scottish religion seventeenth century scottish religion seventeenth century includes forms religious organisation belief kingdom scotland seventeenth century sixteenth century scotland undergone protestant reformation created national strongly presbyterian outlook james favoured son charles authorised book head church enforced use new seen english style prayer book resulting rebellion scottish bishops formally expelled church representatives sections scottish society drew national subsequent bishop wars scottish emerged virtually independent rulers charles failure led indirectly english civil war intervened parliament victorious increasingly alienated parliamentary regime scottish defeats subsequent second civil wars led english occupation incorporation commonwealth england scotland ireland led oliver religious scottish divided parties protesters restoration scotland regained national clergy refused accept new settlement particularly south west ministers took preaching open fields attracting thousands government alternated accommodation persecution defeated government forces society people continued resist government known increasingly radical early intense phase persecution began later known protestant historiography killing time accession openly catholic james vii increasing glorious revolution william orange mary daughter james accepted monarchs final settlement restored abolished bishops generally supported james william tolerant tended passed acts restoring clergy excluded revolution focused bible family worship strongly encouraged sessions applied personal moral discipline discouraged group celebrations sessions administrative burden system poor relief administration parish school system took pursuit cases intense hunt improving economic conditions increasing led practice peter end century numbers roman catholics organisation church probably deteriorated began revive appointment vicar mission events background reformation sixteenth century scotland underwent protestant reformation created national strongly presbyterian outlook reformation severely reduced powers bishops abolish earlier century teachings martin john began influence scotland particularly scottish scholars visited continental english universities trained catholic influence english direct supplied books distributed protestant literature invaded particularly important work lutheran patrick hamilton execution protestant influenced george burnt stake orders cardinal stem growth ideas supporters included number assassinated soon seized castle held year defeated help french forces survivors including chaplain john condemned slaves helping create resentment french protestant cause limited influence exiled scots countries led expansion group declaring lords congregation representing interests politically collapse french alliance english intervention meant relatively small highly influential group position impose reform scottish church confession faith rejecting papal jurisdiction mass adopted parliament young mary queen scots france having escaped spent time geneva follower emerged significant figure led resulted settlement adopted presbyterian system rejected elaborate medieval church gave considerable power new local control appointment clergy resulting widespread generally orderly point majority population probably catholic find difficult penetrate highlands islands began gradual process conversion consolidation compared conducted relatively little persecution personal reign catholic mary queen scots eventually ended civil war deposition imprisonment execution england infant son james crowned king scots brought protestant country run series asserted personal rule favoured civil wars james inheritance english crown led rule council london increasingly controlled meetings scottish general_assembly increased number powers scottish bishops held general_assembly pushed articles included practices retained england largely abolished scotland kneeling reception communion ratified created widespread opposition resentment seen step catholic practice james succeeded son charles charles relied heavily bishops particularly john archbishop eventually making chancellor beginning reign charles alienated lands helped secure finances threatened holdings nobility gained reformation settlement objects widespread fear catholicism largely confined nobles highlands islands reference general_assembly parliament king authorised book head church ordained unpopular ritual enforced use new emerged seen english style prayer book resulting anger widespread rioting said set throwing service cathedral protestant nobility head popular opposition representatives sections scottish society drew national february king innovations king supporters unable suppress rebellion king refused compromise december year meeting general_assembly glasgow scottish bishops formally expelled church established presbyterian basis scots king assembled armies bishop wars scots emerged charles leaving independent control country forced recall english parliament resulting outbreak english civil war sided parliament entered league scottish church settlement promising reform england westminster confession faith drawn english scottish ministers agreed subordinate standard doctrine royalist campaign highlands england defeated king surrendered relations english parliament increasingly independent english new model army strained control scotland country moved away party fell control willing compromise king resulting engagement king led second civil war defeat scottish invading army battle preston new model army led oliver coup raid party regained control scotland commonwealth execution king january england declared commonwealth scots declared son king charles_ii english responded invasion defeats scots worcester english occupied country declaring scotland commonwealth period defeat deeply divided partly search defeat different factions tendencies produced rival resolutions protests gave names major parties willing accommodation hard line protesters wished purge associations subsequently divide rival camps groups appointed permanent agents london terms union promised gospel preached promised freedom religion regime accepted valid system accept legitimate form church organisation result civil penalties longer backed sessions functioned administration tended favour protesters largely inclined desire restoration monarchy general_assembly claimed independence state act holding public prayers success earl insurrection regime led largely members assembly marched edinburgh armed guard assemblies period commonwealth met informal clergy universities largely seen training school clergy relatively funded came control patrick principal glasgow extend catholics attention largely left extend independent group establish scotland period small number attempts extend largely catholic speaking highlands islands published book general period commonwealth looked flourished ministers largely barred politics spent time flocks placed emphasis preaching emulated presbyterian noted souls converted christ short period time season reformation restoration restoration settlement restoration monarchy scotland regained bishops act legislation revoked removing gains bishops wars act passed later day renewed discipline sessions suggesting compromise possible restoration proclaimed council scotland september james sharp minister london represent interests changed sides accepted position archbishop consecrated robert bishop bishops soon entire bench bishops constructed parliamentary session church scotland restored national church office holders required renounce church ministers forced accept new situation lose ministry refused ministers chose voluntarily abandon parishes wait forced government occurred south west scotland area particularly strong sympathies ministers took preaching open fields attracting thousands persecution government responded alternating policies force act passed declared persons allowed heavy fines failed attend parish churches king group men captured government local military commander marched edinburgh defeated battle green prisoners captured executed torture rest transported barbados series arrests suspected persons rising resulted fall king commissioner john 1st duke new commissioner john 1st duke attempted policy issuing letters allowed evicted ministers return parishes avoid political dissent refused accept offer alienated compromise bishop glasgow attempted engage avail failure reach accommodation led return severity preaching death attendance severe sanctions masters responsible tenants servants enter bonds conduct living land lowland militia known highland host form punishment rebellion killing time group killed archbishop sharp incident led rising grew men defeated forces james duke king illegitimate son battle bridge ministers executed followers shipped barbados drowning ship went rebellion eventually led fall replaced king brother openly catholic james known scotland duke albany led richard cameron called society people known leader reduced number hiding increasingly radical june declaration posted charles_ii king cameron killed month king duke albany followers separated presbyterian ministers captured executed government passed test act forcing holder public office oath non resistance episcopal clergy james lord president court session resigned leading nobleman campbell 9th earl forced exile remaining society people posted declaration market crosses informed servants government pursued lives members risk response new element outright political scottish council authorised field executions caught arms refused swear loyalty king intense phase persecution later known protestant historiography killing time led executed james graham sentenced transportation death sir george lord advocate glorious revolution regime change charles died brother succeeded james vii scotland england james catholics key positions government attendance death disregarded parliament council forced religious roman catholics protestant subjects failure invasion led earl timed duke rebellion england demonstrated strength regime riot response louis indicated strength anti catholic feeling king attempts obtain catholics led issuing letters allowed freedom worship allowing presbyterian ministers return parishes extend field society people continued endure minister james captured executed believed king succeeded daughter mary protestant wife william orange netherlands james produced male heir james francis edward stuart clear policies invitation seven leading led william land england men november edinburgh rumours orange plots december lord chancellor scotland earl perth quit capital castle planning abortive escape ireland later captured embarked france approached abbey fired soldiers resulting deaths city guard called abbey stormed large mob catholic placed restored chapel james torn tombs stuart kings crowd students burnt pope took heads executed hanging city gates crisis resolved james fled england december leading revolution significant scottish involvement coup members scottish council went london offer services william january asked william responsibilities government