spanish civil war spanish civil war spanish civil widely known spain simply civil war spanish civil war spanish took place fought republicans loyal democratic left leaning second spanish republic nationalists group led general francisco franco portrayed struggle democracy historians consider accurately described struggle leftist revolution ultimately nationalists won franco ruled spain years april death november war began declaration opposition group generals spanish republican armed forces originally leadership elected leftist government second spanish republic time leadership president nationalist group supported number conservative groups including spanish confederation autonomous right wing groups religious conservative catholic las fascist group killed aircraft accident attempting return exile portugal franco emerged leader nationalists coup supported military units spanish morocco units important cities madrid barcelona unable capture objectives cities remained control government spain left militarily politically divided nationalists republican government fought control country nationalist forces received munitions soldiers nazi_germany fascist italy communist soviet_union socialist mexico offered support republican loyalist countries united_kingdom france operated official policy non intervention nationalists advanced strongholds south west capturing spain northern coastline besieged madrid area south west war large parts captured war ended victory nationalists exile thousands leftist fled refugee camps southern france associated losing republicans persecuted victorious nationalists establishment dictatorship led general francisco franco aftermath war right wing parties fused structure franco regime war notable passion political division inspired atrocities organized occurred territory captured franco forces consolidate future regime significant number killings took place areas controlled republicans extent republican authorities took republican territory killings varied background 19th century turbulent time spain favour reforming spain government political power conservatives tried prevent reforms taking place liberals tradition started spanish constitution sought limit power monarchy spain establish liberal state reforms king ferdinand vii dissolved constitution ended liberal government successful carried 1850s economy spain primarily based agriculture little development industrial commercial class land based remained powerful small number people held large estates called important government positions popular uprisings led overthrow queen isabella house distinct factors led uprisings series urban riots liberal movement middle classes military led general joan concerned ultra monarchy isabella replacement king house increasing political pressure short lived spanish republic proclaimed restoration december emerged opposition monarchy spanish politician leader radical republican_party helped bring fore poverty particularly acute growing resentment conscription military culminated tragic week barcelona spain neutral world war working class industrial class military united hopes removing corrupt central government unsuccessful fears communism grew military coup brought rivera power ran spain military dictatorship support regime gradually faded resigned january replaced general admiral juan continued rule decree little support monarchy major cities king gave popular pressure establishment republic called municipal elections april socialist liberal republicans won provincial capitals resignation government king fled country second spanish republic formed remain power culmination spanish civil war revolutionary committee headed provisional government president head state republic broad support segments society incident taxi driver attacked outside club sparked anti clerical violence madrid south west spain government slow response disillusioned right reinforced view republic determined church june july del called strikes led violent incident members civil guard brutal crackdown civil guard army led workers believe spanish second republic oppressive monarchy announced intention revolution elections june returned large majority republicans onset great depression government attempted assist rural spain hour day giving land tenure farm workers remained threat helped controversial reforms military december new liberal democratic constitution declared included strong provisions enforcing broad catholic country moderate committed catholics opposed october republican prime minister minority government right won general elections largely vote increased right wing resentment incumbent government caused controversial decree implementing land reform incident formation right wing alliance spanish confederation autonomous right wing groups women newfound right vote contributed women voted centre right parties events period following november called black years civil war likely radical republican_party formed government rolled changes previous administration granted amnesty collaborators unsuccessful uprising general august joined fascist nationalist las help achieve aims open violence occurred streets spanish cities continued increase reflecting movement radical peaceful democratic means solutions months government collapses brought members government farm workers wages cut half military republican members popular alliance organized narrowly won elections led weak minority government soon replaced president april prime minister ignored warnings military conspiracy involving generals decided government replaced prevent dissolution spain military coup preparations attempt remove suspect generals posts republican government sacked franco chief staff transferred command islands removed inspector general general islands moved head army africa military commander allowed direct mainland uprising general operation helped reach agreement chief second command rivera prison mid march order restrict government actions thorough warnings director security figures acted june prime minister met general juan managed falsely convince loyalty republic began planning spring franco key player prestige director military academy man suppressed miners strike respected army africa spanish republican army toughest military force wrote cryptic letter june suggesting military restrained charge failing arrest buy franco july dragon aircraft chartered franco islands morocco arrived july july madrid members murdered police officer socialist party member lieutenant activities giving military training young leading unit violently suppressed riots funeral civil lieutenant los reyes los reyes shot april military parade commemorated years republic leader close personal friend day squad sought arrest founder murder home went house leading spanish prominent parliamentary conservative member arresting group socialist executed shooting neck hugh thomas concludes intended arrest acted initiative acknowledges sources dispute finding massive followed killing police involvement aroused suspicions strong reactions government opponents right nationalist generals advanced stages planned uprising event provided catalyst public justification coup communists led demanded arms distributed people military took prime minister hesitant beginning coup uprising timing fixed july agreed leader timing changed men spanish morocco rise july spain proper day later control spanish morocco achieved forces sent peninsula coincide rising intended swift coup état government retained control country control spanish morocco certain plan discovered morocco july prompted conspirators enact immediately little resistance encountered total rebels shot people franco immediately took control islands assigned july refused offer help general leading groups general strike effect opened weapons buried paramilitary security forces waited outcome militia action joining suppressing rebellion quick action rebels militias decide fate town general managed secure rebels arresting number officers outcome rebels failed major cities critical exception provided landing point franco african troops primarily conservative catholic areas old fell quickly taken rebels help troops army africa government retained control madrid rebels barracks fell considerable republican leader replaced ordered distribution weapons civilian population facilitated defeat army insurrection main industrial centres including madrid barcelona allowed control barcelona large general surrendered barcelona later condemned death republican government ended controlling east_coast central area madrid country north rebels termed normally translated nationalists implies true cause result coup nationalist area control containing million spain population million nationalists secured support half spain territorial army men joined army africa men little half spain police forces assault guards civil guards republicans controlled half rifles machine guns artillery pieces spanish republican army tanks sufficiently modern design nationalists took control naval capacity uneven republicans retaining numerical advantage navy commanders modern ships heavy cruisers captured shipyard nationalist hands spanish republican navy suffered problems army officers defected killed trying thirds air capability retained government republican air_force outdated combatants war cast republican struggle freedom nationalist supporters communist red versus christian civilization nationalists claimed bringing security direction country spanish politics especially left fragmented communists supported republic republic mixed opinions major groups opposed nationalists civil war conservatives contrast united opposition republican government presented unified republicans countries openly fully supported republic mexico ussr especially ussr republic received diplomatic support volunteers ability purchase weapons countries remained neutral said neutrality great source distress united_states united_kingdom lesser extent european countries worldwide distress led international brigades thousands foreigners went spain aid republic fight meant great deal morale militarily significant republic supporters spain ranged supported moderately capitalist liberal democracy revolutionary opposed republic sided coup forces base primarily secular urban included peasants particularly strong industrial regions like country faction called variously loyalists supporters republicans popular government parties los reds opponents republicans supported urban workers agricultural labourers parts middle class conservative strongly catholic country left leaning sought autonomy independence central government madrid republican government allowed possibility self government regions forces gathered people republican army popular reorganized mixed brigades october known people fought republican english novelist george wrote homage account experiences war canadian surgeon norman developed mobile blood service line operations added columns expelled fighters feared inadvertently shot nationalists nationalists called insurgents rebels opponents feared national opposed movements chiefly defined anti communism diverse opposed movements like leaders generally conservative background nationalist included