led french withdrawal principal lieutenant commander operations served president arab club committee national defense early december french general 2nd division assembled column mid december french launched counterattack burned city afterward general assembled second column french column managed capture rebels series attacks sides late december rebels turkish launched broad offensive regain positions according reversal possible result offensive french relief column arrived area french consolidated hold major towns french victories december proved decisive setback forces withdrew mountainous area south commanders organized rebels numerous smaller units early began receiving support brother support relatively small quantity french authorities feared plot british allies french syria launching frequent hit run operations french left flank area effort support turks main turkish support continued receive arms funds early including shipment march consisting machine guns horse loads ammunition came larger weapons shipment late february early march turks french negotiated treaty end fighting southern region north march month ali issued joint letter league nations spanish rebel leaders referred commanders general national movement region western asserted syria sought remain independent france country broader islamic community associated ottoman state despite treaty france turkish forces southern continued support rebels arms longer pressure french gain leverage negotiations territorial concessions point revolt rebels control villages man districts towns french entered negotiations village near april order french mandate high commissioner french reinforced military presence greater region april columns defeated rebels number confrontations period april french troops southern northern syria troops district region french troops commanded general pursued rebels launched attacks highway surrendered french aerial according french intelligence reports turks sent political agents northern syria persuade inhabitants drop armed resistance french embrace french rule claimed benefit population april execute field commander involvement attack christian town inhabitants killed strongly pro ottoman arab officer particularly close connections believed turks instructed carry raids villages image rebels local inhabitants turkey agreements france revolt northern syria execution contributed rapid withdrawal rebels turkish military advisers upset execution arms flow ended june direct french diplomatic request diversion arms fighters combat greek offensive turks western case stopping weapons shipments significant impact military aspect rebellion morale revolt felt abandoned turks later concluded final peace arrangement france known treaty october need funds hired local money supplies inhabitants main sources weapons limited towns man previous blows dealt rebels french forces support revolt local inhabitants lack weapons revolt largely dissipated spring rebel operations french continued reduced pace period suppression aftermath spring early summer rebels experienced series defeats july stronghold captured french forces time french forces proceeded burn villages support rebels high number villages inhabitants arrested executed prompting rebels ultimately surrender july fled british held seeking refuge nationalists syria avoid arrest french authorities british intelligence officers arrested visiting jerusalem syria august months subsequently trial march charges including murder organizing rebel bands engaging destruction public property infrastructure defended christian attorney court condemned illegal occupation syria argued military operations trial rallying point popular support led significant degree solidarity urban elite collectively supported freedom trial concluded march acquitted court decided rebel soldier legally mandated ottoman authorities engage warfare french forces according verdict different legend time franco turkish war ended revolt largely suppressed low level involving small persisted countryside opted continue armed struggle fleeing coastal mountains turkey december frontier area syria staged hit run attacks french forces fighters entered summer punish defected rebels residents switched allegiance august assaulted postal convoy village rebel commander fighters launched numerous attacks french including assault government building southeast near northwestern syria continued december august fighters launched attacks french forces military installments attacks coincided great syrian revolt started south country spread central northern syrian cities major engagements french tell end april major confrontation august rebel organization rebel groups collectively known individual composed rebels known led commander local notable head major clan individual began forming countryside counter french advances gradually consolidated network revolt ultimately organized principal military zones headed native particular zone zones following area headed headquarters headed headquarters headed area headed overall leader revolt regional commanders discussed major military decisions typically involving particular guerrilla campaign arms times consulted commander turkish fighting french height revolt effectively created quasi independent state mediterranean_sea rebels began captured territory rebels coordinated town municipality impose taxes landowners livestock owners farmers fund operations administrative territory expanded towns villages including district centers municipal councils towns replaced support financial needs rebels promote social convictions legislative center rebel territory legislative committee place collect money weapons local sources supreme revolutionary council oversee judicial matters volunteers rural villages formed bulk rebels fighting force course revolt village typically contained man reserve unit forces included volunteers city ottoman including fighters turkish officers served advisers rooted rural countryside drew financial support people cities rebels functioned traditional rural syrian autonomous movement wary centralized authority foreign intervention affairs sought establish close ties arab nationalist movement arab army defeat representatives arab government based cities military expertise formal military language style important rebel commanders sought