spanish american wars independence spanish american wars independence numerous wars spanish rule spanish america took place early 19th century french invasion spain europe napoleonic wars conflicts started short lived governing established opposing composition supreme central central fell french invasion numerous new appeared spanish domains americas conflicts colonies spain eventually resulted chain newly independent countries stretching argentina chile south mexico north 19th century cuba puerto_rico remained spanish rule spanish american war new beginning abolished system nobility slavery ended new nations quarter century spanish descent born new world mixed indian spanish blood replaced spanish born political offices remained social structure retained traditional features culturally legally century conservatives liberals fought reverse social political changes rebellions conflicts fought irregular warfare conventional warfare wars national liberation civil wars hand goal group independence spanish colonies majority combatants sides spanish americans indigenous people armies originated spanish colonial troops americas spanish americans believed independence necessary initially supported creation new governments saw mean preserve region autonomy french course decade political instability spain restoration ferdinand vii convinced spanish americans need formally establish independence mother country events spanish america related wars independence haiti brazil brazil independence particular shared common starting point spanish america conflicts triggered napoleon invasion peninsula forced portuguese royal family brazil process latin american independence took place general political intellectual climate emerged age enlightenment influenced atlantic revolutions including earlier revolutions united_states france direct cause spanish american wars independence unique developments occurring kingdom spain monarchy period historical background factors set stage wars independence reforms mid eighteenth century introduced changes relationship spanish americans crown effort better control administration economy overseas possessions crown reintroduced practice appointing outsiders royal offices empire meant spanish americans lost gains holding local offices result sale offices previous century half areas cuba new spain reforms positive effects improving local economy efficiency government areas changes crown economic administrative policies led tensions locals times erupted open revolts revolt new rebellion peru eighteenth century developments loss high offices revolts direct causes wars independence took place decades later important elements political background wars took place factors included enlightenment thinking examples atlantic revolutions enlightenment spurred desire social economic reform spread latin_america peninsula ideas free trade economics raised enlightenment spain political reforms implemented written spain spanish world wars independence influenced factors creation new governments spain americas collapse dynasty war trigger wars independence war began extended period instability world wide spanish monarchy lasted napoleon removal dynasty spanish throne precipitated political crisis spanish world uniformly rejected napoleon plan crown brother joseph clear solution lack king following traditional spanish political theories contractual nature monarchy philosophy law francisco provinces responded crisis establishing led confusion central authority recognize claim represent monarchy particular claimed authority overseas empire province historic role exclusive empire rebellion spanish rule resolved negotiations council led creation supreme central governmental spain indies september agreed traditional kingdoms peninsula send representatives central overseas kingdoms send representative kingdoms defined new spain peru new buenos_aires independent general island cuba puerto_rico guatemala chile province venezuela philippines scheme criticized providing unequal representation overseas territories end early provincial capitals elected candidates names capitals general important large cities left direct representation supreme particular saw capitals kingdoms resented larger kingdom peru unrest led establishment cities eventually authorities year unsuccessful attempt establishing new spain stopped order establish legitimate government supreme called extraordinary general spanish nation election scheme based provinces kingdoms provided time determine considered overseas province dissolution supreme january suffered battle spanish forces paid spanish american money set wave established americas french forces taken southern spain forced supreme seek refuge island city replaced smaller man council council regency spain indies spanish americans saw reason recognize government threat captured french moment began work creation local preserve region independence french movements successful new colombia venezuela chile argentina successful movements occurred central_america ultimately central_america new spain ecuador peru upper peru caribbean philippine islands remained control decade participated spanish effort establish liberal government spanish monarchy wars disputed sovereignty creation spanish america april set stage fighting region decade half political fault lines appeared causes military conflict hand challenged authority royal officials recognized regency hand royal officials spanish americans desired empire split liberals supported efforts conservatives called historiography want innovations government finally claimed carry actions deposed king ferdinand vii creation provided opportunity people favored outright independence publicly safely promote agenda proponents independence called patriots term eventually generally applied idea independence initial concern evidenced fact areas declared independence years venezuela new year historians explain reluctance declare independence mask ferdinand vii patriot leaders felt needed claim loyalty deposed monarch order prepare masses radical change independence eventually areas chile maintained facto independence authorities declare independence years later respectively overall despite achieving formal facto independence regions spanish america marked nearly continuous civil wars lasted 1820s mexico movement stopped early stages coalition merchants government officials efforts establish government independent regency french took form popular rebellion leadership captured executed resistance movement continued declared independence spain central_america attempts establishing resulted significantly violence caribbean islands like philippines world relatively peaceful plots set denounced authorities early stop gained widespread support social tensions underlying social tensions great impact nature fighting rural areas pitted urban centers grievances authorities found outlet political conflict case peasant revolt fueled discontent years bad events war originally circle liberal sought establish conspiracy discovered turned rural people mexican build army interests soon overshadowed urban intellectuals similar tension existed venezuela spanish immigrant able form nearly invincible informal royalist army mixed race plains people seeking destroy white class followers disregarded command spanish officials concerned actually toppled royal government choosing instead real power finally upper peru kept idea independence alive members rural society native groups able major population centers period witnessed increasingly violent confrontations spanish americans tension related class issues patriot leaders create new sense nationalism rid country term forces hundreds taken refuge venezuela admirable campaign instituted policy war death royalist spanish americans purposely spared neutral killed order drive wedge groups policy laid ground violent royalist reaction patriotism simply provided banner organize political causes discarded quickly picked switched patriot banner urban centers royalist royal army mexico ultimately brought nation independence regional rivalry regional rivalry played important role wars disappearance central imperial authority cases local authority cases new initiated prolonged period regions spanish america clear political units replace empire new national identities replace traditional sense original appealed sense spanish french threat second general american identity peninsula lost french sense belonging local province spanish sought maintain province independence capital general peninsula armed conflicts broke provinces question provinces subordinate crown phenomenon particularly evident new rivalry leads regions adopt opposite political cause chosen rivals peru remained strongly royalist large rivalry lost control upper peru later elevated creation allowed peru regain formal control upper peru duration wars king war independence general outlines areas controlled pro independence forces established general stalemate set war areas controlled main population centers fighting seeking independence isolated guerrilla bands new spain main guerrilla groups led victoria guerrero northern south_america new patriots leaders francisco carried campaigns vast river basin caribbean coast material aid coming haiti mentioned upper peru guerrilla bands controlled isolated rural parts country restoration ferdinand vii march following collapse french empire ferdinand vii restored spanish throne important change political legal changes sides atlantic spain americas new legal codes entering spanish territory ferdinand loose promises uphold spanish constitution spain realized significant support conservatives general population hierarchy spanish catholic_church constitution ordered arrest liberal leaders ferdinand justified actions stating constitution changes assembled absence consent restored legal codes political institutions promised new traditional form separate chambers clergy nobility promise fulfilled news events arrived spanish america weeks months depending time took goods people travel spain ferdinand actions constituted definitive facto break autonomous governments declared formal independence effort spanish liberals create representative government fully include overseas possessions government seen alternative independence new spain central_america caribbean peru upper peru chile news restoration initiate new wave happened notable exception establishment demanding implementation spanish constitution instead spanish americans decided wait come restoration fact areas new spain central_america governors found leave elected constitutional