geography scotland middle ages geography scotland middle ages covers aspects land scotland including physical human departure romans early fifth century southern borders country adoption major aspects renaissance early sixteenth century scotland defined physical geography long coastline islands inland high proportion land metres sea level heavy rainfall divided highlands islands lowland regions subdivided geological features including fault lines mountains hills marshes communications land problematic raised difficulties political unification invading armies roman occupation southern scotland little impact settlement patterns iron age hill forts forts south wheel houses north continuing occupied early medieval period study place names archaeological evidence indicates pattern early medieval settlement densely north east coastal plain early settlement western mainland neighbouring islands settlement south east reached west lesser extent south western scotland later norse settlement probably extensive lighter settlement western islands reign david evidence particularly east_coast identifiable towns scotland probably based existing settlements grew number significance medieval period royal known established end thirteenth century similar number ecclesiastical created acting focal points administration local international trade early middle ages country divided speakers english centuries gradually replaced english norse reign david replaced french language court nobility late middle ages scots derived mainly old english dominant language middle period process conquest consolidation treaty boundaries scotland gradually extended small area direct control kings east modern borders medieval era monarchy court acting important centres later perth edinburgh emerged political capital fourteenth century largely result viking raids declined religious centre despite royal attempts establish new religious centre east_coast close settlement emerged important religious focus kingdom physical modern scotland half size england wales area islands inland roughly coastline miles fifth scotland metres sea level east atlantic position means heavy rainfall today year east west encouraged spread blanket combined high levels wind salt spray islands existence hills mountains marshes internal communication conquest extremely difficult contributed fragmented nature political power early middle ages period climate deterioration drop temperature increase rainfall resulting land reversed period warm dry summers severe winters allowing cultivation greater heights sea level making land productive late middle ages average temperatures began reduce cooler conditions limiting extent agriculture particularly highlands defining factor geography scotland distinction highlands islands north west south east highlands divided northwest highlands mountains fault line great divided fertile belt central higher terrain southern included hills border england came run end period regions divided mountains major rivers marshes central lowland belt averages miles width contains good quality agricultural land easier communications support elements conventional medieval government southern particularly highlands economically productive difficult govern provided scotland form protection minor english incursions cross difficult southern major attempts conquest english edward edward iii unable penetrate highlands potential resistance areas problematic govern scottish kings political history era wars independence centred attempts resolve problems entrenched settlement roman influence wall appear major impact settlement patterns iron age hill forts forts continuing occupied early medieval period defences dry stone timber laced walls large numbers forts taken suggest moving domains control administer northern western isles sites iron age wheel houses continued occupied gradually replaced imposing cellular houses handful major timber halls south comparable excavated anglo saxon england dated seventh century areas scandinavian settlement islands coast lack timber meant native materials adopted house building combining layers stone turf place evidence suggests areas settlement north east coastal plain modern angus later migration erased names record early settlement appears regions western mainland scotland adjacent islands later extending west_coast eighth century place archaeological evidence settlement south east scotland reaching west lesser extent south western scotland later norse settlement probably extensive lighter settlement western islands particularly mainland stretching fertile river valleys ross extensive settlement stretching modern borders reign david records word fortress towns granted certain legal privileges crown granted charters david reign probably existed settlements charters copied england early usually english flemish able impose tolls fines traders region outside settlements early east_coast largest wealthiest including perth edinburgh growth facilitated trade continent south west glasgow benefited profitable sea trade ireland lesser extent france spain typically surrounded castle usually market place widened high street junction marked cross houses inhabitants traced reign david evidence addition major royal late middle ages saw ecclesiastical created smaller royal counterparts excluded international trade acted mainly local markets centres written sources construct early medieval scotland estimates population inhabitants probably largest region likely fifth sixth centuries saw higher mortality rates owing appearance plague reduced net population examination burial sites period like indicate life known conditions taken suggest high fertility high mortality society similar developing countries modern world relatively young demographic profile early large numbers children women result relatively small proportion available workers number mouths feed making difficult produce surplus allow demographic growth complex societies develop formation kingdom tenth century black death reached country estimates based land suggest population grown half million million reliable documentation impact plague references abandoned land following decades pattern followed england population fallen low half million end 15th century compared situation population later industrial revolution numbers relatively evenly spread kingdom roughly half living north cent population lived suggested mean population smaller largest edinburgh probably population end era language modern divide celtic languages major groups celtic languages welsh derive celtic come languages irish language remains enigmatic written script survives place names isolated inscriptions irish script modern accept nature unity language unclear belonged group historical sources place evidence indicate ways language north languages south replaced old english later norse period high middle ages majority people scotland spoke language simply called scottish latin northern isles norse language brought scandinavian settlers evolved local end eighteenth century norse survived spoken language sixteenth century outer french flemish particularly english main language scottish south east area settlers brought form old english later twelfth century writer adam described lowland land english kingdom scots accession david ceased main language royal court replaced norman french followed castles nobles upper order church late middle ages middle scots simply called english dominant language country derived largely old english addition elements french resembling language spoken northern england distinct dialect late fourteenth century adopted ruling elite gradually abandoned french fifteenth century language government acts parliament council records treasurer accounts reign james onwards result dominant north began steady decline political foundation tenth century combined kingdom contained small proportion modern scotland lands added tenth eleventh centuries term scotia applied sources region forth central river began describe lands authority scottish crown second half twelfth century expansion wider kingdom scotland gradual process combining external conquest suppression occasional rebellions extension power placement effective agents crown neighbouring independent kings subject eventually disappeared records ninth century term meaning great steward began appear records describe rulers angus acted lords kingdom counter viking threat later process consolidation associated introduced david particularly east south crown authority greatest saw placement based castles creation administrative pattern local regions scotland strong cultural economic ties england ireland scandinavian mainland europe internal communications difficult country lacked obvious geographical centre king kept court capital emerged major royal centre reign iii david tried build royal centre twelfth thirteenth centuries charters issued popular locations early era nearby perth edinburgh later middle ages king moved royal castles particularly perth held judicial sessions kingdom edinburgh began emerge capital reign james iii cost considerable king early religious centre said burial place kings end eleventh century declined result viking raids transfer relics mid ninth century closer centre kingdom close ceremonial site represented attempt develop new religious centre biblical cult probably established east_coast centre political kings early eighth century major political capital trading centre emerged centre scottish church thirteenth century borders england fluid annexed scotland david lost grandson successor treaty york treaty perth fixed borders kingdom scots england norway respectively close modern boundaries isle man fell english control fourteenth century despite attempts restore scottish authority english able large slice edward iii losses gradually regained particularly england preoccupied wars roses great acquisition scottish territory occurred james iii married margaret denmark receiving islands islands payment border fortress largest port medieval scotland fell english final change hands uncertain area small region lands south west end border divided french commission

Geography of Scotland in the Middle Ages


