armenian soviet socialist republic armenian soviet socialist republic armenian armenian russian commonly referred soviet armenia simply armenia constituent soviet_union december established december soviets took control short lived republic armenia lasted called second republic armenia following republic armenia demise soviet_union armenian transformed largely agricultural important industrial production center population million natural growth large scale influx armenian genocide survivors descendants august renamed republic armenia remained soviet_union official proclamation independence september independence recognised december soviet_union ceased exist dissolution soviet_union state post union republic armenia existed adoption new constitution history treaty october revolution eastern armenia russian_empire partly confined borders october revolution leader government announced minorities empire pursue course self determination following collapse empire armenia neighbors georgia declared independence russian rule established respective near armenian genocide subsequent turkish armenian war historic armenian area ottoman_empire overrun despair devastation number joined advancing 11th soviet red army afterward turkey newly proclaimed soviet negotiated treaty turkey resigned claims georgia exchange territory corresponding modern day turkish provinces medieval armenian capital cultural icon armenian people mount located ceded area additionally joseph acting granted areas promised armenia march december armenia georgian policies soviet armenian government revolutionary committee headed young inexperienced militant communists implemented manner consideration poor conditions republic general people years conflict civil strife soviet armenian historian later wrote revolutionary committee started series regard class taking account general economic psychological state devoid revolutionary planning executed brutality disciplinary machinery preliminary propaganda enlightenment utter disregard country unusually condition revolutionary committee issued orders food supply cities amazing seized military uniforms tools rice mills water mills household furniture livestock degree scale terror imposed local february led leaders republic rose revolt briefly communists red army campaigning georgia time returned suppress revolt drove leaders armenia convinced heavy handed tactics source native population soviet rule moscow appointed experienced administrator alexander carry moderate policy better armenian introduction new economic policy began enjoy period relative stability life soviet rule proved contrast turbulent final years ottoman_empire received medicine food provisions central government extensive literacy reforms carried situation difficult armenian church regular target criticism educational books media struggled greatly communism reign death january brief power struggle soviet_union joseph rose power armenian society economy changed fellow moscow dissolved orders socialist armenia georgia established instead armenian people conditions grew worse rule period years armenia educated strictly prescribed conditions nationalism harshly suppressed took measures armenian church weakened armenian genocide policies russian_empire 1920s private property church confiscated priests harassed soviet assaults armenian church accelerated beginning momentarily eased following years improve country relations armenian known assumed title late 1930s soviets renewed attacks church culminated murder great purge closing august church managed survive underground great purge series campaigns political repression persecution soviet_union orchestrated members communist_party writers intellectuals peasants ordinary citizens september dispatched list names oversee communist_party armenia largely old armenian communist leaders fell victim purge defendant moscow trials tried failed save executed trip armenia person arrested speeches thousand people arrested seven members armenian sacked office according study people executed firing squad years majority having accused anti soviet counter revolutionary activities belonging nationalist party ethnic minorities lived soviet_union tens thousands executed deported worked siberia attempt bring armenia population order justify annexation georgia command police terror strengthen party political hold population suppress expressions nationalism writers artists scientists political leaders including writer celebrated poet executed forced exile additionally roughly muslim live near black_sea coastal regions russia georgia turkey deported georgia areas coastal region occurred alleged supporters armenian revolutionary federation greeks forced world war armenia spared devastation destruction wrought western soviet_union great patriotic war world war reached south intended order capture oil fields armenia played valuable role war providing food manpower war estimated served war half return attained highest rank hero soviet_union promoted rank general additional eventually achieving rank marshal soviet_union non slavic commander hold position commander assigned commander baltic admiral soviet government effort shore popular support war allowed token expressions nationalism publication armenian novels production films david restrictions placed church temporarily relented attacks religion war led election bishop new subsequently allowed reside captured germans opted serve german battalions risk life threatening conditions camps soviet soldiers surrendered german forces fighting punished sent work labor camps located siberia end war germany capitulation republic including armenian communist_party secretary lobbied reconsider issue taking provinces armenia lost turkey treaty september soviet_union announced soviet turkish treaty friendship signed soviet minister foreign affairs presented claims forth allied heads turkey condition fight soviet_union emerged war autumn soviet troops soviet occupied iran assembling invasion turkey hostility east west developed cold war especially issuing doctrine turkey strengthened ties west soviet_union relinquished claims lost territories understanding newly formed nato intervene turkey event conflict armenian immigration republic suffering heavy losses war allowed open immigration policy armenia invited armenia country population bolster workforce living countries cyprus france greece iraq lebanon syria primarily survivors descendants genocide offered option having expenses paid soviet government trip homeland estimated immigrated soviet armenia settled towns lured numerous incentives food better housing benefits received living republic arrival spoke western armenian dialect instead eastern armenian spoken soviet armenia addressed brothers living republic different pronunciation word initially humor word went carry treatment soviet government better number armenian immigrants belongings confiscated arrival port taken including clothes jewelry disappointment experienced possibility return forced continue journey armenia immigrants targeted soviet intelligence agencies ministry interior real perceived ties armenian nationalist organizations later sent labor camps siberia released death revival following power struggle death emerged country new leader secret speech gave denounced domestic policies largely government grip country resources production consumer goods housing immediately armenia underwent cultural economic rebirth religious freedom limited degree granted armenia assumed duties office advisers close friends armenian member urged national identity gave speech encouraged works writers massive statue pulled pedestal troops literally overnight replaced mother armenia contacts armenia revived abroad began visit republic frequently rose prominence era including friends older brother designer founder soviet fighter jet company famed soviet included composer wrote featured known sabre dance noted popular literary figures assumed power reforms reversed era began new state saw decline quality quantity products soviet_union armenia severely affected policies demonstrated years later catastrophic earthquake hit material allocated building new homes cement concrete diverted uses lack oversight saw construction built weakly supported apartment buildings earthquake hit morning december houses apartments able resist collapse built years ironically older dwellings better soviet state remained wary resurgence armenian nationalism impose sort restrictions seen time april thousands demonstrated streets anniversary armenian genocide soviet troops entered city attempted restore order prevent happening agreed memorial built honor perished atrocities november memorial designed architects completed hill gorge meter national rebirth positioned circle representing lost provinces present day turkey center circle depth meters eternal flame meter wall memorial park contains names towns villages known taken place monuments honor important events armenian history commemorating battles bash permitted erected statues popular armenian figures like fifth century military commander folk hero david era introduction policies 1980s fueled armenian visions better life soviet rule deported began government armenian denied soviet government fears muslim spark ethnic conflicts christian armenian cousins event occurred time ethnic clash christian muslims inevitable region promised armenia transferred began movement unite area armenia majority armenian population expressed concern forced region february supreme soviet autonomous voted unify armenia demonstrations took place showing support encouraged counter demonstrations soon broke violence city soon ethnic rioting broke preventing solid unification taking place formal petition written senior leaders moscow asked unification armenia claim rejected spring soviet leader viewed favorably following refusal alter stance issue standing deteriorated sharply independence tension central local government heightened final years soviet_union existence new armenian army defense force envisioned serve separate entity soviet_union military created celebration planned anniversary creation armenian republic hostilities broke troops based resulting deaths shootout railway station witnesses claimed excessive force insisted instigated fighting armenian nearby resulted deaths seven people indefinite cancellation celebration march armenia georgia union wide referendum voters voted retention soviet_union reformed form august armenia declare independence soviet_union armenia desire break away soviet_union largely stemmed moscow earthquake relief effort shortcomings soviet economy september armenia declared independence tensions armenia continued ultimately leading outbreak war despite cease fire place armenia resolve conflict country seen substantial development independence moving away planned economy adopting representative democratic system government armenia remains blockaded turkey dispute maintains friendly relations neighboring states georgia iran strategic ally russia july new constitution republic armenia adopted government structure government armenian identical soviet highest political body republic armenian supreme soviet included highest judicial branch republic supreme_court members supreme soviet served term years regional deputies served half years officials holding office mandated members communist_party sessions