battle ban battle ban decisive battle vietnam war led complete destruction south vietnam corps tactical zone battle larger north vietnamese military operation known campaign capture region known west vietnamese central highlands march vietnam people army 4th corps staged large scale offensive known campaign aim capturing central highlands army republic vietnam order kick start stage spring offensive days north vietnamese destroyed south vietnamese military formations corps tactical zone exposing severe weaknesses south vietnamese army south vietnam defeat ban disastrous evacuation central highlands came result major mistakes firstly days leading assault ban major general van repeatedly ignored intelligence showed presence north vietnamese combat divisions district secondly president van strategy withdraw central highlands poorly planned implemented end ordinary south vietnamese soldiers families paid ultimate price north vietnamese artillery south vietnamese military convoy route background beginning members north vietnamese political bureau paid close attention military situation south vietnam plan major offensive january days vietnam people army 4th corps captured long northern edges south vietnam iii corps tactical zone north vietnamese leaders agreed launch military offensive order end war originally north vietnamese leaders expected campaign years completed way final victory key objectives bring military pressure closer south vietnamese military units possible create favourable conditions battlefield combat forces deployed current following extensive discussions fighting ability army republic vietnam political bureau approved general staff plan selected central highlands main battlefield upcoming offensive central highlands campaign campaign goal capture city ban achieve objective north vietnamese general placed great emphasis principles force secrecy surprise draw south vietnamese forces away main objective element surprise successful north vietnamese forces needed launch strong attacks leaving ban completely exposed element surprise achieved north vietnamese mass forces ban prevent south vietnamese reinforcements city order battle north vietnam march vietnam people army central highlands command general given responsibility carrying campaign capture key objectives central highlands major general deputy commander colonel appointed political colonel deputy political central highlands fielded infantry divisions 3rd gold star 10th infantry divisions independent regiments 25th infantry regiments support aforementioned units north vietnam deployed armoured regiment artillery units 40th artillery regiments air defence units air defence regiments combat engineer units 7th combat engineer regiments 29th communications regiment offensive strategy february february north vietnamese field commanders central highlands held conference plan upcoming offensive order plan combat strategy north vietnamese commanders assessed potential obstacles faced vietnam people army strength army republic vietnam central highlands following extensive discussions north vietnamese commanders concluded south vietnamese army central highlands regiment sized units counter upcoming offensive worst case scenario south vietnamese units tied north vietnamese commanders thought south vietnam probably regiments north vietnamese commanders believed south vietnam deploy armoured brigades battalions artillery aircraft day support army north vietnamese commanders central highlands discussed possibility united_states entering conflict believed commitment fighter bombers united_states seventh fleet aside dealing army formations south vietnam deployed question strike main problem concerned north vietnamese strength armies taken account central highlands high command came offensive options option north vietnamese avoid outlying south vietnamese installations strike directly primary target ban option successful north vietnamese secure highways ban stop potential south vietnamese reinforcements north vietnamese favoured option 23rd infantry division support units little time respond time option enabled quick victory inflicting large scale damage civilian population ban second option north vietnamese destroy outlying south vietnamese defences ban central highlands general command ordered combat units follow second option destroy defences ban ready switch option opportunity presented south vietnam 23rd division south vietnam command brigadier general van main unit defending ban surrounding areas major general van disposal artillery battalions equipped artillery guns armoured brigade tanks armoured vehicles south vietnamese military stationed air_force naval units ban army republic vietnam 22nd division south vietnam seven ranger battalions regional force battalions artillery battalions equipped artillery guns armoured brigades central highlands support ground units south vietnamese air_force fighter bombers helicopters transport reconnaissance aircraft central highlands vietnam south vietnamese military enjoyed numerical superiority soldiers north vietnam soldiers vicinity ban south vietnamese actually outnumbered ratio north vietnamese tanks armoured vehicles heavy artillery ratio north vietnamese general van believed tank artillery units central highlands key factors guaranteed quick victory south vietnam simply lacked capability withstand large numbers heavy weaponry south vietnamese preparations february president gathered commanders independence palace discuss military plan approved national security council december briefing colonel lung head general staff important issues brought attention president corps commanders firstly information gathered south vietnamese army showed seven north vietnamese divisions northern areas south vietnam corps tactical zone secondly signs suggested north vietnamese launch large scale attack spring summer season corps tactical zone command major general van likely north vietnam target february general returned draw defence plan days reports south vietnamese intelligence showed north vietnam infantry division arrived south vietnam corps divisions 10th infantry divisions taken positions regiments regiments set base march cia officer flew inform colonel north vietnamese preparations attack ban offering information strength north vietnamese formations response cia report general ordered 53rd regiment ban 45th regiment man don general changes south vietnamese order battle ban time north vietnamese opened fire ban general simply failed implement effective plan save corps prelude february midst new year celebrations north vietnamese surrendered 2nd brigade headquarters extensive north vietnamese soldier revealed whereabouts north vietnamese units 10th infantry division encircled lap infantry division arrived leo assault man unknown unit heading ban late february north vietnamese artillery shells began rain convinced general north vietnamese attack instead ban south vietnamese military intelligence information received american embassy showed presence north vietnamese combat divisions positioned kilometres away movements month february designed north vietnamese fool south vietnamese military commanders central highlands december north vietnamese prepared offensive conducting raids south vietnamese outposts broadcasting fake radio messages south vietnamese commanders location assault south vietnamese units kept occupied communist north vietnamese general began moving troops attacking positions 7th combat engineer regiment tasked connecting route north highway near yang pass surpassed district 10th infantry division began withdrawing lap left small force continue bombardment artillery tanks units took positions north infantry division deployed small unit west apply additional pressure south vietnamese positions son don elements regiment conducted blocking operations highway stop south vietnamese reinforcements reaching destination special forces regiment raided south vietnamese depots main formation 10th infantry divisions marched ban personnel local units spread rumours big communist offensive aforementioned districts response rumours 45th infantry regiment sent sweep areas near ban man lap maintain secrecy operations north vietnamese ordered infantry division set camp west ban avoid contact south vietnamese arrival infantry division received similar orders allowed open fire circumstances events south vietnam corps tactical zone beginning intelligence reports continued warn general imminent communist onslaught ban despite numerous warnings received cia military intelligence general remained convinced north vietnam target result february ordered 23rd infantry division remain positions reversing earlier decision bolster south vietnamese defences ban closing march north vietnam campaign south vietnamese military forces central highlands began regiment unit action destroyed south vietnamese regional force battalion successfully secured kilometre stretch road highway connecting later elements north vietnamese 3rd gold star division secured section highway connected bridge killing south vietnamese soldiers night march north vietnamese 25th regiment ambushed south vietnamese transportation convoy cut highway west ban main roads open sent reinforcements defend section highway eastern ordered 45th infantry regiment march man defend route southern 53rd infantry regiment command colonel province defend ban march north vietnamese army completely isolated south vietnamese corps tactical zone rest country route long time neglect road open march sent battalions ban convoy vehicles ambushed north vietnamese 9th regiment infantry division man vehicles destroyed artillery guns captured north vietnamese remaining seven vehicles turn returned ban helicopter march north vietnamese 48th regiment infantry division captured man took soldiers prisoner march ordered 21st ranger battalion fly support 53rd infantry regiment efforts retake man early hours march 21st ranger battalion 53rd infantry regiment repeatedly beaten attempts retake man strength north vietnamese 10th regiment captured lap surrounding areas march flew ban assess military situation brigadier general colonel colonel admitted situation lap 21st ranger battalion reassigned north ban 2nd battalion 53rd infantry regiment defend sac opportunity arose tasked lap subsequently entrusted task defending ban despite strong presence north vietnamese divisions outside ban believed situation outside district mere diversion attempt real target arrival headquarters