spanish nationalists fascist conservatives liberals virtually nationalist groups strong catholic convictions supported native spanish clergy nationals included majority catholic clergy practitioners outside region important elements army large landowners businessmen principal motives confront anti republican regime defend catholic_church targeted opponents including republicans blamed institution country church republicans liberal principles fortified spanish constitution prior war miners strike religious buildings burnt clergy religious civilians pro catholic police killed revolutionaries franco brought mercenaries spain colonial army africa spanish reduced miners submission heavy artillery attacks bombing raids spanish legion committed atrocities men women children killed army carried summary executions repression aftermath brutal prisoners tortured articles constitution banned society jesus deeply offended conservative fold revolution republican zone outset war clergy thousands lay people killed deepened catholic support nationalists joined rebellion played significant role civil war factions nationalists left wing nationalists sided republicans conservative nationalists far vocal supporting government anti occurring areas control nationalists heralded conservative nationalist party mildly supportive republican government sided uprising reasons influencing conservative notwithstanding religious matters nationalists catholic generally sided republicans nationalist party reported passing plans defenses nationalists attempt reduce duration casualties siege foreign involvement spanish civil war exposed political divisions europe right catholics supported nationalists way stop expansion left including labor unions students intellectuals war represented necessary battle stop spread sentiment strong countries leading warnings civil war potential escalating second world war respect war indicator growing instability europe spanish civil war involved large numbers non spanish citizens participated combat advisory positions britain france led political alliance nations promised non intervention spanish civil war including arms spain united_states unofficially went germany italy soviet_union signed officially ignored attempted suppression imported materials largely ineffective france especially accused allowing large shipments republican troops clandestine actions european powers time considered world war elements world league nations reaction war influenced fear communism insufficient contain massive fighting factions arms war resources non intervention committee formed policies accomplished little ineffective support nationalists germany german involvement began days fighting broke july adolf_hitler quickly sent powerful air armored units assist nationalists war provided combat experience latest technology german military intervention posed risk escalating world war hitler ready limited aid instead encouraged send large italian units nazi_germany actions included formation legion unit composed volunteers luftwaffe german_army july march legion proved especially useful battle german efforts army africa mainland spain proved successful war early stages german operations slowly expanded include strike targets notably bombing april killed civilians germany war test new weapons luftwaffe hold secret nationalists transport bombers showed effective german involvement manifested operation boat undertaking contributions kriegsmarine legion spearheaded nationalist victories particularly aerial combat spain provided proving ground german tank tactics training german units provided nationalist forces prove valuable war end nationalist soldiers encompassing infantry artillery aerial naval forces trained german detachments total approximately german citizens fought war including approximately killed participated time german aid nationalists amounted approximately prices percent salaries expenses percent direct delivery supplies spain percent expended legion total germany provided nationalists planes tanks italy francisco franco request encouragement hitler joined war conquest second italo war italy confident power spanish ally nonetheless help secure italian control mediterranean theater operations royal italian navy italian regia marina played substantial role mediterranean blockade ultimately italy supplied machine guns artillery aircraft nationalist cause italian peak supply nationalists men italian warships took breaking republican navy blockade nationalist held spanish morocco took naval bombardment republican held barcelona total italy provided nationalists planes tanks artillery pieces machine guns rifles portugal regime portuguese prime minister played important role supplying franco forces ammunition logistical help despite direct military involvement restrained somewhat semi official endorsement authoritarian regime volunteer force called duration conflict portugal instrumental providing nationalists organizational skills neighbour franco allies interference hinder supply traffic directed nationalist cause conservative government maintained position strong neutrality supported mainstream media far left mobilized aid republic government refused allow arms shipments sent warships try stop shipments crime volunteer fight spain went intellectuals strongly favoured republicans visited spain hoping find authentic anti little impact government shake strong public mood peace labour_party split catholic element favouring nationalists officially endorsed boycott expelled faction demanded support republican cause finally voiced support loyalists romanian volunteers led deputy leader iron guard legion michael group seven visited spain december ally movement nationalists despite irish government prohibition participating war followers irish political activist irish republican army leader known irish brigade went spain fight alongside franco majority volunteers catholics according volunteered help nationalists fight communism support republicans international brigades non affiliated radical communist socialist entities joined international brigades believing spanish republic line war units represented largest foreign contingent fighting republicans roughly foreign nationals fought brigades entered conflict given time claimed represent nations significant numbers volunteers originated french republic nazi_germany federal state austria kingdom italy came soviet_union united_states united_kingdom second polish republic kingdom yugoslavia kingdom hungary canada battalion group germans battalion group italians distinguished units siege madrid americans fought units international brigade abraham_lincoln brigade canadians joined battalion fought republican including romanian communist_party members roman men ireland formed column irish folk singer moore song chinese joined brigades majority eventually returned china went prison french refugee camps handful remained spain soviet_union general secretary joseph signed non intervention agreement soviet_union league nations providing material assistance republican forces source major weapons unlike hitler tried total estimates material provided ussr republicans vary planes tanks artillery pieces created section soviet_union military head weapons shipment operation called operation despite interest aiding republicans quality arms inconsistent hand rifles field guns provided old obsolete limited use dated 1860s hand tanks modern effective combat soviet_union supplied aircraft current service forces aircraft provided germany nationalists proved superior end war process shipping arms russia spain extremely slow shipments lost arrived partially matching authorized ordered include false decks original designs ships sea soviet captains employed flags paint schemes evade detection nationalists republic paid soviet arms official bank spain gold reserves later frequent subject propaganda term moscow gold cost soviet_union arms value spain gold reserves fourth largest world estimated million prices tonnes transferred france ussr sent number military advisers spain soviet troops fewer men time soviet volunteers operated soviet tanks aircraft particularly beginning war addition soviet_union directed communist parties world organize recruit international brigades significant soviet involvement activity people internal affairs inside republican rearguard communist figures including prominently led operations included murders anti communist politician independent left wing activist shooting december french aircraft delegate international committee red_cross carried france extensive documentation led operation mexico unlike united_states major latin american governments abc nations peru mexico supported republicans mexico refused follow french british non intervention proposals aid material assistance included rifles million mexico important contributions spanish republic diplomatic help sanctuary nation arranged republican refugees including spanish intellectuals orphaned children republican families took refuge primarily mexico_city accompanied million treasures owned left france fearing spark civil war inside france leftist popular government france send direct support republicans french prime minister sympathetic republic fearing success nationalist forces spain result creation ally state nazi_germany fascist italy alliance nearly france right wing politicians opposed aid attacked government july british officials convinced send arms republicans july french government declared send military aid technology forces assist republican forces clear france reserved right provide aid wish republic delivered arms spanish government republicans legitimate government order excuse tempted send arms rebels nationalists august pro republican rally people confronted demanding send aircraft republicans time right wing politicians attacked supporting republic responsible provoking italian intervention franco germany informed french ambassador berlin germany hold france responsible supported manoeuvres moscow supporting republicans august france signed non intervention agreement government provided aircraft republicans covert means bomber aircraft nicknamed flying coffin spanish republican pilots aircraft fighter aircraft sent august december year republican forces french sent pilots engineers republicans september aircraft freely pass france spain bought countries french novelist strong supporter republican cause tried organise volunteer air_force republican practical squadron leader somewhat inefficient regular spanish air_force commander openly critical military efficiency recognized novel film version produced directed sierra great help republican cause france covert support france republicans ended december possibility french intervention nationalists remained possibility war german intelligence reported franco nationalists french military engaging open discussions intervention war french military intervention islands franco feared immediate french intervention potential nationalist victory spain french occupation islands spanish morocco generally republican oriented sympathies support france right wing sided franco notably members instrumental ships transporting guns civil relief equipment republican spain