scotland scotland artistic literary intellectual movement developed late eighteenth early nineteenth centuries wider european romantic movement partly reaction age enlightenment individual national emotional responses moving renaissance models particularly middle ages arts manifested literature drama adoption mythical exploration national poetry work robert burns historical novels walter scott scott major impact development national scottish drama art heavily influenced new view highlands location wild dramatic landscape scott profoundly affected architecture building house early nineteenth century set boom scots revival music burns attempt produce canon scottish song resulted cross scottish continental classical music romantic music dominant scotland twentieth century scott figures like thomas played development historiography idea historical imagination influenced science particularly life sciences geology astronomy giving scotland prominence areas continued late nineteenth century scottish philosophy dominated scottish common sense realism shared characteristics major influence development scott played major defining scottish british politics helping create view scotland highlands fundamentally changed scottish national identity began movement 1830s continued significantly affect areas music early twentieth century lasting impact nature scottish identity outside perceptions scotland definitions romantic literature english complex artistic literary intellectual movement originated second half eighteenth century western_europe gained strength industrial french revolutions partly revolt political norms age enlightenment nature embodied strongly visual arts music literature significantly influenced historiography philosophy natural sciences seen revival life thought middle ages reaching models elevate elements art narrative perceived medieval attempt escape confines population growth urban embracing exotic unfamiliar distant associated political revolutions beginning france movements independence particularly poland spain greece thought incorporate emotional assertion self individual experience sense infinite sublime art stress imagination landscape spiritual correspondence nature described margaret revolt classical form conservative morality authoritarian government personal human literature drama union england scotland increasingly adopted english language wider cultural norms literature developed distinct national identity began enjoy international reputation laid foundations interest older scottish literature leading trend pastoral poetry helping develop stanza poetic form james scottish poet gain international reputation claiming found poetry written ancient published translations acquired international popularity proclaimed celtic equivalent classical written translated european languages appreciation natural beauty treatment ancient legend credited single work bringing romantic movement european especially german literature influence von von france figures included napoleon eventually clear poems direct translations adaptations suit aesthetic expectations audience robert burns walter scott highly influenced cycle burns poet lyricist widely regarded national poet scotland major influence romantic movement poem song sung day year scots served long time unofficial national anthem country scott began poet collected published scottish ballads prose work called historical novel launched highly successful career historical novels rob roy heart scott probably figure define scottish cultural identity nineteenth century major literary figures connected include poets james john significant figures romantic movement lord brought scotland acquired english title scotland location important literary magazines era edinburgh review founded magazine founded significantly influenced development british literature drama era duncan alex suggest publications like novels scott magazines highly dynamic scottish early nineteenth century caused edinburgh emerge cultural capital britain central wider formation british isles nationalism scottish national drama emerged early 1800s plays specifically scottish themes began dominate scottish stage theatres discouraged church scotland fears assemblies later eighteenth century plays written performed small amateur companies published lost end century closet dramas primarily designed read performed including work scott influenced ballad tradition gothic scottish national drama emerged early nineteenth century largely historical nature based core adaptations scott novels existing repertoire scottish themed plays included shakespeare friedrich maria stuart john home douglas gentle shepherd popular plays amateur groups scottish themes included jockey love highlands scott interested drama theatre royal edinburgh highland themed family legend produced edinburgh help scott deliberate attempt stimulate national scottish drama scott wrote plays hill cross patriotic scottish histories adaptations novels performed primarily minor theatres larger patent theatres included lady lake heart specifically described romantic play performance rob roy underwent performances scotland period adapted stage guy bride abbot highly popular plays saw social range size audience theatre expand helped shape theatre going practices scotland rest century art cycle common subject scottish artists works based themes created figures alexander david period saw shift attitudes highlands mountain landscapes general viewing hostile regions occupied backward marginal people interpreting aesthetically pleasing nature occupied rugged depicted dramatic fashion produced departure italy jacob series paintings falls clyde described art historian duncan treating kind natural national monument seen early work developing romantic sensibility scottish landscape probably artist paint scottish landscapes romantic style emerging end eighteenth century effect seen works late early nineteenth century artists henry alexander john significant artist period pursue entire career scotland born edinburgh returned trip italy famous intimate portraits leading figures scottish life going aristocracy lawyers doctors professors writers ministers adding elements tradition knight king painter scotland visited italy worked london returned native edinburgh career produced work range forms including portrait romantic poet robert burns depicts dramatic scottish background chiefly remembered landscapes seen founder scottish landscape tradition work continued theme landscape directly linking romantic works scott artists depict urban landscape glasgow architecture gothic revival architecture seen expression according jackson scots style reading gothic earliest evidence revival gothic architecture scotland castle constructed design input william adam incorporates turrets conventional style house son robert adam houses style include house east trend clearly seen castle robert important adoption scots early nineteenth century house residence scott built model revival style common features borrowed seventeenth century houses included crow stepped pointed turrets style popular scotland applied relatively modest dwellings architects william burn david edward edward robert examples urban contexts include building street edinburgh 1850s national wallace monument rebuilding castle palace adoption royal retreat queen_victoria confirmed popularity style ecclesiastical architecture style similar developed england adopted important figures movement included frederick thomas developed new style church building accorded fashionable high gothic adapted worship needs free church scotland examples include church edinburgh robert anderson trained office george gilbert scott london returning edinburgh worked mainly small churches pointed early english style characteristic scott assistants practice designing prestigious public private buildings scotland scottish national portrait gallery dome old college medical faculty hall edinburgh university central hotel glasgow central station catholic church edinburgh mount stuart house isle music characteristic conscious creation bodies nationalist art music scotland form dominant late eighteenth century early twentieth century robert burns embarked attempt produce corpus scottish national song building work william james joseph working music seller james johnson contributed eventual songs collection known scots musical museum issued volumes burns collaborated george select collection original scottish airs published adapted scottish folk songs classical arrangements thompson inspired hearing scottish songs sung visiting italian concerts edinburgh collected scottish songs obtained musical arrangements best european composers included joseph van burns employed editing lyrics select collection original scottish airs published volumes helped scottish songs european cannon classical music thompson work brought elements harmonies based scottish classical music involved collection publication scottish songs scott literary effort scottish border published volumes collection drew attention international audience work lyrics set music created setting influential composer half nineteenth century german visited britain times total months scotland inspired famous works cave known scottish symphony symphony visit england conducted scottish symphony orchestra queen_victoria prince albert max composed scottish fantasy violin orchestra includes arrangement tune hey best known use song scots burns late nineteenth century effect national school orchestral music scotland major composers included alexander william wallace john studied germany italy mixed scottish themes german best known scottish violin orchestra scottish piano involving scottish themes folk melodies wallace work included praise scottish pioneering symphonic poem namesake medieval nationalist william wallace massacre work dealt scottish themes including tone poem border romance land mountain flood dances operas choral works scottish subjects described musical equivalent overtly national works include grey symphony prince charlie scottish historiography contrast enlightenment histories seen attempting draw general lessons humanity history german philosopher von ideas philosophy history mankind set concept unique national spirit drove historical change result key element influence intellectual life production national histories nature existence national scottish historiography debated historians authors consider national history exist period indicate found outside production major historical narratives works fiction important element emergence scottish national history interest figures like john collecting sources ballads coins medals songs artefacts enlightenment historians tended react embarrassment scottish history particularly middle ages religious reformation contrast historians early nineteenth century areas suitable study lawyer antiquarian produced works scotland middle ages sketches early scottish history likened pioneering history writers major historical accounts german history patrick volume history scotland sympathetic view mary queen scots led comparisons von considered father modern scientific historical writing founder scott society helped course historical research scotland thomas biographies john andrew figures generally enlightenment helped study celtic scotland investigation region helped spawn scottish celtic revival issues race important james john theory origin scots language significant intellectual figures associated thomas born scotland later resident london largely responsible bringing works german attention british audience historian invented phrase hero worship largely praise strong leaders oliver frederick great napoleon french revolution history plight french aristocracy stressed history force french historian associated use historical imagination romantic historiography led tendency emphasise sentiment identification inviting readers historical imagine interactions contrast continental romantic historians remained