soldiers spirit self image shape army according historian meetings rebel leadership host leader assumed military formation lining road host village visiting commanders rebels referred sing meaning soldiers revolt represented noble image term associated term referred military negative association conscription repression received salary depending rank officers receiving higher pay foot soldiers rebels multiple sources arms possess heavy weaponry exception artillery pieces sources weapons included turkish forces southern tribes sold smuggled rifles rebels germans distributed tribes world war weapon left ottoman troops fleeing syria british arab offensive raids french arms warehouses rebels arsenal largely consisted german rifles turkish shooters according rebels possessed light machine guns following destruction arab government july turks main arms suppliers rebels rebels distinguished turkish armed movement ottomans rebels viewed negatively stressing role turkish general viewed guerrilla leader struggle french occupation tactics rebel chief operational goals inflict damage french forces clear determination resist according rebels utilized familiar mountainous terrain operated french forces typically launched guerrilla operations night avoid detection times rebels avoid direct confrontation french forces maintained fighting order similar regular army french forces militarily french utilized large column formations rebels tactic french chief staff army levant general found generally ineffective small mobile rebel units instead believed optimal way defeat rebels recruit local militias share main strengths rebels knowledge terrain high mobility syrian french military defeat rebels small numerically entirely reliable battles fellow locals french successful large landowners cease support rebels recruit local militias protect highways rebel attacks french ultimately understood order quell revolt syria needed offer concessions establish cooperation turks financial military moral support critical rebels reached turks french large numbers troops suppress rebels syria motivations revolt subordinate officers rank file fighters muslims field commanders ibn arab field commander ban led dominated arabs localized nature revolt reflected rebels sense defending homeland community despite eventual organization revolt coordination rebel commanders major military decisions political decisions military operations local initiatives referred revolt northern revolts singular referred leadership revolt refers central command rebels revolt motivated principal factors defense homeland rebels referred defense islam face conquest enemy referred case french defense rebels traditional way life prevailing social order foreign interference early phase revolt acted representatives arab government continued claim support ousted syria july despite collapse state ostensibly fighting rebels resumed struggle memoirs stated rebels engaged individual responsibility instead duty delegated state view individual rebel required behave personal life expertise courage battlefield popular hero close people brave pious asserts religious terminology rebels rebels motivation fundamentally nationalist religion played important role nationalist feeling islamic solidarity turks prevent withdrawal turkish support revolt syria according historian keith david language ali address league nations undermine arab turkish nationalist claims revolts represented arab turkish national ali referred revolts unified national resistance movement states nation referred islamic community ethnic nationalism steadily dominated syrian turkish politics society 20th century ali stressed modernist principles individual rights according view concepts islam ottoman state mutually exclusive opposed ottoman policies pre world war period nonetheless wary formed educated ottoman middle class ali sought return ottoman dominated muslims state protect rural rebel commanders deep attachment place society viewed french rule assault status ambitions dignity legacy result revolts french authorities discovered northern syria difficult task damascus region following collapse revolt political leaders continued hope turks french northern syria unify withdrawal turkish support rebels syria following agreements france caused deterioration syrian turkish ties left rebels nationalists northern syria feeling betrayed policies syria turkey remaining syrian supporters positions closer arab nationalists years revolt elite largely embraced concept united syrian struggle independence french rule shift began process strengthening ties leaders damascus leadership revolt gained wide popularity syria referring wrote familiar children growing syria twenties stories standard fare historiography hero syrian arab nationalist movement revolt turning point relationship arab nationalist movement influence arab club leaders similar politics muslim elite gradually embraced arab nationalism later founding member national according syrian historian created defeat armed revolts 1920s national advocated diplomatic means combat french rule principal opposition movement french authorities syria independence served chief movement death september established state consisted northern half ottoman syria excluding tripoli district french authorities established new bureaucratic administration led local pro french staffed family members revolt stamped french authorities arrested exiled numerous arab nationalist politicians attempt end nationalist alliance damascus authorities began appointing ottoman administrators willing cooperate senior bureaucratic posts according bureaucracy inefficient years ottoman rule despite french attempts completely exclude nationalists administrative role overwhelming majority population supported nationalists result franco syrian war turkey annexed southwestern districts ash turkey following october treaty france opposed turkish annexation franco turkish treaty allowed resumption commerce including improved security conditions commerce largely ceased considered port mediterranean_sea crucial socio economic region remained syria french control administered semi autonomous government heavily influenced turkey merchants nationalist politicians feared autonomy ultimately lead annexation turkey consequently economic crisis separated syria turkey following year