place years order prevent conflict local society liberals sides atlantic continued bring constitutional monarchy ultimately succeeding dramatic example collaboration francisco expedition texas northern mexico spanish americans royalist areas committed independence joined guerrilla movements ferdinand actions set areas outside control crown path independence governments regions origins entertained reconciliation crown saw need separate spain protect reforms enacted royalist military period royalist forces advances new controlled chile controlled royalist areas northeast south provinces new maintained independence spain unlike neighboring venezuela pro independence forces exchanged control region times venezuela retake new spain organized largest armed force sent new world consisting troops nearly ships spanish new force crucial pro independence region like new soldiers eventually spread venezuela new peru lost tropical diseases impact war importantly majority royalist forces composed soldiers sent peninsula spanish americans overall europeans formed tenth royalist armies spanish america half expeditionary units deployed americas european soldier casualty replaced spanish american soldier time spanish american soldiers expeditionary units example commander chief expeditionary force sent south_america reported european soldiers command words half soldiers expeditionary force european estimated battle quarter royalist forces european soldiers battle fifth battle european american militias reflected racial local population example royalist army venezuela white indigenous soldiers patriot advances end period pro independence forces important advances southern cone veteran spanish army experience war san governor province position begin organizing army early preparation invasion chile important change strategy united provinces campaigns defeated upper peru san army nucleus army received crucial political material support juan supreme director united provinces january san finally ready advance chile ignoring injunction congress chile san general later supreme director chile led army turned tables february san control northern central chile year later war quarter south aid fleet command british naval officer thomas chile secured royalist control independence declared year san allies spent years planning invasion peru began northern south_america failed campaigns urban centers venezuela devised similar plan cross liberate new like san personally undertook efforts create army invade neighboring country collaborated pro independence region lacked approval congress unlike san professionally trained army quickly assembled mix new led british recruits june july rainy season cover led army flooded plains cold forbidding passes heavy losses quarter british legion perished soldiers prepared nearly meter altitudes paid august control treasury gained support new resented harsh carried found necessary continue policy war death carried execution thirty royalist officers surrendered resources new undisputed leader patriots venezuela orchestrated union regions new state called colombia colombia independence consolidated counter advances pro independence forces south_america spain prepared second large expeditionary force force left spain instead means liberals finally able constitutional regime january commander battalion headed rebellion troops demanding return constitution troops marched cities hope extending uprising civilian population locals indifferent uprising occur northern spain quickly spread country march royal palace madrid surrounded soldiers command general francisco days later march besieged ferdinand vii virtual prisoner agreed restore constitution revolt significant effects war americas militarily large numbers reinforcements especially needed retake new defend peru arrive furthermore situation desperate region region army experienced wholesale units patriot politically liberal regime changed terms spanish government sought engage insurgents new government assumed insurgents fighting spanish spanish constitution basis reconciliation sides government implemented constitution held elections overseas provinces spain ordered military commanders begin armistice negotiations insurgents promise participate restored representative government new spain central_america effect spanish constitution adopted served basis independence new spain central_america regions coalition conservative liberal royalist leaders led establishment new states restoration spanish constitution representative government enthusiastically welcomed new spain central_america elections held local governments formed deputies sent liberals fear new regime conservatives church worried new liberal government expand reforms anti clerical legislation climate instability created conditions sides forge alliance alliance end colonel royal army time assigned destroy guerrilla forces led guerrero january began peace negotiations guerrero suggesting unite establish independent new spain simple terms proposed basis plan independence new spain called mexican empire ferdinand vii emperor retention catholic_church official state religion protection existing privileges equality new immigrants native born following month important guerrilla leader victoria joined alliance march proclaimed head new army guarantees representative new spanish government superior political chief juan replaced previous arrived veracruz july found entire country veracruz mexico_city acapulco time left spain considering greatly expanding autonomy overseas spanish possessions proposed negotiate treaty terms plan resulting treaty signed august kept existing laws including constitution force new constitution mexico written provisional governing death october spanish ferdinand vii rejected treaty final break mother country came mexican congress conferred throne central_america gained independence new spain regional supported terms plan orchestrated union central_america mexican empire years later following downfall region exception peacefully mexico july establishing federal republic central_america new state existed seventeen years forces pulling individual provinces apart south_america unlike new spain central_america south_america independence spurred pro independence fighters held past half decade san inadvertently led continent wide movement southern northern south_america liberated spanish american nations continent securing independence chile san concentrated building naval fleet pacific counter spanish control waters reach royalist stronghold san assembled fleet warships sixteen transport ships command admiral fleet set sail southern peru september army landed successfully took san waiting revolt chose avoid direct military confrontation san hoped presence initiate authentic revolt spanish rule believing liberation meantime san engaged diplomacy orders constitutional government negotiate basis constitution maintain unity spanish monarchy efforts proved fruitless independence unity monarchy reconciled army sailed late october better strategic position northern peru months successful land naval campaigns secured new san learned ecuador declared independence october learning collapse expedition spent year preparing campaign venezuela aided spain new policy seeking engagement insurgents implemented command chief returning spain rejected spanish proposal patriots rejoin spain spanish constitution sides established month truce rules engagement law nations november truce months apparent royalist cause greatly weakened lack reinforcements royalist soldiers units began desert defect patriots large numbers january declared province independent republic chose join new nation state colombia replaced head army took violation truce republicans argued switched sides sides began prepare renewed war fate venezuela sealed returned april leading army new battle june forces decisively defeated royalist forces assuring control venezuela save puerto independence concentrate colombia claims southern new peru january deposed coup état months san moved army closer sailing months san engaged negotiations offering creation independent monarchy insisted unity spanish monarchy negotiations came july judged hold weak july royal army abandoned coastal city order reinforce positions highlands new capital 12th san entered declared protector country july office allowed rule newly independent state ensure presidency colombia remain collection small divided sent aid form supplies army february year unable november sides exhausted signed ninety day armistice following year battle forces finally conquered colombia hold territory secure following year patriot army destroyed battle san met july san decided retire scene years armies chilean patriots destroyed trying penetrate royalist regions peru upper peru year later congress resolved head patriot forces country conflict general extension liberal proved lost control half best army beginning giving patriots opportunity command experienced veterans combined army mainly destroyed royalist army command battle december army numerically superior consisted new recruits significant royalist area remaining continent highland country upper peru following battle royalist troops upper peru command surrendered died april tended favor maintaining unity upper peru peru upper leaders like nephew general gathered congress auspices supported country independence left decision went congress proclaimed upper peru independence city bears august bringing main wars independence end clear reversal spanish american independence new states began receive international recognition early united_states recognized chile united provinces peru colombia mexico britain waited battle recognize mexico colombia nations recognized spanish american states years royalist spanish coastal fortifications veracruz resisted respectively following decade royalist continued operate countries spain launched attempts retake parts spanish american mainland colonel started irregular war brigadier lead attempt regular troops mexico brothers moved remained royalist defeated efforts like reverse new political situation increasing holy alliance fall france july revolution eliminated principal support ferdinand vii europe king death spain finally abandoned plans military conquest government went far renounce sovereignty continental america course 19th century spain recognize new states cuba puerto_rico remained spanish rule spanish american war effects independence economics nearly decade half wars greatly weakened spanish american economies political institutions hindered region potential economic development