revolution settlement william called scottish convention convened march edinburgh dominated faction supported james including divided james attempts achieve tolerance roman catholics letter james received march contained threat punish rebelled declaring assembly illegal resulted followers abandon convention leaving dominant april convention formulated claim right articles grievances suggested james crown actions contrast england relied legal fiction offered william mary william accepted limitations royal power william mary accepted crown scotland william mary final settlement completed william second parliament restored abolished bishops generally supported james remaining ministers restored general_assembly refused ministers pledged accept king issued acts allowing accepted king return church took advantage offer hardened given leaving small remnant popular scottish seventeenth century highly focused bible seen major source moral authority early century translation commonly adopted authorised king james version scots version printed scotland geneva bible continued employed late seventeenth century large illustrated highly valuable objects subject family worship strongly encouraged books devotion distributed encourage practice encouraged investigate carried seventeenth century saw high water mark discipline sessions able apply religious sanctions denial baptism enforce behaviour obedience difficult cases immoral behaviour work local magistrate system modelled employed geneva public occasions treated later seventeenth century efforts sessions stamp activities dressing penny weddings dancing sessions administrative burden system poor relief act declared local assessed session provide financial resources local relief relying voluntary contributions mid seventeenth century system largely rolled limited highlands system largely able cope general poverty minor crises helping old survive provide life support periods relatively low cost overwhelmed major crisis known seven ill years major role education statutes passed established parish school system paid local administered ministers local late seventeenth century largely complete network parish schools highlands basic education lacking areas seventeenth century pursuit largely taken sessions attack catholic practices scottish society accused cent women executed witch hunt scotland seen means controlling women intense witch hunt involved named counties point began decline trials tightly controlled judiciary government torture standards evidence raised suggests growing relative peace stability economic social tensions contributed accusation reduced occasional local like east recorded executions trial british parliament repealed act catholicism numbers practising catholics probably continued reduce seventeenth century organisation church deteriorated convert roman catholicism john went ordained priest later hanged glasgow thought scottish catholic martyr reformation era irish mission claimed large numbers converts confined western isles little impact mainland college education scots clergy opened madrid moved remaining clergy incorporated william mission small number active pope appointed thomas vicar mission situation catholicism began improve divided scotland districts designated priests undertook ensure implementation papal legislation included code conduct priests approved clergy catholic clergy

Scottish religion in the seventeenth century


scotland late middle ages scotland late middle ages deaths alexander iii james established independence england figures including william wallace late 13th century robert bruce 14th century 15th century stewart dynasty despite turbulent political history crown gained greater political control expense independent lords regained lost territory approximately modern borders country alliance france led heavy defeat scottish army battle death king james followed long minority period political instability economy scotland developed slowly period population little million middle 14th century began decline arrival black death falling half million beginning 16th century different social systems cultures developed lowland highland regions country remained common language north middle scots dominated south language ruling elite government new national literature significant changes religion saw new expand particularly developing end period scotland adopted major european renaissance art architecture literature produced developed educational system period seen clear national identity emerged scotland significant different regions country particularly significant period reformation political history wars independence john death king alexander iii subsequent death granddaughter heir margaret called maid norway left rivals succession prevent civil war scottish asked edward england extracted legal recognition realm scotland held feudal throne england choosing john man strongest claim king john november robert bruce strongest accepted outcome reluctance years edward concessions gained systematically undermine authority king john independence scotland john chief entered alliance france beginning alliance edward invaded scotland king john following year william wallace andrew raised forces resist occupation joint leadership english army defeated battle bridge died wounds battle short time wallace ruled scotland john guardian realm edward came north person defeated wallace battle wallace escaped probably resigned guardian scotland fell hands english executed treason despite fact owed allegiance england robert rivals john robert bruce grandson robert bruce appointed joint guardians wallace place february bruce participated murder seven weeks later march bruce crowned king robert edward forces overran country defeating bruce small army battle despite bruce followers pope support grew help leading nobles sir james douglas earl castles remained english control edward died heir edward moved army north break siege castle control defeated forces robert battle securing facto independence declaration pope nobles scotland helped convince pope john earlier acts submission scottish kings english ones scotland sovereignty recognised major european declaration seen important documents development scottish national identity robert brother edward bruce carried series campaigns english forces ireland declared high king campaigns ireland ultimately unsuccessful opened prospect characterised pan greater scotia bruce dynasty robert forces carried series raids northern england defeating english army battle park robert victories contributed deposition edward robert able advantage minority son edward iii secure treaty edinburgh signed recognised scotland independent kingdom bruce king david robert died leaving year old son reign david minority country ruled series governors died result renewed invasion english forces pretext restoring edward son john scottish throne starting second war independence despite victories hill face tough scottish resistance led sir andrew murray son wallace arms successive attempts secure throne failed edward iii lost interest fate outbreak years war france david able return temporary exile france terms alliance invaded england interests france defeated taken prisoner battle cross october remain england prisoner years cousin robert stewart ruled guardian absence finally resigned claim throne edward retiring yorkshire died swearing allegiance edward iii david released ransom marks unable pay resulting secret negotiations english attempts secure succession scottish throne english king major issues marriages failure produce heir wife joan sister edward iii left england return died children planned second marriage margaret widow knight sir john resulted division alienated nobles including robert steward eventually king backed queen opponents attempted divorce fled continent appealed pope support marry david died apparently unexpectedly bringing bruce dynasty end robert robert iii james unexpected death childless david robert stewart stewart later stuart monarchs came throne despite relatively age son john earl grew assumed government lord lieutenant border england led victory cost life john ally james douglas 2nd earl douglas having suffered horse kick led shift power brother robert stewart earl appointed lieutenant place robert died john took robert iii avoid awkward questions exact status king john power rested brother robert duke albany suspicious death elder son david duke robert fearful safety younger son james future james sent france english captured route spent years prisoner held ransom result death robert iii later year ruled scotland albany death son term office country suffered considerable unrest scots finally began ransom payments james aged returned english bride joan determined assert authority revoked grants customs lands captivity position gained absence particularly albany james sons tried executed enforcement authority arrests lands attempted regain major border fortresses english hands siege ended defeat murdered council member robert graham conspirators near church perth james assassination left king seven year old son reign james execution number suspected conspirators leadership fell douglas 5th earl douglas lieutenant general realm death power shared douglas family william 1st lord lord chancellor scotland sir alexander conspiracy break power douglas family led black dinner edinburgh castle saw judicial murder young william douglas 6th earl douglas brother main victims great uncle james douglas earl 7th earl douglas emerged main power government james declared reached majority consolidated position king began long struggle power leading murder 8th earl douglas castle february opened intermittent civil war james attempted seize douglas lands punctuated series gradually james managed win allies offers lands titles offices forces finally defeated battle independent james proved active king travelled country justice unpopular policies following reign sale originated period ambitious plans isle man came attempt english succeeded cost life killed exploding artillery piece james iii james son aged king james iii widow mary acted regent death years later family led robert lord emerged leading force government making unpopular self lord robert son thomas earl marrying king sister mary robert thomas country king asserted control executing members family foreign policy included england eldest son future james york daughter edward england change policy immensely unpopular home conflict developed king brothers alexander duke albany john earl died estates possibly given royal favourite robert albany fled france accused treason point alliance england failing intermittent war followed scale invasion scotland years later led duke gloucester future richard iii accompanied albany james imprisoned subjects edinburgh castle albany established lieutenant general having taken english retreated albany government began collapse forcing flee despite attempts invasion james able regain power king managed barons refusing travel implementation justice preferring resident edinburgh probably creating financial crisis continued pursue english alliance dismissed key supporters