french ports course war large air nationalist troops spanish morocco organized southwest spain coup leader killed plane crash july leaving effective command split north franco south period saw worst actions called red white spain july fifth day rebellion nationalists captured central spanish naval base located rebel force colonel sent general colonel undertook campaign july september capture isolated republican provinces north september nationalists closed french border republicans battle september san home divided republican force nationalists taken nationalist soldiers nationalists advanced capital halted republican militias border end september republic proved ineffective militarily relying disorganized revolutionary militia republican government resigned september unable cope situation replaced socialist organization francisco new leadership began unify central command republican zone nationalist franco chosen chief military commander meeting ranking generals september called title franco won victory september troops relieved siege held nationalist garrison colonel beginning rebellion resisting thousands republican troops completely surrounded isolated building elements spanish legion came rescue days relieving siege franco proclaimed spanish equivalent italian german director forcibly diverse royalist elements nationalist cause diversion gave madrid time prepare defense hailed major propaganda victory personal success franco october general franco confirmed head state armies similar dramatic success nationalists occurred october troops coming relieved besieged town northern spain october troops launched major offensive madrid reaching early november launching major assault city november republican government forced shift madrid outside combat zone november nationalists attack capital repulsed fierce fighting november factor successful republican defense effectiveness fifth regiment later arrival international brigades approximate foreign volunteers participated battle having failed capital franco bombarded air following years mounted try madrid beginning year siege madrid second battle road nationalist offensive northwest pushed republican forces failed madrid battle lasted january ranks italian troops spanish colonial soldiers morocco franco attempt capture madrid january february unsuccessful battle started mid january nationalist offensive spain southeast turn disaster republicans poorly organised armed city taken franco february consolidation militias republican army started december main nationalist advance cross cut supply madrid road termed battle led heavy casualties sides operation main objective met nationalists gained modest territory similar nationalist offensive battle significant defeat franco armies proved publicised republican victory war italian troops tactics franco blamed defeat germans believed fault nationalists casualties loss valuable equipment german successfully argued nationalists needed concentrate vulnerable areas war north began mid march campaign suffered lack suitable air_force april legion bombed town killing causing significant damage destruction significant effect international opinion retreated april saw days republican groups dispute ultimately victorious government communist forces disturbance pleased nationalist command little exploit republican divisions fall republican government began fight increasing effectiveness july recapture forcing franco delay advance weeks similar republican attack offensive failed similarly franco second command killed june airplane accident early july despite earlier loss battle government launched strong counter offensive west madrid focusing battle significant defeat republic lost accomplished troops offensive led advance square kilometres left republican casualties republican offensive failure despite having land aerial advantages battle place lacking military interest resulted advance kilometres loss equipment franco invaded august took city surrender republican army territory came agreement finally fell late october offensive franco effectively won north november end franco troops closing government time barcelona battle important confrontation city belonged nationalists conquered republicans january troops launched offensive recovered city february franco forced rely heavily german italian air support march nationalists launched offensive april pushed mediterranean cutting republican held portion spain republican government attempted sue peace franco demanded surrender war july nationalist army pressed southward south coast capital republic halted heavy fighting line system fortifications defending republican government launched campaign territory battle july november franco personally took command campaign unsuccessful undermined franco british hitler munich agreement britain effectively destroyed republican morale ending hope anti fascist alliance western powers retreat determined final outcome war days new year franco threw massive forces invasion franco troops conquered campaign months fell january followed barcelona january february february united_kingdom france recognized franco regime madrid strongholds remained republican forces march republican army led colonel politician rose prime minister juan formed national defence council negotiate peace deal fled france march communist troops madrid rose starting brief civil war civil war defeated began peace negotiations nationalists franco refused accept surrender march nationalists started general offensive march nationalists occupied madrid march controlled spanish territory franco proclaimed victory radio speech aired april republican forces surrendered end war harsh franco enemies thousands republicans imprisoned executed calculations deaths range depending killings included forced labour building railways drying swamps digging canals hundreds thousands republicans fled abroad fleeing france refugees confined camps french republic camp camp republicans housed conditions capacity consul paris chilean poet politician organized immigration chile republican france ship refugees housed farmers find relations france encouraged republic agreement government return spain great majority turned authorities transferred camp according law political responsibilities proclamation marshal regime refugees political prisoners french police attempted round liberated camp undesirable people sent camp deported nazi_germany died concentration camp official end war guerrilla warfare waged irregular basis spanish 1950s gradually reduced military defeats support exhausted population group republican veterans fought french resistance nazis invaded northwest defeated days evacuation children republicans oversaw evacuation children zone starting areas evacuated destinations included united_kingdom ussr locations europe mexico children taken aging steamship spanish port initial opposition government charitable groups saw removal children native country potentially harmful arrival days later southampton children dispersed england children accommodated wales upper age limit initially set raised mid september los known found homes families repatriated spain war remained britain end second world war atrocities death totals remain debated british historian wrote history civil war franco ensuing white terror resulted deaths people red terror killed contends figures remain disputed minimum executions carried republican zone maximum executions including war nationalist spain spanish judge opened investigation executions people july december executions investigated poet body found mention death forbidden franco regime view historians including helen graham paul preston jackson hugh thomas mass executions nationalists lines organized approved nationalists rebel authorities executions republican lines result breakdown republican state anarchy killing rebel spain idea cleaning country overtaken disciplined policy new authorities programme regeneration republican spain killing consequence anarchy outcome national breakdown work state political parties cities responsible ultimately rose positions authority hugh thomas nationalists nationalist atrocities authorities frequently ordered trace spain common notion formed essential rebel strategy process began immediately area captured according historian paul preston minimum number executed rebels likely far higher historians placing figure dead violence carried rebel zone military civil guard regime acts committed groups weeks war included execution efforts second spanish republic promote displace church schools closing religious educational institutions considered nationalists attack roman_catholic_church extensive killings civilians carried cities captured nationalists execution unwanted individuals included non combatants trade popular politicians suspected nationalists republican intellectuals relatives known republicans suspected voting popular nationalist forces civilians people shot killed killed thousand landowners conservatives killed revolutionaries working class neighborhoods hit artillery right wing squads given free kill government people murdered february killed capture conquered thousands people sent prison fewer executions usual effect left nationalists internationally numbers killed columns army africa devastated way madrid particularly difficult nationalists murdered catholic particular incident following capture took hundreds people including priests served republican forces countryside murdered franco forces persecuted including murdering protestant ministers franco forces determined remove protestant spain nationalists persecuted culture according sources murdered nationalists immediately civil war nationalist conducted aerial bombing cities republican territory carried mainly luftwaffe volunteers legion italian air_force volunteers madrid barcelona cities attacked bombing controversial republicans according nationalists estimated civilians died republican held territories considered excessive half million claimed war deaths form prevailing outside opinion republic bombing republican government supporters attacked murdered roman catholic clergy reaction news military revolt book spanish archbishop time director journal wrote killed war including priests monks addition bishops figure accepted historians including sources claim conflict end percent nation clergy killed execution sacred heart jesus communist los near madrid august infamous widespread religious property republicans general control large proportion majority secular priests killed like clergy civilians executed republican territories civilians executed suspected died acts revenge republicans heard carried nationalist zone air raids committed republican cities driving factor shot republicans usually spared fake justice sought commission known russia pressure mounted increasing success nationalists civilians executed councils controlled competing communist groups members executed soviet advised communist recounted george description barcelona homage followed period increasing tension competing elements political scene individuals fled friendly house people war town suspected nationalists executed month war communist accused killing nationalists massacre near del pro soviet communists