raised level waiting enemy assault north vietnamese 7th combat engineer regiments cleared main roads ban ensure tanks heavy artillery directed district early hours march north vietnamese army strong position strike ban battle fall ban march north vietnamese army began assault south vietnamese forces ban north vietnamese special forces regiment spearheaded attack hitting airfield district headquarters 53rd infantry regiment initial north vietnamese attack marked heavy artillery bombardment actions initiated special forces regiment shocked subordinates major general van despite strength initial assault believed north vietnamese wanted cause disruption withdraw forces 4th battalion special forces regiment successfully secured road southern airport waited regular infantry tank units arrive north vietnamese 5th battalion special forces regiment continued assault south vietnamese installations district headquarters 53rd infantry regiment 5th battalion successfully overran nearby south vietnamese artillery position tactical operations centre establishing control battlefield main roads leading city ban completely north vietnamese control sun rose north vietnamese continued pound south vietnamese positions ban heavy artillery cover wave infantry assaults morning march north vietnamese infantry units attacked ban different directions main roads regiment armoured battalion support marched northwest regiment approached ban northeast main formation regiment secured marched ban southeast 1st battalion 3rd regiment 1st battalion regiment launched assault airfield northeast southwest respectively time 2nd regiment captured south vietnamese installation attempt halt north vietnamese assault ordered squadrons armoured personnel carriers confront enemy forced turn tanks north vietnamese 3rd tank battalion armoured regiment south vietnamese ranger battalion forced abandon nearby installation continuous assaults regiment northeast south vietnamese 9th ranger battalion held north vietnamese regiment abandoned positions day western outskirts ban bombers south vietnamese 6th air_force division inflicted light casualties north vietnamese 24th regiment failed stop enemies momentum southwest tried retake reserve units tactical air support south eastern end ban north vietnamese regiment defeated south vietnamese 53rd infantry regiment sustained heavy casualties repeated air attacks bombers earlier day south vietnamese colonel chief 2nd brigade corps discovered north vietnamese infantry division moved positions south ban base stop advancing ordered soldiers destroy bridge connected highway time order carried elements north vietnamese infantry division engaged clashes south vietnamese hours north vietnamese 8th battalion regiment combination special forces regiment tried failed capture airfield defended south vietnamese ranger battalion night march fighting ban south vietnamese soldiers began retreating points headquarters 23rd infantry division airfield radio station colonel desperate attempt save ban called brigadier general send reinforcements sent early hours march north vietnamese army resumed assault continuous bombing runs south vietnamese air_force bombers south vietnamese air_force trying stop dozen north vietnamese tanks advancing objective accidentally dropped bombs headquarters 23rd infantry division point 23rd infantry division lost contact 2nd brigade command headquarters march north vietnamese infantry division established control ban south vietnamese soldiers city realised defeated reinforcements sent airfield south vietnamese hands strength 21st ranger battalion 53rd infantry regiment defending area counterattack march south vietnamese soldiers survived north vietnamese assault gathered headquarters 23rd infantry division airfield unfortunately soldiers leaders captured north vietnamese early hours day president van ordered hold south vietnamese positions eastern end ban stage counter attack drew plan retake ban involve remaining regiments 44th 45th infantry regiments 23rd infantry division soldiers gathered 23rd infantry division headquarters airfield approved plan dawn authorised use south vietnamese air_force units 6th air_force division belonging 2nd brigade 1st air_force division air base 4th air_force division afternoon march elements 23rd infantry division dropped designated landing zones initially south vietnamese helicopters participated operation fighter bombers deployed strike north vietnamese positions cover landings took direct operation skies ban approached battlefield south vietnamese units airfield operation underway encouraged soldiers hold positions morning march helicopters complete phase operation entire 44th infantry regiment soldiers 45th infantry regiment artillery battalion dropped points highway completion landing operation returned meeting discussed sudden appearance north vietnamese infantry division south vietnamese air_force transporting 23rd infantry division battlefield subjected artillery bombardment north vietnamese infantry division north vietnamese central highlands anticipated south vietnamese military movements built forces ban prepare south vietnamese counter attack march north vietnamese 24th 28th regiments received companies armoured vehicles artillery battalion begun artillery shells march 44th 45th infantry regiments began combat operations north vietnamese 24th regiment opened fire attacked south vietnamese support armoured regiment midday march 1st 2nd battalions 45th infantry regiment slowly melted away sides north vietnamese 24th regiment marching ban relieve soldiers 45th infantry regiment 44th infantry regiment pinned fight enemies 24th regiment march south vietnamese formations came heavy attack 3rd battalion unit 45th infantry regiment completely wiped subsequently south vietnamese soldiers captured helicopter march general ordered 28th regiment rest armoured regiment support 24th regiment efforts capture time north vietnamese regiment special forces regiment began final push airfield south vietnamese soldiers airfield mainly drawn 53rd infantry regiment 21st ranger battalion finally defeated simultaneously remnants 44th infantry regiment abandoned leaving north vietnamese complete control ban retreat battles raging ban south vietnamese military forces corps tactical zone pressure north vietnamese infantry divisions period march march clashes southern result immense pressure placed corps general staff deploy strong units region defend ban rest corps march convened meeting prime minister chief general staff general lieutenant general van discuss military situation northern provinces south vietnam meeting decided withdraw left army northern provinces defend region nation population vital economic resources located justified decision basis south vietnamese military defend inch south vietnam territory military heavy starting march flew briefing general events took place briefing greatest failures military history outlined military situation central highlands asked bolster south vietnamese 6th air_force division aircraft additional brigades defend refused send reinforcements south vietnamese military longer resources ordered units region continue fighting general cautioned moving large military formations highway reminded destruction suffered french mobile group region commanders decision use route instead attempt surprise north vietnamese expect use road poor condition briefing immediately returned headquarters began planning withdrawal brigadier generals van sang colonel maintain secrecy ordered officers issue orders word mouth instead written documents reveal withdrawal plan local regional forces furthermore stated abandonment corps tactical zone quick army taking military equipment ammunition fight battle generals assigned task supervising movements soldiers ground sang responsible movement vital military equipment supplies air transport sweep route air_force fighter bombers ordered lead group combat engineers repair road bridges route maintain contact 2nd brigade headquarters plan destined fail unaware general commander corps tactical zone received similar orders evacuate disaster route local commanders corps tactical zone tried best maintain secrecy unusual movement transport aircraft march stirred concern suspicion soldiers civilians area march concerns civilians heightened convoy transport vehicles belonging 6th 23rd ranger battalions headed south afternoon march withdrawal south vietnamese forces began pick momentum 19th armoured cavalry squadron 6th ranger battalion opened main road stretched infantry armoured vehicle support units early phases operation confident plan succeed reasons firstly believed north vietnamese units busy stopping counter attack waged 23rd infantry division time disrupt withdrawal secondly north vietnamese infantry division near deployed stop operation overcome formidable 25th ranger battalion tasked stopping north vietnamese attacks north vietnamese field commanders withdrawal south vietnamese military forces corps tactical zone came surprise totally unexpected surprised north vietnamese speed withdrawal evening march 19th armoured cavalry squadron reached north vietnamese began receive information decision abandon central highlands march command issued orders pursue south vietnamese north vietnamese 9th battalion regiment infantry division unit intercept south vietnamese column south district subsequently entire north vietnamese infantry division sent destroy south vietnamese column route 2nd tank battalion armoured regiment regiment anti aircraft regiment support early hours march tanks 19th armoured cavalry squadron 6th ranger battalion clashed north vietnamese 9th battalion regiment pass kilometres away district evening march general organised counter attack enemy 9th battalion support fighter bombers tanks artillery troops repeatedly beaten attempt road open early hours march entire north vietnamese regiment blocked routes pass 48th regiment elements north vietnamese infantry division began closing directions afternoon sent 25th ranger battalion 2nd armoured cavalry brigade reopen route time north vietnamese artillery regiment began main south vietnamese column infantry regiments attacked convoy sides unfortunately south vietnamese attempts organise strong resistance chaos created north vietnamese artillery general ordered destroy heavy weaponry north vietnamese use minutes later helicopter landed grounds primary school pick flew march south vietnamese soldiers district stopped fighting 6th ranger