convened supreme soviet building economy soviet system centralized economy republic banned private ownership income producing property beginning late 1920s privately owned farms armenia placed directive state met active resistance time government began process armenia gross product agriculture gross product industry economic revolution 1930s came great cost broke traditional peasant family village institution forced living rural countryside settle urban areas private enterprise came virtual end effectively brought government control culture life establishment republic soviet authorities worked eliminate certain elements society nationalism religion strengthen union eyes early soviet russians germans jews deemed advanced opposed backward peoples grouped western particularly armenia recognized academic scholars soviet textbooks oldest territory soviet_union armenia impacted significantly policies set forth government prior illness encouraged policy essentially called different soviet_union administer establishing native language schools newspapers theaters armenia soviet government ruled citizens age attend school learn read armenian official language republic number armenian language newspapers magazines journals grew institute culture history created opera theater dramatic theater built established 1920s 1930s facility house ancient medieval manuscripts erected important historical studies prepared new soviet trained scholars popular works fields art literature produced adhered socialist creating works national form socialist content armenian film studio released fiction film honor sound film directed like soviet_union armenia flag coat arms according source dispute soviet_union republic turkey 1950s turkey objected inclusion mount holds deep symbolic importance located turkish territory coat arms turkey felt presence image implied soviet designs turkish territory asking moon depicted flag moon doesn belong turkey half moon want universe turkey dropped issue


history english county founded norse saxon wars 9th century developed commerce serving london land locked county times seat parliament origins aircraft manufacture county developed wider range industry financial services film making prominent today population slightly million services industry commerce dominate economy fewer people working agriculture forestry fishing historic counties england recorded early 10th century development tied london lies southern border london largest city western_europe requires enormous supplies day grew wealthy proceeds trade old roman roads serving capital run grand union canal 19th century rail links sprang county linking london north seen rail crashes international importance tends politically conservative historically site number uprisings crown particularly barons war peasants revolt wars roses english civil war county rich intellectual history writers major importance potter connections number prime ministers born grew county contains large number abandoned settlements davis attributes mixture poor soil hard farm black death ravaged starting early history earliest evidence human occupation come gravel pit finds flint tools date years long britain island people probably lived land called years period making oldest continuously occupied sites europe settlement continued period evidence occupation sites long unusual dog cemetery region occupied area relatively low population early bronze age heavy relatively poorly drained soil south present day evidence increase population typical round farming activity having found site called farm evidence settlement period occupied roman times iron age celtic tribe called occupied main settlement river near present day include sites cow near contains iron age hill forts including largest example eastern england castle wealth iron age burial sites making place international importance iron age study large number sites types indicates dense complex settlement patterns immediately prior roman invasion roman invasion britain bce romans attempted invade britain expert warrior largest british tribe report senate said leader headquarters near second invasion attempt bce led british defensive forces romans besieged partly king murdered forced surrender siege returned rome leaving garrison king ruled thirty years conquering large area britain roman writer called latin king britain built beech defensive related iron age defensive devil headquarters nearby romans defeated july time garrisoned britain romans took settlement laid known roman army officer britain christian martyr arrest island died 3rd 4th century gave modern town roman britain major cities largest granted self governing status strong defences stop burned city rebuilt defences site hectares acres occupied 5th century number roman roads run including street street ancient way runs highways medieval england way run main routes country thousand years later roman road built military way constructed early roman conquest speed troops access north later street built directly early middle ages anglo saxon invasion britain area formed parts kingdom kingdom essex main early saxon tribes place names tend derive celtic saxon singular lack early saxon place names national english church took place september question easter settled church agreed date easter marked end conflict celtic church church introduced saint king died built church burned monks moved defeated near gave village sources including matthew paris monk suggest died buried miles away acts found abbey origins county word saxon attested reference anglo saxon chronicle county true origins lie 10th century edward elder established respectively clearly exist practical sense late 9th century time war saxon line saxon victory battle saxon king alfred great norse king old agreed partition england dividing line territories split middle line river street agreement survives treaty alfred establishes extent land comprising partly kingdom essex nominally norse control populated partly kingdom remained saxon alfred responsible building river saxon ford deer saxon presumably prevent viking ships coming king peaceful credited making capital surrounding presumably early middle ages alfred died son edward elder worked alfred son law daughter parts southern england norse campaigns built noted sites found probably lie beneath streets edward pushed series battles anglo saxon example town planning demonstrated organised rectangular grid street pattern considerable evidence mint period edward martyr great coins struck mint found coins exist coins found continent scandinavia suggest payment day massacre probably started massacre slaughter norse england including women children executed sister king denmark invaded england year retaliation assault england lasted years fled continent crowned king england christmas day reigned weeks dying returned briefly unsuccessfully time succeeded son granted royal manor second command earl high middle ages norman invasion successor surrendered william william created manor bestowed robert count half brother robert son william passed king henry owned royal family henry held court book completed lists settlements population grew quickly black death reached county norman church abbey finished conflicted relationship king high middle ages like counties south east private non royal ownership high middle ages royal land comprised county area earl gilbert titled bore sets arms england gold red shield grandson richard offered king john respect legal proceedings concerning inheritance barons war sided barons king richard barons sworn enforce thomas archbishop_of_canterbury held honour castle king henry iii celebrated christmas time bailey castles built great founded 12th century probably result market church set abbot earliest pipe roll shows king henry queen consort owned property county draft written abbey contained significant provisions force day including principle corpus invoked court years later king john learned archbishop_of_canterbury suspension john agreed adhere main battlefield civil war followed december barons war castle surrendered siege louis later louis viii france english barons invited england replace john king castle surrendered time winter royalist forces plundered took captives abbot feared abbey burned king henry iii held parliament county parliament held king edward gave castle wife margaret france wedding day industry commerce largely clay sub soil land rich heavy suited crop cultivation medieval county grow good later important trade developed commerce agriculture drove england economy period high middle ages county relatively medieval standards towns follow roads small roads large ones large commerce grew start 12th century number markets rose steadily black death 13th century commerce grew county traded butter cheese lesser extent meat hides leather produce bound london county developed services travellers london knights built starting survey knights holdings showed tenants acres km2 land skilled king john granted knights fair market held annually began matthew day lasted days time trade prominent english pope nicholas englishman elected pope born farm probably baptised nicholas refused permission monk career suffered unanimously elected pope december taking papal adrian died pope placed rome famous alleged donation ireland english throne late middle ages king edward granted kings prince wales king edward favourite piers loved palace kings buried death duke york founder house york born kings june died august richard mathematician regarded father modern castle series important captives years war actually series separate wars lasted total years kings england fought kings france entirely french soil queen isabella imprisoned son king castle king david scotland queen battle cross king john france imprisoned considerable luxury black death midway 14th century massively reduced population number residents probably fell likely took 16th century recover meant settlements abandoned particularly north east county farm yields poor near cluster deserted medieval villages seen residents survived grew richer reduced population meant workers demand higher wages better conditions despite laws ordinance labourers statute labourers changed economic conditions contributed peasants revolt people deeply involved man called richard revolt leader tyler principal allies man tyler caught executed king richard went quell rebels richard body buried kings church moved westminster abbey wife anne year king henry appointed knight hugh castle supervise children john king henry moved government temporarily early reign fear public opinion london gave castle honour earl wife anne killed battle king henry married catherine france june gave castle king henry kept easter kings gave poor henry archbishop_of_canterbury visited bells archbishop took offence poor welcome returned church doors sealed important battles wars roses took place battle major battle wars roses richard york defeated killed leader captured king henry recaptured king second battle february prisoner henry kept easter abbey gave best gown prior gift regretted treasurer later bought marks battle took place april advanced london camped green king edward army met confusion early morning mist ended fighting won battle captured executed edward authority seriously challenged england oldest surviving pub dates period fighting rebuilt foundation stones older allegedly