nineteenth century resulted enduring instability region experienced independence destroyed facto trade spanish empire manila spanish treasure fleets particular independence trade new spanish american nations colonial period ties broken small populations new nations provided little incentive spanish american producers recreate old trade patterns addition protection european competition spanish monopoly provided manufacturing sectors economy ended protective sectors particular textile production permanently dropped foreign imports beat local production greatly affected native communities parts spanish america specialized supplying finished products urban markets albeit pre industrial techniques wars greatly affected principal economic sector region mining silver production independence dropped quarters mexico compensate lack capital foreign investment particular great_britain courted sizable initiate economic recovery finally new nations entered world economy end french revolutionary napoleonic wars economies europe united_states recovering aggressively seeking new markets sell products decades disruption ultimately spanish america connect world markets raw materials consumer finished products society addition improving economy lower social classes integrated new body got rewards independence political debate seeking answers questions marked clash times battlefield conservatives sought maintain traditional social structures order ensure stability liberals sought create dynamic society economy ending based social freeing property economic restrictions quest transform society liberals adopted policies welcome native communities benefited unique afforded traditional spanish law independence initiate abolition slavery spanish america seen independence struggle slaves gained joining patriot armies areas slavery major source labor mexico central_america chile emancipation occurred immediately independence achieved areas slavery main labor source colombia venezuela peru argentina emancipation carried steps decades usually creation free laws programs compensated emancipation early 1850s slavery abolished independent nations spanish america role women women simply spectators independence wars latin_america women took sides political issues joined independence movements order participate different levels women help act caring relatives mother sister wives daughters men fighting women created political organizations organized meetings groups donate food supplies soldiers women supported wars spies combatants long term lover acted spy secretary archive saved life occasions wounded soldiers believed historians fought battles followed army independence wars known latin_america mother feminism women emancipation equal rights supporter women rights suffrage latin_america allowed great pioneer women freedom wanted set women latin_america free oppression spanish regime established colonel army caused controversy women army time woman gained prominence fight independence mixed race woman fought independence rio region argentine president posthumously promoted rank general according gender stereotypes women meant soldiers men supposed engage fighting conflict plenty women presence help rescue nurse soldiers women fought alongside husbands sons battlefield majority women assumed supportive non competitive roles fund raising caring sick revolution women meant differently men women saw revolution way earn equal rights men voting overcome suppression superiority men women women usually identified victims independence wars women latin_america forced sacrifice cause ideals meant women sacrifice situation required mother sacrificing son virgin knowing sacrificing wife loss young men view meant women meant contribute independence supportive role leaving combat politics hands men government politics independence result stable political regimes save countries new nations defined identities process creating identities beginning carried newspapers creation national symbols including new names countries mexico colombia ecuador argentina broke past addition borders firmly established struggle begun independence continued rest century large states emerged wars colombia federal republic central_america collapsed decade argentina consolidate politically 1860s wars destroyed old civilian bureaucracy governed region centuries institutions eliminated officials fled spain catholic_church important social political institution colonial period initially came weakened end conflicts government officials bishops abandoned posts filled decades new created relations new nations vatican church recovered economic political power attacked liberals despite fact period wars independence marked rapid expansion representative government new nations nineteenth century marked lack defined political national institutions armies officers came existence process independence wanted ensure got rewards struggle armies fully wars proved institutions decades national existence armies leaders effectively influenced course political development new tradition came amassed formal informal economic military political power overview wars battles revolts foreign involvement brown matthew spanish colonies foreign mercenaries birth new nations liverpool university press isbn alfred foreign liberation spanish south_america new_york books william british policy independence latin_america new haven yale_university press william france latin american independence freedom mercenaries british volunteers wars independence latin_america hamilton books university press america isbn arthur united_states independence latin_america baltimore university press historiography age revolution latin_america new literature latin american independence latin american research review victor latin american independence analyses years latin american research review


battle battle officially known british affair took place december defence egypt section palestine campaign world war attack mounted division took place entrenched ottoman army garrison south east desert miles inland mediterranean coast egyptian expeditionary force victory ottoman_empire garrison secured town ottoman garrison withdrew august combined ottoman german empire army forced retreat british victory battle following months defeated force retired eastwards captured territory stretching suez_canal consolidated garrisoned patrols carried british forces protect continuing construction railway water pipeline deny passage desert ottoman forces destroying water wells december construction infrastructure supply lines sufficiently progressed enable british advance evening december following morning mounted force reached find abandoned ottoman army garrison strong defensive position located miles inland south east second night march mounted division australian new_zealand mounted division attack launched australian british new_zealand troops entrenched ottoman forces defending series day fierce fighting mounted infantry tactics riding close line possible attack bayonet supported artillery machine guns prevailed assisted aircraft eventually located captured ottoman defenders surrendered late afternoon background beginning world war egyptian police controlled desert withdrawn leaving area largely unprotected february german ottoman force unsuccessfully attacked suez_canal gallipoli campaign second joint german ottoman force advanced desert threaten canal july force defeated august battle mounted division known mounted division command australian major general harry pushed ottoman army desert force commanded german general friedrich von mid september mounted division pursued retreating ottoman german forces miles northern route peninsula outpost hills miles south west interior desert attacked mid october british force based suez_canal captured time positions eventually abandoned ottoman garrisons face growing british_empire strength consolidation british territorial gains british established garrisons supply lines stretched suez_canal patrols regularly carried protect advance railway water pipeline built egyptian labour corps supply lines marked railway stations airfields signal installations standing camps troops accommodated tents time egyptian expeditionary force strength soldiers plus egyptian labourers ottoman positions ottoman army desert force commanded von operated region sustained supported principal desert base located ottoman egyptian ottoman frontier linked northern palestine road railway major german ottoman base central desert supplied supported smaller garrisons area reinforcements ammunition rations medical support periods rest away line left intact ottoman forces seriously threaten advance north route southern palestine problems advance water area extended miles old route miles sustain life miles little water area water till reached coast miles british advance begin miles stretch water supply thoroughly explored mid december pipeline eastward progress possible store sufficient water possible concentrate sufficiently large numbers egyptian transport corps drivers carry water forward support attacking force conditions campaign desert required great determination attention detail involved ensure ammunition rations required water horse fodder available needed ottoman_empire main desert base centrally located british_empire base miles west limits lines communication mounted operations far base barren country extremely hazardous difficult long range desert operations necessary supplies organised suitably packaged transportation moving column following closely vital soldiers trained conditions man left die burning desert sun day bitter cold night water bottle accidentally tipped leaked mean water owner hours extreme temperatures extreme difficult conditions mounted troops worked provide protective screens construction infrastructure patrolling newly occupied areas carrying ground reconnaissance augment verify aerial photographs improve maps newly occupied areas british war office policy british war office stated policy october maintain offensive operations western remaining defensive battle attrition coupled change britain prime minister david lloyd george succeeding december status quo sufficiently bring policy reversal making attacks central powers weak points away western desirable commander general sir murray encouraged seek success eastern frontier reinforcements thought advance possible advance threaten forces southern ottoman_empire prevent slow transfer german ottoman units theatres war levant creation eastern force desert column victory murray moved headquarters canal cairo cairo enable central