committed numerous atrocities fellow republicans including known butcher responsible deaths members international brigades leader workers party unification prominent members murdered communists help ussr thirty thousand people killed republican zone war killed madrid month coup whilst communists support killings republican appalled murders came close resigning alongside members parliament great number local officials attempted prevent nationalist supporters positions power intervened personally stop killings social revolution controlled areas addition temporary military success vast social revolution workers peasants land industry set councils parallel paralyzed republican government revolution opposed soviet supported communists surprisingly campaigned loss civil property rights war progressed government communists able exploit access soviet arms restore government control war effort diplomacy force workers party unification integrated regular army albeit resistance outlawed falsely denounced instrument days thousands communist republican soldiers fought control strategic points barcelona pre war small party members called social revolution seen spanish society transformed national following execution leader rivera republicans party size thousand members leadership suffered percent casualties early days civil war party transformed new members rising new leaders called new shirts interested revolutionary aspects national subsequently franco united fighting groups spanish national offensive spanish las las 1930s saw spain focus organizations including fellowship reconciliation war league war international people including called defiant ones argued worked non violent strategies prominent spanish supported republicans argued spanish alternative stand stand practice means including organizing agricultural workers maintain food supplies humanitarian work war refugees art propaganda course spanish civil war people world exposed effects people standard art propaganda motion pictures posters books radio programs examples media art influential war produced nationalists republicans propaganda allowed way spread awareness war world film produced famous early twentieth century authors video footage way advertise spain need military monetary aid film spanish earth premiered america july george homage personal account experiences observations war published united_kingdom leading works sculpture include spanish people path leads star constructed plaster representing struggle socialist anti war work shares title mountain near barcelona created sheet iron create peasant mother carrying small child arm alexander mercury fountain protest work american nationalist forced control mercury mines works art painted taking inspiration bombing battle like important republican featured international exhibition paris work size grabbed attention cast mounting spanish civil unrest global spotlight painting heralded anti war work symbol peace 20th century joan created formally titled peasant revolt spans feet feet depicted peasant air commented communist symbol symbol tool work freedom threatened weapon work featured international exhibition paris shipped spanish republic capital following exhibition gone missing destroyed timeline spanish civil war timeline people political parties organizations images films spain revolt documentary video stream imperial war museum collection spanish civil war posters hosted online visual arts data service posters spanish civil war collection civil war documentaries spanish civil war revolution image gallery photographs posters conflict aircraft spanish civil war battle rio photographs robert international center photography academics governments history spanish civil war government country study dutch involvement spanish civil war columbia historical review spanish civil war causes legacy bbc radio time featuring paul preston helen graham mary vincent original war reports times spain different view spanish civil war george mason university spanish civil war information educational american jews spanish civil war machine archived december martin spanish revolution articles links anarchy revolutionary institutions central committee anti fascist militias juan oliver warships spanish civil war speech famous address defense second republic new_zealand spanish civil war text translation collective letter spanish bishops pastoral letter spanish bishops justified franco uprising songs spanish civil war archives robert collection cubic feet boxes plus vertical file labor archives washington university washington libraries special collections contains materials collected spanish civil war


battle battle battle mount battle hill local operation world war divisions british second army divisions german fourth army near belgium june effort pull british resources observed build royal corps infantry division attacked arc high ground positions defended canadian corps german forces initially captured heights mount far slope ridge following number attacks divisions canadian corps supported 20th light division second army siege battery groups recaptured majority positions background located kilometres east belgium battle mount took place ridge crest line mount nearby hill hill rose approximately metres higher shallow ground occupying force excellent observation town approach routes peaks portion crest ridge remained allied hands northern france men resources preparation large british french offensive build unnoticed german supreme army command german second army holding sector north observed preparations offensive end february short resources operations germans mount local operations effort divert british resources abrupt change command lieutenant general appointed largely ceremonial post inspector general canadian forces england succeeded lieutenant general julian commander canadian corps battle german offensive inspected canadian corps positions noted canadian troops overlooked german positions constant danger enemy fire assigned 3rd canadian division commander major general draw plan overrun dangerous german positions local attack canadians began preparations assault germans process executing assault plan royal corps spent weeks planning carefully preparing attack mount hill hill peaks objective control observation positions east british units possible pinned area avoid transferring assisting observed build area germans constructed practice trenches resembling canadian positions near assault lines mid aerial reconnaissance near indicated german forces preparing attack royal flying corps observers noted existence works resembling canadian positions german lines germans observed digging new trenches implied assault intended canadian corps begun developing plans overrun dangerous german positions germans executed assault morning june german corps began massive heavy artillery bombardment canadian positions tenths canadian forward reconnaissance battalion casualties bombardment 3rd canadian division commander major general 8th canadian brigade commander brigadier general arthur victor williams conducting inspection line began wounded times died early june williams wounded face head taken prisoner german pioneers detonated mines near canadian forward trenches germans attacked battalions battalions support additional reserve german forces attacked mainly positions held 8th canadian brigade resistance lines minimal critical hours 3rd canadian division 8th canadian brigade level defence suffered accordingly brigadier general edward divisional artillery eventually assumed temporary command 3rd canadian division german forces able capture hill advancing metres corps troops dug road open german officer took initiative exceed instructions capitalize success experienced german forces failed counterattack lieutenant general assembled hastily organized counterattack early hours june owing 3rd canadian division heavy losses brigades 1st canadian division temporarily placed control brigadier general assumed control 3rd canadian division counterattack scheduled begin june distances covered incoming units difficulties communications present enemy fire time allowed assembly proved inadequate attack postponed signal attack simultaneous green rockets rockets burst resulting uneven assault unit moved start lines different times attacking battalions suffered heavy losses advanced open ground broad daylight attackers failed regain lost territory managed close metres gap line advance canadian metres positions retreated german assault british reinforcements second german attack british expeditionary force commander general douglas second army commander general believed necessary expel germans captured positions view preparations offensive wish divert forces necessary support limited number additional artillery units infantry brigade 20th light division suggested counterattack carried infantry available particularly large emphasis placed artillery additional artillery units immediately went work german consolidation support lines seeking hostile batteries germans sprung surprise canadians exploding large mines trenches 2nd canadian division covering spur eastern outskirts ruins company canadian 28th north west battalion wiped explosions canadians managed hold position prevent germans reaching support line ultimately decided leave trenches german hands concentrate regaining mount dissuade germans attacks left flank canadian corps british 2nd cavalry brigade came loan canadian corps counter attack force return original lines ordered 1st canadian division commander major general arthur organize careful attack german positions casualties suffered unsuccessful counterattack june stronger battalions composite brigades intense thirty minutes carried june effort germans expecting immediate attacks hours june german positions hill sanctuary wood shelled particular attention given canadian corps flanks machine gun fire expected following morning germans subjected additional minutes heavy artillery bombardment assaulting troops advanced generated smoke screen germans believed taken largely surprise offered little resistance canadians able approximately prisoners exception trenches germans fell original lines little hour assault june germans launched repulsed advanced trench metres canadians assaults aftermath canadian corps remained stationary aggressive status beginning september corps transferred aftermath battle wake death major general canadian corps commander julian forced address politically sensitive topic appointing new 3rd canadian division commander canadian minister militia defence sam hughes insisted son 1st canadian brigade commander brigadier general hughes given command 3rd canadian division fury minister instead promoted 2nd canadian brigade commander brigadier general louis highly regarded pre war british regular post minister protested confronted august insisting hughes simply better man post change command lieutenant general julian opportunity additional changes displeasure minister hughes delight canadian troops unreliable canadian ross rifle began replaced british lee machine gun vickers lewis machine guns commemoration canadian corps participation battle mount commemorated hill sanctuary wood memorial nearby sanctuary wood museum hill contains preserved simulated section line trenches occupied british canadians allied soldiers killed battle buried nearby sanctuary wood commonwealth war graves commission cemetery crater commonwealth war graves commission cemetery maple commonwealth war graves commission cemetery military cemetery killed battle known resting place commemorated gate belgium royal regiment canada conducts day parade open public fort york year second sunday june