including chancellor campbell 1st earl estranged wife margaret denmark son james matters came head faced army raised nobles acting prince james defeated battle killed james james came throne soon proved capable independent minded ruler reign considered seen flowering scottish culture influence european renaissance took direct interest administration justice frequently moved court legal circuits justice defeated major northern rebellion mainly supporters murdered james iii began led earl lord spreading north james credited finally bringing isles control forcing lands lord john backing alexander gordon 3rd earl power region launching series naval campaigns resulted capture exile rivals time supported english throne carried brief invasion england behalf established good diplomatic relations england signed treaty perpetual peace marrying henry vii daughter margaret tudor laying foundation 17th century union crowns animosity henry_viii england helped prompt renewal alliance pope organised holy league included england french james caught incompatible diplomatic policies tried suggest unrealistic european crusade constantinople border french attacked english declared war england pope sent navy gunners support french led major army border formidable artillery train castle marched south invasion stopped decisively september battle king nobles large number ordinary troops killed commemorated song forest scotland government lay hands infant james geography defining factor geography scotland distinction highlands islands north west south east highlands divided northwest highlands mountains fault line great divided fertile belt central higher terrain southern included hills border england came run end period central lowland belt averages miles width contains good quality agricultural land easier communications support elements conventional medieval government southern particularly highlands economically productive difficult govern provided scotland form protection minor english incursions cross difficult southern major attempts conquest english edward edward iii unable penetrate highlands area potential resistance areas problematic govern scottish kings political history era wars independence circulated attempts resolve problems entrenched regions later medieval era borders scotland reached approximately modern extent isle man fell english control 14th century despite attempts restore scottish authority english able large slice edward iii losses gradually regained particularly england preoccupied wars roses great acquisition scottish territory occurred james iii married margaret denmark receiving islands islands payment border fortress largest port medieval scotland fell english final change hands medieval scotland lacked government growing bureaucracy found contemporaneous england little evidence base reliable estimates population early 18th century basis roughly sixth land england suggested population similar proportion probably little million height black death reached country reliable documentation impact plague references abandoned land following decades pattern followed england population fallen low half million end 15th century compared situation population later industrial revolution numbers relatively evenly spread kingdom roughly half living north cent population lived existed beginning period mainly east south suggested mean population smaller largest edinburgh probably population end era economy agriculture scotland roughly half size england wales fifth sixth good pastoral land making marginal pastoral farming extensive coastline fishing key factors medieval economy difficult terrain poor roads methods transport little trade different areas country settlements depended produced locally little reserve bad years farming based lowland highland settlements handful families jointly farmed area suitable teams allocated run tenant farmers usually ran downhill included wet dry land helping offset problems extreme weather conditions land divided infield continuous cultivation outfield rotated grass heavy wooden iron pulled effective cheaper feed horses obligations local lord usually included supplying lord land annual basis resented obligation grind corn lord mill rural economy appears 13th century immediate aftermath black death severe falling seen clerical half compared beginning era followed slow recovery 15th century east_coast largest wealthiest including perth edinburgh growth facilitated trade continent southwest glasgow beginning develop occasional links spain france sea trade ireland profitable addition major royal era saw lesser ecclesiastical created smaller royal counterparts excluded international trade mainly acted local markets centres general probably carried far local trading relying food raw materials wool trade major export beginning period introduction sheep blow trade began decline export early 15th century despite drop exports markets collapsed century low countries unlike england prompt scots turn large scale cloth production poor quality rough significant crafts industry trade relatively developed crafts scotland period later 15th century beginnings native iron casting industry led production cannon silver country later known result important exports raw materials including wool hides salt fish animals coal scotland remained frequently short wood iron years bad grain exports hides particularly salmon scots held decisive advantage quality rivals appear held better wool despite general economic europe aftermath plague growing desire court lords upper clergy merchants luxury goods largely imported led chronic shortage perennial problems royal finance led silver penny cut fifth late 14th century late 15th century heavily black money introduced withdrawn years later helped fuel financial political crisis society clans fundamental social bond late medieval scottish society descent members group sharing fictional common ancestor south reflected common surname unlike england derived males females women retained original surname marriage marriages intended create friendship groups new bond result shared surname seen test proving large bodies support help intensify idea feud usually carried form revenge large bodies counted support rival sides conflict members groups occurred combination feudal system obligation seen creating highland clan system evident records 13th century rare highlands 17th 18th centuries middle ages members clan share ordinary members usually related head head clan beginning era strongest male main branch clan later began dominate usually eldest son chief leading families clan formed fine seen equivalent lowland gentlemen providing council peace leadership war scots managed clan lands collected isles adjacent western acted military elite defending clan lands raids taking attacks clan enemies followers clan tenants supplied labour clan heads act soldiers early modern era clan surname turning clan massive group social structure late medieval era terminology describe different ranks scottish social structure increasingly dominated scots language result began parallel terminology england consciousness status reflected military legislation set types weapons armour maintained clothes worn ranks king small number usually descended close relatives king formed senior nobility barons fulfilling role lords parliament lowest level nobility rank given right attend estates scotland period members noble ranks particularly performed military administrative service crown eligible status roughly equivalent english gentlemen sense service major nobility terms land military obligations roughly half sharing distant uncertain form died scotland 14th century system courts baron exerted considerable control tenants lords variety groups ill defined included called owning substantial land lesser free tenants majority working population society headed merchants held local office member council small number successful merchants dubbed knights service king end era exceptional form civic par landed knights workers majority urban population social conflict historians noted considerable political conflict great merchants period merchants attempted prevent lower crafts trade political power attempted emphasise importance break disputed areas economic activity setting prices standards 15th century series statutes cemented political position merchants limitations ability residents influence composition councils functions regulation taken rural society historians noted lack evidence widespread unrest similar evidenced france peasants revolt england possibly relatively little type change agriculture like enclosure common land create widespread resentment modern era instead major factor willingness tenants support conflict involved charity support highland border society acquired reputation activity particularly feud recent interpretations pointed feud means preventing resolving disputes forcing arbitration compensation resolution government crown crown centre government late medieval scotland unification kingdom spread anglo norman custom development european trading economy robert success achieving independence england build prestige institution authority kingdom semi independent endured series crisis particularly frequent minorities resulting addition relative poverty kingdom lack system regular taxation helped limit scale central administration government english monarchy scottish court remained largely institution king moving royal castles particularly perth holding judicial sessions kingdom edinburgh beginning emerge capital reign james iii cost considerable like western european scottish crown 15th century adopted example court putting centre culture political life defined display ritual reflected elaborate new palaces patronage arts council crown important government institution council composed king closest advisers unlike england retained legislative judicial powers relatively small normally members meeting nominated parliament particularly minorities era means limiting power regent council virtually time institution late 15th century surviving records period indicate critical working royal justice nominally members council great realm rarely attended meetings active members council period career administrators lawyers exclusively university educated clergy successful moved occupy major ecclesiastical positions realm bishops end period end 15th century group joined increasing numbers secular lawyers successful gained judicial system grants lands reign james iii onwards dominated post lord chancellor increasingly taken leading parliament important body process government parliament evolved late 13th century king council bishops political judicial role early 14th century attendance knights important probably commissioners joined form estates meeting variety major towns kingdom acquired significant powers particular issues including consent taxation strong influence justice foreign policy war legislation political ecclesiastical social economic early great deal legislative business scottish parliament usually carried parliamentary committee known lords articles chosen estates draft legislation presented assembly confirmed parliamentary business