going 8th century english paper printing industry printing presses england england paper mill property john stood opposite today county hospital visited henry vii twice producing star circle versions papal bull recognising right reign england renaissance long peace turmoil europe raise english commercial power renaissance european refugees contributed english wealth london centre new power commerce benefited accordingly november catherine held court castle king edward granted sister mary manor castle tolls bridge manor mary queen earned bloody mary refused catholic burnt stake william thomas george executed respectively queen mary granted town charter fee thirteen shillings annually queen elizabeth lived house near girl plague ravaged london held castle law courts moved reason reign specifically commended soldiers efficiency anglo spanish war county sent light horse thousand infantry thousand bow guard majesty person arms granted year founder connecticut samuel stone born fore street king james works carried county built park large tract southern wall parts wall exist hand creating new river welsh entrepreneur hugh artificial building england canal network century james confirmed dog lover built huge feet long dog yard half acre size loved spent considerable time hunting enjoying favourite dog returned evening note tied collar note read good pray speak king hears day majesty london country provision spent able entertain longer civil war county mainly especially staunch parliamentary stronghold course war armies ravaged plundered rifled little church broke open tombs dozen men oliver new model army hanged people county parliamentary army unpaid victory english civil war camped heath near wrote parliament demanding pay led clash army field near november captured imprisoned number sentenced death actually executed great fire london children sent sent years later mayor people petitioned king charles_ii confirm amend expand town charters object prominent men attorney general dismissed objections grounds town henceforth doubled town clerk court day market day changed coincide nearby markets plot assassinate charles_ii brother passed house unfortunately royal party early opportunity missed plot discovered pretext purge whig leaders modern era centuries population multiplied end 18th century population census 18th century important industry smallpox broke spread town year smallpox hit killing people river navigation act led river improved far locks built presumably grand junction canal called grand union canal cut highest point summit formed canal barge hold wagon waterways expansions increased quantity supplies reach london refuse away seven years war affected paid public houses troops staying year army reforms liable provide officers men county contributed soldiers french revolutionary wars lists opened cavalry regiment comprised troops cavalry loyal volunteers formed troops volunteers raised year volunteers raised duty defend land miles walker wrote report agriculture forestry county said deemed best corn county kingdom assessment free local bias shows advanced farming techniques soil improvement programmes enabled farmers work heavier soils better effect saxon norse wars thanks rapidly increasing population improved record keeping practices volume paper records 19th 20th centuries huge documents written printed paper locally time paper making joined dominant industry county john purchased mills newly patented paper making machine dispute society paper makers dismissed men involved trained replacements nash mills steam power produce paper patented silk things bonds supervision men built mills near hill nash mills uniform penny post came paper stamps built private gas works march john incorporated capital acres glass houses company acres km2 glass houses area research previously known experimental station institute crops research oldest agricultural research institutions world site founded inventor 19th century busy period military corps volunteer infantry formed clock tower signalled news battle duke wellington earned freedom borough napoleon defeat regiment fourth battalion regiment march 42nd company imperial landed cape_town cecil rhodes founded state born south street bishops house standing adapted museum spent youth south_africa returned bishops branch railway line england opened station gate rail line grew london cambridge reaching bishops branch opened train crash took place boxing day london underground rail line reached twentieth century pre world war flagship garden cities central development town planning england garden city company formed capital population howard bought nearly acres km2 house garden city occupied town official date founding april world war september immediately deployed egypt 2nd london division territorial force headquarters north midland territorial division 1st regiment landed november saw action month volunteer regiment formed october year raid hit north road destroying houses regiment transferred 39th division fought victoria crosses awarded men corporal alfred alexander lieutenant william robinson shot second lieutenant shot october year came bar 1st battalion regiment fought near grant battle fought advance world war awarded december war finished posthumous lieutenant frank young killed september aged outbreak second world war september 1st 2nd battalions regiment 6th battalion regiment infantry brigade east division second battalion later sur normandy support day landings public meeting county hall newly built having opened held consider forming local defence volunteers nineteen companies formed home guard december year essex field regiment royal artillery formed anticipated campaign northern europe central aircraft manufacture second world war designed constructed halifax bombers raf pilots trained squadron stationed raf purpose mounting tactical reconnaissance sorties occupied europe initially operated capable north american aircraft bombs flying bombs rockets fell second world war american flying fortresses bombers bombardment group heavy mounting combat missions targets continent raf united_states_army air forces raf training station viii fighter command headquarters based raf hall post war war town redeveloped new towns act remained closely connected aircraft industry aircraft workers england worked 1960s developed town london government act created enlarged greater london took exchange county gained bar south middlesex county boundaries revised reforms accompanying local government act time fully house belonged barbara period potter lived second world war sculptor henry moore moved village perry green home bombed henry moore foundation operates village character changed later 20th century resolved close aircraft manufacturing site start 20th century workforce involved agriculture end remained brewery open remaining commercial mills service administrative centre containing head offices important companies dormitory london growing trend research development notably university relatively humble beginnings students october major rail crash took place criticism accident company pay million compensation ceased trading owing fire december major disaster chief fire officer roy said possibly largest peacetime europe million gallons petrol burned largest explosions measured scale smoke skies neighbouring towns days extinguished conservation larger number listed buildings village pre dating greater london example grade listed buildings tend category district borough councils designated conservation areas crime criminals king stephen held court arrested held london middlesex empress surrendered castles including recently built south went noted outlaw seventeenth century called wicked lady preyed travellers common street far end wales lady cell married detached husband thomas body carried county buried time fire large house folklore rhyme arisen near cell near tree near tree treasure witch trials recorded jane convicted accused age time queen anne pardoned lived cottage john accused mob dragged village pond drowned thomas chimney sweep apparently hanged people disapproved hanging come watch records court 17th century william wrote people earth pretty rich attempted distress removed cause superior court believe worth try value organised watch stop daring nightly committed near town year balloon flight britain landed green end stone commemorates achievement late 18th century branch closed inn called maiden head inn walter pie man operated pretended deaf people talk freely moved selling destinations location sons faces ambush later night shot dead george north road murder william known trial newspaper murderer mayor son john notorious pleaded sensational newspaper coverage court took minutes jury sentence death hanging crowds gathered trial large judge trouble getting courthouse streets people attended hanging murder mercy railway street ultimately led major organisation police force long gradual decline agriculture fishing forestry census recorded workers employed sector authors jane wrote pride prejudice set sir francis bacon writer lord chancellor lived near buried michael based character peter pan peter davies friend son visiting family dame author guide hunting printed abbey press john linked outside county member baptist church time preached extensively george poet playwright remembered translations odyssey born lived clerk works castle sir henry known historical pub recorder samuel taylor educated christ hospital william poet born lived later asylum charles visit friend edward mentioned significant elements novels set sir richard born park memorial tablet lived nest house william philosopher chapel minister feminist wife mary author rights woman gave daughter mary wrote graham educated grammar school father julian world war poet lived lady caroline lamb lived hall wrote unhappy love affair lord buried lee poet playwright born father rector edward lived family seat house entertained charles benjamin john scott poet writer moved great gave emma nearby dry john scott poem emma inscribed near nobel playwright george bernard lived death anthony lived cross thomas author chronicler peasants revolt monk abbey early 15th century film making film making melbourne cooper born working later london borough british film maker witnessed birth movies assistant acres acres developed british moving picture camera guidance british engineer paul cooper years contributions british moving picture industry studios nearby risen prominence landmark films television produced include second star wars films episodes indiana jones superman world end british television shows dancing ice wants millionaire big brother parts harry potter film series production took place film studios wild child filmed balls park nobles politicians christian saxon lived county late important document study country county shows large estates left land monks shows importance legal administrative centre likely stayed royal hands 10th century edward appointed earl married lady catherine grey lady jane grey sister catherine line throne needed queen elizabeth permission sought marriage held secret edward sister lady jane witness catherine visibly pregnant little option reveal marriage request lord robert told queen angry elizabeth earl interned tower london marriage sarah churchill influential women english history born sarah married duke rose high favour crown fell queen dismissed returned court queen death argued important people late 17th early 18th centuries grew rich toured continent built palace winston_churchill diana princess wales descended new title earl created short history effectively wiped civil war shortly revive charles illegitimate son king charles_ii duke fourteenth duke robert arthur cecil salisbury born house february died years later distinguished political career prime minister times foreign secretary times william lamb melbourne prime minister lived stage member parliament died hall local government act county elected january arthur born scotland educated going university cambridge served elected prime minister resigned prime minister time prime minister car later served foreign secretary declaration important episode creation israel