position carry duties responsibilities extended western frontier force continuing campaign egyptian western desert eastern force consequence victory major general lawrence command northern sector suez_canal defences battle transferred western consequence pushing german ottoman forces eastwards away canal october lieutenant general charles appointed command newly created eastern force headquarters responsible security suez_canal peninsula eastern force consisted infantry divisions 42nd east lancashire division commanded major general douglas 52nd lowland division commanded major general smith mounted division mounted infantry division commanded 5th mounted brigade commanded brigadier general imperial brigade commanded brigadier general smith murray considered force strength division advance felt gain form effective base coast operations eastwards supplied october granted weeks leave travelled britain october returning duty december away desert column formed december days return murray appointed newly promoted lieutenant general sir commander column major general command cavalry western involved pursuing retreating germans battle formation desert column consisted infantry divisions 53rd welsh division currently serving suez_canal defences commanded dallas 42nd east lancashire 52nd lowland divisions mounted force consisted mounted division 5th mounted brigade imperial brigade prelude early december construction railway reached wells water sources available half way suez_canal egyptian ottoman territorial border british intelligence reported ottoman army plans strengthen garrison extending railway light rail south east advance mounted patrols outskirts discovered entrenched ottoman troops holding town supported forces based miles south east banks december week returned leave advance began mounted division left moved 2nd light horse brigade rear assisting patrolling lines communication stretching miles suez_canal 1st 3rd light horse brigades new_zealand mounted rifles brigade 5th mounted brigade newly formed battalions imperial brigade mountain guns hong_kong singapore battery mile trek day set australian airmen reported garrisons hills centre appeared withdrawn mounted division approached december halt called column continued advanced troops entered town unopposed contact civil population arrange water supplies mounted force prisoner captured lines observation set maintained close watch country east south town 1st 3rd light horse new_zealand mounted rifles imperial brigades casualties day members 1st light horse brigade blown stranded beach day occupied december leading infantry brigade 52nd lowland division reached town 5th mounted brigade garrisoned town began area landed beach opposite mounted division headquarters begin appointment commander desert column reported arranged special convoy rations horse feed arrive day view mounted division advancing miles away following day december supplies transported ship port said landed essential rations organised led mounted division night december established retreating ottoman force moved south east ottoman force retreat ottoman garrison withdrew miles south east miles away coast banks garrison increased ottoman soldiers consisting battalions infantry regiment 27th ottoman infantry division attached 3rd ottoman infantry division battalions 2nd battalion commanded men 3rd battalion commanded supported company squads machine gun company remainder squads machine gun company moved north defending force supported battery krupp guns loan 1st mountain regiment regiment artillery battery stationed attached ottoman garrison number support units including elements 3rd company 8th engineer battalion 27th medical company 43rd mobile hospital 46th cooking unit garrison command commanding officer infantry regiment series situated developed making strong ottoman garrison position reflected considerable planning impossible locate flat ground sides clearly ottoman garrison sudden panicked reaction noticed allied aerial reconnaissance planes early october fortified situated sides linked series trenches position extending area miles east west narrow north south december day attack garrison inspected von commander ottoman desert force drove base time expressed satisfaction garrison ability withstand assault von satisfaction garrison withstand assault miles british miles important pieces information von firstly unaware speed flexibility determination australian british new_zealand mounted force demonstrate secondly arrival new british commander staff vital forward planning organise necessary logistical support immediate long range attack mounted division british_empire force force attack consisted brigades mounted division 1st light horse brigade 1st 2nd 3rd light horse regiments 3rd light horse brigade 8th 9th 10th light horse regiments new_zealand mounted rifles brigade canterbury wellington mounted rifles regiments battalions imperial brigade place 2nd light horse brigade regiments battalions supported somerset artillery batteries royal horse artillery hong_kong singapore artillery battery force strong moved midnight following unexpected delay caused incoming infantry columns 52nd lowland division crossed long train carrying water followed mounted division mounted division riding minutes leading horse minutes halting minutes hour reached plain miles december column successfully guided brigade scouts garrison fires visible hour trek indicating ottomans expect attacking force set second night march miles ride aerial support aerial routinely carried carried november australian flying corps detailed reconnaissance enemy lines areas taking photographs camps royal flying corps 5th wing command lieutenant colonel stationed supported mounted division wing composite formation squadron australian flying corps squadron ordered provide close air support long range scouting long range bombing british australian planes dropped bombs december battle bombed machine area targets difficult find medical support evacuation wounded reviewed following problems encountered battle particular attention given development transport railway time advance occurred december additional hospital trains available railway medical sections deployed following close battlefield sections divisional field accommodation casualties casualty clearing station accommodate cases nos accommodate accommodate cases australian stationary hospital beds east stationary hospital beds battle wing attacked ottoman defences drawing fire revealed locations machine guns trenches arranged village protected available water supply area day pilots observers provided frequent reports fourteen received giving estimated positions strength movements ottoman garrison given verbally observer pilot landed near headquarters aircraft time wireless communication main attack north east new_zealand mounted rifles brigade commanded brigadier general edward moved line troop columns new supported machine gun squadron armed vickers lewis guns 3rd light horse brigade command attack began near village virtually british_empire artillery opened fire time group moved ottoman garrison right rear plan quickly began develop despite heavy ottoman fire attacking mounted troops found cover yards got close yards time units imperial brigade moving straight south easterly direction following telegraph line slowly advancing foot followed 1st light horse brigade reserve extended ordered regiment circle entrenched positions ali cut possible line retreat south south east 10th light horse regiment sections brigade machine gun squadron led brigadier general commander 3rd light horse brigade succeeded capturing ali prisoners ottoman artillery batteries trenches difficult locate new_zealand mounted rifles brigade advancing firing line time aerial report described small groups garrison beginning retreat result mounted reserve 1st light horse brigade ordered directly town passing imperial brigade battalions way meeting severe fire open plain forced cover continuing advance ottoman left battalions imperial brigade continued advance flat ground yards section section covering fire provided section turn brigades engaged 3rd light horse brigade 10th light horse regiment continued sweep round garrison right flank hour later right imperial brigade battalions advanced reach 1st light horse brigade minutes fierce fighting beginning impact ottoman garrison reports continued small numbers ottoman troops retreating 10th light horse regiment continuing trek capturing ali moving round hill attack rear frontal attack imperial brigade yards ottoman defences 1st light horse brigade attacked minutes later new_zealand mounted rifles brigade fixed attacked trenches east houses 10th light horse regiment advancing south captured trenches effectively cutting retreat ottoman garrison 1st light horse brigade captured reported capturing buildings left telephone pressure continued exerted attack units took place ottoman garrison held attackers yards time doubt ottoman garrison losing fight began surrender small groups organised resistance ceased minutes later darkness fell sporadic firing prisoners rounded horses collected captured wells rode gave order clear battlefield mounted division headquarters left escort arrived december casualties captures known british_empire casualties killed wounded officers killed seven wounded ranks killed wounded included figure high new_zealand mounted rifles brigade suffered loss officers seven ranks killed ranks wounded ottoman soldiers escaped surviving garrison men captured prisoners included regiment commander 2nd 3rd battalions commanders officers ottoman soldiers killed buried battlefield wounded cared aftermath victory occupation secure town captured mediterranean coast infantry 52nd lowland division 5th mounted brigade quickly began town royal_navy arrived december supplies began landing beaches near december arrival railway january followed water pipeline quickly developed major base aerial reconnaissance found ottoman forces moving headquarters north garrison main desert base slightly increased ottoman outposts remained strong defensive system trenches defending frontier egypt southern ottoman_empire return force left previous night carrying water bottle man additional water organised desert column staff sent water convoy ordered day battle reported way filling water convoy arrival new_zealand mounted rifles 3rd light horse brigades left ride time material assistance given returning columns 52nd lowland division form loan water gun horse teams going commanding generals initiative meet returning teams clearing dressing station set miles west new_zealand field ambulance mobile section 1st light horse field ambulance wounded treated day battle field performed urgent surgery gave fed patients night battle treated wounded evacuated ambulance convoy assisting 1st light horse regiment commanded lieutenant colonel squadrons mounted rifle regiment squadron 3rd light horse brigade night convoy supplies ordered support troops continued following morning clearing battlefield remaining british_empire ottoman_empire wounded collected december taken ottoman hospital fortifications sent dressing station ambulance convoy set miles march receiving station convoys wounded met miles infantry lent 52nd lowland division wounded endured travelled comfort receiving station arriving december 52nd lowland division supplied medical stores personnel assist arrangements evacuation days later evacuation sea planned postponed gale rain hail december december largest single ambulance convoy organised campaign number moved lines beach wounded cases ready moved evacuated following day begin journey suez_canal recognition address troops battle expressed appreciation mounted rifle light horse method attack said history warfare known cavalry locate surround opponent position fight infantry rifle bayonet september time promoted command mounted divisions desert mounted corps wrote general headquarters