carried sister institutions general council convention estates carry business dealt parliament taxation legislation policy making lacked ultimate authority parliament 15th century parliament called annual basis english counterpart willing offer occasional resistance criticism policies crown particular unpopular reign james iii success rebels james managed largely institution declined like systems estates continental europe death long minority local government local level government combined traditional based relatively small system royal offices 15th century ancient pattern major survived largely intact addition new scattered douglas thanks royal patronage wars independence mainly borders south west dominant came control acquisition crown series internal conflicts meant monarchy transformed position realm gaining control provincial running semi independent major scattered estates occasional regions major influence crown able administer government system appointed officers semi independent highlands james created new provincial favourites acted vast isles built james largely resolved problem estates titles john crown discovering plans alliance english warfare armies scottish armies late medieval era depended combination communal feudal forms service scottish service known common service levy able bodied aged provided bulk armed forces according days warning feudal obligations knights held castles estates exchange service provided troops day basis second half 14th century money contracts bonds bands similar english period retain professional troops particularly men arms practice forms service tended overlap major scottish lords brought contingents systems produced relatively large numbers poorly armoured infantry armed foot spears formed large close order defensive formations able counter mounted knights vulnerable arrows later artillery fire relatively proved hill attempts replace spears longer feet later 15th century successes mounted troops netherlands switzerland appear successful eve campaign early 16th century smaller numbers men arms outnumbered facing english battlefield sought mercenaries french armies 15th century help counter english superiority arm major element french royal guards garde scottish men arms fight infantry small mounted reserve suggested tactics copied refined english leading successes years war artillery attempted follow france england building artillery train abortive siege james probably conflict scots use artillery james royal gunner received gifts artillery continent including giant philip good duke survives probably outdated continent represented impressive military technology reached scotland james enthusiasm artillery cost life james iii experienced ill fortune artillery sent austria sank storm route scotland james brought experts france germany netherlands established edinburgh castle house artillery visitors cannon cast formidable train allowing send cannon france ireland quickly subdue castle campaign heavy artillery pieces drawn slowed advancing army proving ineffective longer range smaller calibre english guns battle navy establishment scottish independence robert turned attention building scottish naval capacity largely focused west_coast rolls recording feudal duties region aid vessels crews end reign supervised building royal man war near palace river clyde late 14th century naval warfare england conducted largely hired scots flemish french james took greater interest naval power return scotland established yard house marine stores workshop king ships accompanied expedition islands built equipped trade war office lord high admiral probably founded period struggles nobles james iii received assistance warships flower king known yellow james enterprise new founding new harbour years later ordered construction dockyard pools upper reaches forth protected new fortifications king acquired total ships royal scottish navy including margaret michael great michael built great expense launched feet length weighed tons cannon time largest ship europe scottish ships success accompanied king expeditions islands intervened conflicts scandinavia baltic campaign fleet consisted large smaller craft raid ireland joined french little impact war disaster great michael ships sold french king ships disappeared royal records religion church gaining independence english ecclesiastical organisation catholic_church scotland special daughter rome enjoying direct relationship lacking practice run special councils bishops bishop emerging important player followed glasgow late medieval religion political aspects robert carrying said contain remains battle james help bring ross royal authority attempts differentiate scottish practice england printing press established royal patent replace english use services europe collapse papal authority papal allowed scottish crown gain effective control major ecclesiastical appointments kingdom position recognised led placement clients relatives king key positions including james illegitimate son alexander nominated archbishop age intensifying royal influence opening church accusations despite relationships scottish crown generally good james receiving papal favour popular practice traditional protestant historiography tended stress corruption late medieval scottish church recent research indicated ways met spiritual needs different social groups historians decline period religious houses keeping smaller numbers monks remaining abandoning communal living individual secular lifestyle new monastic nobility declined 15th century contrast saw orders later 15th century placed emphasis preaching population order organised scottish province older recognised separate provinces contrast english towns churches tended usually parish church doctrine gained importance period number priests masses dead grew rapidly number saints grew dramatically mary having edinburgh number saints celebrated scotland added nicholas church new devotion connected jesus virgin mary began reach scotland 15th century including wounds holy blood holy jesus new including presentation mary early 14th century managed problem clerical relatively poor shortage clergy particularly black death 15th century number holding rapidly increased meant parish clergy largely drawn lower educated ranks profession leading frequent complaints standards education ability little clear evidence actually declining form began reach scotland england early 15th century despite evidence number apparent support anti elements probably remained relatively small movement culture education medieval scotland education dominated church largely aimed training education later medieval period general increase numbers educational institutions increasing use included private tuition families lords wealthy song schools attached major churches increasing number grammar schools particularly expanding exclusively aimed boys end 15th century edinburgh schools girls growing emphasis education passing education act decreed sons barons substance attend grammar schools resulted increase literacy largely concentrated male wealthy elite cent nobility end period 15th century wished attend university travel england continent situation transformed founding university university glasgow university initially institutions designed training increasingly begin challenge clerical monopoly administrative post government law scottish scholars continued visit continent second degrees international contact helped bring new ideas scottish intellectual life art architecture scotland known dramatically placed castles date late medieval era contrast england wealthy began comfortable grand houses continued built modern period developing style scottish architecture 19th century popular minor aristocracy merchant class building type built defence mind form tower house characterised turrets crow stepped marked uniquely scottish mode building ceilings houses decorated coloured painting boards beams motifs european pattern books artist interpretation trailing patterns buildings type royal palaces style castle elements continental european architecture particularly france low countries adapted scottish materials particularly stone modest buildings continental influences seen late 15th century western tower mary parish church like parish church architecture scotland elaborate england churches remaining simple towers highlands simpler built rubble masonry indistinguishable outside houses farm buildings churches built continental style french master mason john employed building glasgow cathedral rebuilding abbey considered fine examples gothic architecture interiors churches elaborate reformation highly decorated houses like ones surviving carvings chapel created century depicting progression seven deadly sins considered finest gothic style late medieval scottish churches contained elaborate burial monuments like douglas tombs town douglas relatively little information native scottish artists late middle ages england monarchy model portraits copies versions survive generally crude continental standards impressive works artists imported continent particularly netherlands generally considered centre painting northern renaissance products connections included delicate hanging lamp john perth images catherine john brought hugo van der goes trinity college church edinburgh commissioned james iii work flemish master james scotland named illustrated flemish book hours given james margaret tudor language literature period scots language dominant language state social elite linked scottish national identity making highland zone expense middle scots called english period derived largely old english addition elements french resembling language spoken northern england distinct dialect late 14th century onwards dominant language borders brought largely anglo saxon settlers 5th century began adopted ruling elite gradually abandoned french late medieval era 15th century language government acts parliament council records treasurer accounts reign james onwards result dominant north began steady decline language tradition provided mechanism oral culture generation generation members schools trained complex rules forms poetry non society knowledge including stories songs medicine found courts great lords highlands beginning period tradition completely isolated trends including love poetry influenced continental developments medical manuscripts translated latin oral tradition began manifest written form great compilation poetry book dean produced james duncan beginning 16th century probably designed use courts greater chiefs 15th century lowland writers beginning treat second class amusing language helping frame attitudes highlands create cultural gulf scots emerged language national literature scotland surviving major text john composed patronage robert telling story epic poetry robert actions english invasion end war independence work extremely popular scots speaking aristocracy referred father scots poetry holding similar place contemporary england early 15th century followed andrew verse scotland blind harry wallace blended historical romance verse chronicle probably influenced scots versions popular french produced