renaissance scotland renaissance scotland cultural intellectual artistic movement scotland late fifteenth century beginning seventeenth century associated pan european renaissance usually regarded beginning italy late fourteenth century reaching northern europe northern renaissance fifteenth century involved attempt revive principles classical era including spirit scholarly concepts balance proportion twentieth century unity renaissance challenged historians significant changes scotland seen taken place education intellectual life literature art architecture music politics court central patronage renaissance works ideas central staging lavish display portrayed political religious role monarchy renaissance led adoption ideas imperial monarchy encouraging scottish crown join new asserting imperial jurisdiction distinction growing emphasis education middle ages protestant programme extend reform learning resulted expansion school system foundation university colleges end sixteenth century relatively large numbers scottish scholars studied continent england john andrew george returned scotland play major developing scottish intellectual life vernacular works scots began emerge fifteenth century latin remained major literary language patronage james james writers included william stewart john david william alexander sixteenth century scottish kings particularly james built palaces renaissance style beginning trend soon spread members aristocracy painting strongly influenced flemish art works commissioned continent serving court artists church art suffered loss patronage result reformation house decoration significant wealthy george emerging major named artist early seventeenth century music incorporated wider european influences reformation caused complex church music simpler singing combined union crowns reformation removed church court sources patronage changing direction artistic creation limiting scope early seventeenth century major elements renaissance began way baroque definitions debates renaissance concept formulated cultural historian jacob mid nineteenth century describe intellectual artistic movement began italy fourteenth century saw attempt revive principles greek roman classical worlds encompassed rational attitude return ideas original sources proportion balance art major ideas renaissance generally considered reached northern europe later late fifteenth century scotland seen wider northern renaissance generally considered stretched early seventeenth century replaced styles baroque association baroque styles catholicism predominantly protestant scotland tended result trend overlooked period end seventeenth century characterised late renaissance twentieth century historians disputed validity concept renaissance unique reaction dark age medieval clear break past unified movement instead emphasised intellectual trends movements went twelfth century renaissance built common historians suggest scotland little participation renaissance recently significant changes intellectual cultural life period seen forming watershed scottish cultural history perceived opening path reformation later thought social life enlightenment industrial revolution scotland significant contribution court court central patronage renaissance works ideas central staging lavish display portrayed political religious role monarchy display tied ideas evolving period practical military ornamental cult saw origins classical era alexander great depicted knights tournaments provided focus display famous wild knight black lady james pursued enthusiastically james proud membership international orders displayed insignia gateway palace brief personal rule mary queen scots brought elaborate court activities grown french court introduced balls celebrations designed illustrate resurgence monarchy facilitate national unity elaborate event baptism future james castle organised french servant combined complex imagery incorporating classical themes goddess revival classical golden age round table ceremony followed banquet hunts poetry dance theatre staged siege fireworks court returned centre culture learning james cultivated image philosopher king models david solomon constantine seen entry edinburgh event reign baptism son heir prince henry chapel royal castle rebuilt mirror proportions temple solomon days staged tournament featuring ship state classical deities william designed build image king support claim english irish new ideas impact views government described new renaissance monarchy emphasised status significance monarch roman law principle king emperor kingdom seen scotland mid fifteenth century parliament passed act declaring james iii possessed jurisdiction empire realm king image silver showed wearing closed arched imperial crown place open medieval kings probably coin image kind outside italy soon began appear royal seals manuscripts sculptures crown churches royal connections cathedral edinburgh scottish monarch wear crown james reworked include arches included reconstructed crown scotland idea imperial monarchy emphasised dignity crown included role national force defending national borders interests royal supremacy law distinctive national church catholic communion new monarchy seen reliance crown new men great use clergy form civil service development standing armed forces navy monarchy reached james development concept imperial rule divine right education schools early middle ages formal education limited monastic life twelfth century new sources education begun develop song grammar schools usually attached collegiate church common developing end middle ages grammar schools found main small towns petty schools common rural areas providing elementary education exclusively aimed boys end fifteenth century edinburgh schools girls described schools probably taught lay women development private tuition families lords wealthy growing emphasis education late middle ages passing education act decreed sons barons substance attend grammar schools endorsed concern learn resulted increase literacy largely concentrated male wealthy elite cent nobility end fifteenth century concern widening education shared protestant desire people replacing aim having educated citizens book discipline set plan school parish proved financially impossible old schools maintained song schools number new foundations reformed grammar schools ordinary parish schools schools supported combination funds contributions local councils parents pay inspected sessions checked quality teaching purity large number adventure schools fulfilled local need took pupils away official schools outside established schools master combined position employment particularly minor posts clerk best curriculum included latin french classical literature sports took late seventeenth century produce largely complete network parish schools highlands basic education lacking areas time education act passed forming basis system administration universities twelfth century renaissance resulted emergence major intellectual figures scotland probably significant john major influence late medieval religious thought outbreak wars independence english universities largely closed scots continental universities significant thousand scots identified attending continental universities twelfth century scottish scholars teachers continental universities walter died situation transformed founding university university glasgow university initially institutions designed training increasingly began challenge clerical monopoly administrative posts government law period scottish universities teach greek focused largely faith works aristotle wanting study second degrees needed scottish scholars continued study continent english universities reopened scots late fifteenth century early scots contact leading figure northern movement netherlands born contact french scholar tutor james illegitimate son archbishop alexander stewart international contacts helped integrate scotland wider european scholarly world important ways new ideas brought scottish intellectual life historian born studied paris returned principal new university continued movement universities produced school scottish paris early sixteenth century important john generally described latin history greater britain sympathetic social agenda major figure taught cologne tutor young james iii royal secretary robert abbot later bishop responsible bringing italian teach abbey established impressive library wrote works scottish history biography instrumental organising public lectures established edinburgh law greek latin philosophy patronage mary guise developed college university edinburgh reformation scotland universities underwent series reforms associated andrew returned geneva principal university glasgow influenced anti placed emphasis simplified logic languages sciences status enjoyed philosophy allowing accepted ideas areas challenged introduced new specialist teaching staff replacing system tutor took students entire arts curriculum abandoned greek compulsory year followed hebrew launching new fashion ancient biblical languages glasgow probably declining university arrival students began attend large numbers assisted reconstruction college order glasgow appointed principal mary college result scottish universities producing quality education equal offered europe major intellectual figures reformation included george taught universities france portugal translated texts greek latin tutor young mary queen scots wrote latin poetry deposition works major texts outlining case resistance young james helped producing highly educated protestant prince produce works subjects including government poetry failed convince king ideas limited monarchy james debate status crown literature late fifteenth century scots prose began develop genre demonstrate classical influences earlier fragments original scots prose chronicle complete surviving work includes john ireland prose translations french books survive including book law order treatise arabic work believed aristotle advice alexander great establishment printing press royal patent james easier scottish literature landmark work reign james douglas version complete translation major classical text language finished overshadowed disaster middle scots literature produced poets links royal court included james wrote university education connected william lament provides evidence wider tradition secular writing outside court largely lost advent printing scotland writers douglas robert walter kennedy seen leading golden age scottish poetry continued medieval themes increasingly