largely human nature events believed history form prophecy reveal patterns future late nineteenth century number victorian sage writers social commentators romantic writers reacted enlightenment historical writing putting forward figure poet historian sources history reader insight create chronicles facts reason romantic historians saw walter scott spent considerable effort new documents sources novels authority historical writing scott seen primarily novelist produced volume biography napoleon described figure romantic historiography european contexts having profound effect history particularly scotland understood written historians acknowledged influence included science seen affecting scientific romantic attitudes science varied distrust scientific enterprise endorsing non mechanical science rejected abstract associated newton major trends continental science associated include developed friedrich focused necessity reuniting man nature science based work alexander von defined susan cannon form inquiry placed stress observation accurate scientific instruments new conceptual tools disregarded boundaries different disciplines emphasised working nature artificial laboratory observation calculation romantic scientists attracted areas investigation calculation theory important particularly life sciences geology astronomy james identifies origins scottish romantic medicine work enlightenment figures particularly brothers william john hunter respectively leading surgeon day role edinburgh major centre medical teaching research key figures influenced hunters work include john brown thomas john brown argued life essential vital energy disease excessive diminished normal intensity human organ known work highly influential particularly germany development work translated edited graduate edinburgh work essays moral medical expanded ideas following vein edition identified physiology branch medicine closest important brothers john charles bell significant advances study nervous systems respectively university edinburgh major supplier royal_navy robert professor natural history edinburgh ensured large number surgeon vital imperial enterprise investigating nature world included robert brown major figures early exploration australia later use microscope paralleled noted german students credited discovery cell nucleus observation motion charles work principles geology seen foundation modern geology science insistence measurements nature according retains rhetoric sublime characteristic romantic attitudes landscape romantic thinking evident writings hugh miller followed tradition arguing nature pre ordained progression human race publisher historian antiquarian scientist robert chambers friend scott writing biography author death chambers researching scandinavia canada influential work anonymously published natural history creation comprehensive written argument favour evolution work charles darwin work strongly influenced anatomy drawing looked ideal patterns structure nature pioneered scotland figures including robert david physicist mathematician undertook key work provided compromise influenced studies newton system attacked work important later biological geological discoveries measurement south_africa allowed thomas henderson observations allow distance alpha returning edinburgh royal scotland influenced praised mary mathematician physicist women gain recognition science period major contribution magnetic crusade declared scottish born john head observatory munich found period year cycle earth magnetic field politics aftermath movement restore stuart king james england throne british government enacted series laws attempted speed process destruction clan system measures included ban bearing arms wearing limitations activities church legislation repealed end eighteenth century threat subsided soon process rehabilitation highland culture adopted highland regiments british_army poor joined large numbers end napoleonic wars nineteenth century largely abandoned ordinary people region 1820s adopted members social elite scotland europe international highlands set cycle works scott staging royal visit king george scotland king wearing resulted massive demand met scottish industry individual clan largely defined period major symbol scottish identity scotland identified culture highlands cemented queen_victoria interest country adoption major royal retreat interest highlands adoption mainstream culture seen potential threat union england house dominant whig government countries played major emergence radical independence movements development national identities tom argues scotland develop lines seen europe leaving moved england supply cultural nationalism communicated emerging working classes argue lack interference british state civil society meant middle classes reason object union argues national identity movement independence suggests scottish nationalism expressed terms nationalism form political remained scottish events like foundation friends people national association scottish rights effect federation radical administrative scottish identity directed nationalism twentieth century philosophy dominant school philosophy scotland late eighteenth century half nineteenth century known common sense realism argued certain concepts existence existence solid objects basic moral principles subsequent arguments systems morality derived seen attempt reconcile new scientific developments enlightenment religious belief origins arguments reaction dominant enlightenment particularly articulated scottish philosopher david branch thinking formulated thomas inquiry human mind principles common sense scotland figures including stewart england james stewart students included walter scott walter chambers thomas brown branch thought later major influence charles darwin william hamilton attempted combine approach philosophy common sense realism dominated scottish thought major impact france united_states germany countries victor cousin important proponent france minister education incorporating philosophy curriculum germany emphasis careful observation influenced ideas science major factor development german james brought common sense realism directly scotland north american president princeton_university soon stronghold movement porter taught common sense realism generations students yale result major influence development important new_england particularly writing decline literature thought ended 1830s commentators like margaret describing continued longer places areas particularly music dated death scott seen marking end great romantic generation scottish literature culture general lost international prominence point scott reputation writer went decline late nineteenth century recovering twentieth economic social change particularly better communications brought railways decreased ability edinburgh function alternative cultural capital london publishing industry moving london lack opportunities politics letters led talented scots leave england sentimental tradition george continued pursue scottish topics end nineteenth century seen tom sub romantic art tradition scottish landscape painting continued later nineteenth century gave way influences including french post eventually scots style continued popular end nineteenth century styles began dominate persisted music longer area fell fashion twentieth century anti romantic currents britain virtually buried victorian music written edward arthur sullivan idea historical imagination replaced source based championed ash noted death scott scottish national history lost momentum scottish stopped writing scottish histories observed change attitudes historical writing suggests reason lack development political nationalism science rapid expansion knowledge increased tendency decline man letters dominated romantic science common sense realism began decline britain face english outlined john stuart mill examination sir william hamilton philosophy influence scotland claim begun romantic movement writers burns scott produced figure international fame influence virtual invention historical novel picked writers world including france leo russia italy tradition scottish landscape painting significantly influenced art britain figures like turner took emerging scottish grand tour scottish style influenced buildings england taken scots north_america australia new_zealand music early efforts men like burns scott thompson helped insert scottish music european particularly german classical music later contributions composers like scottish contribution british revival interest classical music late nineteenth century idea history force romantic concept revolution highly influential like american literature general romantic science maintained prominence reputation scotland begun obtain enlightenment helped development emerging fields investigation including geology biology according robert nineteenth century century scottish science politically initial function pursued scott helped tension created scotland place union helped ensure survival common distinct scottish national identity play major scottish life emerge significant factor scottish politics second half twentieth century externally modern images scotland worldwide landscape culture sciences arts largely defined created


gibraltar history gibraltar began landing muslims fall kingdom ended fall gibraltar christian hands years later early 14th century muslim presence gibraltar began april general ibn led initial advance main force command ibn governor gibraltar named traditionally said landed shores rock gibraltar likely landed nearby muslim sources claimed established kind fortification rock evidence found considered credible fortified settlement built english city victory intended major city furnished palaces fallen short ambitions founder min time captured kingdom short siege muslim control restored longer siege city subsequently underwent major expansion number buildings structures period exist including castle parts walls bath house subterranean reservoir gibraltar subjected final fall august feast bernard christian forces 1st duke population muslim jewish expelled replaced christian settlers early years muslim conquest gibraltar islamic history began arrival ibn april start conquest traditionally said landed shores rock gibraltar henceforth named english mountain later corrupted gibraltar spanish according early islamic account cast anchor close mountain received actually landing gibraltar account 9th century egyptian historian ibn describes gibraltar lying points departure actual landing place according account possibly legendary julian count ally estranged king transported muslim forces ships way different trade spanish accounts detail invasion force transported merchant ships reason crossing gibraltar poor place land relative isolation difficult rocky terrain likely landed vicinity roman colony head bay gibraltar coast north gibraltar spain landing conspicuous argued kind fortification probably constructed gibraltar according 13th century historian ali ibn built fort rock temporary use captured area abandoned