operation deny flight operation deny flight north_atlantic treaty organization nato operation began april enforcement united_nations fly zone bosnia united_nations nato later expanded mission operation include providing close air support troops bosnia carrying air strikes targets bosnia nato members contributed forces operation end december nato pilots flown sorties operation played important role shaping war nato operation included combat engagement nato history february air battle april nato aircraft bombed ground targets operation near engagements helped nato adapted post cold war era operate environments major force force engagement plains central europe cooperation nato operation helped way future joint operations helped establish nato relations deny flight led conflict organizations notably significant tension arose taken hostages response nato bombing operations deny flight spanned years war played important role course conflict fly zone operations deny flight proved successful preventing significant use air power conflict additionally air strikes flown deny flight led operation deliberate force massive nato bombing campaign bosnia played key role ending war background operation sky monitor october beginning war united_nations security council passed resolution resolution prohibited unauthorized military flights following resolution nato began operation sky monitor nato forces monitored violations fly zone taking military action april nato forces documented violations fly zone response blatant violations air space resolution security council issued resolution resolution prohibited military flights resolution prohibited flights air space authorized flight coordination center resolution authorized member states necessary measures ensure compliance fly zone restrictions response resolution nato commenced operation deny flight april initially deny flight intended enforce fly zone nato members including united_states eager find ways end war improve situation civilians hoped military action taken actions aid civilians caught conflict dropping humanitarian supplies bosnia operation provide promise officials argued use military force officials eager expand air operations deny flight hoping aggressive fly zone possible air strikes end conflict quickly nato forces suffered loss second day operations french crashed adriatic_sea mechanical failure pilot ejected safely enforcement fly zone adoption operation deny flight relatively successful preventing fixed wing aircraft flying restricted air space bosnia monitoring phase operation sky monitor unauthorized fixed wing flights averaged month deny flight average conflict estimated fixed wing military aircraft bosnia yugoslav national army planes control serbs nato primarily needed prevent incursions croatia serbia violation fly zone came february jets bombed factory air_force shot jets engagement combat engagement operation deny flight significant air air combat engagement importantly incident combat engagement history nato serbs acknowledged loss fifth aircraft incident deny flight relatively successful stopping flights fixed wing aircraft nato forces found difficult stop helicopter flights presented complicated challenge sides conflict helicopters extensively non military purposes flights authorized operation rules engagement nato fighters authorized shoot helicopters committed hostile act nato fighters issued orders land exit words land aircraft leave fly zone typically helicopters complied orders landing took nato forces departed parties conflict respected ban helicopter flights evidenced responded bbc journalist question violation ban statement commander armed forces ride markings helicopters complicated matters nato pilots combatants painted helicopters look like organizations flight coordination center authorized fly restricted space example army painted red_cross logo helicopters croatian helicopters given markings similar humanitarian aid helicopters questionable identity helicopters particularly problematic black hawk incident iraq nato pilots reluctant engage potential clear identification result rules engagement difficulties aircraft identification nato forces proved unable stop unauthorized helicopter flights resulting documented total unauthorized flights conflict close air support air strikes operation deny flight began number officials lobbied large role nato air power bosnia particular bill_clinton platform campaign president united_states promised lift strike policy included use air strikes forces commencement operation deny flight officials including president clinton pushed expanded mission serbs rejected owen plan clinton officials intensified calls discussed possibility large scale strikes serbs acceptance ultimately strikes approved carried american officials open idea air power june partly response pressure united_states security council passed resolution authorized nato forces provide close air support forces request procedure request air support difficult involved dual key nato approval approval required contact united_nations headquarters new_york_city making effective coordination nearly impossible given difference time zones approval process later somewhat streamlined secretary general delegated authority authorize air strikes special representative bosnia dual key remained problem requests processed air operations center pass entire chain command approved request request nato commanders pass orders chain command coordinate forces ground difficult dual key authorization measure nato fulfill close air support mission months nonetheless nato soon began planning mission air strikes advocated united_states nato prepared use deny flight carry air strikes august plan end siege diplomatic intervention plan executed precedent established possible use air strikes february marketplace bombing nato issued ultimatum serbs withdraw heavy weapons exclusion zone face bombing serbs complied nato demands strikes carried attack april serbs forces launched attack safe area initially secretary defense william perry told reporters united_states enter war stop serbs senior officials publicly possibility air strikes days attack number soldiers injured killed fire general michael rose commander requested nato strikes mandate april response request air_force dropped bombs targets including tank command post day marine_corps aircraft additional targets area day general commander army called general rose threatened safety forces saying attack shoot aircraft guarantee safety attack headquarters making good threat april april ordered forces surround effectively taking hostage general rose told nato stop actions soldier leave alive hostages nato member states notably united_kingdom france pushed immediate end strikes fear safety personnel response british french concerns nato temporarily recalled forces april response increased attacks aircraft deployed area promised army attempted shoot nato aircraft april french jet hit ground fire conducting reconnaissance mission area jet damaged returned safely carrier april british sea carrier hms royal called forces strike tank making unsuccessful passes target sea targeted shoulder launched surface air missile subsequently shot pilot ejected safely rescued plane destroyed nato carry strikes april released hostages taken days serbs agreed broke area effort secure force serbs honor agreements nato issued ultimatum forces cease attacks withdraw forces face additional air strikes april serbs complied ultimatum requiring withdrawal heavy weapons kilometers zone forces zone compliance nato ceased operations february air strikes originally threatened nato created heavy weapons exclusion zone collected weapons number sites august seized weapons weapons collection site clear violation exclusion zone agreement seizure forces injured ukrainian response attack requested nato air support aircraft repeatedly targets serbs returned seized weapons collection site september requested nato air support area forces attacked french armored personnel carrier response british jaguar aircraft struck near tank destroying incident february nato airborne early warning aircraft flying hungary area south flying base bombing military factory blatant violation non fly zone aircraft shot crashed trying escape low level flight marked combat mission nato history attack bombing hostages october november siege muslim federation launched large offensive town far northwestern bosnia serbs soon launched counterattack support operations launched air strikes aircraft based military airport south located republic serbian aircraft dropped cluster bombs ordnance came old unreliable stocks failed explode attacks clear violation fly zone challenge nato nato immediately looked ways respond forces permitted carry operations croatian proximity border aircraft attack bosnia cross croatia intercepted nato powerless stop incursions recognition situation security council passed resolution allowed nato aircraft operate croatia november nato acted new authority strike airfield strike involved aircraft largest combat operation nato history time nonetheless criticized little real damage capabilities temporarily nato forces deliberately attacking planes airfield targeted anti air capabilities following strike nato continued launch strikes area november nato reconnaissance plane illuminated radar surface air missile sam system nato planes attacked sam sites harm anti radiation missiles serbs reacted strikes immediately seizing hostages total early december hostages treated fairly human shields including forced lie strikes forces continued target nato aircraft surface air missiles advancing november forces fired radar guided missiles british tornado aircraft day forces fired nato response growing sam threat hostages nato suspended flights december shortly suspension nato flights president jimmy carter personally negotiated month bosnia violations parties conflict nato ordered planes air diminished hostilities engage significant operations months reduced tensions resulting carter cessation nato air operations led release hostages weeks expansion air campaign ended peacefully carter nato continued planning new operations nato officials believed expired march fighting resume planners balkans combined air operations center began drawing plans new air operations late december planners developed plan called dead eye designed eliminate sam capabilities nato regain air superiority months planning dead eye gradually evolved plan operation deliberate force massive bombing targets eventually executed august september bombing pale hostage crisis nato planning new strategy expired predicted fighting resumed fighting gradually widened muslim forces launched large scale offensive area response attack serbs seized heavy weapons guarded