battalion 19th armoured cavalry squadron units arrive destination son light casualties aftermath loss ban subsequent evacuation central highlands cost south vietnam corps tactical zone combat units 23rd infantry division ranger groups tanks armoured cavalry artillery combat engineering units overall south vietnamese army soldiers killed wounded deserted missing north vietnamese casualties light comparison soldiers killed wounded official vietnamese history informs days fighting north vietnam army south vietnamese officers soldiers action killed action captured north vietnamese army destroyed small arms kinds artillery pieces tanks armoured vehicles aircraft shot damaged civilians took evacuation suffered consequences military action route civilians followed military convoy relatives soldiers officers army government civil servants estimated civilians initially took march handful actually reached destinations region addition casualties inflicted north vietnamese artillery civilians hit air strikes south vietnamese air_force result huge losses route known convoy tears south vietnamese mistakes collapse south vietnamese forces central highlands came result major factors firstly war president van confidence intelligence shaken following capitulation ban lost faith military intelligence agencies evidently clear strength north vietnamese forces far greater south vietnamese intelligence agencies gathered consequently completely ignored military intelligence cia military decisions consulting joint general staff major general van requested send reinforcements bolster strength south vietnamese forces central highlands gave options carry president orders replaced somebody willing general chose implement orders evacuated units corps second factor contributed destruction 2nd brigade corps tactical zone inability south vietnamese commanders coordinate withdrawal process pulling central highlands large numbers south vietnamese soldiers heavy military equipment stretched narrow corridor route military formation huge numbers south vietnamese civilians relatives military personnel government officials families unfortunately south vietnamese soldiers ground army simply lacked logistical system required maintain element secrecy south vietnamese commanders hoped enable pull region drawing attention north vietnamese hard south vietnamese commanders hoped civilians secrecy north vietnamese forces attacked south vietnamese column route little south vietnamese commanders prevent destruction units factor led quick corps poor state morale soldiers army republic vietnam morale south vietnamese soldiers commanding officers reached lowest point war continued drag end sight determination officer corps taken blow south vietnamese foreign minister van returned united_states february reported additional military economic aid offered order given abandon central highlands primary concern south vietnamese military personnel battlefield victories welfare families consequently north vietnamese attacked south vietnamese forces route large numbers south vietnamese soldiers left battlefield search families amidst chaos final days south vietnam existence average south vietnamese soldier showed loyalty family commanding officer significant impact willingness fight war french forces considered central highlands home considered key domination sides recognised order occupy central highlands possess sufficient reserve manpower control strategic areas region south vietnamese military longer afford maintain large strategic reserve south vietnamese units corps locations central highlands easily overrun enemy forces decision abandon region aim saving military formations corps decision nonetheless turned death warrant general men families lack coordination poor organisation withdrawal operation led destruction corps marked beginning end south vietnam


action june action june minor naval engagement french revolutionary wars british ship line hms captain benjamin passing westwards southern mediterranean near cape encountered larger french squadron returning westwards failed attempt reinforce besieged french garrison egypt immediately recognised danger vessel turned flee french ships faster soon closed ship french vessels long gunshot decided hope escape lay ships rest french squadron join engagement turning enemy found sluggish ship unable respond rapidly french manoeuvres hours surrounded threatened complete destruction unable escape british captain surrendered action rare victory french mediterranean_sea largely british control french mediterranean_fleet destroyed battle trapped french army egypt african mediterranean efforts reinforce resupply ended failure including separate expeditions squadron later commissioned french_navy fought battle ship recaptured british rejoined royal_navy subsequently court loss ship acquitted returned naval service background august battle british fleet rear admiral sir nelson destroyed french mediterranean_fleet bay egyptian coast battle completely reversed strategic situation mediterranean british forces evacuated region treaty san brought spain war french able return large numbers french maritime lines communication cut french orient general napoleon trapped egypt unable return europe sea army attempted failed pass overland palestine subsequently abandoned returned france closest advisors frigates november promising send reinforcements forces remained north_africa orient verge collapse supplies support arrived france commander jean assassinated british invasion impending frustrated failure assist men egypt ordered squadron ships line sail brest january command force instructed sail eastern mediterranean land troops alexandria february force reached toulon admiral concerned ships outnumbered east british expeditionary force gathering sent sea complete operation returned driven bad weather patrolling british squadron sicily rear admiral sir john warren april attempt reach egypt reached pressure larger british forces admiral lord keith drove squadron westwards june ships retreating north african coast passing close cape region british gun ship line hms captain benjamin veteran battle years earlier passing slowly north african coast detached keith fleet join warren squadron malta escorting small convoy route ship men removed ship service egyptian waters illness rendered unfit duty vessel poor state repair leaking badly progress slow northeasterly wind significantly delayed passage learned passing vessel french squadron region ordered convoy separate sailed malta effort join warren rapidly warn return june sighted sails southwest immediately assumed distant ships enemy turned away french wind nearest french ships ships line jean constitution spotted distant british vessel ordered chase battle french ships followed wind complicated chase developed jean constitution maintaining pressure slow moving british vessel rest squadron prevailing wind push far ahead ongoing chase intended course escape trap ship caught french divisions overwhelmed hours continued efforts escape french ships fast force passing distance ahead british ship turning risk surrounded determined option attempt drive ships division blocked passage ships line louis marie frigate detached division rapidly approaching astern turned ship ships sailing ahead attempted pass stern ship effort disable creating confusion mask escape recognised french captains vessels turned face british ship approached ships line opened mutual fire faster french warships able easily hour fruitless firing long range arrival jean constitution gunshot convinced resistance hopeless struck flag signal surrender taken significant damage masts rigging sails exchange fire deliberate ploy french captains limit ship movement prevent escape casualties deck distracting gunfire result men killed wounded subsequently died french losses severe casualties killed wounded ship significantly damaged action aftermath fleet remained cape days performing repairs captured vessel detachments sailors taken ships squadron transferred prize june force ready sail northwest eventually reaching toulon incident july capture excuse failure effort reinforce egypt invaded captured british expeditionary force spring summer captivity wrote letter published britain praising treatment men received prisoners war officers released parole following month august faced court martial board hms port investigate loss ship cleared blame praised convoy lost subsequently returned naval service start napoleonic wars operating caribbean mediterranean eventually rear admiral british ships line captured french entire war subsequently commissioned french_navy remained service years recaptured battle


expedition expedition french naval operation launched february french_navy frigates brig survivors battle october attempted break past british blockade february taking advantage withdrawal principal blockade squadron months earlier start atlantic campaign squadron intercepted elements british blockade force captain louis charles escaped frigates abandoning slower brig captured months squadron cruised atlantic visiting west_indies failing cause significant disruption british trade july squadron neared spotted hms mars royal_navy ship line stationed port intercept french ships entering leaving signalling rest british squadron captain robert oliver took mars pursuit chasing french squadron night morning time frigate fallen far recognising danger captured turned defence main squadron changed mind turning retreating oliver took possession heavily background october french spanish allied fleet destroyed battle royal_navy fleet vice admiral lord nelson scattered survivors allied fleet french frigates untouched action rest surviving ships frigates anchored week followed battle remained rest year contained harbour large british blockade squadron led vice admiral sir john thomas december abandoned station search french squadron vice admiral raiding british convoys savage islands escaped british admiral embroiled atlantic campaign return eventually sailing caribbean won battle san domingo february absence squadron replaced ships mediterranean_fleet command vice admiral lord french_navy concerned ships trapped sought bring french particularly heavy losses suffered campaign frigates brig prepared sea senior frigate captain captain louis charles ships break conduct month raiding mission atlantic distract attention ongoing atlantic campaign raid british merchant shipping conclusion months return join french atlantic fleet breakout