descended mountains desert tract conquered places abandoned fort mountain fort probably consisted look post rock observe movements bay period landing little need substantial better landing points hands manpower construct fortification mention permanent occupation gibraltar found arab christian chronicles archaeological evidence found 12th century rest gibraltar initially territory passing spanish branch broke away main revolution series independent kingdoms included gibraltar managed maintain independence forcibly absorbed faced threat invasion north_africa kingdom ruler conscious repeat feat centuries earlier bring invasion force garrison react ordered governor build fort gibraltar guard watch events straits death come invitation kings territories threatened christian king ibn incorporated realm years later following political state successors returned spain gained control incursions vii muslim held territory shown area needed strongly defended min ordered construction fortified city gibraltar called city victory min order issued march charged important architects day task building renowned mathematician assisted ibn experienced architect min ordered city mosque palaces sons provide supply water protected wall fine build single gate known english gate victory facing connecting gibraltar mainland harbour constructed constructed rock unclear actually built death min son successor preferred capital portion wall metres long survives south main city gibraltar similar design defensive walls morocco protected settlement upper rock modern queen road firm archaeological evidence lacking fact mention settlement gibraltar arabic spanish contemporary sources project capture town christians battle late thirteen early fourteenth centuries morocco fought control gibraltar battle spanish del major chapter history christian spain framework clashes said powers bring control strategic area gibraltar definitely appeared scene onslaught north shore gibraltar came jurisdiction reduced successor state nearby gibraltar probably given sultan muhammad sultan morocco payment intervention spain behalf sources mention date sultan handed gibraltar use base ports pursuit controlling troops laid siege easily took governorship good unsuccessfully besieged years later result north african rulers decided retreated sell remaining ports documentary account gibraltar available period following project reasons believe small fortified town existed gibraltar existence direct consequence fall capture city expected lay siege eventually happen order direct links peninsula threatening presence christian stronghold west led establishment garrison east way gibraltar protected rearguard provide position fallen time increased presence christian fleets straits gibraltar provided excellent post years events quarrel erupted promptly sponsored rebellion ibn throne morocco landed force quickly carved rebels continued receive support garrisons believed sultan unable rebel intrigued truce encouraging gibraltar cut rebel siege gibraltar operation main siege siege brief clear defences lacking succeeded capturing gibraltar account siege gibraltar indicates small place thousand time fall siege engines men needed reduce conquest expulsion town population ferdinand ordered defences strengthened walls repaired constructed town dockyard built house main siege failed struck deal sultan allowing hold gibraltar loss gibraltar led deposition sultan brother quickly reversed policy abandoned rebels gave claim gibraltar new treaty hoping recover busy spain gave immediately launched attempt recover gibraltar support second siege gibraltar failed held gibraltar years new deal struck sultan muhammad sultan ali ibn morocco forces crossed began siege gibraltar effort lasting half months mounted combined force population spanish christians reduced eating shoes belts town governor surrendered june muhammad assassinated immediately conspiracy organized enemies court sultan retained gibraltar hands immediately mounted unsuccessful fourth siege ended months following restoration peace ordered gibraltar strong walls halo surrounds crescent moon details rebuilt city known work biographer ibn written describes reconstruction gibraltar city expanded new defensive wall built cover western southern flanks towers connecting passages added strengthen existing fortifications strengthened repaired weak points exploited improved final century gibraltar city final incarnation gibraltar stood north eastern present day city reaching area grand casemates square upper castle road divided main quarters tower homage castle usually referred formidable square situated tower largest towers built square metres strengthened rebuilding earlier tower bears eastern wall projectiles shot siege accessed single gate survives inscription visible 18th century recorded dedicated sultan area later called villa english old town spanish accessed english gate port area called spanish taken house arabic built separate access gates land gate gate sea gate grand casemates gates southern gate gate core city surrounded substantial defensive walls tall towers topped tower homage towers survive square based fitted clock victorian times constructed design intended resist mining walls built lime based mortar local sand faced decorative simulate masonry builders later changed construction methods stone brick stronger structure southern flank walls survived relatively intact walls likely found underlying modern defensive walls constructed british south fortified city urban area known literally red sands named predominant soil area ibn visited city wrote walked round mountain saw works executed master late sultan morocco armament equipped additions master god strengthen strengthened wall mount formidable useful walls number remnants visible gibraltar today bath house similar examples morocco built lower town remnants seen today incorporated gibraltar museum built roman capitals salvaged nearby ruined city bath house governor house mosque built city centre later converted spanish catholic_church cathedral mary crowned small mosque built near point southern tip gibraltar later converted christian shrine lady europe subterranean reservoir known nun built point supply water city existing 12th century wall sea shore extended point block access places landings sea remainder gibraltar destruction caused great siege gibraltar buried strengthened fortifications rebuilding implemented british fall city powerful sultan severely defeated christian kings battle morocco subsequently went internal busy active intervention spain clearing way renewed attempt gibraltar taken relative ease gibraltar fall easily subjected fifth siege ended died plague black death control gibraltar transferred morocco garrison revolted declared allegiance morocco leading sixth siege stormed city assistance walls attempt capture city christians second count seventh siege gibraltar ended disaster august landing led resulted drowning red sands knights men arms body retrieved beheaded displayed basket gibraltar sea gate years finally august son juan 1st duke succeeded capturing gibraltar launching surprise attack success brief eighth siege gibraltar garrison greatly depleted men rank left pay homage newly sultan ali initial assault count beaten casualties sides men garrison realised depleted state withstand second assault offered surrender condition garrison inhabitants gibraltar allowed leave wives children goods compensation paid property left proposal welcomed fell rivalry christian commanders inhabitants gibraltar retreated castle surrendered days expelled city jewish population replaced spanish christians gibraltar took place feast bernard spanish named patron saint gibraltar remained brought end gibraltar years ibn begun conquest


council lithuania council lithuania lithuanian german polish july state council lithuania lithuanian convened conference took place september men initially composing council different ages social status political council granted executive authority lithuanian people entrusted establish independent lithuanian state february members council signed act independence lithuania declared lithuania independent state based democratic principles february celebrated lithuania state restoration day council managed establish proclamation independence despite presence german troops country autumn spring council doubled size council continued efforts constituent assembly lithuania lithuanian met historical background conference partition polish lithuanian commonwealth lithuania russian_empire 19th century poles attempted restore independence rebelled november uprising january uprising realistic opportunity came world war germany occupied lithuania troops marched russia russian revolution opportunities independence opened germany avoiding direct annexation tried find middle path involve kind union germany light upcoming peace negotiations russia germans agreed allow conference hoping lithuanian nation wanted detached russia wished closer relationship germany conference held september adopted resolution independent lithuania established closer relationship germany depend recognized new state september attendees conference elected member council lithuania establish resolution german authorities allow resolution published permit council proceed authorities censored council newspaper echo lithuania preventing council reaching wider public audience conference resolved constituent assembly elected democratic principles inhabitants lithuania membership men initially composing council different ages youngest oldest social status political lawyers priests doctor publisher engineer members christian democrats seven affiliated gained degrees education council surviving member died september meeting september elected chairman council chairman vice vice chairs change time time retained elected president lithuania succeeded chairman original members change membership took place july new members admitted resigned spring council doubled size declaration independence soon council elected major developments took place russia october revolution brought power signed truce germany december started peace negotiations germany needed documentation relationship lithuania called berlin protocol germany offered recognize lithuanian independence agreed form firm permanent federation germany based conventions concerning military affairs transportation customs currency council agreed condition lithuania decide internal affairs foreign policy germans rejected proposal december council adopted resolution agreeing firm permanent alliance germany basis conventions members voted resolution signed germans broke promise recognize state invite delegation negotiations treaty brest including living abroad disapproved december declaration declaration seen pro german obstacle establishing diplomatic relations england france united_states enemies germany january day wilson announced fourteen points council proposed amendments declaration december calling constituent assembly amendments rejected germans clear council serve advisory functions council torn