depot began targets retaliation actions commander general smith requested nato air strikes nato honored request bombing ammunition dump pale mission carried spanish air_force armed laser guided bombs serbs seized hostages human shields variety targets bosnia forcing nato end strikes facing second hostage crisis general smith commanders began shifting strategies began forces locations harder attack hostage importantly rose established rapid reaction force heavily armed unit aggressive rules engagement designed offensive action necessary prevent hostage taking enforce peace agreements downing scott seizure hostages nato carry air strikes continue regular air patrol operations support fly zone june captain scott united_states_air_force sent routine fly zone patrol patrol shot surface air missile system near ejected safely found trapped controlled territory according officials deliberately targeted serbs american hostage shot tensions increased greatly nato serbs number commanders called immediate air strikes serbs held majority hostages seized bombing pale threat hostages prevented nato acting serbs released hostages immediately incident effort cool tensions nonetheless situation remained explosive days rescued june 3rd battalion 8th marines 2nd marine division ending calls immediate offensive action shortly serbs released remaining hostages result incident nato ordered sorties accompanied aircraft designed suppression enemy air defenses august predator shot fire area lost mechanical failure august response month incident july launched offensive area dutch area considered calling nato air strikes response attack decided serbs heavy weapons fear hostage crisis july fighting intensified dutch troops finally requested close air support nato communication problems dual key system request authorized day july nato prepared large scale mission involving aircraft wave assault dutch bombed tanks outskirts town dispatched attack artillery piece failed find target soon troops seized dutch hostages threatened kill nato attacks dutch commander reported government dutch defense minister immediately nato operations center ordered end attacks end day fallen forces began brutal campaign ethnic left roughly men dead wake tragedy observers blamed nato failing use david journalist later wrote nato close air support earlier missing alive today feeling nato prevented thousands deaths acting strongly led increased planning operation deliberate force london conference events sixteen nations met london conference began july consider new options bosnia result conference secretary general gave general bernard military commander authority request nato consulting civilian officials north_atlantic council nato political body agreed use nato air strikes response attacks safe areas bosnia participants conference agreed principle use large scale nato air strikes response future acts aggression operation deliberate force august mortar shell slammed marketplace killing people united_states subsequently blamed forces attack admiral smith nato commander recommended nato launch air strikes serbs plan established operation deliberate force august nato officially launched operation deliberate force large scale bombing targets bombing superseded operation deny flight role air strikes close air support deny flight remained active operation enforcing fly zone bosnia september operation deliberate force ended role played deny flight minimal suspension operation deliberate force operations carried deny flight october deny flight aircraft fired harm missiles targeted surface air missiles october requested close air support near bad weather conditions nato aircraft unable locate targets october final combat engagement deny flight nato aircraft returned destroyed command control bunker termination deny flight adoption peace agreement bosnia deny flight mission longer necessary december united_nations security council officially terminated resolutions authorized operation december north_atlantic council agreed terminate operation deny flight effective december december nato held formal closure ceremony deny flight forces assigned deny flight transferred operation decisive endeavor provide support new bosnia structure forces course operation deny flight directed allied forces southern europe naples command commander chief allied forces southern europe beginning operation admiral served commanding officer replaced admiral smith smith delegated day day authority allied air forces southern europe commanded lieutenant general joseph michael ryan maintained day day command mission operational control delegated commander nato 5th allied tactical air_force initially later italian air_force chain command coordinate activities nato established combined air operations center italy assumed practical day day control deny flight reported commander squadron participating operation sent liaison officer ensure coordination initial director james chambers air_force november major general replaced practice tactical level decisions deny flight director authority order nato pilots engage fly zone nato countries provided forces operation deny flight belgium canada denmark france germany italy netherlands norway spain turkey united_kingdom united_states states contributed total personnel based air bases countries france germany greece italy united_kingdom aircraft carriers region participating countries contributed total aircraft operation nearly half came united_states united_states navy marine_corps provided support operation flew air defense sorties flown deny flight american aircraft provided majority conflict bombs dropped nato forces came american aircraft impact legacy operation deny flight lasted days included sorties carried personnel nato countries included combat engagement nato history incident nato area operations deny flight represented act symbolic terms alliance assumed combat mission capacity area symbolic effect deny flight important consequences nato military policy international relations war bosnia effect military policy major combat tests nato deny flight provided important military lessons importantly deny flight helped prove effectiveness drive development technologies example operation proven highly platform united_states marine_corps deny flight important precision guided munitions nearly munitions dropped nato conflict precision guided versus gulf war royal_navy deny flight led evaluation sea number upgrades particular royal_navy added laser guided bomb giving precision capability upgraded electronics aboard aircraft response combat bosnia lessons bosnia led royal_air_force deploy aboard royal_navy carriers future operations order deliver offensive force projection capability nato aircraft shot operation deny flight forced nato members consider new defensive measures aircraft including increased stealth capabilities deny flight demonstrated necessity better communications integration forces operating led calls technical training personnel work nato military systems finally rules engagement established deny flight played important role shaping rules engagement later nato operations war including operation joint endeavor nato operations afghanistan effect atlantic relationship operation deny flight nato operations war resulted significant tension nato atlantic relationship deny flight early operations forced allies consider question nato military responsibility territory outside traditional defense perimeter deeply divided disagreements united_states european allies use air power alliance diplomacy problematic period problems relationship result concerns european nations forces ground taken hostage fact united_states pushed air strikes placing forces ground bosnia greatly exacerbated problem deny flight helped set path future nato relations operation nato felt frustration having wings parallel authority united_nations officials worried effect nato air strikes perceived neutrality united_nations frustration dual key procedure authorization nato action led nato officers reject arrangement future admiral smith commander nato forces deny flight expressed sentiment saying don dual key difficulties negotiating nato relationship deny flight major factor decision place later nato forces balkans sole control nato chain command effects nato relations negative deny flight positive implications operation nato exchanged liaison officers time respective histories establishing precedent military cooperation communication coordination failures deny flight desire mutual understanding common solutions organizations desire cooperation crucial establishment later nato cooperation bosnia effect war deny flight played significant role shaping war bosnia exact impact debated richard american special envoy bosnia recognized operation deliberate force historic development post cold war relations crucial element ending war bosnia actual impact deny flight course conflict muted air strikes deny flight scale deliberate force significantly change balance power notably deny flight successful serbs advantage fixed wing air power deny flight paved way operation deliberate force according robert hunter ambassador nato deny flight crucial process building consensus support increasingly robust use bosnia eventually culminated operation deliberate force material impact deny flight minimal significant political impact beginning according michael operation implied objective demonstrate nato determination stabilize situation bosnia peaceful settlement achieved given violations deny flight helicopters frequent failure coordination nato uncertain deny flight accomplished mission nonetheless nato limited air strikes deny flight demonstrated determination protect united_nations personnel civilians according michael gordon chief military correspondent new_york_times determination eventually held key peace books michael bombs bosnia role bosnia air_force base montgomery air university press boot max war new new_york books isbn mark responsibility command air_force base air university press isbn paul war bosnia isbn davis bradley planning background deliberate force air_force base air university press isbn foster edward nato military age crisis management london royal united services institute defence studies isbn richard end war new_york modern library isbn moore nato new mission security international isbn national defense university april allied command structures new nato national defense university press isbn tim conflict balkans london publishing isbn david safe area europe worst massacre second world war london pocket books isbn articles nato balkan paper international institute strategic studies isbn leader carter promises peace moves december roger november nato expanding bosnia role strikes serbian base croatia new_york_times roger december serbs release canadians renew attack new_york_times retrieved deny flight offensive jane defence weekly june joint muscle mixed air groups aboard carriers jane navy international december gordon michael april conflict balkans nato modest air operation bosnia crosses major political frontier new_york_times retrieved gordon michael april green light attacks clinton says new_york_times retrieved gordon michael march conflict balkans nato craft attacking bosnia new_york_times retrieved dick nato yugoslavia world quarterly owen robert summer balkans air campaign study journal raf add teeth carriers jane defense weekly june personal war bbc world service july retrieved william november essay biting bosnia bullet new_york_times retrieved roger august kills dozens urges nato strike serbs new_york_times retrieved dean air operations bosnia united_states naval institute proceedings slick anthony working swing role 21st century marine_corps gazette mike october lessons combined rules engagement united_states naval institute proceedings barbara august deny flight forces bosnia strikes jane defence weekly barbara january jane interview jane defence weekly november cluster bombs dropped town new_york_times retrieved williams daniel ann december carter bosnia peace initiative washington_post autumn institutional assets nato cold war international organization subscription required viewing web resources operation deny flight fact sheets nato regional headquarters allied forces southern europe retrieved resolution united_nations security council resolutions security council retrieved