influenced new continental trends language forms renaissance patron james supported poets william stewart john stewart produced verse version latin history scotland compiled produced prose translation history rome sir david mount lord head court diplomat prolific poet produced interlude palace thought version play surviving scottish play corruption church state making use elements medieval morality plays agenda james promoted literature country birth treatise rules observed scottish published aged poetic manual description poetic tradition mother tongue scots applied renaissance principles patron member loose circle scottish court poets musicians band included william alexander late native scottish tradition extent prospect english throne poets followed king london william alexander began written language james characteristic role active literary participant patron scottish court defining figure english renaissance poetry drama reach pinnacle achievement reign patronage high style scottish tradition largely sidelined architecture impact renaissance scottish architecture seen occurring distinct phases selective use forms church architecture early fifteenth century followed end century phase directly influenced renaissance palace building adoption low massive church building round arches pillars contrast gothic perpendicular style particularly dominant england late medieval era influenced close contacts rome netherlands conscious reaction english forms favour continental ones seen nave cathedral begun facade mary chapel bishop kings college collegiate churches established scotland late fifteenth early sixteenth centuries like trinity college edinburgh showed combination gothic renaissance styles extensive building rebuilding royal palaces probably began james iii accelerated james reaching peak james works seen directly reflecting influence renaissance styles constructed james direction master work john referred palace apparently use term country extended james iii began correspond fashionable corner italian palace castle style palace combining classical symmetry neo imagery evidence italian working james reign completed palaces rebuilt proportions james encountered french version renaissance building visiting marriage second marriage mary guise resulted longer term connections influences work reign largely disregarded style prevalent england henry_viii adopted forms european beginning extensive work followed edinburgh described finest examples renaissance architecture britain copying continental forms scottish architecture incorporated elements styles traditional local patterns adapting scottish materials particularly stone work undertaken james demonstrated continued renaissance influences chapel royal having classical entrance built north wing built classical similar themes seen private houses castle built earl unique style great private houses scotland later known scots located origin period kept features high walled medieval castles largely obsolete gunpowder weapons influenced french brought scotland work royal palaces drew tower houses towers built hundreds local lords fourteenth century particularly borders abandoned curtain walls fortified refuge designed raid sustained siege usually stories typically crowned projecting continuing circular corner new houses retained external features larger ground plan plan rectangular block towers castle castle particularly influential work william wallace king master mason death worked rebuilding collapsed north range house george 3rd earl began work hospital edinburgh adopted distinctive style applied elements scottish fortification flemish influences renaissance plan like style seen lords houses built house edinburgh castle highly influential style gave way english forms associated jones later seventeenth century reformation church architecture scotland rejected ornamentation places worship need elaborate buildings divided ritual resulting widespread destruction medieval church ornaments decoration need adapt build new churches suitable reformed services greater emphasis preaching pulpit earliest buildings simple style continued built seventeenth century castle church edinburgh built layout largely gothic form sophisticated classical style variation rectangular church developed post reformation scotland plan adapting existing churches allowed maximum number near pulpit examples seen plan continued seventeenth century easter new seventeenth century greek cross plan churches cases arm cross closed aisle result effect churches art know native scottish artists middle ages england monarchy model portraits royalty copies versions native royal portraits survive late middle ages generally crude continental standards impressive works artists imported continent particularly netherlands generally considered centre painting northern renaissance products connections included fine portrait william images catherine john brought hugo van der goes trinity college church edinburgh commissioned james iii work flemish master james scotland named relatively large number elaborate books late fifteenth early sixteenth centuries usually produced low countries france scottish patrons included prayer book commissioned robert bishop glasgow flemish illustrated book hours known hours james scotland given james margaret tudor described finest medieval manuscript commissioned scottish use surviving stone wood carvings wall paintings suggest sixteenth century royal art castle stone carvings royal palace reign james taken german patterns like surviving carved oak portrait king presence chamber known heads include contemporary biblical classical figures scotland ecclesiastical art paid heavy toll result reformation total loss medieval stained glass religious sculpture paintings parallel loss patronage created crisis native artists turned secular patrons result scottish renaissance painted ceilings walls large numbers private houses lords gaining highly detailed coloured patterns scenes examples survive include ceiling undertaken mark long gallery house painted alexander earl undertaken unnamed scottish artists continental pattern books led incorporation moral philosophical symbolism elements classical myths henry vii sent flemish portrait painter court james margaret tudor later sixteenth century anonymous artists portraits important individuals including earl wife jean gordon george 7th lord tradition royal portrait painting scotland probably disrupted minorities james employed flemish artists arnold scotland adrian left visual record king major figures court significant native artist george successful portrait painters reign charles trained baroque artist john michael wright music captivity james england earned reputation poet composer led english continental styles musicians scottish court release late fifteenth century series scottish musicians trained netherlands centre musical production western_europe returning home included john thomas john master song school edinburgh introducing new organ playing technique james chapel royal castle new enlarged choir focus scottish music english influences probably reinforced henry vii daughter margaret tudor married james outstanding scottish composer half sixteenth century robert canon abbey masses survived masses provides example use continental fashion survived britain bone scored voices commemorate 19th year reign james complex music performed large highly trained choir employed chapel royal james patron figures including david best known work text john voices probably accomplished composers times work surviving largely fragments era scotland followed trend renaissance courts instrumental accompaniment playing accounts indicate court reign james iii houses great lords instruments appear art period ceiling castle showing bass flute similar mixed consort found england period music accomplishments renaissance royalty james entertained bride margaret tudor marriage celebrations playing margaret taught child james major patron sacred music talented player introduced french court secular chamber music survives reformation severe impact church music song schools collegiate churches closed disbanded music books manuscripts destroyed organs removed churches influenced early scottish reformation attempted accommodate catholic musical traditions worship drawing latin hymns vernacular songs important product tradition scotland spiritual popular ballads composed brothers james john robert adopted remained popular reprinted later came dominate scottish reformation hostile catholic musical tradition popular music placing emphasis biblical meant scottish commissioned assembly church drew work french musician contributions english writers particularly edition produced william english congregation geneva intention produce individual tunes proper tunes seventeenth century common tunes metre common need simplicity congregations sing unlike trained sung parts hymns necessitated simplicity church compositions confined settings evidence survived incorporated editions usually congregation singing melody trained singers tenor bass parts return james daughter mary france begin personal reign position catholic gave new lease life choir scottish chapel royal destruction scottish church organs meant instrumentation accompany mass employ bands musicians drums like father played unlike father fine singer brought french musical influences employing players household james major patron arts general statutory provision reform promote teaching music attempting revive song schools rebuilt chapel royal choir state occasions like baptism son henry followed tradition employing private entertainment members family went south throne england james removed major sources patronage scotland beginning fall disrepair scottish chapel royal occasional state visits leaving court westminster major source royal musical patronage decline influence renaissance scotland seen reaching peak half sixteenth century reigns james deposition mary queen scots loss church source patronage court changed limited development renaissance ideas period civic began way private devotion retreat world influenced art architecture renaissance proportion began way exaggerated style baroque legacy renaissance seen transformation ruling elite scottish society warrior refined morals values created acceptance importance learning contributed legacy scottish school university systems specifically education act seen establishing precedent public system education taken informed later legislation expansion establishment scottish universities especially reforms associated allowed scotland participate educational revolution early modern era vital development enlightenment scotland circumstances seen david making education vital sense renaissance left legacy intellectual fields including poetry historical writing architecture continued seventeenth eighteenth centuries growing number scottish scholars emerged increasing confidence literature explanation sudden flowering scottish enlightenment country history achievements philosophy poetry music mathematics architecture close touch intellectual trends rest europe period scotland major contributions fields medicine law philosophy geology history ideas limitation royal sovereignty people remained present scottish intellectual life resurfaced contribute major debates eighteenth century