period including alexander hay middle scots literature produced poets links royal court included james wrote university education connected lament provides evidence wider tradition secular writing outside court largely lost advent printing scotland writers robert william walter kennedy douglas seen leading golden age scottish poetry late 15th century scots prose began develop genre earlier fragments original scots prose chronicle complete surviving works include john ireland prose translations french books survive including book law order treatise arabic work believed aristotle advice alexander great landmark work reign james douglas version complete translation major classical text language finished overshadowed disaster music acted musicians poets story historians lawyers relying oral tradition stretched generations found scotland wales ireland accompanying seen records scottish courts medieval period scottish church music later middle ages increasingly influenced continental developments figures like 13th century musical theorist simon studying paris returning scotland introduced reforms church music scottish collections music like 13th century associated contain french compositions distinctive local styles captivity james england earned reputation poet composer led english continental styles musicians scottish court release late 15th century series scottish musicians trained netherlands returning home including john thomas john master song school edinburgh introducing new organ playing technique james chapel royal castle new enlarged choir focus scottish music english influences probably reinforced henry vii daughter margaret tudor married james national identity late middle ages seen era scottish national identity initially forged opposition english attempts country result social cultural changes english invasions interference scotland judged created sense national unity hatred england dominated scottish foreign policy 15th century making extremely difficult scottish kings like james iii james pursue policies peace southern neighbour particular declaration asserted ancient scotland face english aggression arguing role king defend independence community scotland document seen nationalist theory sovereignty adoption middle scots aristocracy seen building shared sense national solidarity culture rulers ruled fact north dominated helped widen cultural divide highlands national literature scotland created late medieval period employed legend history service crown nationalism helping foster sense national identity elite audience epic poetic history wallace helped outline narrative united struggle english enemy literature differed conventional version legend treating arthur villain son king hero origin myth scots john traced beginnings greek prince egyptian wife allowing argue superiority english claimed descent defeated greeks period national flag emerged common symbol image andrew bound shaped cross appeared kingdom scotland reign william depicted seals late 13th century including particular example guardians scotland dated use simplified symbol associated saint andrew origins late 14th century parliament scotland decreed scottish soldiers wear white saint andrew cross person purpose identification use blue background saint andrew cross said date 15th century earliest reference saint andrew cross flag found vienna book hours circa


history bristol bristol city population nearly half million people south west england situated somerset gloucestershire tidal river country largest economically culturally important cities centuries bristol area settled stone age evidence roman occupation mint established saxon 10th century town rose prominence norman era gaining charter county status change form bristol local pronunciation maritime connections wales ireland iceland western france spain portugal brought steady increase trade wool fish wine grain middle ages bristol city trade atlantic developed city captured royalist troops recaptured parliament english civil war 17th 18th centuries slave trade industrial revolution brought prosperity bristol supported american revolution free trade prominent mary carpenter hannah campaigned slave trade late 18th early 19th centuries saw construction floating harbour advances growth glass paper soap chemical industries aided establishment bristol terminus great western railway early 20th century bristol forefront aircraft manufacture city important financial centre high technology hub beginning 21st century pre norman iron age evidence settlement bristol area era year old archaeological finds stone tools flint sandstone found river notably iron age hill forts near city woods gorge near bristol time territory evidence iron age found excavations bristol including settlement indications seasonal occupation salt marshes estuary roman era roman era settlement named present sea mills important feature 3rd century documents towns distances roman empire connected bath road archaeological excavations found street pattern shops indicating town served port settlement court possibly developed earlier iron age isolated small settlements area notably kings roman villa saxon era founded 8th century mentioned charter outlaw named killed brawl feast royal palace lies miles bristol town bristol founded low hill rivers time early 11th century main evidence coin issued shows settlement market town indicates place bridge believed bristol tendency local accent add letter end words changed current bristol appears peter church remains stand modern castle park possibly 8th century origins time church held hides land holding mere parish church anglo saxon chronicle records took ship later took ships town subdue forces wales indicating status town port major centre anglo saxon slave trade men women children captured wales northern england traded bristol dublin slaves viking rulers dublin sell known world saxon bishop worcester diocese included bristol preached trade regularly eventually forbidden crown carried secret years middle ages norman era time norman conquest england bailey erected present site castle park bristol held bishop knights accompanied william william ordered stone castles built likely parts bristol castle built reign death joined rebellion william bristol headquarters burned bath ravaged somerset submitting eventually returned normandy died created honour gloucester included bristol mother queen estates granted robert enlarged strengthened bristol castle years 11th century conquered subdued south west wales daughter married henry son robert large father gloucestershire welsh estate robert earl gloucester believed responsible completing bristol castle henry died earl gloucester rallied support sister stephen seized throne henry death stephen attempted lay siege robert bristol gave attempt castle appeared stephen captured imprisoned castle robert captured stephen forces forced exchange stephen robert son henry later henry_ii england kept safe castle guarded educated uncle robert castle later taken royal hands henry iii spent adding main west gate gate tower magnificent hall earl gloucester founded james abbey founded robert wealthy supported earl war reward support later lord berkeley abbey monastery abbey church dedicated bishops exeter lifetime abbey built chapter house gatehouse following pale ireland henry_ii gave right reside trade dublin surviving jewish ritual bath jacob indicates small jewish community city early middle ages later middle ages 13th century bristol busy port cloth main export fourteenth fifteenth century wine principal import addition town conducted extensive trade anglo irish ports southern ireland portugal port traded iceland imported type freeze dried called bristol men ships assisted siege lisbon led city recapture stone bridge built years great ditch constructed marsh course river provide space ships incorporated city edward iii proclaimed town bristol suburbs shall henceforth separate counties gloucester somerset things exempt land sea county called county bristol meant disputes settled courts bristol gloucester areas south somerset city walls extended eastern march town marsh major surviving walls visible adjacent remaining gateway tower church john baptist century bristol considered england largest town london york estimated inhabitants eve black death plague inflicted prolonged demographic setback population estimated 15th 16th centuries great merchants bristol william born times mayor town twice represented said owned ships employed sailors later life priest spent considerable fortune rebuilding mary church severely damaged lightning end years war meant britain bristol lost access imports spanish portuguese increased imports ireland included fish hides cloth probably exports ireland included clothing metals exploration bristol starting point john voyage exploration north_america years bristol merchants bought freeze dried called iceland consumption england league trying control north_atlantic trade time sought cut supplies english merchants suggested drove bristol merchants look west new sources fish hand bristol merchants largely abandon iceland century hull merchants continued trade recent research shown england fisheries iceland actually grew significantly albeit center activity shifted bristol east makes hard sustain argument bristol merchants pushed iceland local men thomas john jay sent ships looking mythical island mention island discovered prosecuted illegal exports salt grounds customs officer engaged trade professor david quinn theories form basis variety popular histories suggested explorers discovered grand banks newfoundland waters rich john sponsored henry vii voyage looking new route orient having discovered north_america instead return spoke great quantities found near new land set sail bristol expedition ships returned voyage uncertain recent research conducted university bristol suggests number expeditions launched bristol new found land earliest undertaken william led john son explored coast north_america latitude gibraltar cuba suggest reached far close washington early modern tudor stuart periods bristol city abbey bristol cathedral following dissolution monasteries henry_viii dissolution saw surrender king bristol monastic hospitals james mary abbey college case fled arrival royal commissioners succession departing plundered commissioners able point religious bristol record raising objections royal bristol civic leaders took opportunity buying lands properties belonging mark hospital mary total thousand pounds bristol municipality country chapel mark bristol grammar school established family john established queen elizabeth hospital school charged education poor children trade continued grow century imports europe included wine olive oil iron dried fruits exports included cloth cotton wool lead hides city leading merchants involved smuggling time goods like leather declaring imports wine elizabeth visited city royal progress western counties city spent thousand pounds preparations raised special rate assessments explorer martin arrived city ships samples ore proved worthless brought according clothed died month arrival bristol sent ships royal_navy fleet spanish