word preparations reached planned ruse lure french frigate squadron open water withdrawing large vessels blockade squadron kept gun frigate hms gun sloop hms position create impression principal blockading force driven hoped draw attack lone ships allow rest squadron hidden horizon counterattack french squadron february strong westerly wind blew main squadron blown far east spotted shore took opportunity leave port february british ships position squadron spotted late february captain george supported captain john steered parallel course hope cutting advance detached look inform location direction french continued follow enemy squadron isolated outnumbered effort attack british ship failed respond brig falling larger faster frigates came range opened fire lieutenant acknowledging completely immediately striking colours squadron sight french rapidly pulling ahead abandoned chase secured prize turned eastwards french continued atlantic known fled inferior force allowed ships captured opposition modern historian richard describes conduct astonishing given weakness opposition strength combined force separate work suggests orders engagement force safely coast operations atlantic following escape remaining ships squadron sailed southwards reaching french african trading post march crossing atlantic arriving march taking fresh supplies squadron sailed april operated limited success british merchant shipping caribbean_sea including days cruising barbados retiring spanish colony puerto_rico ships preparation journey france frigate squadron sailed leaving caribbean large french squadron vice admiral jean arrived capture journey france largely uneventful crossing atlantic june july meeting royal_navy vessels july bay frigates spotted british ship line hms mars mars large powerful ship veteran operating scout squadron commodore richard detailed blockade french atlantic port immediately giving chase captain robert oliver signaled mars nearest british ship hms africa warning position direction french africa passed information mars set sail pursuit running powerful ship possible sail french frigates gradually separated dark mars easily rest squadron unable catch leading french ships dawn rose july clear leading vessels stretching distance mars french ship frigate struggling realising gaining oliver continued pushing ship forward recognising danger frigate turned squadron bore isolated ship line mars far larger individual frigates carried guns effective defence handled efficiently determined engage french oliver continued sail french captain suddenly reversed direction fled eastwards faster ships abandoning oliver time turned away chase traveled nautical miles original position longer hold british ship fierce rain caused frigate roll oliver maintained pursuit close fire single shot warning broadside follow aware ship hope withstand attack ship line captain hauled flag surrendered fight rest ships sight approaching night increasingly stormy weather large number prisoners war transferred prize persuaded oliver pursuit steered remaining squadron coast split night following day entered squadron reach intended destination oliver secured prize far station manage rejoin squadron july aftermath prisoners taken britain frigate immediately fitted royal_navy ship old hms oliver commended men shared prize money frigate france appears condemnation repeated failure engage royal_navy forces terms weight shot inferior squadron official report claimed frigates badly damaged atlantic cruise consider fighting ship line later peer return french monarchy remained french_navy years british histories actions condemned william james accuses lying official despatches wrote facts saved french commodore richard wrote apparent fed stories british superiority odds tended breed dangerous order battle


battle battle battle eighty years war spanish army flanders led alexander prince fortified camp village near antwerp thousand french english scottish soldiers service recently created union stationed took place armies philip spain netherlands different provinces united drive foreign troops grant religious liberty despite rebel victory battle july southern netherlands lost spanish army autumn brussels states general moved safer antwerp taking advantage dutch rebel army decided beginning distract dutch rebels goal aiming scare antwerp inhabitants moved troops surprise village close antwerp dutch states army quarters infantry backbone rebel army consisted french english scottish troops john orders march deployed elements army plain stretching position village dutch camp fortified earthworks assault divided columns provided mobile bridge pass camp moat attacks undertaken troops succeeded securing bridge spanish forces able attack states general soldiers inside camp men opposed strong defence throwing light cavalry battle forced dutch troops abandon look shelter artillery antwerp walls william orange leader dutch revolt governor general netherlands appointed states general witnessed fight antwerp walls battle meant destruction villages saw men killed armies proceeded spanish army invested week battle taken assault june year successful campaign opened way year period spanish netherlands background netherlands charles original realm passed son philip spain disarray religious tensions catholics nobility cities funding philip wars powers royal administration philip sent army netherlands duke restore authority persecution religious political led william orange leader nobility exile germany prepare invasion netherlands expel orange invaded netherlands twice occasions defeated second time revolt spread provinces holland zealand unable lack authority death successor spanish general bankruptcy led spanish soldiers sack towns including antwerp reaction loyal rebel provinces united expel foreign troops john austria victor replacement choice sign perpetual accepting later frustrated orange supporters seized citadel recalled troops john striking victory battle january followed tactical defeat july john died plague october despite spanish failure exploit militarily victory rendered important political benefits royal cause netherlands shattered unity dutch rebels consequence battle outcome leaders main families southern provinces lost faith orange cause promises aid english queen elizabeth meant important setback orange aiming restore military capability dutch rebels elizabeth arranged john son raising german_army english pay assist dutch troops john brought netherlands men instead fighting spanish sided widened gap catholic protestant rebels states general called help francis duke brother heir king france entered july france short time catholic nobility southern provinces started autumn expanded provinces concluded january union flanders joined soon catholic provinces controlled spanish union opened talks february alexander succeeded uncle john austria royal appointed governor general netherlands reconcile philip response meeting took place shortly deputies northern provinces holland zealand signed alliance union january south planning capture use city stone bridge base conquer brussels antwerp following campaigns november spanish army left crossed deemed risky starting siege john numerous cavalry countryside campaign campaign planned different movements portion army clean area german border dutch garrisons ahead main army decided objectives dutch field army primarily german cavalry laying siege distract dutch campaign real objective plan accomplished took towns january january moved attack states general army east antwerp outnumbered taken role field commander states army count death left states troops castle withdrew antwerp unpaid men asked city_council allow enter city refused choice army outside walls village residential area wealthy inhabitants antwerp country houses gardens van botanical garden exotic plants meantime entrusted count capture continued advance dutch army encircled men breached walls cannon battery defenders castle surrendered discretion orders hanged windows count willingly steward lost eye siege instead following dutch army quarters lodged troops court forage moving antwerp dealt john german_army spanish troops attacked defeated german near february john england dealing elizabeth agreed lieutenant withdrawal army allowed leave netherlands freely matter finished advanced order battle dutch states troops village numbered infantry companies comprised soldiers plus additional mounted troops backbone rebel army william orange referred braves led officers renown john confront spanish army detached village fortified digging moat building earth village bridge stream flowed road ran parallel canal orange deployed additional french infantry regiments troops nearby garrisons protection antwerp citadel moat city civic guard numbering flags armed trained ready defend city necessary willing join battle allow regular troops come antwerp spanish soldier chronicler claimed orange army men deployed man vanguard infantry cavalry plain separated camp small battalions surpassing companies chosen men went advance right taken spanish center lower german regiment francisco right regiment known formation supported sleeve group men armed axes cut wheeled bridge cross moat corps light cavalry led followed infantry distance instructions cover withdrawal attack went bad follow victory took place according soldiers spanish army wear white shirts common night attacks known distinguish fought union look words like colorful procession reserve deployed large battalion german regiments von flanked right troops duke francis elder brother duke john lieutenant left remaining spanish cavalry led covered rear led troops personally battle started scouted dutch position having ordered troops return dutch directed men standing william orange witnessed battle walls antwerp company brother holy roman emperor states general elected governor netherlands opposition deceased john austria battle fight started battalions spanish line advancing dutch camp trying laid bridge moat headed sergeant major moved crossing river small village germans advanced road took road assault dutch camp south spanish german units exchanged fire dutch troops covered drove defenders stream took bridge sent reinforcements content assault arrived late prevent laying bridge moat began climb starting close combat dutch troops meantime spanish german troops supported artillery pieces breached crossed moat started come inside men reorganized stood streets seeing attack going ordered advance