apart members threatened leave february council temporarily chaired decided declare independence time mentioning specific relationship germany left constituent assembly decide february celebrated lithuania state restoration day establishing independence germans satisfied new declaration demanded council december decision march germany russia signed treaty brest declared baltic nations german interest zone russia renounced claims march germany recognized independent lithuania basis december declaration essence changed lithuania council status efforts establish administration hindered form government left germany ruled kaiser preferred monarchy proposed personal union prussian dynasty alternative june council voted invite duke count monarch lithuania agreed elected king lithuania july decision controversial members council left protest germany recognize new king relationship council remained tense council allowed determine borders lithuania establish embassy berlin begin forming stable administrative system received small funds cover expenses september situation changed german revolution started germany lost war fall longer position terms november council adopted provisional constitution decision invite king helped reconcile political factions functions government entrusted member invited form cabinet ministers government formed november day germany signed armistice council began organize army police local government institutions expanded include ethnic minorities jews women council despite petition gathered signatures freedom wars started political processes turmoil lithuanian elections constituent assembly lithuania held april council replaced parliament august constitution lithuania adopted


clan clan highland scottish clan scottish mac means son carpenter mason documented history clan exists commonly said descend mac nephew great 12th century leader scottish ingenious strategy secured marriage daughter king isles greatly increasing territories unknown date clan scottish mainland chiefs established home earliest recorded clan chiefs emerge 17th century according tradition held land centuries subject feudal tenure converted money rent later years chief forced relinquish inability meet payments family subsequently emigrated united_states participated military campaigns wars kingdoms rising operate independent body clan members served hereditary lords hereditary chiefs clan clan member duncan ban regarded finest poets origins scottish mac means son carpenter son notes consider trade equivalent names smith son heir attribute existence surname parts scotland fact signifies descent individuals wood workers scotland authority lord king arms recognised chief arms works mention black book lost said contained history clan documented record clan origins discovered accounts identify founder explain frequently repeated story ties lived 12th century described greatest warrior kings born scotland ambitious figure outset sought hand daughter king red norse king man isles story initially rebuffed island magnate ultimately succeed stealth recorded history according account agreed join expedition raid night sailing ship wright carpenter known mac second given accounts nephew secretly bored holes hull ship butter temporarily seal entering open seas washed away action waves king ship began rapidly taking water urgent appeal help previously sought marriage boarded king ship filled holes wooden previously prepared purpose time descendants called sons sought marriage place line descendants known kings lords isles centuries contend scottish monarchy control large portion northwestern scotland account involving holds arose afloat version clan founder identified son lords isles cuts thumb order plug leak sinking vessel original home clan likewise subject general agreement clan arose islands west scottish mainland accounts identify ancestral home tradition holds story clan way mainland settled shore vicinity ben myth magic said seeking fresh cattle initially mountain spirit testing courage spirit instructed new home white cow herd lie rest site known history accounts relate point 13th century lords hereditary post continued territory subsequently passed control finally settling chiefs said held land centuries presumably owning property outright originally generally agreed uncertain date acquired feudal obligation initially entailed symbolic payment tradition identifies supplied white surrendered killed shared landlord tenant token mutual esteem earliest recorded clan chiefs emerge 17th century earliest chief duncan married mary daughter patrick campbell died buried era comes traditional account home chief saved clan ties time civil war scotland forces james graham 1st sacked marched north area tenant chief deemed opponent royalist faction served chief expecting mercy fled campaign royalist troops orders destroy houses neighbourhood began set fire chief house commander men sir alexander extinguished blaze widespread sent word chief property spared recognition services clan founder performed marriage ancestor half millennium earlier subsequently joined army including chief chief campbell battle february surprised forces routed said chief time rising james born joined clans rallying prince charles edward stuart wife campbell neighbors deepened fact legal studies sponsored campbell earl nonetheless clan regiment stewart campaign serve independent body unknown date symbolic owed payment money rent increased years chief forced relinquish inability meet payments chief family emigrated united_states family continues reside identities chiefs known interested clan members clan officially recognized scottish authorities coat arms james wallace confirmed lord king arms current chief clan russell chiefs hold membership standing council scottish chiefs poets hereditary chiefs clan composed clan music supplied hereditary noted commemorating battle attributed 18th century members clan earned considerable regard poetry james poet chief best remembered biting satire composed response samuel johnson english comments scots famous trip poet chief find eclipsed born march duncan ban known fair duncan songs historian described twin peaks century verse called burns highlands work described possessing originality conception flow language biographers agree wholly critically acclaimed work praise ben known poetic commentaries contemporary events rising attempted return house stuart throne scotland england duncan fought composed humorous song losing borrowed sword battle january following uprising composed best selling poem attacking portion act wearing highland dress briefly imprisoned ban wearing repealed celebrated poem entitled song named highland society london later years allowed class traveled community died october monument memory duncan ban described contemporary press accounts style architecture erected near head awe families groups recorded arms court cadet chiefly house shield significantly different subsequently granted clan chief branch family claims descent patrick son chief family established shores john 10th line fought wounded battle reported members taken prisoners rising early 19th century family represented john said descended taken protection clan chief end 15th century constituent group clan alliance clans headed chief fought little hamlet awe near road center weaving inhabitants specialty industry men prized time wearing highland costume irish relationship scotland ireland entirely clear given proximity countries similarity languages scottish undoubtedly settled ireland mainly edward authority irish include separate entry works irish families lists carpenter freeman entry likewise ireland found chiefly county appear view native irish ancestry originally changed names believed irish descend native irish stock ancestors living areas scottish settled assumed scottish surname irish mac family names associated particular clan case surname wright scottish origin considered form family names associated clan include clan profile chief russell chief arms arms coat arms consisting shield divided quarters upper left lower right quarter red eagle wings upper right quarter shows ship sails lower left quarter red hand blue cross cow standing appears shield shield silver helmet hand dagger coat arms chief clan motto difficulty war cry mountain ben near awe pipe music good old way scottish plant badge white heather


background winter war background winter war covers period outbreak winter war finland soviet_union stretching finland declaration independence soviet finnish negotiations independence finland autonomous grand inside imperial russia ensuing finnish civil war red guards supported russian defeated fearful soviet designs 1920s 1930s constantly attempting align scandinavian neutrality particularly regard sweden furthermore engaged secret military operation estonia 1930s late 1920s early 1930s relations soviet_union normalized degree soviets anxious finland invasion started negotiations conclude military agreement time soviet leader joseph desire recover territories russia lost chaos october revolution russian civil war finland obvious target nature soviet demands included installation soviet military facilities finnish soil negotiations went august soviet_union nazi_germany signed pact eastern european countries divided spheres interest finland belonged soviet sphere interest october gained control baltic states turned sights finland confident control gained great effort soviet_union demanded territories islands gulf finland military base near finnish capital similar demands presented previous years refused red army attacked november simultaneously set puppet government finnish democratic republic headed finnish communist finnish politics war steps republic finland eastern swedish kingdom centuries napoleonic wars imperial russia conquered converted autonomous state russian_empire protect saint_petersburg imperial capital finland enjoyed wide autonomy senate turn century russia began attempts finland general policy strengthen central government unify empire attempts ruined relations increased support finnish movements self government outbreak world war gave finland window opportunity achieve sought aid german empire end december senate finland declared country independence new russian government weak soon russian civil war break leader spare troops attention finland consequently soviet russia recognized new finnish government weeks declaration independence fought short civil war pro red guards armed russian troops stationed finland world war inter governmental organization league nations founded league goals included preventing war collective security settling disputes countries negotiation diplomacy finland joined league 1920s 1930s finland politically diverse communist_party finland declared illegal far right patriotic people movement minor presentation fourteen seats seat parliament middle ground occupied conservatives liberals swedish people party tended cluster social democratic_party leader strong proponent parliamentary system late 1930s finnish export oriented economy growing country solved right