supplied men defending land forces despite appeals council supplies corporation repair walls gates city castle fallen late tudor era city authorities control royal property refuge english civil war city corporation bought castle english civil war broke city took parliamentary partly restored fortifications royalist troops command prince captured bristol july process causing extensive damage town castle royalist forces captured large amounts booty armed merchant vessels nucleus royalist fleet workshops city arms factories providing muskets royalist army summer royalist forces defeated new model army battle somerset following victories sir thomas marched bristol prince returned organise defence city parliamentary forces besieged city weeks attacked eventually forcing surrender september civil war ended following year military actions bristol second civil wars oliver ordered destruction castle slave trade william wealthy bristol merchant identified recorded english slave traders origin granted licence trade parts renewed growth came 17th century rise england american colonies rapid 18th century expansion bristol triangular trade taken slavery americas bristol ships late 17th century abolition carrying estimated half million people africa americas brutal conditions average profits voyage seventy percent cent transported died murdered middle passage slaves brought bristol caribbean notable buried jones brought bristol slave trader plantation owner john slave trade consequent demand cheap brass export africa caused boom copper brass manufacturing industries valley turn encouraged progress industrial revolution area prominent manufacturers william champion developed extensive works coal north somerset water power tributaries drove brass batteries development steam power later 18th century glass soap sugar paper chemical industries developed valley elected whig member parliament bristol campaigned free trade catholic emancipation rights american colonists angered merchant sponsors slave trade lost seat anti slavery inspired non john started earliest campaigns practice prominent local opponents trade institution slavery included anne hannah harry mary carpenter robert william samuel campaign proved beginning movements reform women emancipation 18th 19th centuries bristol corporation poor established end 17th century provide work poor shelter needing charity established adjacent john founded methodist chapel new room use 21st century come bristol invitation george preached open air miners bristol bridge way crossing river ferry rebuilt earlier medieval bridge narrow cope traffic needed use toll charged pay works toll extended period time bristol bridge riot ensued people killed injured making worst riots 18th century competition liverpool disruption maritime commerce war france abolition slave trade contributed city failure pace newer manufacturing centres north cotton industry failed develop city sugar brass glass production went decline left bristol advanced ideas iron production received backing local investors cite certain prominent families handicap adjustment new conditions industrial revolution period long passage heavily tidal gorge port highly secure middle ages liability construction new floating harbour designed william failed overcome bristol population grew 19th century supported growing commerce particularly associated leading engineer kingdom designed great western railway bristol london pioneering bristol built great western great_britain suspension bridge new middle class led agitated slave trade city began engage charitable works notable mary carpenter founded ragged schools george founded school started house college established university college predecessor university bristol founded merchant navigation school merchant college later formed nucleus bristol turn university west england bristol riots took place house_of_lords rejected second reform bill local magistrate sir charles strong opponent bill visited bristol open new courts angry mob chased mansion house queen square reform act passed city boundaries expanded time include parishes james paul philip parts parishes bristol lies lesser 17th century opened bristol north somerset south gloucestershire prompted construction somerset coal canal formation bristol miners association difficult mining profitable mines closed end 19th century main industries tobacco cigarette manufacture led dominant company paper engineering port facilities migrating downstream new industrial complexes founded modern history british colonial company later bristol company british aircraft company finally systems founded sir george white owner bristol world war production bristol scout bristol fighter established reputation company main base prominent manufacturing site systems 21st century bristol company engine department subsidiary company bristol engines bristol engines bought rolls limited rolls based city docks charles hill sons remained important 1970s prominent industries included chocolate manufacturers sons wine john harvey sons bristol city formed joined football league runners division losing cup finalists rivals bristol formed joined league gloucestershire county cricket club formed runners county championship times bristol city_council built houses enabling clearance worst city centre new estates park sea mills city boundaries extended north south accommodate growth new road gorge built cost opened linking floating harbour expanding docks location aircraft manufacture major port bristol target bombing bristol blitz world war bristol city centre suffered severe damage especially november december area flattened hitler claimed destroyed city original central area near bridge castle park featuring bombed churches fragments castle slightly north shopping centre circus built bomb damaged areas british cities immigration commonwealth countries post war years lead racist tension colour bar operated bristol company time refused employ black asian bus crews successfully challenged bristol bus boycott considered instrumental eventual passage race relations act police raid cafe paul sparked riot highlighted city ethnic minorities bristol aviation continued develop post war years bristol large trans atlantic built late 1940s based developments heavy bombers world war received sales orders went production built 1960s flying aircraft achieved commercial success development lay foundation successful series parts produced 21st century 1980s financial services sector major employer city surrounding areas business parks northern fringe referred greater bristol bristol urban area comprising city high technology companies orange creative media enterprises significant local employers traditional manufacturing industries declined like british post war planning regeneration bristol city centre characterised large cheap tower blocks architecture expansion roads 1990s trend reversed closure main roads regeneration shopping centre city centre tallest post war blocks torn social housing tower blocks demolished replaced low rise homes removal docks seven miles downstream city centre relieved congestion central zone bristol allowed substantial redevelopment old central dock area floating harbour late 20th century deep water royal dock developed opposite docks 1970s following port bristol financially successful time continued existence old central docks jeopardy seen merely derelict industry asset developed public use 1980s millions pounds spent saw redevelopment city centre construction links bristol science centre canon marsh opened bristol tourist attractions private investors constructing studio apartment buildings regeneration canon marsh area expected cost million crest lead developers constructing new flats homes offices guidance sponsors group partnership city_council developers businesses public


settlement king henry iii england rebellious barons led simon settlement day battle major battles second barons war conflict king caused dissatisfaction influence foreigners court henry high level new methods taxation henry forced accept provisions oxford essentially left royal government hands council document went long series country brink civil war parties agreed submit matter arbitration french king louis louis firm believer royal decided clearly favour henry outcome unacceptable rebellious barons war parties broke immediately signed day victory battle known happened battle terms document known clear involved conditions negotiations efforts permanent settlement fell support government gradually eroded henry oldest son edward later king edward started military campaign ended battle august earl simon defeated killed parts resistance held end final besieged garrison castle surrendered rebels given according terms set background reign henry iii deeply troubled disputes king nobility conflict caused factors influence foreigners court war crown sicily personal dispute king henry simon earl leicester henry forced accept called provisions oxford effectively surrendered control royal government council program reform elaborated provisions westminster provisions remained effect years henry able opposition receiving papal provisions campaigned assumed control government years discontent emerged henry style government failed reconciled alienated gloucester son heir gilbert april returned england long stay france reform movement july henry surrounded rebel forces tower london forced accept conditions provisions prince edward later king edward took control situation october edward took windsor castle alliance started break accept truce agree submit issue arbitration french king louis louis decided entirely favour henry provisions settlement present solution conflict recipe problems sided decision king barons left little choice armed rebellion hostilities started february sons henry simon attacked possessions roger marches henry summoned feudal army royal forces won important victory younger simon captured control london henry regained control kent sussex marched london negotiate terms involving maintaining provisions rejected king option remaining fight forces met spite inferior numbers forces led simon won battle edward commanding right wing quickly defeated london forces set pursuit fleeing soldiers left rest royal army exposed forces took advantage situation soon won day settlement documents exist confirm content debate historians content circumstances written young article published main points agreement point according young prince edward cousin henry given barons hostages secondly party taken hostage released taken hostages royalist party battle receive ransom finally agreed committee french clergy nobles permanent settlement interpretation largely followed later historians contentious point young article assertion mention provisions oxford idea john strongly contested article according provisions centre opposition years unlikely easily showed willingness negotiate terms provisions moderate document wanted avoid repetition situation external circumstances outside control led eventual failure negotiations barons interpretation challenged david carpenter years later intention compromise according carpenter carpenter version events written battle ongoing battle previously assumed situation concessions necessary order bring hostilities halt soon possible battle government hands longer interest reaching compromise hostilities continued dating document later disputed burton maintains document fact signed battle concluded aftermath government led soon ran problems faced poor finances general disorder threat invasion exiled france decided french arbitration committee come set provisional administration consisting young earl gloucester bishop elect council govern permanent settlement reached peace canterbury august henry edward forced accept terms according new agreement current form government remain force reign king henry edward borders safe forced release roger royalist lords battle december forced roger roger promise leave country ireland january summoned parliament leicester known parliament including representatives innovation english government secured support community realm continued reign success terms peace canterbury rejected papal negotiations lords leave country remained regime head government broke earl gloucester defected royalist edward able escape captivity gloucester help edward started campaign conquest forced suppress rebellion marches succeeded making large concessions moved east join forces son simon edward routed younger simon castle august found trapped forced battle smaller army battle soon turned massacre killed mutilated field dead resistance remained particularly virtually castle october set terms rebels obtain end year garrison surrendered