raid raid british attack dutch port later renamed java dutch_east_indies december napoleonic wars raid final action series engagements fought british squadron based indian_ocean dutch naval forces java completed destruction dutch squadron ships line dutch warships region british squadron command rear admiral sir edward sought eliminate dutch effort safeguard trade route china ran straits range dutch raiders operating principal port summer british frigates waters captured dutch frigates encouraging lead major attack destroyed dutch frigate smaller warships prior raid dutch rear admiral ordered ships line sail eastwards took shelter near morning december second raiding squadron appeared demanded dutch squadron harbour surrender dutch commander captain refused seized boat party carried message responded advancing river exchanging fire dutch gun battery island point governor overruled captain released seized boat party agreed surrender ships anchor harbour time reached anchorage scuttled ships shallow water able set wreckage fire landing shore parties british destroyed military supplies town demolished battery destruction force dutch naval forces pacific eliminated british forces returned region large scale expeditionary force successfully invaded captured java temporary removing dutch colony east africa background start napoleonic wars powerful french squadron operating harbour dutch island colony java attacked large valuable british merchant convoy sailing china near straits battle french attack failure threat posed british trade passing french dutch warships clearly demonstrated determined eliminate threat commander royal_navy forces indian_ocean rear admiral sir edward ordered frigates dutch naval activity east indies summer dutch maintained small squadron region rear admiral principally intended operate pirates consisting gun ships line frigates number smaller vessels despite obsolete nature ships constituted threat british trade frigates raided dutch merchant shipping extensively patrols action july dutch convoy sailing southern coast attacked defeated reconnaissance frigates hms captured ships dutch frigate large merchant vessels months later frigate hms caroline entered harbour seizing dutch frigate maria action october successes encouraged conduct larger scale operation launching major raid harbour november large squadron sailed bay surviving dutch ships driven shore avoid capture boarding parties admiral son captain completing destruction setting fire number vessels including dutch ships line escaped raid sought divide forces shortly attack consequently sent number vessels eastwards coast american born dutch officer named captain force eventually sheltered protected anchorage town near nmi west squadron rapidly deteriorated ship line broken sheer hulk disarmed cannon transferred batteries shore admiral unable return java early ships dispersed separate operations indian_ocean deploying far west red_sea summer responsibility blockade french island bases isle france mauritius passed rear admiral cape good hope free concentrate remainder dutch squadron absence main force admiral sent frigates waters caroline captain peter hms son captain ships rapidly established location state dutch ships line separated raid dutch merchant shipping having considerable success august captain destroyed dutch vessels captured including dutch gun corvette british renamed news dutch whereabouts reached admiral immediately assembled force nearby warships including flagship hms commander george bell ship line hms powerful note frigates caroline commander henry hart hms fox captain small vessels hms victor lieutenant thomas hms lieutenant richard hms lieutenant william owen hms lieutenant thomas squadron accompanied transport worcester carried men 30th regiment foot lieutenant colonel landing operations required sailing november squadron passed coast days reaching point december sending boat flag truce instructions dutch commander surrender ships captain refused ordered boat party arrested sent dutch officer aboard inform actions response determined attack port ordered powerful removal unnecessary stores enable sail shallow straits december british squadron moved steadily coming fire heated battery cannon situated island returning fire squadron rapidly battery loss significant damage ships squadron approached message civilian governor reached reversing orders releasing captured boat party surrendering ships harbour december agreed formal terms surrender dutch east anchored british boats entered harbour discovered issued orders ships scuttled protruding shallow water unable remove ships ordered remains burnt british landing parties spread town burning military stores destroying cannon removed ship landing party took possession remains battery demolished british operations complete december ordered squadron withdraw return india aftermath final operation java campaign completed minimal casualties saw dutch naval presence east indies remainder war dutch removed british attention turned french indian_ocean islands blockaded captured mauritius campaign mauritius captured british forces returned east indies expeditionary forces overwhelming dutch defenders islands java falling time serving mediterranean british control indian_ocean assured british remaining possession east indies returned netherlands following capture napoleon anglo dutch treaty signed convention london east indies handed final defeat battle


operation operation landing british airborne troops second world war near syracuse sicily began july operation allied invasion sicily allied mission large numbers aircraft operation carried tunisia infantry british 1st brigade commanded brigadier philip force objective establish large invasion force ground near town syracuse secure bridge ultimately control city strategically vital docks prelude scale invasion sicily route sicily released early american british aircraft crashed sea drowning approximately men remainder eighty seven men arrived bridge successfully captured bridge held time relieved finally ammunition expended soldiers remaining allied troops surrendered italian forces italians having gained control bridge sought destroy structure frustrated 1st brigade removed previously attached explosive charges troops brigade landed sicily aided destroying communications links capturing gun batteries background december allied forces advancing tunisia north african campaign coming close victory imminent discussions began allies nature objective americans argued immediate invasion northern france british general dwight david argued island best subsequent target allied troops january british prime minister winston_churchill president franklin roosevelt settled conference island sicily invasion occupation potentially provide allies mediterranean shipping routes airfields nearer mainland italy germany operation decided allied invasion sicily planning began february initially british eighth army command general bernard law montgomery land south eastern corner island advance north port syracuse days later seventh army commanded lieutenant general george land western corner island port march decided airborne division major general matthew bunker british 1st airborne division major general george frederick dropped parachute prior amphibious landings land miles beaches defenders aiding landing allied ground forces early radically changed insistence general montgomery argued allied forces landing separately end island defending axis forces opportunity defeat allied army turn unite instead plans altered land eighth seventh armies simultaneously miles stretch coastline sicily south eastern corner time plans airborne divisions adjusted montgomery believed airborne troops landed near syracuse seize valuable port commander airborne artillery brigadier general taylor asserted dropping island beaches overcoming defences suitable mission airborne troops lightly armed vulnerable friendly fire planned allied naval bombardment revised blueprint airborne divisions reinforced regimental combat team parachute infantry regiment colonel james airborne division dropped parachute north east port block movement axis reserves allied british 1st airborne division conduct brigade size airborne operations road bridge south syracuse captured 1st brigade brigadier philip port seized brigadier 2nd parachute brigade finally bridge river taken secured brigadier 1st parachute brigade planning insufficient transport aircraft brigades conduct operations simultaneously decided operation objective capture bridge mission command brigadier philip conducted prior amphibious landings night july remaining operations took place successive nights 1st brigade given additional tasks capturing syracuse harbour urban area destroying coastal artillery battery range amphibious landings training began operation difficulties immediately arose original plan airborne operations called employ montgomery altered plan determining airborne troops considerable distance allied ground forces believed force sent capture syracuse served best order provide maximum possible firepower airborne advisor group captain cooper royal_air_force argued landing conducted night inexperienced practical decision left unchanged montgomery orders raised issues transport aircraft troop carrier wings assigned airborne operations arrived north_africa decided 52nd troop carrier wing operate 1st airborne division counterpart 51st airborne division weeks later arrangement switched 52nd operating airborne division 51st 1st airborne division logical decision wing operational experience division paired decision turn syracuse assault based problematic 51st practically experience whilst 52nd training parachute based mission switch impractical led number problems left 1st airborne division 1st brigade inexperienced troop carrier wing problems problems encountered operation pilots months prior operation notable shortage north_africa late march small number arrived gold coast pilots sent ferry north_africa found poor condition neglect effects tropical weather pilots able assemble small