wing problem finland preparing summer olympics finnish german relations closing stages world war german trained finnish troops played key role finnish civil war german baltic_sea division intervened late civil war troops volunteers german influenced circles university students participation finnish struggle independence created close ties germany german defeat world war scandinavian relations important main goal finnish foreign policy finnish german relations cooled national rose power admired imperial germany radical anti democratic nazi regime finnish conservatives accept state violence anti church policies nazis sympathy german aims revise treaty versailles official finnish policy reserved especially german occupation czechoslovakia finland recalled ambassador short period finnish nazis parties achieved minor support elections especially aftermath failed rebellion finnish swedish operation finnish independence civil war scandinavian countries best candidates political alliance finnish cooperation represented rich vein shared history culture nations swedish speaking common language civil war sweden briefly occupied islands later supported local movement wanted finland join islands sweden dispute resolved league nations remained finnish granted autonomy obstacles closer relations ongoing language strife status swedish language finland sweden opposed upper class resistance movement result young finnish men received military training germany generating movement finnish swedish relations improved considerably winter war finland sought security guarantees league nations high expectations sweden founding members league consequently framed military policies based league principles sanctions established special planning committee called committee chairman consisted politicians officers aim exploring possible military collaboration finland nations prime goal operation scandinavian countries sweden important prospective partner finnish swedish engaged wide ranging operation focused exchange information defence planning islands military exercises finnish objective commit establishing military political joint venture undertake assist finland islands important useful precedent set government sweden aware military operation carefully avoided committing finnish foreign policy secret military operation estonia finnish relations closest freedom war 1920s cooled military relations remained close finnish point view close relations estonia exclude scandinavian neutrality policy military relations secret countries held joint military exercises central aim prevent soviet baltic fleet freely strength gulf finland country estonia sought public security guarantees signed baltic lithuania relations united_kingdom france collapse imperial germany november sought new political partners united_kingdom significant trading partner 18th century worked improve relations decades 1930s finland purchased torpedo boats united_kingdom buying bomber aircraft germany british protests purchasing instead modern bristol later served successfully winter war relations france important world war 1920s france played leading role new european security arrangements 1930s france started fear rise nazi_germany initiated soviet_union strained franco finnish relations winter war france important suppliers military finnish defence plans finnish defence forces military operation plan soviet_union named russian concentration 1920s latest plan saw possible scenarios scenario soviets western border deploy limited forces finland case border scenario envisaged unfavourable situation main defense line finnish forces repel soviet attacks favourable positions destroy enemy winter war scenario flexible basis proved correct finnish general staff badly numerical superiority red army finland limited defence budget independence especially 1930s consequently finnish defence forces lacking military branches military outdated proved unsuitable field winter war winter war material situation improved modern equipped red army soviet finnish relations diplomatic relations relationship soviet_union finland tense legacy periods forced turn century failed soviet backed socialist rebellion finland incursions groups finnish nationalists expedition expedition russian east october finland soviet russia signed treaty confirming new finnish soviet border old border autonomous grand finland imperial russia proper addition finland received ice free harbour arctic ocean treaty prevent finnish government allowing volunteers cross border support east uprising finnish communists causing disturbances finland countries signed border peace agreement normalized border soviet_union began ethnic soviets captured killed deported peasants provoking widespread criticism finnish media years later nationalist movement unsuccessfully attempted overthrow finnish government rebellion 1930s diplomatic climate finland soviet_union gradually improved 1920s soviet_union offered different non aggression finland rejected offer renewed series agreements countries soviet_union western border soviet_union signed non aggression pact finland affirmed years relations countries remained largely foreign trade finland percent soviet_union soviet_union joined league nations later accepted progressive forces communist parties change soviet attitudes internal politics finland enabled short relations protection russian civil war joseph disappointed soviet_union inability successful revolution finland furthermore struggle national sentiments inside soviet_union proclaimed main danger national relations great russian started policy promote national communist encouraged russian implying russians politically culturally superior soviet diplomacy turned recovery territories state soviet_union announce doctrine communism natural agency practice meant communism considered anti soviet fascist soviet foreign policy mixture ideology world revolution traditional concerns russian national security era soviet agriculture production collapsed causing official output numbers industrial production propaganda portray soviet_union economic miracle soviet propaganda cross border comparisons finland represent country vicious fascist finnish marshal leader finnish social democrat party particular hate figures gained near absolute power leaving army self governing officers target great terror late 1930s soviet_union longer satisfied status quo relations finland came result change soviet foreign policy pursued aim recovering provinces russia lost chaos october revolution russian civil war soviets considered old empire optimal balance security territory thoughts shaped historical precedent treaty intended protect saint_petersburg acquisition finland protect rising power nazi_germany sweden longer major threat russia soviets forgotten role finnish controlled islands played base operations german expeditionary force finnish civil war finnish soviet negotiations negotiations early april junior diplomatic official named contacted finnish foreign minister prime minister stating soviets trust germany war considered possible countries war germany use finland base operations soviet_union red army wait border advance meet enemy finland fight germany soviet_union offer possible economic military assistance soviets accept fortification islands demanded positive guarantees finland position assured finland committed policy neutrality country resist armed satisfied reply given finland military weakness suggested finland lease islands gulf finland approaches suggestion rejected earlier mid-1930s soviet ambassador party leader presented similar proposal negotiations continued autumn soviets reduced demands red army operation option anymore focus shifted securing gulf finland soviets wanted informed key elements finnish gulf blockade secret military plan baltic fleet furthermore suggested island soviets care defence negotiations resigned foreign minister reasons associated negotiations place taken anti german resignation set rumours quickly finnish government forced resign finnish government sympathetic germans attempted appear handed interior ministry issued order banning extreme right ban reversed finnish courts unconstitutional years later minister charge time admitted simple gesture suggest moscow finland harbour german fifth column winter soviets reduced demands sent negotiate met times rejected soviet proposals saying soviet demands mean end finnish neutrality policy germans chairman finnish defense council informed negotiations opined finland islands defence impossible war arguments persuade majority finnish government departed handed april reasons turn soviet proposals finland started negotiations military operation sweden great hopes joint finnish swedish defense islands want negotiations addition violent trials executions soviet_union given country bad reputation furthermore finnish communist leadership soviet_union executed great purge soviet_union reliable contracting party soviet envoys sent negotiate officially relatively low rank later assumed represented higher organ state probably soviet secret police soviet german pact august soviet_union germany signed pact nominally pact non aggression treaty included secret protocol independent countries finland estonia lithuania poland romania divided spheres interest finland falling soviet sphere interest immediate aftermath pact scandinavian countries finland relieved germans soviets allies german threat soviet_union shortly germany invaded poland great_britain france declared war germany soviets invaded eastern poland later moscow requested baltic states allow establishment soviet military bases troops soil government estonia accepted ultimatum signing corresponding agreement september lithuania followed suit october soviet demands late october soviet_union invited finland negotiations moscow finnish government comply like government earlier unlike baltic countries started gradual guise additional training finnish government send foreign minister ambassador stockholm purpose limit powers moscow met foreign minister soviets demanded frontier ussr finland moved westward point kilometres east finland second largest city line addition destroy existing fortifications finland soviet_union islands gulf finland north soviets demanded peninsula furthermore lease peninsula soviets thirty years permit soviets establish military base exchange soviet_union eastern area twice large territories demanded soviet offer divided finnish government foreign minister defence minister rejected offer backed president later appointed finnish wanted accept soviet offer relied military assistance sweden took stockholm assembly scandinavian leaders october october met swedish foreign minister private assured persuade swedish government assist finland possible war actual war failed task resigned finland totally isolated german soviet blockade attempted october obtain arms ammunition absolute secrecy enlisting german arms dealer october announced soviet demands public session supreme soviet october second november offers finland area soviet_union far soviets demanded finnish delegation returned