cavalry support infantry push light horsemen penetrated breach opened men took command path french english soldiers offered strong resistance hours battle inside quarters began withdraw forces antwerp avoid destruction retreating troops set fire looked shelter coverage antwerp artillery spanish soldiers went persecution despite officers ordered stay chased rebels antwerp moat william orange orders artillery city walls fired spanish troops different results depending sources spanish soldier claimed shots ineffective battlefield covered smoke produced fire hand flemish official claimed precise arms legs fly air unwilling having longer time troops close antwerp cannons drums withdrawal gathered men people antwerp carry wounded french british officers soldiers city receive treatment spanish fire finished looted burned buildings meal praying thank god spanish army marched roads wanted arrive day fearing new attack antwerp civic guards spent night posts aftermath number casualties endured armies differs according authors italian jesuit noted letter father duke dutch loss men killed gave men killed wounded troops mentions pointed men killed dutch ranks hand flemish author set dutch loss men killed claimed spanish army lost men villages seriously damaged fire battle standing buildings destroyed fire buildings remained ruined attack achieved goal distracting dutch states forces battle spanish army moved quickly taking castle way appearing march days battle followed spanish till troops realized lay siege late reinforce city garrison hampered dutch efforts save city english soldiers john orders remained antwerp kidnapped abbot michael abbey demand pays william orange political terms battle increased states general spanish party following months joined spanish army troops dutch states army expelled garrison loyal states general besieged command infantry cavalry cannons joined later additional troops siege developed peace talks held cologne holy roman emperor preserve unity netherlands divisions process brussels fight erupted early june catholics headed philip son royalist authorities executed van den resulting expulsion supporters catholic inhabitants forced dutch garrison leave armed struggle resulted declaring support royalist revolt took character civil war result religious problem peace conference cologne failed henceforth flanders town town forcing antwerp surrender long exhausting siege


battle battle croatian fought croatia august september croatian war independence battle pitted yugoslav people army stationed barracks town paramilitary elements serbian guard croatian national_guard police forces based police reinforcements croatia fighting eastern districts controlled forces supporting artillery largely static balance shifted favor croatian forces following capture depots barracks september remaining barracks captured september leading expulsion serbian guard forces town battle followed escalating ethnic tensions region including attacks croatian civilians attack croatian police skirmishes lakes pass road remainder saw deterioration situation region resulting war crimes serbs fighting region remained little territorial gains lasting called signing agreement january background august insurrection took place croatia centred predominantly populated areas city parts regions settlements eastern croatia significant populations regions newly formed autonomous announcement intent integrate serbia resulted croatian government declaring insurrection rebellion march conflict escalated croatian war independence june breakup yugoslavia croatia declared independence declaration came effect october month renamed republic serbian december initiated campaign ethnic croatian civilians control growing tensions hampered increasing support provided yugoslav people army inability croatian police cope situation led establishment croatian national_guard development military force hampered arms introduced september military conflict croatia continued battle started august prelude tense situation region following april lakes incident fatalities croatian war independence occurred deteriorated june croatia reaffirmed sovereignty parliamentary declaration reflected rise violent incidents setting unauthorized road occasional exchanges small arms fire june policemen abducted road controlled series attacks croatian police occurred parts including june july started openly confront croatian police july police station surrounded july troops killed wounded ambush near fighting seen pass road troops fought pushed july ethnic violence continued abducted killed croatian civilians southern august police attacked early august moved brigade brigade actually company sized unit portion battalion 4th armoured brigade previously deployed pass reinforcements garrison town movements month include assault capture police station 30th forces imminent capture withdrawal august kilometres miles north shifted focus serbs comprised total population order battle forces consisted officers soldiers garrisoned barracks smaller facilities garrison supported serbian guard led deployed serbia transportation according interview commanding officer southern territorial defence following reorganization units based brigade 1st brigade 35th partisan division corps prior 10th infantry regiment class unit required maintain wartime troop levels stationed amalgamated 9th infantry regiment form brigade garrison formally commanded colonel effective command taken chief staff yugoslav service major early september croatian forces comprised troops largely drawn police forces based volunteers croatian defence forces troops unit infantry brigade started form independent battalion august fully assembled october mid september brigade comprised battalions companies infantry brigade commanded lieutenant colonel head croatian police timeline paramilitary force bombarded artillery stationed village barracks august intensity attacks increased significantly mid september causing significant damage report attack estimated structures city damaged outset battle pushed croatian force eastern september croatian forces captured major general armoured personnel carriers soldiers attempted reach barracks isolated centre town released day following successful negotiation prisoner exchange croatian commanders declined request returned contrary instructions croatian authorities following capture artillery bombardment intensified averaging artillery shells day despite intense bombardment second week battle stalemate changes lines control croatian police planned cut power water communications facilities government controlled croatia september action brought forward september day captured storage facility provided croatian troops rifles substantial quantity weapons sufficient croatian forces match town barracks barracks captured following day bulk garrison surrendered september following days fighting barracks infantry attack aiming support garrison successfully repelled croatian forces september area killed city centre relatively secure croatian forces extended offensive capturing barracks relieving croatian held pockets villages september surrendered forces retreated eastern parts line kilometres miles croatian forces completed september aftermath croatia captured approximately officers soldiers taken capture later exchanged croatian captured battle croatia large quantity small arms ammunition captured seven tanks millimetre mortars battle artillery bombardment continued positions approximately kilometres miles south skirmishes continued january sought improve positions ground especially september croatian advance south stopped forces consisting infantry battalion express armored train defending storage depot secured depot captured september end september croatian defensive positions sufficiently reinforced minor attacks launched primarily near village late october early december fighting intensified near territory changed hands intensity artillery bombardment peaked november artillery shells struck town december corps proposed general staff advance attempt capture signing agreement january largely halted fighting commencement operation pocket september continuing military confrontation region accompanied ethnic violence culminating war crimes civilians committed military authorities military area october approximately civilians taken town killed surrounding fields individuals responsible event later known massacre prosecuted croatian judiciary resulted conviction defendants years prison killings area known massacre resulted deaths civilians serbs suspected supporting croatia court belgrade serbia convicted killing serbs croatian authorities charged officers posted garrison war crimes civilian population defendants tried acquitted convicted sentenced years prison remaining defendants sentenced years upheld supreme_court croatia arrested october visited parents living croatia prior arrest requested new trial arrest charges changed armed insurrection later dropped following general amnesty act