romania early middle ages early middle ages romania started withdrawal roman troops administration province millennium series peoples controlled nearly historical regions form romania arrived period society culture underwent fundamental changes town life came end roman withdrawal minor roman province territory present day romania years later fine vessels fast potter wheels disappeared hand pottery dominant burial rites changed vice versa dominant end 10th century east lived communities new arrivals dominated parts power collapsed attacks nomadic controlled eastern central europe empire regions west mountains dominated century lands east mountains important centers place names slavic origin prove time presence early regions west nomadic dominated basin established powerful empire included territories lower danube bulgaria officially adopted eastern orthodox variant christianity armed conflict bulgaria nomadic hungarians forced depart began conquest basin invasion gave rise earliest reference recorded centuries later ruled romanian duke named source makes mention presence contemporaneous references known regions forming romania recorded 12th 13th centuries references inhabiting lands south lower danube period integrated kingdom hungary 11th century regions subject raids nomadic dominated east mountains hungarian monarchs promoted immigration western european colonists colonists descendants known early 13th century received collective privileges settlement territories moved easternmost zones kingdom emergence empire decades 13th century lasting effects history region destroyed settlements kingdom hungary bringing early middle ages end background roman provinces native tribes contacts roman empire developed largest empire history europe natives regions forming romania commenced 2nd century regions inhabited peoples incursions posed threat empire romans initially attempted secure means including creation zones finally decided annexation lands fierce best measure territory river danube black_sea modern region incorporated empire attached roman province lower danube marked boundary empire emperor decided expand territories controlled kingdom achieved goal military campaigns second ended state establishment province included large portions colonists roman world arrived settled new province following decades situated empire natural borders surrounded native tribes inhabiting regions integral romania romans annexed province plundered neighboring tribes including shortened defensive purposes withdrawal roman began province officially ceased exist emperor withdrew romans cities countryside garrisons stationed remained northern bank river origin speak language originating roman provinces north line line divided roman times predominantly greek speaking southern provinces latin principal language communication emergence romanian vulgar latin demonstrated words turn turn brother recorded connection eastern roman military action soldier shouting native tongue spoke eastern romance dialect balkan mountains writes romanian vocabulary suggests ancestors reduced pastoral life mountains agricultural pursuits foothills pasture lands following collapse roman rule great number romanian words uncertain origin related animal chief shepherd cheese instance belong group words related settled form animal borrowed slavic including house stable pasture romanian preserved latin terms agriculture latin names certain crops significant agricultural originates slavic speaking population group includes harvest wheat pitchfork cut line slavic romanian religious vocabulary divided small number basic terms preserved latin significant number old church romanian preserve latin words connected society likewise term sat village borrowed language directly inherited medieval romanian word village community came slavic romanian word boundaries hungarian origin understood based exclusively written sources earliest records ancestors 11th century byzantine historians referring romance speaking population southeastern europe early medieval sources derived common slavic term speakers latin language earliest sources write central territories balkan peninsula late roman age minor lower danube territory lower danube black_sea remained fully integrated roman empire abandonment transformed separate province minor romans erected small forts places northern bank danube modern day wider region roman coins period bronze found existence christian communities minor evident emperor emperors ordered persecution christians empire causing death emperor constantine great bridge danube constructed new fort built ancient roads repaired lower danube empire northern boundary latest emperor met head boat middle river taken oath set foot roman soil destroyed forts restored emperor eastern roman coins half 6th century suggest significant military presence region characterized pottery shapes roman tradition eastern roman emperors annual payments neighboring peoples attempt peace balkans regularly invaded minor romans abandoned town minor resist invaders fell north northern belonged province direct contact roman empire evidence invaded following decades towns including surrounding areas continued inhabited urban areas diminished existence local christian communities assumed settlements hand evidence mainly pottery signs christian symbols poorly understood according archaeologists found late 3rd century settlements clear sites east suggesting new arrivals province neighboring regions groups pressured departed homeland sought refuge roman empire listed peoples mixed late allies empire demonstrated roman invasion enemies admitted empire groups remained plains land started penetrating territories west river distinct groups separated river quickly emerged time province held success marked expansion culture settlements culture appeared end 3rd century lands inhabited population engaged farming cattle breeding pottery making flourished villages wheel fine pottery featuring item period hand cups local tradition preserved similar nearby roman provinces scandinavian style indicate trade contacts regions villages covering area exceeding hectares acres fortified comprised types houses sunken walls surface buildings timber walls sunken centuries typical settlements east appeared distant zones divided smaller political units headed tribal chiefs case emergency tribal chiefs council elected supreme leader known judge kings christian prisoners war missionaries descendant captive ordained bishop christians land expelled persecution christians settled gothic dominance collapsed arrived attacked sought asylum roman empire followed large groups significant groups stayed territories north danube instance retired men probably valley river drove roman coins issued suggests gates blocked time treasure hidden implies presence gothic tribal religious leader lands lower danube contains bearing inscription interpreted god protects holy land earliest reference east tribe closely related found formal speech anonymous author wrote joined battle time center early plains northwest mountains appears located early 5th century precious objects roman unearthed imposed authority remained united rule king named favorites king initiated uprising died regained independence ruled extent tombs found evidence wealth accumulated connections eastern roman empire golden ring crosses found graves implies owner christian faith john refers bishop suggests adopted christianity connection new settlements appearing rivers reflects period common people villages lived sunken covered roofs primarily farmers products evidence existence local workshops trading contacts regions evidenced finds amber manufactured scandinavia invasion ended independent written sources evidence survival groups empire instance eastern roman troops encountered settlements plains empire people uncertain origin nomadic wagons eminent mounted imposed authority increasing number neighboring peoples ruler seat located lower danube region initially important ally later enemy eastern roman empire eastern roman government paid annual tribute gold flowing empire transformed society introduction centralized monarchy evidenced report written eastern roman envoy sent ruler time gothic widely spoken royal court subjects spoke gothic commercial dealings western romans latin imposed authority population refers village supplied instead corn instead wine sudden death caused civil war sons subject peoples revolted emerged battle remnants withdrew groups admitted settle minor objects widespread fine weapons dated period ending according period characterized population shifts caused abandonment villages appearance new settlements sites east demonstrate pottery forms decline use fast potter wheel time semi sunken stone clay appeared forming settlements area smaller hectares acres locals practiced form agriculture instead soil differences local pottery indicate communities isolated marshes forests hills instance contemporary produced significant quantity wheel pottery characterized crushed tempered vessels sample common vessels found valley known second half 5th century pointing common use use pits hand huge produced wheel pits small graves found 6th century authors terms refer peoples inhabiting territory north lower danube launched campaign lower danube concluded treaty eastern roman empire started balkan provinces ethnic groups seized prisoners wars raids ready integrate free men friends names early 6th century leaders unknown supports ancient authors claims ethnic groups lived democracy conclusion drawn report young spoke latin tongue dispatched fellow negotiate eastern roman empire disappearance bronze gold coins sites north lower danube demonstrates economic closure frontier eastern roman empire period characterized tendency cultural unification similar designs evidence existence cross regional set symbols shared consumers objects decorated crosses unearthed sites use clay bread spreading regions south east lands lower danube empire occupied decade arrival europe nomadic settled found german earliest finds romania attributed received agricultural products farming communities settled domains neighboring peoples subjected authority emperor hired attack resumed raids empire time names leaders recorded following period called tongue graves males interred horses found band prove settlement early 7th century centered salt mines spurs found context widely western territories unearthed mare suggesting employment non horsemen 8th century large late generations imply advanced degree entire society empire collapsed launched campaigns westernmost territories soon attacked southeast settled groups emergence new powers lower danube region experienced period stability establishment empire archaeological sites characterized growing popularity hand vessels finger impressions decline 7th century armenian described large country inhabited formed tribes villages sunken stone appeared network expanding rivers called group mixed emerged period near salt mines hungarian romanian vocabulary salt mining taken slavic suggesting employed mines centuries swift nice red rivers settlements names slavic origin evidence presence speaking arrived territories west river battle defeated eastern roman byzantine emperor constantine occupied soon imposed authority neighboring tribes great variety burial rites multi ethnic character bulgarian empire divided respect practiced initially sharp distinction existed