home november taking granted negotiations continue future beginning war military preparations soviet_union started intensive near finnish border finnish students volunteers spent late summer improving defensive structures soviet border labour worked hard order add density sparse road rail networks summer important phase soviet planning told memoirs supreme council war ordered commander military district draft invasion plan instead chief staff plan adopted july necessary assault troop deployments commands initiated october operational plans september called invasion start november certain change opinion soviet pressure demanded territories invasion plans laid soviet general staff alexander soviet clearly defined little margin error key date december birthday finnish capital freed fascist oppression commissioned celebratory piece entitled suite finnish themes performed marching bands red army november soviets staged incident soviet artillery shelled area near russian village announced finnish artillery attack killed soviet soldiers soviet_union demanded apologize incident forces kilometres border denied responsibility attack rejected demands calling joint finnish soviet commission examine incident soviet_union claimed finnish response hostile excuse withdraw non aggression pact red army assaults november soviet forces invaded finland divisions totalling men bombed civilian quickly reached line soviet_union withdrawn non aggression november earlier nazi_germany staged similar incident excuse withdraw pact poland later soviet_union incident challenge neutrality estonia later finnish statesman commented soviet attack declaration war violated different non aggression treaty non aggression pact finland soviet_union signed charter league nations invasion judged illegal league nations expelled soviet_union december following soviet attack appointed commander chief finnish defense forces furthermore finnish government changed appointed new prime minister foreign minister december soviet_union created new government finland henceforth called finnish democratic republic puppet regime headed known government village place liberated red army puppet regime unsuccessful quietly discarded winter contrary soviet expectations beginning conflict working class stood legal government national unity soviet invasion later called spirit winter war


maiden maiden language english maiden young unmarried woman female manual working mining industries cornwall western devon south western great_britain term use early 18th century women girls worked actual number likely higher women worked coal mines britain surface underground worked surface likely women worked metal mining antiquity records female workers date 13th century black death 14th century mining declined records female workers found late 17th century industrial improvements end crown control metal mines rising demand raw materials caused boom mining late 17th early 18th centuries increasing numbers women girls recruited mines processing ore sent male miners underground discovery cheaper sources copper north wales triggered crash copper price mines closed industrial revolution began late 18th early 19th centuries welsh metal mines declined mining cornwall devon viable women girls recruited large numbers work ore processing women children accounted half workers area copper mines machinery capable performing work industry grew quickly number women girls working grew steadily numbers fell proportion workforce peak mining boom working region mines actual number likely higher unusual girls age work old age generally began age left work married 1860s mines faced competition cheap metal imports legislation introduced 1870s limited use child labour mining system went terminal decline leading collapse local economy mass emigration overseas parts united_kingdom number fallen half peak outbreak world war remained employment employer ceased operations bringing tradition end women recruited ore processing result labour shortages second world war limited number female workers sex discrimination act banned practice recruiting male women performed manual labour mines surviving maiden died closure south tin metals mining came end background years antiquity late 20th century mining tin copper played significant economy cornwall cornwall northern ore mountains modern border czech_republic germany places europe major tin deposits found near surface tin essential ingredient bronze cornwall great economic significance bronze age europe despite relative isolation mining roman empire led mines depleted 3rd century leaving cornwall neighbouring devon significant sources tin europe appears surviving evidence decline bronze age copper production ceased cornwall tin mines continuous operation roman period middle ages primitive early mines cornwall devon probably operated local extended families men women children working men boys probably worked surface ground women girls worked ground archaeological evidence women children working underground bronze age britain mines period contain tunnels small children short adults worked point death great death edward early independent kingdom cornwall annexed neighbouring kingdom kingdom england late cornwall rest lands control english king conquered came control william late 12th century metal mines brought control crown operation tin mines lord warden mining metals directly controlled crown mines royal female workers middle ages women girls probably worked mining antiquity earliest known written references female manual labourers mining 13th 14th century records royal lead silver mines border devon cornwall mines bordered sides loop river traditional boundary devon cornwall mines devon border surface level supply timber use mining carried men female workers employed sort ore crushing prepare bone ash process general manual labour adult woman paid penny day young girls penny miners skilled labourers recruited england wales evidence records appears female labourers wives daughters locally recruited women black death area population collapsed miners survived left mining work farming wages doubled owing severe labour shortage mines abandoned women girls certainly employed lead silver records far female workers tin works 14th century appear significant numbers female labourers worked cornwall mining industry early 18th century records discovered period 18th century copper boom introduced coal powered greatly increasing quantity metal ore mines royal act ended crown ownership cornwall mines allowing private investors local families begin mining operations time years war war spanish succession caused high demand metals consequence easy river canal access coal mines wales northern england metal mines cornwall major centre ore shipped cornwall river gloucestershire refined sold factories surrounding birmingham began investing mines cornwall shortage manual labour rural lightly populated cornwall prevalent belief women children best suited ore separation required good observation skills little way physical strength large scale recruitment women girls mines began time term maiden appears come common usage derived old significant proportion cornwall young women quickly involved mining vicar complaining unable hire servants young women town employed copper key innovations mining industry horse powered mechanism lifting ore surface mining deep shafts practical horse powered pump allowed mining beneath water table role 18th century need expensive machinery horses large numbers workers traditional operation mines extended families individual impractical new deep level mines came ownership groups investors mining companies group people known tribute team single extended family bid right work specified portion men older boys dig appointed section women girls young boys dress ore sent men later years practice dressing ore sent men tribute team abandoned instead paid flat wage owner dress ore sent tribute team sent ore billed work typical work maiden period picking ore rubble breaking separating ore carrying ore metal generally girls sort ore older girls separate ore grown women carry heavy manual labour breaking rocks transporting ore pieces apparatus smaller tribute teams time dress ore sent financially worthwhile pay poorer quality ore processed large quantities poor quality ore discarded waste occasions improved extraction techniques rises price metals worthwhile process discarded ore separate tribute teams bid right dress process rubble practice tribute teams declined early 19th century owners hire dress waste ore records pool copper successful early copper mines males worked high quality poor quality ore earning flat rate day typically working days month records ages pool male likely boys young heavy labour pool employed female male figures risen female male typically working days month number employed industry rose dramatically early significant copper mines employed copper dressing floors appears 18th century copper boom customary mining industry use purely casual labour records contracted particular paid piece rate work instead accounts invariably paid fixed daily rate employed needed poor weather conditions surface level work impossible water shortages meant water powered machinery operate accidents mines caused temporary closure suspended discovery copper mountain extracted mining led crash copper price expensive deep mining began copper boom came end mines began close mining ceased continued employed picking large quantities ore brought surface 19th century copper boom end 18th century copper mining industry north wales centred mountain declined depression british copper market ended price rose mines began reopen time industrial revolution begun bringing new attitudes organisation efficiency managers 18th century generally treated useful breaking ore managers new mines sought use employees efficiently possible 18th century metal mines worked principle adult men digging ore women children picking ore ready new large scale mines early 19th century working practices changed underground work carried male workers breaking large rocks heavy copper mines young girls sick injured older women carried simple work picking girls late teens forced broken ore broad sort ore break large ore left process smaller girls mid teens resulting separating valuable ore waste rock grown women carry heavy manual labour breaking rocks crushing ore small grains ready transporting ore pieces apparatus experienced maiden working produce approximately ton broken ore day depending type stone tin mines ore crushed far finely copper place instead ore stamped fine grains washed series collecting pits separate coarse rough fine resulting rough separated large wooden frames framing respectively extract tin ore surrounding dust following introduction mechanical ore tasks traditionally carried began despite rapid growth mines comparison slow spread meant number appears risen steadily statistics number women employed mines early days incomplete contradictory total numbers records period incomplete inconsistent format total number working period unclear estimates total