offensive offensive operation russian known battle battle german campaign fought southeastern estonia took place eastern world war soviet 3rd baltic parts german_army group north soviet tactical aim defeat 18th army capture city strategic goal quick occupation estonia soviet command planned reach coast gulf trap army detachment german involved fought defend country soviet annexation 3rd baltic captured conquest caused destruction national museum million worth damage university wagner river army corps supported militia stalled rivers preventing 3rd baltic cutting background attacks pushed army group north west lake resulting series operations german command considered important maintain control southern shore gulf finland eased situation finland kept soviet baltic fleet eastern bay military economy viewpoint preservation oil reserves oil industry important south soviet forces advanced baltic end operation june august german_army group centre comparison forces beginning soviet operation ratio soviet german strength troops artillery armour german forces battle groups formations smaller units different branches significant proportion german constituted militia battalions poor weaponry little fighting ability combat activities main thrust soviet operation aimed southern county august soviet army broke defence army corps captured town august army corps forced banks rivers west supported county militia battalion defence prevented 3rd baltic cutting retreat army detachment estonia open ground city capital southeast estonia army group north created hoc combat formation led wagner manned army detachment defence new line soviet tank units forced wedge army corps wagner insufficient troops ahead city august lieutenant general group launched amphibious assault lake german left east flank beating defence forming village fierce battles local border guard regiment stopped advance 3rd baltic launched artillery barrage positions 2nd battalion regiment 1st covering german right flank village southeast august soviet rifle division backed 16th single tank brigade self propelled artillery regiments bypassed defence west captured bridge river west bridges kilometres long river high strategic importance failed destroy bridge improvised defence line 5th volunteer avoiding soviet breakthrough result awarded knight cross iron cross oak leaves heavy german tank assault planned attack western flank soviet lines august night attack designated commander operation von car accident soviet tank squadrons repulsed german attack following day soviet rifle divisions launched attack support armour artillery fierce street battles soviet forces conquered city established north bank august wagner inability hold soviet offensive headquarters army group north turned command army corps commanded infantry general end august iii battalion 1st regiment formed 1st battalion finnish infantry regiment recently returned estonia largest operation supported police battalions von tank squadron destroyed soviet divisions recaptured bridge august operation shifted entire southern bank encouraged army corps launch operation attempting recapture attack september reached northern outskirts city repulsed units soviet rifle divisions relative calm settled subsequent thirteen days losses property university suffered heavy losses campaign accounting million damage purchasing power million dollars university lost buildings permanently damage roofs interiors doors windows heating systems study laboratories times damage ruined buildings museum lost wet preparations interiors laboratories chemistry physics dairy large instruments astronomy destroyed looted bombing destroyed manor main building national museum aftermath baltic offensive 2nd shock army crossed lake september acquired command offensive operation september 3rd baltic attacked german army corps militia battalions segment railway junction lake fierce battles german units held positions soviet offensive 2nd shock 8th armies commenced early morning september 2nd shock army forced way army corps divisional headquarters artillery positions army detachment army corps northernmost elements army group north risk encircled destroyed headquarters army group north ordered army corps abandon defence line quickly northern tip lake code withdrawal army detachment mainland estonia operation beginning september naval force vice admiral evacuated elements army detachment civilians days troops civilians prisoners evacuated remaining elements army detachment ordered withdraw way iii corps reached september army corps retreated south form 18th army rearguard retreated soviet 2nd shock 8th armies advanced took september soviet soviet rule estonia established force followed carried forced agriculture began completed mass march private farms confiscated farmers join collective farms armed resistance movement forest brothers active mass total participated supported movement killed soviet authorities fighting forest brothers suffered hundreds deaths killed sides innocent civilians armed resistance forest brothers number underground nationalist groups active members sentenced long terms imprisonment actions decreased rapidly joseph death large political prisoners allowed return estonia political arrests numerous crimes humanity committed occupation period late 1980s attempt integrate society soviet system failed armed resistance defeated population remained anti soviet helped organise new resistance movement late 1980s regain independence rapidly develop modern society


operation pedestal operation pedestal referenced italian sources british operation desperately needed supplies island malta august second world war malta base surface ships submarines aircraft attacked axis convoys carrying supplies italian german armies north_africa malta siege blockaded axis air naval forces sustain malta united_kingdom convoys costs despite losses supplies delivered malta continue resistance ceased effective offensive base crucial supply fuel delivered ohio american built tanker british crew operation officially started august convoy sailed gibraltar night august convoy known battle mid august italy santa malta arrival ships convoy august coincided feast assumption santa santa convoy convoy day public holiday celebrations honour arrival convoy attempt run ships past bombers boats minefields submarines gone military history important british strategic victories second world war merchant royal_navy sailors airmen killed merchant ships reached grand harbour arrival remains convoy break siege continued allied egypt libya second battle october november operation torch november western mediterranean transformed strategic situation enabled land based aircraft escort merchant ships island background allied operations allies waged western desert campaign north_africa axis forces italy aided germany sent substantial luftwaffe detachments mediterranean late end year ships long tons cargo reached malta loss reserve seven months supplies accumulated convoy operations malta lost merchant ship january august ships delivered long tons ships sunk modern efficient merchant ships naval air forces diverted routes long periods supply runs submarines conducted reinforcements malta included costly dangerous aircraft carrier ferry operations deliver fighters august end august hurricane fighters flown carriers western mediterranean malta staging post continued north_africa desert air_force malta base air sea submarine operations axis supply lines june october british forces sank long tons axis shipping african convoy routes long tons navy long tons raf fleet air arm loaded ships sailing africa accounted percent ships sunk malta based squadrons responsible percent ships sunk aircraft military operations malta island staging post led axis air campaigns island late july fighters island averaged week remaining aviation fuel sufficient fighters making impractical send bombers torpedo bombers offensive operations malta operation gibraltar operation vigorous alexandria june costly failures reached island vigorous convoy forced turn including tanker convoy escorts sunk august weekly malta person sugar bread beef adult male worker daily intake women children received august mass slaughter livestock began island reduce need fodder imports convert grazing land crop growing meat supplied public victory malta forced surrender fuel food ammunition delivered september air vice marshal keith park local air commander july warned remained weeks supply aviation fuel admiralty fast hms converted carry fuel submarines pressed service run supplies aviation fuel anti aircraft ammunition torpedoes blockade remaining aircraft operational lord admiralty alexander admiral fleet pound sea lord professional head royal_navy concurred churchill loss malta disaster magnitude british_empire probably fatal long run defence valley prepared new convoy operation gibraltar unprecedented number escorts ships taken far_east home_fleet vessels spare arctic convoys suspended following disaster convoy axis command axis command structure mediterranean centralized fragmented lower levels authority italian armed forces taking offices minister war minister navy minister air_force albert luftwaffe commanded german ground forces theatre authority axis operations north_africa organization convoys libya subordinate normal chain command luftwaffe november influence conduct german naval operations mediterranean nominal commander naval command italy subordinate kriegsmarine chain command german service rivalries operation little unity effort german italian forces mediterranean authority coordinate plans combined operations german italian forces influence use regia protection convoys north_africa italian navy resisted german attempts integrate operations ships different squadrons trained constantly overruled lower level commanders prelude allied plans operation pedestal admiralty planning operation pedestal began late july direction vice admiral rear naval staff transferred hms nelson july nelson hms returned scapa_flow west_africa convened conference july flag commanding officers naval forces pedestal consider orders operation smaller operations planned carried concurrently pedestal convoy comprised merchant vessels important ohio large fast tanker available american ship loaned british british crew insurance loss ohio long tons oil ships carry fuel drums convoy protected battleships aircraft carriers seven cruisers destroyers seven submarines largest escort force combined group named force convoy escorts britain rendezvous force aircraft carriers victorious escorts named force voyage meeting point aircraft carrier eagle escort gibraltar rendezvous force carrier escorts force operation carriers escorts force force fleet vessels brown ranger escorted ocean going class escorts named force operation force formed close escort malta force heavy ships force turn gibraltar force conduct operation run malta gibraltar ships reached island operation escorts pedestal entered mediterranean embarked victorious squadron squadron squadron sea hurricanes squadron squadron squadron sea hurricanes squadron squadron eagle squadron squadron sea hurricanes based malta wellington viii reconnaissance aircraft reinforcements sent temporarily egypt raising maximum number operational aircraft convoy given title genuine specials convoys britain cape good hope usual convoy conference sailing met convoy commodore masters merchant ships board flagship hms nigeria brief similar meeting held radio operators explain fleet communications procedures marked opened hours august handed ships masters containing personal messages signed lord admiralty wishing masters god speed convoy sailed river clyde night august escorted hms nigeria hms kenya destroyers rendezvous escorts following morning operation shortly departure admiralty decided furious carry operation reinforce malta known informally club run time operation pedestal departure furious delayed technical difficulties caused flight deck sloped upwards