douglas escape philippines douglas escape philippines began march world war general douglas members family staff left island forces surrounded japanese traveled boats patrol torpedo boats days stormy seas patrolled japanese warships reach party flew australia pair boeing flying fortresses ultimately arriving melbourne train march australia famous speech declared came shall return known experienced officer distinguished record world war retired united_states_army defense advisor philippine government recalled active duty united_states_army july months outbreak pacific war united_states empire japan commander united_states_army forces far_east uniting philippine united_states armies command march japanese invasion philippines compelled withdraw forces headquarters family moved doomed defense captured imagination american public time news fronts uniformly bad living symbol allied resistance japanese fearing soon fall taken prisoner president franklin roosevelt ordered australia submarine available elected break japanese blockade boats command lieutenant junior grade john staff brought known gang nucleus general headquarters southwest pacific area background douglas known experienced officer son lieutenant general arthur awarded medal honor services american_civil_war graduated united_states military academy class aide camp father president roosevelt world war commanded brigade 42nd rainbow division fighting western war served superintendent united_states military academy chief staff united_states_army retired united_states_army field marshal philippine army job advise philippine government defense matters prepare philippine defense forces philippines fully independent philippine army entirely manned small number american advisors raised conscription classes men trained year starting addition regular army garrison half serving army known philippine scouts recalled retirement july commander united_states_army forces far_east age united philippine united_states armies command getting philippine army ready war faced enormous task visit united_states lobbied navy department development boats small fast boats armed torpedoes believed geography philippines shallow waters suited nascent philippine navy acquired known boats president august navy created motor torpedo boat squadron command lieutenant junior grade john half strength squadron boats instead normal numbered arrived manila september understood fleet consisting boats required successful defense philippines early naval military planners concluded impractical repel invasion philippines best hoped garrison hold peninsula help arrived 1920s estimated days 1930s planners decidedly view increased capability aircraft agreed philippine written july decision abruptly reversed policy government defend hold philippines based belief boeing flying fortress bombers deter defeat invading force soon japanese invasion philippines accordance pre war plan declared manila open city ordered forces withdraw philippine government high commissioner office headquarters moved island military personnel sent united_states recall retirement philippine government employee family remained philippines wife jean young son arthur went arthur celebrated fourth birthday february aide asked arthur possible fate replied soldier son united_states fleet retired south philippines small force left command rear admiral francis consisting submarine tender uss submarine rescue ship small patrol boats boats motor torpedo boat squadron loss manila naval base bay meant fuel spare parts scarce boats relied floating dry dock uss assistance maintenance despite motor torpedo boat squadron continued patrol december rescued survivors carrying refugees australia struck sank manila bay week later ran aground patrolling south manila bay set fire prevent salvaged japanese met similar fate month later engines failed drifted reef boats attacked enemy barges night january small japanese warship february small vessel probably fishing february decision washington message president franklin roosevelt washington february announced family intended share fate garrison meant surrender best knew death artillery fire air raid likely days later chief staff united_states_army george marshall urged send family away ignored message singapore considered fell february washington possibility fall taken prisoner considered america experienced general little use prisoner war camp living symbol allied resistance japanese brave doomed defense captured imagination american public saw allied general knew fight japanese walter noted fragile period american general american public stunned shock pearl harbor uncertain lay ahead europe desperately needed hero embraced douglas good press copy simply choices came close matching mention evocative lone wolf stand americans secretary state hull raised possibility evacuation brigadier general dwight wrote diary help thinking disturbed editorials reacting public opinion military logic watson certain worth army corps president considered sending coordinate defense philippines consideration arose fall singapore sealed fate american british dutch australian command command nominally discussions held british future command arrangements broad agreement reached united_states assume responsibility southwest pacific senior american officer required obvious choice february received message drafted president secretary war henry marshall read president directs arrangements leave proceed directed change quickly possible proceed australia assume command united_states troops instructions given request movement submarine plane enable carry instructions authorized chief staff general responded request select time departure right moment chosen delicate operation wrote sudden collapse occur regard actual movement went combined use surface craft submarine air movement submarine time consuming marshall replied president allow choose time method departure dissolved february nominally came dutch command ordered continue communicating directly war department inspected boat squadron march air cover provided remaining wife jean took half hour ride sea jean felt ostensibly purpose visit presenting distinguished service cross sinking unidentified ton enemy ship torpedoes damage ship casualty crew took aside asked possible mile kilometre journey waters night boats told piece cake days passed word matter follow messages sent march march decided danger imminent collapse replied planned depart march submarine uss permit scheduled arrive radio broadcasts united_states calling placed charge australia picked headquarters assumed japanese heard ominous signs japanese surface patrols stepped bay area reports japanese destroyers heading north southern philippines elected wait permit leave soon possible boat night march major general left command told lieutenant general replied alive decision depart boat wait submarine lieutenant robert kelly executive officer motor torpedo boat squadron commander later recalled having served lieutenant second command prior assignment conferences general decision making process decision use boats evacuation dramatically emphasized american public overwhelming odds united_states fighting philippines old score united_states_navy tendency making trip submerged submarine commander personally know provided acceptable alternative elected exercise escape preparations crews overhauled boats voyage engines performed hard war service operated double recommended mileage overhaul result reduced operating half speed replacement parts normally discarded carefully cleaned replaced boat carry drums additional fuel deck reduced speed boats knots kilometres hour miles hour room passengers leave men sent fight infantry chief staff major general richard drew passenger lists chief staff captain ray ordered accompany orders return submarine switched accompanying date departure brought forward united_states_army air corps officer major general george included request united_states_army air forces accompanied family wife jean year old son arthur arthur later defended decision instead american nurse people outside orient wrote know completely member family arthur birth relationship family death certain left case doctor needed major charles summoned accompany party remaining thirteen members staff loyal experienced years creating new staff australia taken time taking existing enable commence work soon arrival australia valuable philippines included men assistant lieutenant colonel francis wilson master sergeant paul rogers promoted private day rogers enlisted man list number men gave letters post food passengers boats jean aide camp lieutenant colonel packed food bags boat removed star rank number plates car australia took lie stories later circulated cash gold stories furniture residence manila hotel loaded board boats version story piano fact passenger limited piece weighing pounds kilograms jean took small clothes sported label hotel new grand stayed honeymoon wrapped possessions took boat voyage carried family departed north dock passengers remaining boats taken launches boarded boats family boarded spoke major general george moore commander harbor defenses manila bays george told flag flying coming departed march joined minutes later navy led boats protective minefield single