number fly april april larger number american began arrive north african ports immediately available use holding instructions found missing men assigned assemble inexperienced decision conduct borne assault 1st brigade assembly improved june delivered troop carrier wings small number transported north_africa use brigade thirty took england undertook trip approximately miles operation turkey attacks luftwaffe fighter patrols experiencing turbulent weather total delivered north_africa time operation sufficient arrived north_africa usable training june grounded repairs june large numbers developed weaknesses tail necessitating grounding period days given problems delays 51st troop carrier wing able conduct large scale exercise mid june june flown miles released land airfield larger exercise conducted june limited exercises unrealistic conducted broad daylight british pilots caused difficulties sufficient number conduct operation highly inexperienced detached pilot regiment operation experience night operations involving british doctrine deemed operations impossible average pilots hours flight experience rated operationally ready combat experience colonel george commander pilot regiment protested participation believed entirely unfit operation training period brigade ended total exercises completed pilots average hours training flying unfamiliar included average hours night flying 1st brigade units 1st brigade 1st battalion border regiment 2nd battalion south regiment field ambulance 9th field company royal engineers tasked securing bridge area south borders capture syracuse mission 1st brigade allocated shortage space accommodate troops half brigade deployed carrying companies scheduled land bridge july coup main operation remainder brigade arrive july number landing zones miles away converge bridge reinforce defence italian forces bridge immediately outside area defended italian coastal division oppose british landing fortress commander rear admiral colonel mario command army contingent syracuse naval fortress area included coastal division protected medium heavy coastal artillery batteries additional dual purpose coastal anti aircraft batteries batteries anti aircraft guns finally fortress contained armoured train guns army contingent coastal defence regiment included battalions naval air_force battalions available infantry division position send reinforcements required mission july contingent british troops seven anti tank guns mortars boarded tunisia took bound sicily hours preceded landing boeing vickers wellington equipped radar devices flew forth coast sector group carried bombing port airport syracuse causing number civilian military casualties including commander italian naval base commander dressed uniforms launched north landing area order italian defense route encountered strong winds poor visibility times subjected anti aircraft fire avoid gunfire pilots aircraft climbed higher took action confusion surrounding manoeuvres released early crashed sea drowning men remainder landed right place landed miles away remainder shot failed release returned tunisia american having mistakenly area assigned eighth army captured italian coastal regiment coastal division early hours july platoon infantry landed near bridge commander lieutenant divided men groups swam river took position opposite bank bridge captured following simultaneous assault sides italian defenders coastal infantry regiment abandoned north bank british platoon dismantled demolition charges fitted bridge dug wait reinforcement relief landed roughly yards bridge exploded landing killing board carrying coup main party landed miles bridge occupants eventually finding way site reinforcements began arrive bridge numbered eighty seven men men landed cape captured radio station based warning imminent landings transmitted station previous occupants local italian commander ordered counter attack troops failed receive message scattered nature landings worked allies favour able cut telephone wires immediate area carrying brigade deputy commander colonel jones landed italian coastal artillery battery daylight staff officers radio operators attacked destroyed battery guns ammunition dump isolated groups allied soldiers tried aid comrades assaulting italian defences targeting reinforcements attack group italian coastal batteries failed batteries able open fire allied landing craft troops july 1st battalion italian 75th infantry regiment division captured american syracuse road group attacked italian patrol led major commander artillery group killed unit fell disarray unable intervene later fight british tanks near bridge counterattack bridge companies italian sailors repulsed british italians responded allied landings gathered troops brought artillery mortars bombard allied controlled bridge british defenders came attack italians expected british 5th infantry division relief appear planned italian coastal battalion arrived bridge followed soon afterward 1st battalion 75th infantry regiment italians positioned attack bridge sides british troops defending bridge killed wounded officers soldiers ammunition consumed british stopped fighting men south bridge escaped countryside rest prisoners war bridge italian hands unit 5th infantry division 2nd battalion royal scots 17th infantry brigade arrived bridge mounted successful counter attack possible prior removal demolition charges bridge preventing destruction italians 1st battalion 75th infantry regiment having artillery unable oppose british tanks retreat suffering heavy losses survivors 1st brigade took fighting withdrawn north_africa july landings losses 1st brigade severe british units involved casualties amounted killed missing wounded fourteen accompanying pilots killed eighty seven missing wounded aftermath problems airborne missions sicily british_army royal_air_force submitted recommendations aftermath operation trained parachute operations landed main force set landing plan simplified complete brigades landing drop zone instead smaller battalion landing areas sicily longer released night water landing zones large accommodate aircraft room spare following friendly fire incident allied convoy training given ship crews aircraft recognition allied aircraft painted large white stripes training pilots pilot regiment increased improvements implemented including better inter aircraft communication provide method delivering artillery air royal_air_force started experimenting use drop combat guns carried aircraft bomb bays second royal_air_force transport group formed equipped solely instead mixture aircraft group royal_air_force groups capable supplying eighty eighty thirty total planes include aircraft held reserves


battle battle result austro hungarian raid barrage allied naval blockade battle took place largest surface action adriatic_sea world war barrage fixed barrier composed lightly armed anti submarine nets coupled minefields supported allied naval patrols austro hungarian navy planned raid barrage force light cruisers destroyers command commander later admiral attempt break barrier allow boats access mediterranean allied shipping allied force composed ships navies responded raid ensuing battle heavily damaged austro hungarian cruiser sms rapid approach austro hungarian relief force persuaded rear admiral allied commander retreat disposition forces command austro hungarian cruisers modified resemble large british destroyers attack night attempt destroy possible destroyers mount raid coast order confuse allied counter attack austro hungarian boats german boat participate operation supporting force composed armored cruiser destroyers number torpedo boats standby raiders ran trouble old pre dreadnought battleship screen torpedo boats available necessary allied destroyer patrol area night north barrage italian flotilla leader accompanied french destroyers commandant italian destroyer area escorting small convoy support force based port consisting british cruisers bristol french italian destroyers raid italian convoy escorted attacked austro hungarian destroyers approximately austro hungarians sank munitions ship second set fire abandoned cruisers able pass line began attacking small barrage ships austro hungarians frequently gave crews warning abandon ship opening fire instances crews chose fight lee returned fire hungarian ships ship heavily damaged remained afloat captain joseph later awarded victoria_cross actions battle barrage night austro hungarians managed sink damage lack sufficient allied escorts forced withdrawal remaining blockading ships short time battle time allied naval forces area aware raid position block austro hungarian retreat rear admiral commanding officer italian scouting division ordered group southward embarked british light cruiser hms cruisers bristol italian destroyers sailing north attempt cut austro hungarian cruisers italian light cruiser flotilla leader destroyers sail support group engaged austro hungarian cruisers heavily instead attempted shadow fleeing cruisers rear admiral ships encountered destroyers minutes italian destroyers able close distance austro hungarian ships groups engaged short artillery duel shot struck disabled ship boilers time austro hungarian destroyers cover coastal batteries able good escape bristol spotted smoke austro hungarian cruisers south position allied ships turned engage austro hungarian ships british ships superiority numbers firepower armed guns bristol inch compared guns austro hungarian ships unfortunately allies numerical superiority quickly lost destroyers occupied mechanical problems protecting destroyers suffering support forces sides group austro hungarians group allies quickly dispatched battle faster bristol closed effective engagement range austro hungarian ships opened fire shell struck point austro hungarian ships laid smoke screen order close distance struck times ordered ship reduce speed allow bristol catch hit times main feed pumps starboard auxiliary steam pipe damaged caused ship begin losing speed turned away attempt separate point approaching scene prompted temporarily withdraw consolidate forces break action time austro hungarians save crippled took ship tow covered unaware disabled fearing ships drawn close austrian naval base broke pursuit destroyer signal attempted launch torpedo attack driven combined fire realized dire situation time group close group reached scene entire group returned submarine torpedoed causing damage escorting destroyers forced area abandoned period time towed port french destroyer attempted pursue german submarine struck laid morning sank rapidly aftermath result raid decided british naval command sufficient destroyers available protect barrage withdrawn night operating hours day leave positions day despite damage received austro hungarian cruisers pursuit bristol austro hungarian forces inflicted casualties allied blockade addition sunk damaged cruiser nearly sunk german submarine french destroyer mined sunk munitions convoy strategic sense battle little impact war barrage particularly effective preventing boat operations germany austria-hungary place cover approximately apiece slightly covered raid advanced units austro hungarian fleet operation offered minimal strategic returns