point amidships practice wooden flaps ensure angle furious steaming knots mph knot mph wind thrown air rise flight deck bounced forward slope fell near speed narrowly avoided immediate request air ministry constant speed propellers days later new propeller took easily leaving aircraft board flown malta company hms manchester joined nelson convoy days start operation pedestal operations july nelson hms victorious hms hms destroyers sailed rendezvous hms eagle hms gibraltar hms hms operation operation took place azores gibraltar august included exercises merchant ships anti aircraft gunnery emergency turns changing cruising formations communicating signal flags short range wireless risk security breaking silence exercises accepted allied planners according convoy attained efficiency comparable fleet unit aircraft force performed dummy air attacks afternoon august exercise radar reporting fighter direction organisation anti aircraft gun crews aircraft recognition practice followed fly past operation merchant ships survived june sail malta gibraltar screen destroyers force night day operation pedestal force disguised italian deck markings sortie malta nmi south sail past cap keeping close coast far channel gibraltar force left malta august reached cap day arrived gibraltar august axis plans germans italians planned separately operated extent forces operated independently operation convoy sicily plans local regia commanders conducted attacks separately italian navy headquarters considered allies use naval strength protect convoy sortie main allied battle fleet provoke italians react use powerful covering force convoy force passage north instead turning westward entrance bank use aircraft carriers attacks airfields ease passage convoy regia aircraft torpedo bombers bombers dive bombers fighters luftwaffe aircraft dive bombers high level bombers fighters luftwaffe torpedo bombers sent norway june return time operation air corps crete arrived sicily august ready operations morning arrived crete day completing convoy escort duties regia marina battleships heavy light cruisers destroyers torpedo boats submarines capital ships non operational lack fuel air cover navy received long tons fuel june equivalent percent fuel consumption convoys italian battleships refuel smaller vessels acute fuel shortage suggested hitler malta convoy opposed submarines land based aircraft managed prepare 3rd cruiser division inch cruisers seven destroyers 7th cruiser division inch cruisers destroyers plus submarines torpedo boats germans boats boats axis air forces lacked fighters escort surface ships bombers torpedo bombers preferred use fighters bomber escorts cover surface forces rejected italian request provide air cover italian fleet luftwaffe fighters bomber ship escorts doubted italian heavy cruisers succeed air cover lack fuel pretext admiral german naval rome wanted luftwaffe air cover italian ships marshal chief general staff wanted italian surface forces participate operation want big ships operate air cover axis tactics similar operation june joint special air reconnaissance western mediterranean axis aircraft august axis aircraft sicily italian submarines german boats axis torpedo boats minefields successive barriers barriers cause convoy disperse vulnerable force cruisers destroyers torpedo bombers dive bombers fighter escorts high level bombers synchronized attack priority given destruction aircraft carriers prevent intervening italian surface forces closed remnants convoy axis navies submarines available western mediterranean boats stationed north algeria submarines wait rocks northern entrance bank north west cap operate operation aircraft italian submarine patrol west malta greece nautical miles west south west crete june april regia marina laid mines cap south west end sicily mines tunisia mines islands cap mines keith rock italians intended lay temporary minefield cap night august convoy passed night august torpedo boats boats lie wait south cap later 3rd cruiser division 7th cruiser division nmi north afternoon august sail interception course south night attack remains convoy close escort dawn assumed time axis aircraft provide fighter cover larger number british aircraft malta allied convoy egypt attacked 8th cruiser division based greece lack readiness division ordered august sea support 3rd cruiser division axis preparations axis planners lacked information allied plans fair knowledge allied order battle movement allied forces inside mediterranean reports agents near gibraltar spanish opposite gibraltar reconnaissance aircraft submarines reports august convinced allies preparing big operation supply malta west conjunction simultaneous attack egypt allied bomber aircraft malta expected attack italian naval forces malta fighters covered passage convoy narrows germans considered threat crete convoy reached malta ordered increased readiness luftwaffe units sicily crete ordering transfer aircraft crete sicily reduced operations increase prepared facilities reinforcements eastern mediterranean began discussions regia employment german italian forces forthcoming operation allies learned luftwaffe supply difficulties preventing movement long range bombers fighter operations extent intended luftwaffe sent long range bombers twin engined fighters eastern mediterranean forced divert aircraft convoy escorts area morning august report erroneously indicated class carrier destroyers sailed gibraltar agents reported shipping gibraltar night august august luftwaffe aircraft sicily aircraft regia italian aircraft assembled soon clear convoy sailing eastwards long range bombers crete torpedo bombers training school transferred sicily dive bomber crews resting operations alerted long range fighters sent africa bringing total aircraft battle august force left gibraltar august ready meet convoy rendezvous south force uneventful passage straits dense fog night august fishing boats merchant vessel passed close quarters night fog thought force sighted shore agents near gibraltar sighted convoy british messages learning informed axis plans defeat convoy august german reconnaissance aircraft detected convoy reported convoy north french aircraft reported aircraft carriers battleships cruisers fourteen destroyers merchant vessels nmi north luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft reported convoy battleships carriers cruisers fourteen destroyers easterly course nmi north north east afternoon august aware convoy ships including possibly carriers nineteen western mediterranean sailing easterly course speed nmi convoy expected south august south time august western mediterranean alerted ordered eastern mediterranean line latitude dawn august august despite axis submarines cruisers destroyers brown ranger force dawn previous malta convoys malta island oil spare convoy south islands course cap boat sighted convoy luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft reported convoy nmi north west minutes later began shadow convoy feet continued day noon convoy nmi south sailing east course furious conducted operation flying nmi journey malta turned round escorts gibraltar aircraft reached malta evening hms destroyers escorting furious rammed sank italian submarine showed light cruisers 7th cruiser division ordered hours notice heavy cruisers 3rd cruiser division informed italian submarines operating north axis submarines seen departing british learned 7th cruiser division destroyers sailed east 3rd cruiser division departed naples allied intelligence learned egypt believed convoy threat thought landing north african coast attempted day issued order day landings influence operations africa prevented air district africa expected landing tripoli august aircraft carrier eagle hit torpedoes sank minutes later nmi south cape nmi north crew rescued destroyers men aircraft lost percent fighter strength convoy luftwaffe attacked sunset convoy nmi bombers torpedo bombers evaded british fighters dusk aircraft scored hits fleet anti aircraft gunners claimed attackers destroyed night axis airfields attacked set hangar fire destroyed aircraft night august night august italian 7th 3rd cruiser divisions destroyers sailed naples engage british convoy raf malta operations room sent orders plain language wellington bomber dropped sent messages clear supposedly guiding fictitious force bluff italian ships away convoy italian naval headquarters actually cancelled operation british signals received lack air cover british discovered italian intelligence sighted british cruisers destroyers thought convoy proceeding eastern mediterranean revealed operation orders fighters expect convoy narrows early august operate regia sicily flying waves fighter escorts convoy british intelligence concluded convoy huge escort force caused axis commanders landing north african coast crete axis measures taken assumption crete target landings occur august defensive measures taken tripoli area libya squadron fighters long range bombers based alerted tripoli supported transport aircraft prepared detachments repel landings moved forces area defend coast east ship movements north_africa italy suspended late afternoon british knew luftwaffe anticipated landing tripoli august fighter dive bomber reinforcements sent sicily intercepted message commander chief luftwaffe ordering luftwaffe operate thought mind destruction british convoy destruction convoy decisive importance attacks directed british aircraft carriers august morning axis aircraft resumed launched shoot aircraft carriers launched sea hurricanes air cover convoy nmi south south west dive bombers attacked shot anti aircraft fire fighters loss fighter biggest attack came noon combined attack torpedo bombers dive bombers fighter bombers mixture weapons including new pattern running torpedoes bombers carrying torpedoes followed german fighter bombers convoy main force torpedo bombers attacked minutes later afternoon attack intended lasted main force intercepted sea hurricanes forced drop torpedoes long range merchant ships implemented manoeuvres practised operation hit modified carry bomb escorted joined sea hurricanes landing approach victorious recognised anti aircraft gunners bomb struck flight deck broke apart missed force dive bombers hit forced convoy escorted hms showed british august boat flotilla sail sicily cap operate area august assessment revealed axis thought ships western mediterranean including carriers battleships seven cruisers destroyers germans mistakenly thought