file boats assumed diamond formation lead bringing rear attacked japanese flee boats engaged enemy seas moderate passengers quickly later recalled weather deteriorated steadily waves tiny war weary vessels spray drove skin like fall trough climb steep water peak slide boat toss forth hang free space breach break away forward rush recall describing experience afterward like trip concrete night boats separated spent time looking boats unable find darkness dawn gave headed alternative hiding places kelly reach rendezvous point cove island hours late sign boats boat kelly far convinced kelly found correct island repairs boat hand pumps drums men posted atop island tallest hill watch japanese boats good engines dawn spotted appeared japanese destroyer heading fuel drums increase speed run ordered crew man caliber machine guns ready launch torpedoes akin prepared toss barracks bag filled code books overboard light improved vessel drew closer look revealed japanese destroyer carrying angry ordered recover drums proved time consuming task dangerous broad daylight abandoned drums recovered gunners sink rest boats hid day nearby cove afternoon way found discussion proceed wait permit warned seas higher assurance submarine decided continue departing daylight sure meet air transport fuel passengers divided soon departed arrived rendezvous point found crew discovered boats gone set hour left spotted japanese cruiser sharp turn west headed speed knots mph setting sun high waves sun simple cruiser spot midnight weather began heavy swells sporadic kelly later recalled big waves feet high cockpit everybody water eyes continuously salt couldn addition pitch black making good speed strange waters islands outlines big ones horizon storm dozens small ones probably hundreds reefs hand eyes avoid force water needed hold admiral pretty wrought sailed type ship navy shouted wind worst bridge wouldn duty world dawn winds swells subsided delay caused bad weather slowed boats travel sea daylight sighted shortly march led way kelly let lead channel charts pulled wharf bow met colonel william officer staff brigadier general william sharp commander forces told giving officer man silver star gallantry taken jaws death won forget hours later reached later recalled schedule reached north coast broad daylight clear dazzling day fortunately japanese planes cut blue sky enemy known regular mail flights pretty conspicuous hours dragged uss permit command lieutenant reached march found engines action felt boat longer destroy boat permit deck gun took crewmen crew disembarked embarked passengers thirty nonetheless ordered conduct regular war patrol finally reached australia april unaware attempted locate days flew area passenger aircraft including hope finding aircraft commander army forces australia lieutenant general george received general marshall washington requesting bombers transport party australia subsequent message requested experienced pilots best available planes condition long range aircraft boeing flying fortresses 19th bombardment group seen hard service philippines dutch_east_indies campaigns approached vice admiral commander naval forces area ask loan newly arrived navy reputation refusing requests navy benefit turned sent 19th bombardment group old planes forced turn engine trouble accidentally dumped gallons litres imperial gallons fuel pilot flew nearly del field miles destination fuel tanks ran dry engines stopped crash landed sea crew killed rest shore del field piloted lieutenant reached del poor condition brakes faulty sharp ordered australia arrived despite lack brakes return trip carrying sixteen passengers arrival group reached safely aircraft del field meet taken del plantation lodged guest houses breakfast sent couple sharp messages melbourne marshall washington second day filipino woman arrived wanted speak son fighting walked miles kilometres hope general news fact aware presence disturbing party japanese miles away south coast went expecting turned time gave aircraft wanted speculated heard washington newly formed 40th reconnaissance squadron manned bombers turned del field march landing dark runway lit lieutenant frank pilot plane calculated carried planes left baggage divided groups bombers took march rode radio operator seat need manned aircraft travelling radio silence passengers trip dark cold blanket metal skin aircraft planes approached darwin word received japanese air raid progress flew airfield touched awarded silver stars crews bombers chief staff brigadier general hand greet sent australian national bring melbourne jean refused fly asked nearest railway station alice springs miles away received word incoming japanese air raid asked intervene told arthur suffered badly feed guarantee survive trip desert agreed planes alice springs hurry aircraft took air raid sounded alice springs party split family took special train borrowed australians rest staff flew melbourne adelaide famous speech said came shall return small town south_australia march changed trains march journey completed train rolled street station greeted australian minister army frank aftermath roosevelt issued public statement march know man woman united_states general determination fight finish men philippines know man woman agreement important decisions view successful termination war knowing sure american faced individually question general best serve country come answer reaction escape mixed american filipino troops feeling bitter betrayed broke news generals depressed news soon saw understood understood people family members philippines dismayed wrote roosevelt broken morale parents home thoroughly held joseph fleeing general labeled marshall decided best way counter award medal honor april led squadron attack japanese cruiser boats scored hit cruiser torpedo failed explode damage resulted loss city torpedoes active careers remaining boats squadron came end gave boat officers high priority flown flown orders april kelly evacuated april flights sharp surrendered subsequently nominated medal honor commander chief fleet admiral king going let award medal honor naval officer wrote citation behalf navy roosevelt presented ceremony oval office august wrote book exploits entitled parts serialized reader digest life magazines bestseller adapted movie robert montgomery playing character based john wayne based kelly reed role army nurse kelly brief liaison postwar analysis found book claims exaggerated staff brought formed nucleus general headquarters southwest pacific area gang came called remained duration noted loyalty lauded greatest general statesman george_washington hailed decision escape boats stroke genius eventually kept promise returned philippines gang returned march boats

Douglas MacArthur's escape from the Philippines


brooks war brooks war referred brooks affair armed conflict little rock arkansas united_states factions republican_party disputed election governor victor end faction led tail faction led joseph brooks included blacks came end struggle white republican residents state war known newer republican arrivals called power state government reconstruction american_civil_war struggle began ratification arkansas constitution rewritten allow arkansas rejoin united_states civil war congress reconstruction acts required rebel states accept 14th amendment establishing civil rights blacks enact new providing suffrage slaves temporarily confederate army officers conservatives democrats refused participate writing constitution ceased participation government republicans wanting arkansas rejoin united_states formed coalition write pass new constitution formed new state government wake wave violence poor economy coalition soon fractured factions tails led failed trial republican governor elected senator general_assembly gubernatorial election resulted narrow victory tail joseph brooks election marked fraud intimidation brooks challenged result legal means initially success alienated base brooks declared governor county judge declared results election fraudulent brooks took control government force refused resign supported militia black men bloody battles ensued factions finally president grant reluctantly intervened supported governor bringing affair end incident followed new arkansas constitution marked end reconstruction arkansas conflict significantly weakened republican_party state democrats took power controlled governorship years background constitution civil war called came defeated southern states work rebuilding process widespread migration colonial states 60s congress grew increasingly disturbed post war developments rebel states pre civil war reelected government positions southern enacted black codes limiting rights slaves violence blacks common matter congress passed reconstruction acts rebel state governments dividing south military districts rebel states union wrote ratified new providing civil rights accepting 14th amendment fall voted new constitutional convention selected delegates convened little rock january coalition native white republicans prevailed critical proposals prominent leaders included james joseph brooks john new constitution required suffrage right vote adult male slaves called legislative districts reflect new status citizens counting members population conferred broad powers state government establishing universal public education blacks whites time welfare institutions absent previous government needed aftermath war governor given wide ranging powers appointment legislative approval including power appoint state officials supreme_court judges governor president virtually state organizations including board trustees state newly created technical university board public printing railroad commission temporarily confederate army officers persons refused pledge allegiance civil political equality men democratic_party disarray arkansas lacked clarity purpose republican_party members unable unite basic principles principle democrats white supremacy january democratic state convention little rock democrats announced purpose uniting opponents negro suffrage domination party leaders opposed reconstruction favor continued military rule far wanted like better option allowing civil rights white citizens including right vote conservative wings party simply showed interest new constitution remained loyal ideas embodied confederacy constitutional convention democrats convened party convention chose boycott elections grounds new constitution illegal giving suffrage insisted inferior race alienated largest block voters state adopting resolutions resolution convention resolved favor white