subjects soon began writes new cultural synthesis known culture developed lower danube region new settlements large region experienced steady demographic rise 8th century large settlements characterized traditional semi sunken houses ground level floors unearthed places communities produced gray yellow fine pottery hand vessels predominant fine gray vessels unearthed 9th century area constitutes cultural near graves west east orientation form distinct group female dress accessories graves similar christian bulgaria earlier date group northwestern 9th century similar east slavic territories contemporaneous authors rarely early medieval southeastern europe instance royal annals makes passing reference living adjacent danube near bulgarian border occasion envoys arrival bulgaria territory increased took forced town inhabitants settle north lower danube ambitions son regions rivers attested columns erected memory military leaders drowned rivers military campaigns emperor sent envoys ask sell salt suggesting bulgarian control salt mines roads year nomadic hungarians arrived lower danube region eastern_europe involved conflict bulgaria byzantine_empire behalf nomadic tribe invade hungarians east attacked south synchronized attacks forced hungarians cross mountains search new homeland years later author wrote comprehensive list peoples basin turn 9th 10th centuries wrote hungarian conquest territory mention bulgaria opponents known contemporary sources instead wrote number personalities unknown ruled peoples called wrote previously peoples king living territory centuries joined invading hungarians according ruled glad come castle glad described employ army anonymous wrote certain ruling land inhabited subjects portrayed having suffered injuries formation new states waves bulgarian empire conversion ruler bulgaria converted orthodox christianity promoted vernacular worship services old church declared language bulgarian orthodox church earliest examples script alphabet strongly associated found romania inscription refers byzantine troops occupied large portions bulgaria including modern emperor john death anti byzantine uprising led brothers broke brothers david killed present day border region greece republic macedonia byzantines conquered territory bulgarian empire archbishop acquired jurisdiction living hungarians basin way taken hungarians mountains started conquest basin varies source source according hungarians descended northern passes bypassing began invasion regions east conquest western regions says died fighting hungarians subjects chose lord hungarian leaders wrote defeat said preserved rule death giving daughter marriage heir head hungarians contrasting account illuminated chronicle writes hungarians fleeing eastern passes mountains remained quietly rested moving west called group small graves west east orientation containing remains horses appeared sides mountains military character people formed double defensive line organized group cluster salt mines emperor constantine vii identified settlement hungary lands rivers possibly ran concentration objects byzantine confluence shows territory regional center power accordingly seat hungarian baptized constantinople probably existed region hand hungarian chronicles associate family place names nomadic hungarian corresponding proper names hungarian tribal names including evidence major hungarian groups settled early cemetery belonging 11th century archaeological culture finds basin found land speaking took control territories east hungarians emperor constantine vii wrote provinces clans located change dominion major effect villages region settlements built river banks lake shores remained sporadic finds horse nomadic objects evidence presence communities bits rigid round early 10th century unearthed locals replaced end 10th century saga narrates good nasty people involved disputes throne 11th century inscription stone narrates man murdered voyage abroad refer inhabiting regions east translation black men excluded graffiti depicting ships dragons scandinavian style found cave complex large groups pressured east received asylum byzantine_empire populations remained regions north lower danube admitted kingdom hungary decades settled southern regions byzantine revival second bulgarian empire emperor john established theme district territories occupied balkan mountains lower danube naval bases built river living annexed territories expressed hostility imperial rule anna relates local showed way passes balkan mountains invading served imperial army instance imperial campaign kingdom hungary new taxes imposed imperial authorities caused rebellion led establishment second bulgarian empire eminent status new state evidenced writings robert western authors refer new state mountainous regions kingdom hungary stephen crowned king hungary reign began unified basin launched campaign maternal uncle king occupied stephen later turned baptised orthodox faith conquered stephen wrote monarch divided territories territory modern romania roman catholic established seats decades 11th century royal administration entire kingdom based counties organized royal fortresses modern romania territory references count count evidence appearance county system counties remained direct royal authority great officer realm supervised counties end 12th century eastward expansion villages continued 11th century carved soil items period semi sunken stone villages evidence survival local population lands plundered royal forts built earth timber strengthened attack forts appeared called dependent late 11th century royal legislation forcing set churches early presence attested royal charters groups moved easternmost regions monarchs granted territories new settlers arriving western_europe organized seats instead counties royal officer count head community provided military services monarchs remained exempt royal taxes great number flemish german guest settlers arrived wheel fine vessels found demonstrate advanced technology introduced new home account royal revenues shows tenth royal income derived taxes paid king andrew granted collective privileges inhabiting region diploma confirmed custom freely priests local leaders right appoint head community count preserved monarchs collectively mentioned early 13th century received right use forests peoples earliest royal charter referring connected foundation abbey granted land time possessed royal charter reveals fought bulgaria leadership count orthodox remained exempt catholic peasants church furthermore paid special kind tax colonization continued arrival knights granted right freely pass land land knights tried free monarch authority king andrew expelled region king appointed heir title duke administer duke occupied set new province land arrival lower danube region recorded 17th century version chronicle relates ancient hero fought nations groups assisted byzantines villages east abandoned time new settlements appeared higher land banks sharp decrease number archaeological sites settlements coin population decline continued 13th century byzantine troops marching territory east encountered land entirely men coalition princes tribes suffered sound defeat battle river shortly accepted baptism supremacy king hungary roman catholic diocese set territories letter written pope gregory refers certain people called persuaded catholic hungarians germans accept authority orthodox invasion decided invade europe attacked masses sought refuge bulgaria hungary crossed march soon destroyed rich village germans took army proceeded way black defeated leader named entered sacked invasion lasted year devastated huge territory kingdom unexpected withdrawal matthew paris contemporaneous scholars considered invasion sign apocalypse villages destroyed rebuilt according royal charter charter village totally deserted devastation region surrounded great village combined force russians hungarian prisoners sent hungarian prisoners ahead slain russians went battle standing laughed plight ruin killed retreated battle subjected swords fighting week day night filling moat captured village soldiers ladies stand field peasants having robbed money clothing goods executed axes swords leaving ladies girls alive took entertainment aftermath new period intensive colonization began regions kingdom hungary withdrawal king considering settling knights lands lower danube diploma knights existence romanian region rule john internal conflicts characterized decades 13th century kingdom hungary instance feud king son stephen caused civil war lasted taking advantage emerging anarchy attempted rid hungarian monarchs fell battle fighting royal troops successors romanian monarch sovereignty internationally recognized victory king charles hungary battle


liverpool women suffrage society liverpool women suffrage society set bright allen booth stewart brown promote women society held meeting liverpool hall head national union women suffrage societies guest speaker society set headquarters lord street group affiliated held meetings included talks poetry dance members recruited prominent members society distanced working class suffrage societies women social political union eleanor led society secretary especially campaigning elections campaign shops opened liverpool asking men vote candidates supported votes women especially alexander gordon cameron stewart brown set branch society educate women soon vote society disagreed merged municipal women association create liverpool women citizens association history liverpool women suffrage society set meeting january hall street society proposed month earlier emily public meeting unanimous vote founded bright allen booth stewart brown initially members society set headquarters lord street leader national union women suffrage societies attended meeting guest speaker society distinguished women social political union independent labour_party known respectable lady opposed militant society recruited prestigious members society leading women especially working class joining organisation actively distanced protests annual general meeting january membership expanded society affiliated central national society women suffrage joined national union women suffrage societies bright invited speak liverpool february resulted phenomenal demand membership cards stayed bright house whilst city goals liverpool women suffrage society formed intention fulfilling number goals hoped educate women right vote convince men links liberal mps intended use pressure government allow women suffrage addition society tried drum support cause holding small scale events speakers cafe liverpool bond street events include poetry singing performances acting ballet blue bird theatre company society wider suffrage demonstrations example june supported national union women suffrage societies event london park june event liverpool suffrage liverpool hall eleanor lead society campaigning liverpool elections opening campaign shops road bold street stanley road asking men vote support votes women party actively campaigned labour candidate alexander gordon cameron win founders society founded women bright served executive committee liverpool ladies union workers women girls involved feminist causes mothers union national union women workers driving force liverpool branch national union women suffrage societies husband allen bright lawyer shipping merchant liberal allen booth née butler american executive committee liverpool ladies union workers women girls stewart brown president liverpool women liberal association worked bright mothers union national union women workers bright eleanor miss eleanor liverpool women citizen association sensing close achieving suffrage stewart bright created municipal women association branch society aim increase awareness vote women encourage discussion potential women voters teaching women vote liverpool women suffrage society disagreed route national union women suffrage societies taking election fighting fund instead merged municipal women association liverpool women citizen association outbreak world war changed focus groups help national emergency groups merged branches