council council called pope eugene iii consider number regulations church debate issues originally summons council went october supposed held germany conditions moved france february number summoned bishops church officials attend eugene suspended non attendees italian council lasted days convened march considered attended number include servants officials attendees numbers conclusion council eugene held trial gilbert bishop accused teachings end gilbert allowed return attendees council called october eugene ordered bishops summoned council assemble march letter sent henry bishop pope letter sent pope day october archbishop named location council likely error letter eugene abbot dated october named location confirming location given letter october papal entourage arrived november shortly arrival pope decided proceedings complaints residents announced february council date given feature council pope ordered attendance bishops officials requested attendees ill health need business offices attend suspended office italian bishops attendance eugene held council july announced number spanish bishops attended unknown archbishop attend king vii pope lift sentences bishops attend king stephen england refused permission english bishops attend bishops papal summons caused archbishop_of_canterbury quarrel king stephen refused archbishop permission council instead managed evade guards placed hired fishing boat english channel attend council precise number bishops attended unknown estimates range lower number likely attendees later countries france germany england spain keeping times included summoned servants officials making true number people impossible know council opening council took place march cathedral sunday eugene arrived march main business council debate number rules church announced new having eugene predecessor councils council proposed approved clerical attire opposed german canon prohibited fur canon condemning clerical marriage greeted amusement council members felt clergy know marriage forbidden council condemned ordered arrest eventually tortured confession imprisoned death condemned supporters earlier previously condemned business settling dispute norman abbey robert abbey vincent handed cardinals decide reached decision april disputes including ones handled council necessarily council included council business confirmation bishop bishop reported bishop bishop deposed council erroneous probably stemmed number suspended non attendance number died shortly council including robert bishop fell ill day council died april bishop died june attending council archbishop ill carried council horse litter council said lasted days total likely shorter given large increase population strained resources town gives end date council april council probably ended april eugene asked number attendees stay formal close council consider case gilbert investigation connected teachings main concern gilbert convoluted vocabulary style writing led writings easily misunderstood specific problem came gilbert writings attempted relationship god led opponents claiming gilbert attempting create gods opponents claimed occurred gilbert treatise theological work gilbert previously investigated eugene paris april hearing came reasons gilbert opponents unified opposed gilbert teachings second reason copy treatise gilbert dispute prior second hearing bernard opposed gilbert teachings held private meeting number attendees bernard attempted pressure condemn gilbert offended cardinals attendance proceeded insist persons judge case connected council gilbert tried council closed held archbishop chambers specialized form trial held investigate questionable theological teachings beginning purpose period lasted days included john salisbury previously student gilbert eugene service trial likely took place april lasted took days accounts state took place week palm sunday april year took place closing council april allows april trial council closed earlier april trial taken place march end verdict placed gilbert remained bishop death bernard opposition gilbert robert peter robert teacher paris later bishop opponent unable attend trial official records trial kept led considerable confusion future


byzantine greeks byzantine greeks byzantines medieval greek citizens byzantine_empire eastern roman empire centered mainly constantinople southern balkans greek islands asia minor modern turkey cyprus large urban centres levant northern egypt middle ages byzantine greeks self identified greek pronounced romans greeks referred byzantines byzantine greeks modern historiography terms byzantine_empire byzantine greeks coined english language british historian george social structure byzantine greeks primarily supported rural base consisted small fraction poor peasants lived kinds settlements village hamlet estate civil disturbances occurred time byzantine_empire attributed political factions empire large popular base soldiers byzantine greeks rural peasants trained annual basis byzantine_empire entered 11th century soldiers army professional men arms mercenaries twelfth century education byzantine greek population advanced west particularly primary school level resulting comparatively high literacy rates success came easily byzantine greek merchants enjoyed strong position international trade despite challenges posed rival italian merchants held half byzantine_empire existence clergy held special place having freedom western counterparts maintaining patriarch constantinople considered equal pope position strength built time beginning byzantine_empire emperor constantine great reigned small population christian language byzantine greeks age constantine greek latin language administration reign emperor reigned greek predominant language populace replaced latin administration byzantine_empire multi ethnic character following loss non greek speaking provinces came dominated byzantine greeks time relationship west particularly latin europe deteriorated relations damaged catholic west orthodox east led byzantine greeks labeled west later centuries byzantine_empire particularly following coronation reigned king rome byzantine greeks considered western europeans heirs roman empire eastern kingdom greek peoples byzantine_empire claim roman empire continuing line succession roman emperors terminology middle ages byzantine greeks identified romans meaning citizens roman empire term greek language synonymous christian greeks identified greeks self purposes official byzantine political correspondence prior fourth crusade ancient popular use synonymous pagan revived middle byzantine period 11th century west term roman acquired new meaning connection catholic_church bishop rome greek form remained attached greeks eastern roman empire people called romans language term byzantines byzantine greeks applied later historians like wolf use term byzantine greeks entirely historians agree defining features civilization greek language culture literature science roman law tradition christian faith term byzantine adopted western scholarship assumption roman essentially western modern greek scholarship reasons identification ancient greece modern times greek people use refer addition eastern roman empire language civilization greek society august defined byzantine_empire roman empire greek nation byzantium primarily known empire greeks foreigners greek linguistic cultural demographic elements historic perspective byzantine greeks forming majority byzantine_empire proper height power gradually came dominance foreign powers decline empire middle ages coming arab muslim rule byzantine greeks fled lands subdued new muslim rulers receiving status centuries surviving christian societies byzantine greeks evolved greeks merged societies arab christians existing day hand byzantines converted islam underwent time mainly society social mobility unknown byzantium order society thought enduring average man court heaven imperial court constantinople society included classes people exclusive characteristic poor peasants soldiers teachers clergy poor according text dated man termed poor gold coins modest sum byzantines heirs greek concepts charity sake christian concepts attested bible animated giving habits specifically examples greek equivalent santa gregory john number poor fluctuated centuries byzantium existence provided constant supply muscle power building projects rural work numbers apparently increased late fourth early fifth centuries raids desire avoid taxation pushed rural populations cities times categories poverty greek passive poor lower greek active poor formed majority infamous mob function similar mob rome instances riots attributed poor majority civil disturbances specifically factions like blues poor non percentage population influenced christian society byzantium create large network hospitals greek religious social model largely justified existence poor born christian transformation classical society reliable figures numbers widely assumed vast majority byzantines lived rural areas emperor leo wise defined backbone state greek soldiers greek reason producing empire food peasants produced taxes peasants lived villages changed slowly classical greek modern greek agriculture dominant villagers ones records small town situated eastern shore households peasant urban indicate kinds activities treatise taxation preserved venice distinguishes types rural settlements greek village greek hamlet greek estate according 14th century survey village donated monastery average size taxes placed rural populations included greek tax greek cash payment frequently affiliated greek