number employed end 18th century range women children half total number people working copper mining lower proportion labour intensive tin mining estimates minimum women girls total worked based estimate working average years number peaking early 1860s actual figures likely considerably higher mines recorded male female workers separately deliberate reporting number children working owing legal restrictions employment estimates include female workers performing non manual administrative work mines related industries slate china clay proportion workforce fell steadily mining boom half 19th century took total number 1840s census census england shows women working mines returns year women tin lead copper mines cornwall west devon increased ore dressing process public concerns women children harsh working conditions mines meant proportion workforce continued fall generally accepted workers female census coinciding peak mining industry minimum women working mining cornwall worked mile radius employed primarily copper tin mines worked lead iron mines slate china clay typical work women typically began working mines age cases girls starting work young areas high demand workers unusual girls start work age seven charles foster found average age starting work 1870s cornwall largely unaffected legislation limited child labour mines united_kingdom typical ages remained virtually unchanged census census women typically remain married generally meant stopped working ages unusual unmarried women continue working 60s 70s year old maiden recorded census typical working day summer dawn dusk winter ore dressing light cost effective lunch break half hour hour noon lunch typically consisted hard flour filled pork potato dried fruit fish eaten cold warmed attached tea usual workers lived near workplace home meals paid piece rate basis maiden expected meet daily earn pay mines operated basis met allowed home meaning working day finish hours early tin mines water powered machinery continuous operation work seven days week vast majority industry expected work sundays religious holidays observed rest united_kingdom miners celebrated day march thursday thursday christmas day rediscovered tin religious holidays parish feast days miners holidays labour reforms early 20th century typical pay 1840s 1850s day younger girls rising day grown women engaged skilled work wages varied region owing differing levels supply demand workers average wage women girls high employed casual labour tied particular unusual transfer mines offering better pay conditions mines paid monthly loyalty bonus effort retain workers workers fined bad language failure work hard pay dependent unusual early 19th century work long periods case laundry woman months pay receive pay returned profit younger attend school starting work quarter attended sunday schools charles foster reported royal commission employment children mines found half interviewed able read extent mines basic education children employees mining families generally valued education highly try send child school education children receive tended curtailed old work mines unlike coal mines wales northern england mines generally provide housing workers largely owing casual nature work tribute team system typically travel mines family homes families building homes near acts late 18th early 19th centuries moving area right build house common land provided build overnight generally remain living families marriage early 19th century cornwall retained old custom keeping company couple formally married woman pregnant woman continue work live family time lived near worked workers typically walked miles seven work day miners cottages generally crowded people living small cottage region water supplies use mines led problems provision fresh water european food crisis 1840s food prices rose sharply times pre crisis prices relatively low paid devon great demanded increased pay cover food costs owners initially met demands food price pay rate reduced previous levels causing boys return work day striking workers dismissed replaced new workers hired lower pay rate went strike occasions 19th century cornwall high unemployment meant strikes generally unsuccessful workers easily replaced working conditions 1840s onwards mines provided crude shelters protect surface workers worst weather work surface level took place open air workers generally expected remain posts extreme weather conditions wore specialised covered shoulders extended face protect rain bright sunlight flying debris loud noise winter felt summer cotton working close proximity heavy industrial machinery wore shorter dresses skirts ankle length clothing typical period exposed lower legs wrapped protective arms protected worn clothes working wore rubber fingers hand protection hammer working wore waist length apron clothes afford white apron wearing work working clothes flowers bows jewellery decoration end 19th century working clothing maiden changed little dangerous work ground suffered poor health tuberculosis endemic mining communities exacerbated constant exposure high levels mineral dust constant work damp ore led problems extraction tin copper led exposure constant bending lifting carrying led muscular strains need hold ore hand led suffering permanent damage left hands noise generated industrial machinery particularly introduction steam engine cause hearing difficulties groups developing private sign languages notably lead cause digestive problems disorders reproductive system caused digestive problems larger mines provided separate eating areas obliged male female workers eat cause observers concerned exposure coarse rude behaviour men negative effect expected women contemporary concerns heavy protective clothing led working constant view men caused interest appearance spending long hours work meant time learn skills good investigations found evidence claim grew poor concluding tender mothers wives household duties appear comparatively light contemporary observers noted generally good behaved religious documented typically took great pride appearance clothing contemporary observers commented high fashion clothing worn sundays holidays income maiden low form dress clubs buy fashionable clothing turns wearing despite hardships relatively low pay investigation mining industry found generally enjoyed work jobs tended prefer work mines mining shorter hours domestic service affected seasonal variations farm working jobs employing significant numbers women far easier workers live home travel work day lodging master house remote farm outdoor work considered work enclosed mines factories believed women worked young age onwards cornwall suffered severe unemployment poverty large numbers women girls work mines practice giving preference wives children dead invalid miners allowed families remain local area avoid following loss family main work maiden provided opportunity girls young women escape gain financial independence benefits community giving work families invalid dead miners recruitment mining families benefited owners wives children miners expected understand mining terminology techniques generally regular visitors mines delivering food husbands familiar layout decline faced increased competition overseas mines productive copper mines exhausted mining industry went terminal decline level copper production quarter level production fell numbers employees mines fell copper industry collapsed causing movement cornwall copper tin mining continued work mines worked tin streaming rivers streams flowing tin mining areas copper mines survived investment new machinery virtually ceased employment continued tin industry economically successful began invest new machinery replace manual ore dressing drastically reducing number female workers number work fallen time mining industry went decline public opposition use female child labour mines rising mines regulation act brought mines cornwall provisions mines act previously applied coal mines limiting use child labour mines increasing costs act prohibited women working underground forbade child working surface passing factory workshop act drastically limited use female child labour employment children banned outright maximum working hours children aged drastically restricted women banned working hours week sudden loss cheap child labourers weakened mining industries cornwall west devon profitable half mines area went business following decade continued work surviving mines tin streaming instability metal markets remained mining industries increasingly 1880s william liberal government tried ban female labour mines altogether bill defeated number continued fall census number working fallen half 1850s 60s peak mines remained operational compared devon great significant copper devon cornwall closed electrification introduction surviving mines replaced jobs women outbreak world war remained employment wartime shortages raw materials younger men armed forces temporarily dress ore opened dress existing defunct mines emigration economic collapse metal mining industry depended declined prices staple goods rose sharply resulting fluctuations food prices american_civil_war economy cornwall collapsed large numbers families emigrated mining districts countries parts united_kingdom mining districts young people moved years following closure local mines women aged moved parts left country altogether male generally found work mines new places settlement mining skills use digging tunnels rapidly growing railway networks jobs traditionally existed usually locally recruited men boys tradition female labour died families found alternative employment local factories large numbers emigrated unemployment situation cornwall remained bad early 1860s charitable schemes begun training domestic servants textile industry north england effort recruit women work mills large numbers women took offers census showed women living devon majority working domestic service london surrounding suburbs middlesex lancashire addition towns growing newly discovered mines south_australia suffered gender efforts recruit women end world war complicated tasks remaining mines remained work restricted simple manual labour physically moving ore overseeing frames successful workers union campaign minimum week wage industry virtually doubled wages remaining cornwall redundant weeks increase cornwall employ traditional closed bringing centuries old tradition end end use mean end female workers mines survived women continued work administrative roles final collapse mining industry late 20th century second world war britain suffered severe shortages raw materials consideration given reopening closed mines deemed viable instead remaining mines increased production male workers away military service women briefly employed tin picking ore dressing great rock iron war limited number female workers sex discrimination act ended policy recruiting men underground work surviving mines female manual labourers mining industry born begun work age believed surviving maiden died march south europe operational tin closed bringing metal mining cornwall end