class aircraft carrier present correctly identified nelson convoy thought consist long tons protected fighters plenty anti aircraft guns afternoon submarine convoy approached italian submarine depth charged prevented attacking hms rammed sank badly damaged return gibraltar italian submarine driven destroyers flying boat attacked damaged later attack flying boat caused damage shot heading shelter spanish port remained august convoy attacked torpedo bombers guide aircraft escorted fighters attacked convoy pilot pointed aircraft ships crew guide bomb radio radio failed flew ran fuel crashed mount mainland scuttled torpedo stern sent crewmen flying spread air wrecked flight deck bomb hits near misses leaving victorious operational carrier fighters victorious room able maintain speed knots mph torpedo bomber hit destroyer later sunk british intended force turn west reaching bank ordered turn axis air attacks caused minute delay turn noticed axis number aircraft attacks thought dark danger bank come torpedo boats night aircraft dawn axis submarines close escort force continued malta merchant ships force cruised western mediterranean case needed ordered return gibraltar arriving morning august hour later pass channel convoy columns nigeria hms cairo ohio torpedoed italian submarine destroyers damaged ships long range aircraft arrived fired convoy gunners hms penn laid cover light western horizon empire hope hit dive bomber sunk axis air forces flown escorted bomber sorties day germans believed damaged aircraft carrier cruiser destroyer large merchant ship captain kenya described state convoy chaotic versions events italian submarine reported sunk merchant ship empire hope damaged cruiser kenya kenya turned avoid torpedo reported sunk clan torpedoed later destroyed ammunition brisbane star hit bows possibly kept going noted degrees degrees continuous line flame burning sinking ships burning ship blows hms nigeria cairo diversion hms new flagship detachment hunt class destroyers stand damaged cruisers temporarily deprived force commander columns leaders lost convoy nearly half escort fighter direction ships hearing nigeria cairo torpedoed ordered force send hms hms hms reinforce force nigeria damaged ships turned gibraltar escorted hms hms august operation eastern mediterranean british operation begun convoy sailed port said dusk august escorted cruisers destroyers escorts merchant ship escorted cruisers destroyers left day forces early august sailed west alexandria turned german aircraft spotted movements early august informed merchant vessels cruisers unknown number destroyers sailing north east knots mph thought convoy british wireless spoof supply convoy malta ordered eastern mediterranean morning august night august british cruisers destroyers bombarded port rhodes day raf attacked airfield rhodes british submarine landed south east_coast sicily sabotage electricity italian 8th cruiser division remained port germans detached destroyer reinforce italians local traffic north african coast shipping traffic italy greece suspended failed divert axis attention operation pedestal night august midnight convoy passed south island cap avoid minefields africa sicily midnight formation destroyers sailed ahead followed cruisers kenya manchester destroyers force hours steaming fast overhaul main body destroyers remained route sunk main convoy attacked italian seven german torpedo boats attacks long line merchant ships reduced number escort ships providing easy target cap manchester hit torpedo wrecked propeller shafts left ship listing stopped water power restored men taken board hms captain ordered manchester scuttled remaining crew coast nmi torpedo boats hit sank santa took short cut catch convoy rochester castle torpedoed escaped knots mph caught main body arrived increasing escort cruisers seven destroyers escorting rochester castle melbourne star ohio destroyer slowly closing distance port destroyers sailing independently brisbane star near coast ready run malta dark dawn brought end torpedo boat attacks sent help manchester arrived late took survivors reached shore gibraltar morning attack italian cruisers appeared imminent air reconnaissance sighted previous evening heading south nmi west end sicily course reach convoy dawn cruisers turned east run north coast sicily british aircraft malta conducted ruse cruisers main attacking force malta held case italian battleships sailed taranto italian cruisers ordered return port rest sent straits join 8th cruiser division convoy eastern mediterranean cruisers attacked british submarines hms torpedoed oil tank ship run aground light cruiser hit forward bow blown convoy nmi malta attacked despite overhead hit aviation fuel deck burst flame hms passed fires rescuing survivors ship complement men wreckage debris melbourne star crew abandoned ship prematurely later rescued ohio disabled near misses dive bombers crashed deck rochester castle torpedoed set kept going hit stopped crew port found torpedo caught starboard device exploded destroyers left disabled ships air attack effect main body convoy port melbourne star rochester castle sailed nmi malta air attacks prevented sorties island afternoon remnants convoy steamed meet 17th flotilla malta escort force force turned gibraltar convoy reaching grand harbour operation immediate unloading ships began aerial attack dusk hit ohio sunk penn tried tow ohio tanker listing snapped tow line attack ohio broke keel bomb hit area previous torpedo hit crew led captain mason temporarily abandoned ship italian torpedo bombers attacked brisbane star evaded boat managed steam nautical miles despite damage bows tunisia brisbane star boarded harbour master tried vessel persuaded let ship sail dark august brisbane star arrived harbour overhead afternoon august ohio surrounded ships nurse tanker grand harbour american volunteers santa manned anti aircraft guns ohio tow weight tanker kept breaking tow lines constant air attacks bombers destroyed rudder hole stern brought decks tanker towed destroyers penn hms acting stern air attacks disrupted formation established replacing remainder journey ohio towed grand harbour august cheering crowds band playing rule crowd fell silent ships entered harbour men removed hats women crossed sounded tanker discharged oil water pumped time reduce chance structural failure ohio settled fuel emptied aftermath analysis german reports august stated recent mediterranean convoy sunk transports reached destination assumed egypt august malta besieged percent axis convoy shipping north_africa lost allies lost vessels sunk including aircraft carrier eagle cruisers manchester cairo destroyer royal_navy merchant navy saved malta arrival short tons general cargo petrol oil fuel diesel fuel island weeks supply weeks existing stocks maintain later year summed german_navy analysis continental observer british losses represent big victory axis reality facts different possible prevent british force merchant vessels reaching thanks new supplies malta capable fighting weeks pinch months main issue danger air attack supply route north_africa remained achieve objective price high point view british operation spite losses defeat failure order axis repercussions day felt royal_navy gunners fleet air arm fighters shot axis aircraft flew convoy wrote operation pedestal tactical disaster british magnitude comparable german attack convoy wrote operation italian success italian submarines adopted offensive tactics sank cruiser damaged cruisers ohio british allies operation pedestal strategic victory raising morale people garrison malta famine inevitable surrender september october malta supplied submarines magic carpet run clyde sailed operation ammunition aviation fuel torpedoes submarines clyde traveller magic carpet runs fast dash gibraltar long tons food casualties wrote fleet air arm lost aircraft action eagle sunk raf lost aircraft axis aircraft shot including losses malta wrote regia lost aircraft excluding lost british raids airfields radio controlled bomber germans lost aircraft plus unknown number reconnaissance aircraft operating convoy listed men killed eagle manchester nigeria cairo kenya merchant navy casualties clan melbourne star santa ohio brisbane star wrote men killed ohio sailed british lost carrier eagle cruisers manchester cairo destroyer carrier cruisers nigeria kenya destroyers damaged repair time fleet air arm lost thirteen aircraft operations sixteen sea hurricanes eagle sunk allies risk losses large convoy malta attempted november capture airfields egypt libya second battle easier provide land based air cover italian cruisers damaged operational rest war italian submarines sunk damaged axis aircraft shot subsequent operations august hms furious club run gibraltar dispatched malta operation september malta supplied allied forces sank long tons axis shipping including long tons fuel destined leaving axis forces egypt consuming supplies faster receipts contributing tactical second battle october november operation torch november submarines bristol torpedo bombers escorted bristol regularly attacked axis supply ships known allies ultra park attempt run disguised merchant ship malta early november failed operation november convoy merchant ships alexandria arrived undamaged light cruiser torpedoed men killed towed port force established malta operation december ships dispatched arrived safely manned torpedoes began operate malta month late december january convoys pairs delivered long tons stores loss ships retrieved island commemoration recognition siege air attacks mediterranean campaign malta awarded george cross months immediately preceding operation vice admiral appointed knight commander order bath bravery resolution fighting important convoy malta face relentless attacks day night enemy submarines aircraft surface forces master tanker ohio mason awarded george cross showing skill courage highest order determination spite persistent enemy opposition vessel valuable cargo eventually reached malta safely officers crew members commanders royal merchant navies including commander hms roger hill received military awards ranging distinguished service order conspicuous gallantry medal mentioned despatches bravery shown malta merchant marine distinguished service medal awarded junior officer frederick august cadet merchant marine academy francis heroism duty operation pedestal subject black white british film malta story interspersed archive footage ohio scripted studio scenes order battle