man government white man country registered voters state cast ballots april elections voted approved new constitution administration year old brigadier general union_army remained arkansas marrying arkansas woman elected governor republican april election irregularities example return votes county exceeded number registered voters controlled distribution ballots admitted given ballots voters counties valid registration certificate sides claimed election fraud voter intimidation armed parties stationed roads voters away polls general commander military district included arkansas wrote general grant months sort committed greater election fraud july arkansas rejoined union inaugurated governor new general_assembly begun meeting april unable prepare legislation time state prior governor murphy administration recognized federal government continued act executive state time murphy managed draw governor time took office appointed key republican politicians positions new state government failed find place joseph brooks rivalry brooks election saw brooks strongest competitor preference distinction want entrenched party leadership brooks felt service ability party recognized appreciated grew bitter republicans including democrats state calling conservatives differentiate radical republicans slaves status citizens civil rights 14th amendment worst view conservatives permitted vote conservatives considered inherently inferior allowed vote confederate officers especially expected pay taxes fund newly proposed infrastructure changes ability vote saw attempt god violence soon erupted state confederate army officers nearby memphis tennessee formed fight new order quickly spread arkansas republican officials including james attacked black citizens seeking exercise new civil rights brooks ambushed gunmen road monroe county travelling political event brooks severely wounded killed murder created national disgust ongoing political violence south jury identified local democratic official suspected member killer contemporaries blamed threatened kill actively killing assaulting republicans reflecting times arrested murder congressman violence spread state declared martial law counties democratic newspapers denied existence secretive reporting violence 20th century research shows responsible violence state time state militia organized violence poorly equipped uniforms irregular weapons mounts militia mistaken wandering bands sparking brief long remembered militia war causing terror state similar going north_carolina time referred war fearing guarantee integrity polling places canceled fall elections counties political violence broken reduced democratic vote state ended supporting election president grant republican candidate despite population democratic paying new infrastructure tactics pay needed infrastructure changes state south desperate need infrastructure rest country respect raised taxes tried fix state bad credit issuing bonds flooded state paper tactics failed drove state debt introducing taxes proved hugely unpopular democrats republicans people state simply money bond issues generated controversy source scandals administration old railroad infrastructure bonds including controversial bonds declared illegal arkansas supreme_court gathered funding act passed legislature bonds issued roads railroads built constructed torn rebuilt direction projects received funding different bonds built railroads roads funded built different bond controversial bonds involved purchase slate state roof diverted construction mansion republican official eventually served jail time incident notes issued raise money money construction projects invested public infrastructure article sec new constitution stated credit state loaned consent voters making notes illegal introduction caused actual currency circulation radical republicans create improvement state constructed railroads built arkansas public school system created administration supporters formed arkansas industrial university basis future university arkansas arkansas school deaf arkansas school blind relocated little rock state debt increased dramatically state budget surplus came office end term state debt increased million tails native conservative republicans radical republicans managed form coalition seize complete control state power extravagant spending proved wedge issue groups factions developed party especially strong opposition questionable financial maneuvers administration despite tactics arkansas republican_party publicly split began denouncing reckless spending met convention adopted liberal republicans populist platform universal amnesty universal suffrage economic reforms end called dictatorship small group administration defected group joseph brooks claimed arkansas natural leader brooks northern methodist preacher chaplain union_army known fiery speeches united political religious themes chairman republican state convention currently state senator white county county involved beginning given government position seeing brooks potential rival started calling new faction tails traced supporter jack contractor state speech gave eagle township county said brooks reminded tailed bull known child scared cattle began referring joseph brooks supporters tails referred tails platform included proposal new constitution appealed democrats pre war began gaining support liberal republicans tails referred republicans stuck moniker probably traced john price editor little rock republican staunch supporter price known good musician comedian filled sick performer complete tails desperately wanted governor office lieutenant governor james johnson tail natural course action try rid let johnson succeed aware plans left state briefly new_york business concerning bonds informed johnson home distance capital found tried head capital control arrested arrived late subsequently johnson speech demanding changes administration started target johnson january introduced articles general_assembly chief charge johnson acting president senate administered oath office joseph brooks recently elected state senator recognized floor legitimately powers lieutenant governor escaped votes scrutiny proceedings seriously damaged reputation wrong political career recovered accused deliberately results house election thomas john edwards congressional district according arkansas law results certified given secretary state robert white governor secretary state arrange results governor issue proclamation declaring winner deliver seal state accused adding votes final count edwards declaring winner successfully contested election indicted federal circuit court court found fact proclamation delivered seal edwards knowing won fact illegal actions way binding congress federal law time state governors considered election officials congressman affairs state democrats decided thing elect senate won unanimously refused seat mean letting johnson governor state house_of_representatives drafted articles charging wide variety actions including johnson state officials offices fairly elected removing state officials judges offices fairly elected aiding fraudulent elections taking bribes state railroad bonds high crimes members house tried suspend duties governor force apparently tried locking office door shut responded right state constitution office time house brought charges chief justice john trying deny johnson privileges office lieutenant governor successive inquiries failed find evidence legislature refused continue charges dropped fact found guilty wrongdoing governor finally deal reached johnson politically badly damaged ordeal willing position resigned lieutenant governor appointed secretary state given compensation thousand dollars loss power prestige governor staunch supporter appointed lieutenant governor days later left state washington join senate succeeded governor democrats paper arkansas daily gazette source infinite joy satisfaction oppressed long suffering people arkansas learn yesterday late kansas recently governor arkansas took departure city presence state hoped forever longer state official remained leader state republicans controlling appointments state flow federal money positions began federal office including joseph brooks point internal revenue election brooks gubernatorial election faction nominated candidate lawyer politician merchant north_carolina settled life long whig elected mayor elected state legislature outbreak civil war conflicted supported general samuel curtis 2nd iowa infantry occupied spring general recognized loyal tried title loyal refused curtis left forced flee missouri captured brought little rock charged treason escape later trial place describes episode life autobiography fortunate combination circumstances escaped prison trial came lived eighteen days sic fields near little rock sic food raw corn gather lone prisoner felt treated harsh criticisms press individuals regard want loyalty southern sic regard supposed want courage resolved god grant enter federal army returned organized 4th arkansas mounted infantry union commanded named state supreme_court judge governor murphy spring shortly named judge elected senate legislature andrew hunter seated senate senate recognize murphy administration appointed governor judge 3rd judicial circuit appointed 1st congressional district arkansas held positions nominated governor virtually unknown privately clean scandals unlike believed attract votes core base natives state joseph brooks ran governor representing tails brooks vocal supporter civil rights slaves supporter sentiment nationally liberal republicans democrats met agreed run candidate support joseph brooks long election fair legal elections state wrought fraud years issue central election outcome election described masterpiece confusion arkansas historian michael brooks ran democratic support nominated party composed exclusively voters modern student days election days afterward predictions reports fraud printed daily gazette relatively slow communications messages counties delayed week numerous reports state polling centers including names stricken voter registration lists persons voting proof registration gazette wrote great yesterday election designate fraud worst state city judges paid attention registration old new permitted everybody vote instances question men marched ward voted early november day general election gazette reported election quiet little rock witnessed returns day small report certainty won newspaper reported fraud rumors flew claiming registration cut short extended counties suit needs controlled polling places following monday gazette