switzerland roman era territory modern switzerland roman republic empire period centuries beginning step step conquest area roman armies 2nd century ending decline western roman empire 5th century celtic tribes area successive roman campaigns aimed control strategic routes italy alps rhine importantly defeat largest tribal group area smoothly integrated empire population wider roman culture 2nd century romans enlisted native aristocracy engage local government built network roads connecting newly established colonial cities divided area roman provinces roman civilization began retreat swiss territory border region crisis century roman control switzerland ceased area began occupied peoples switzerland prior roman conquest swiss plateau natural borders alps south east lake geneva west rhine north recognized territory area dominated culture 5th century settled celtic population numerous included north west switzerland centered geneva south swiss plateau controlled large areas roman conquest early contact switzerland fall rome southern annexed roman victory territory geneva came roman sway incorporated province prior wars tribes identified joined wandering march west course war defeated roman force battle roman victory returned settle swiss plateau defeat led decided leave lands west burning settlements according villages decisively beaten battle surrender sent home according status roman allies previously believed fully roman sovereignty policy aimed controlling territory west rhine blocking potential routes east described savage warriors continued launch incursions swiss plateau contained end charged defending territory established colonies veterans julia shores lake geneva northwestern switzerland preceding larger founded conquest alps attempt open great bernard pass roman traffic failed strong opposition local successful efforts gain control alpine region undertaken successor rapid development establishment safe direct route italy priority army wiped valley time following campaign likely course conquest campaign celtic tribes opened great bernard pass conquest consequence securing imperial borders effectively control alps shield northern italy rome needed control flanks mountain range extend power rhine danube opening direct route central europe obstacle path expedition thorough campaign later emperor brought switzerland firmly roman control built celebrate conquest alps lists defeated peoples tribes appears absorbed peacefully empire century conflicts year emperors roman switzerland history switzerland roman rule period time exceptional peace prosperity possible protection defended distant imperial borders peaceful smooth local population romans territory numerous settlements built network high quality roman roads connecting allowing integration imperial economy roman settlements roman presence strong alps crucial north south connection kept open swiss plateau decades conquest principal roman settlements switzerland cities evidence found roman villages established 1st 3rd century hundreds varying sizes built western central swiss plateau known include les geneva forum central northern switzerland fines colonies little cultural influence immediate surroundings roman military defeats frontier moved rhine guarded originally based permanent camp likely capital founding beginning 1st century benefited traffic brought bernard pass street expanded acquired status roman colony allied city believed favor city lived time measure better control events colony veterans midst administrative divisions alps administered pro new province split merged province form new province swiss plateau western central fines province military purposes superior eastern belonged division established accompanied tribal settlement areas remained essentially unchanged reforms century parts switzerland belonged provinces vienna government colonies governed republican similar rome governmental powers exercised pair elected annually citizens older later times city_council members council corresponded roman senate selected officials priests according wealth held office life capitals non roman tribes respectively capacity governed entire population legal status inhabitants invested latin right rights roman colonists represented special authority heads colonists roman citizens entire territory established association roman citizens tribal community similar celtic tribes merged single probably given forum capital parts modern belonged colony founded 1st century local level basic administrative units replacing tribes dissolved time colonization villages enjoyed certain autonomy governed popularly elected governmental system central western switzerland described documented substance known political administrative system eastern records time great number local nobles held political religious offices indicating romans successfully opted local elite culture society roman culture floor heating imported goods pottery glass religious icons artworks found roman era dwellings indicating effective levels society roman public found villages temples integrated theaters showing animal combat roman culture local population appears thorough celtic traditions disappear entirely resulting fusion roman local culture characterized aspects society latin language government instruction gradually replaced local celtic everyday use local artworks religious icons period exhibit influences ornamental celtic art classical roman art oriental styles far reaches empire important incentive local people perspective obtaining degrees roman citizenship rights conferred including right vote hold public office render military service hundreds found switzerland luxurious existence wealthy upper class landowners belonged roman immigrants members celtic aristocracy continued hold lands rank roman conquest lower classes known inscriptions existence boat doctors teachers traders existence trade slaves religion course celtic local tribes merged roman religion celtic deities came names roman counterparts replaced mercury apollo forth practice called pioneered roman gods acquired names local gods mars mars mercury god alps oriental religions grew popular later empire unlike traditional roman promised rewards artifacts related gods isis found site roman settlement switzerland great significance religion culture roman switzerland illustrated imposing size central location roman temples cities great number religious artifacts found archaeologists empire imperial cult practiced switzerland particularly prominent temple center forum christianity clear christian communities switzerland date religion officially tolerated milan certain christian faith adherents time prior bishop switzerland bishop certain bishop earlier christian religious buildings date 4th century found geneva saint known legend legion decline roman civilization switzerland order prosperity brought switzerland ended empire crisis century empire briefly rome emperor withdrew rhine fight allowing enter swiss plateau cities villages raided sacked bands numerous coins recovered period severity crisis shielded mountains escaped empire rhine switzerland border area defenses strengthened especially constantine rebuilt roads built castles alongside numerous fortifications built rhine border south providing defense depth border fortifications completed established chain rhine lake tower kilometers away efforts restore peace order switzerland numerous settlements abandoned inhabitants fled places south urban culture faded away cities permanently abandoned 4th century stones ruins serving geneva recovered noted city half ruined buildings transition middle ages roman era switzerland traditionally held ended withdrew troops rhine danube argued withdrawal temporary partial roman control rivers assistance tribes moving south case fifth century saw apparently non violent takeover western switzerland placed shield invading northern central switzerland opposed absent weakened roman forces settlements established important cultural linguistic division modern switzerland areas eventually french speaking people larger eastern half called french speak variants german maintained roman traditions longer rest switzerland eventually leaving small territory vulgar latin dialect spoken day assassination subsequent retreat roman forces south alps marked definitive end roman power switzerland beginning transition middle ages


columbus globe state industry leaders columbus globe state industry leaders known hitler globe globe globe designed specifically adolf_hitler nazi party berlin 1930s columbus globe state industry leaders located hitler office existence widely known united_states comedian charlie parodied film great dictator comedy group fun acts limited editions collected john private army hitler summer retreat shortly war sold years later auction san_francisco globe hitler office replaced italian east africa known size manufacturing cost origin limited editions globe berlin mid 1930s nazi party german dictator adolf_hitler nearly size car manufactured great expense changed today italian east africa standard wood special features actual number produced verified factory produced globe archives destroyed air raids polish historian globe believes located office hitler probably particularly fond globe declaring hitler decided old big house assigned favorite architect albert build new massive renovations completed early hitler insistence globe moved new office located heart new remained soviets occupied building april whereabouts numerous purported owned hitler exist world authenticity doubtful total berlin geographical institute museum german historical museum reside public collections munich germany bullet hole simply wiped act committed contempt soviet american soldiers based photographic evidence iconic hitler office globe allegedly owned hitler found american soldier john ruins eagle nest personal retreat near alps hitler occasions war complex nearly completely looted time arrived took globe home kept years selling auction san_francisco bob entrepreneur san_francisco bought globe times original estimated price legacy globe regarded iconic representation adolf_hitler desire world conquest january released short subject spy hollywood parody hitler nazis followed october release british comedian charlie parody film great dictator parodied globe separately works july released sequel short subject named globe focus parody film globe portrayed beach ball bursts face dictator similarly partners dictator play game away globe military commander field marshal herring eventually globe head

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