published incomplete counties showing small majority reported forms attempted fraud unofficial polling places apparently set votes cast regular polls certified november gazette claimed victory brooks day irregularities votes thrown projected winner votes general_assembly met january special joint session declare count received votes legal winner election short address sworn chief justice john assumed duties governor state arkansas brooks supporters immediately claimed election democrats tails non republican newspapers openly vocally denounced election fraudulent insisted brooks fact received votes general parties accepted results brooks supporters minority believing election fraudulent brooks legal battle file suit election judge william harrison brooks ticket filed bill equity circuit court little rock claiming right seat supreme_court fraudulent election brooks campaign likewise filed suit circuit court shortly january judge heard harrison case rendered opinion stating federal court jurisdiction matter dismissed case harrison decision resulted dismissal brooks case brooks took petition general_assembly asking assembly took matter april voted allow brooks contest election deter brooks applied arkansas supreme_court writ quo denied ruled state courts jurisdiction matter dismissed case gave lengthy explanation general_assembly decide contested gubernatorial elections joint session directly elected representatives people appeared brooks exhausted legal avenues point june filed lawsuit time county district court arkansas civil code sec person office franchise entitled action law instituted state party entitled office october filed plea non jurisdiction believed court decide issued telegram president grant informing basic situation arkansas asked federal troops help maintain peace grant denied request brooks switch positions rumors joseph chief justice sworn office intended arrested killed ostensibly replaced robert newton confederate head state militia attorney general williams contacted suggested ask federal troops protection letter president grant followed offering protection grant administration usually followed lead arkansas matters concerned concluded governor supporting republican_party arkansas controlled faction issued statement denouncing brooks attempt contest election published little rock republican october signed major members party including soon turn following party line governor year following independent course began systems place appointed honest democrats republicans election commission reorganized militia placing control state governor pushed amendment state constitution march state legislature passed bill delight state population concern legislature called special election november replace members left patronage jobs government refused let manipulate election declaring free honest elections held term help newly voters conservative democrats swept election gained small majority legislature republican base march vetoed railroad steel bill centerpiece radical republican reconstruction plan bill released railroad companies debts state created tax pay interest bonds clearly legal veto called question legality railroad bonds created public debt likely struck deal brooks support railroad bonds month political brooks began switch senator issued statement saying brooks fairly elected kept office fraud governor supported tails democrats brooks finding support republicans brooks assigned prominent attorneys year sitting april brook complaint suddenly called lawyers present court room submitted knowledge giving time testify judge overruled awarded brooks damages office governor arkansas brooks court notified legislature governor judge swore joseph brooks new governor arkansas despite having authority brooks power aid general robert state militia brooks accompanied armed men marched arkansas capitol building known old located center streets downtown little rock ordered office refused physically forced mob obliged dragged capitol building street end afternoon nearly armed men lawn state capitol brooks men seized state arsenal began turning armed camp covered signatures sent president grant supporting brooks legal governor supreme_court justices president support brooks brooks president asking access weapons housed federal arsenal issued statement press proclaiming governor senators state met president grant sent message brooks giving support unusually physically removed power allowed remain free county retired anthony house blocks away state capitol ads placed gazette indicate anthony house continued function hotel entirety crisis fighting occurred outside hotel man dave shall prominent real estate dealer shot dead standing window building moved headquarters college institution southeastern edge state issued press temporary office asserting rights governorship vote people decision legislature printed gazette received support prominent democrats city initially voted brooks issued dispatch president grant explaining situation calling brooks band revolutionaries stating including armed conflict regain control state organs asked support federal government brooks issued proclamation people arkansas asking support answered proclamation people arkansas declaring martial law county company issued young men little rock evening april assembled army referred escorted anthony house set headquarters began trying state business militias marching singing little rock city battle ground commanding forces confederate soldiers brigadier general james commanded brooks men robert newton colonel commanded forces men occupied area anthony house patrolled cross streets outside street brooks men patrolled state house line main street post master handled situation delivering mail addressed brooks holding mail simply addressed governor arkansas men found old cannon lying half embedded ground foot street cannon naval cannon brought little rock placed north state house ward ships coming stream sat years little rock occupied federal troops cannon men pulled cannon soil repaired lady ready fire placed rear metropolitan hotel corner main streets hit boats bringing supplies brooks river cannon fired finally returned governor seat sits lawn old state house permanent display overtones civil war racial conflict evident brooks men numbered time supported republicans forces white democrats continued grow steadily conflict reached nearly bloody skirmishes occurred known battle small naval battle erupted arkansas river near natural steps brooks men attacked known thought bringing supplies shooting lasted minutes pilot ran white flag signaling surrender stray bullet pierced vessel supply pipe boiler engine cutting power boat drifted gun range lodged southern western shore sources vary actual casualties incident boat captain pilot killed pilot wounded source stated brooks regiment suffered man killed wounded report men killed number wounded casualty reports vary widely depending source new_york_times gave following casualties fatalities brooks loses favor men claiming acting behalf supporters train memphis tennessee arrested federal court justices john bennett thinking court unable rule judges denied acting direction judges taken arkansas days whereabouts unknown public federal officials began search justices justice bennett able send letter captain rose demanding know held governor arkansas letter troops sent retrieve justices escaped way little rock washington brooks supported politically support way removed office president grant dealt outcome contested election governor louisiana massacre federal troops sent brooks support washington grant pushed dispute settled arkansas demanded general_assembly called session knew support brooks men allow enter capitol building brooks hand support district court enlisted little rock premiere lawyer rose head prominent rose law firm grant decision soon set motion demise brooks governorship clear federal intervention required settle dispute despite general policy grant administration stay affairs southern states president expressed annoyance southern governors requested help federal troops combat regular waves election year violence little compassion issues faced grant united_states attorney general george henry williams issued joint supporting ordering brooks vacate capitol referred dispute state legislature historian believes grant refused sign million dollars worth fraudulent railroad bonds boss shepherd senator turned convinced grant president grant declared governor denouncing brooks party february declared brooks elected denounced followers senator later principal star route neighbor close friend boss shepherd living house owned believe commented secretary state fish large steal arkansas matter fear president led error governor asked general_assembly meet special session apparently met lines isn exactly clear speaker house president pro senate absent brooks supporters replaced elected president pro senate james speaker house passed act calling constitutional convention governor approved act scheduled election day june appointed delegates counties arkansas days later generals newton negotiated armistice time arkansas supreme_court finally decided hear brooks case voted favor election grant proclamation governor bar county circuit court met issued resolution stated judge acted independently decision represent court trial deliberately unfair defendant supreme_court ruled state constitution court jurisdiction rendered judge decision void general newton troops state house grounds evacuated brooks forces 20th reinstated governor aftermath june announced longer control matters arkansas friends willing enter arrangement safe persecution prosecution democrats including supreme_court justice john finished senate term elected september new constitution completed signed majority delegates entire electorate including voted election ratification new constitution state officials elected constitution ratified republicans actually took position democrats taken earlier believing election illegal nominated candidates conservative democrats allied paramilitary groups suppressed black voting combination intimidation blocking blacks polls outright new constitution ratified october democratic officials elected unanimously including new democratic governor inaugurated november left office serving years year term long time brooks war people arkansas allowed republican governor following governors arkansas ruling total years democrats republican governor defeating james johnson governor brother nelson governor new_york defeat johnson arkansas william louisiana ended mighty hold segregation politics