pasture tax greek meaning air depended village population ranged gold coins annually diet consisted mainly grains beans fishing communities fish usually substituted meat bread wine important staples byzantine diet soldiers campaign eating double baked dried bread called greek antiquity modern times common greek olive visitor italy found greek wine irritating admired greek particular famous hunting fishing common peasants hunted protect crops keeping bees highly developed byzantium ancient greece aside agriculture peasants crafts fiscal mentioning greek greek greek soldiers byzantine millennium hardly year passed military campaign soldiers normal everyday life modern western societies difficult draw distinction roman byzantine soldiers organizational aspect easier terms social profile military known continued roman tradition contain wealth information appearance customs habits life soldiers soldiers performed activities like technicians selection military duty annual yearly ups great stock placed military exercises winter months formed large soldier life 11th century majority rural areas conscription merchants open question professional recruiting replaced conscription increasing use mercenaries army treasury 10th century onwards laws connecting land ownership military service state allotted land service soldiers use pay buy landed estates taxes decreased waived cases state soldiers 12th century onwards tax revenues estates called greek antiquity basic food soldier remained dried bread changed greek teachers byzantine education product ancient greek educational tradition stretched 5th century comprised system education taking shape era maintained inevitable changes fall constantinople stages education elementary school pupils ranged years secondary school pupils ranged sixteen higher education elementary education widely available byzantine_empire existence towns occasionally countryside turn ensured literacy widespread western_europe twelfth century secondary education confined larger cities higher education exclusive constantinople society modern mass literacy byzantine society profoundly based information extensive array byzantine documents different periods etc robert concluded functional literacy reading writing access elementary education book ownership afford books widespread byzantium cities monasteries countryside etc focusing 13th century byzantine literacy western asia minor states byzantine society completely church completely aristocracy horsemen rare peasants completely women estimates percentage empire population degree literacy based primarily mention byzantine emperor leo wise byzantium elementary school teacher occupied low social position taught mainly simple fairy tale books teachers responsible following phases education respected classical greek texts like homer odyssey time taken detailed word word books rare expensive likely possessed teachers dictated passages students women women tended overlooked byzantine studies byzantine society left records women aspects legal status access education limited freedom movement life byzantine greek woman divided phases childhood brief girls boys parents celebrate birth boy twice evidence female abandonment contrary civil canon law educational opportunities girls attend regular schools taught groups home exceptions education limited literacy bible famous exception princess anna displays great depth majority young girl daily life spent household preparing marriage girls childhood came end onset followed shortly marriage marriage arranged family norm romantic love unknown women bore children survived infancy grief loss loved life main form birth control evidence mainly prostitutes prevailing norms women wear clothing covered body hands women poor wore women obliged cover hair long greek veil women means spared expense clothes exquisite jewelry fine silk hard obtain laws permitting husbands beat wives reverse unknown description battered husband poems female life byzantium lower men death wars fact men married younger female fairly common women able societal work traders scholars traditional image byzantine greek merchants state aid beginning change mobile pro active agents merchant class particularly constantinople force times threaten emperor eleventh twelfth centuries achieved efficient use credit monetary innovations merchants invested surplus funds financial products called greek equivalent ancestor later italian eventually purchasing power byzantine merchants influence prices markets far cairo alexandria reflection success emperors gave merchants right members senate integrate ruling elite end end eleventh century political allowed landed aristocracy secure throne century following phase merchants bounced real time crusade reason byzantine greek merchants neglected historiography able ancient modern greek colleagues matters trade originated way history written byzantium patronage competitors court land aristocracy fact eventually surpassed italian rivals privileges sought acquired states levant dominant maritime violence italians clergy unlike western_europe priests clearly clergy eastern roman empire remained close contact rest society readers drawn expected years age priests bishops unlike latin church byzantine church allowed married priests long married bishops required unmarried religious hierarchy mirrored empire administrative divisions clergy emperor servants issue usually associated byzantine_empire understood actual conditions empire fifth century patriarch constantinople recognized equals eastern equal status pope rome ecclesiastical provinces called headed supervised subordinate bishops people parish priest greek word father recognizable face clergy culture language byzantine medieval greek situated modern phases language early era greek educated eastern mediterranean spoken southern balkans greek islands asia minor ancient greek colonies southern italy black_sea western asia north_africa beginning byzantine millennium greek remained basis spoken greek christian writings attic greek language philosophers christianity dominant religion attic began christian writings addition interspersed greek nonetheless 6th 12th century attic remained entrenched educational system changes spoken language early middle byzantine periods population byzantine_empire early stages variety mother including greek included latin languages cites evidence south southeast influences influx people arabic celtic slavic backgrounds supplied medieval greek survived modern greek language 11th century onward steady rise literary use vernacular following fourth crusade increased contact west commerce italian areas kingdoms classical education greek ceased non social status leading rise vernacular era beautiful works vernacular written people deeply classical education attested famous example poems attributed 13th 15th centuries centuries empire arose works including chronicles written outside constantinople seat literature termed scholars byzantine greek speaking world started ancient greece continued ottoman rule persisted modern greek state greek remains official language greek orthodox church shown poems early stage modern greek shaped 12th century possibly earlier vernacular greek continued known 20th century religion time constantine great barely roman empire population christians urban population generally found eastern roman empire majority people honoured old gods public roman way christianity complete philosophical system theory heavily classic word changed addition constantine responsible correct deity accordance roman practice old religion new entailed elements continuity break past artistic heritage literally broken christian zeal christianity led development phenomena characteristic byzantium intimate connection church state legacy roman creation christian philosophy guided byzantine greeks everyday lives finally christian ideals bible classical greek left christian scholarship philosophy depended shaped byzantine greek character perceptions christians time constantine conversion population rise end fourth century end fifth century emperor brutally rest highly academics end scale peasants conversion rapid result conviction survival empire east assured active role emperor affairs church byzantine state inherited pagan times administrative financial routine organising religious affairs routine applied christian church following pattern set byzantines viewed emperor representative messenger christ responsible particularly propagation christianity religion administration finances imperial role affairs church developed fixed legally defined system decline rome internal eastern church constantinople 6th 11th centuries richest influential centre byzantine_empire reduced shadow self church institution exercised influence inside outside imperial george points constantinople remained center orthodox world subordinate metropolitan sees territory asia minor balkans lost byzantium russia lithuania church remained stable element byzantine_empire terms religion byzantine greek macedonia significant home saints greek brothers sent state sponsored missions balkans east central europe involved having translate christian bible language invented alphabet known old church process cemented greek brothers status pioneers slavic literature introduced byzantine civilization orthodox christianity hitherto pagan identity self perception byzantine_empire greek citizen generally called defined opposition greek byzantine greeks perceived descendants classical greek political heirs imperial rome followers sense different contemporaries west vulgar greek language opposed literary form greek synonymous roman christian mean christian greek citizen eastern roman empire element indifference neglect non greek official discourse official discourse inhabitants empire subjects emperor romans primary definition political order succeed blown roman best greek orthodox christian greek speaker public persona cultural byzantine church state pursued greek language sufficient distinct identities aim highest compliment paid roughly roman minded fellow regional identity local geographic identity identity terms greek greek denoted people foreign local population regardless abroad byzantine_empire person away home stranger treated suspicion monk western asia minor joined monastery stranger regional solidarity regional hostility revival evolutionary standpoint byzantium multi ethnic empire emerged christian empire soon comprised empire east ended thousand year history greek orthodox state empire nation modern meaning word presence distinctive historically rich literary culture important division greek east latin west formation multi ethnic empire element predominant especially later period spoken language state markers identity fundamental nineteenth century nationalism europe accident reality formative period medieval greek history beginning twelfth century certain byzantine greek intellectuals began use ancient greek greek order describe byzantine later period byzantine_empire emperor tried revive tradition study philosophy opinion danger philosophy abandon greeks seek refuge letter pope gregory byzantine emperor john claimed received gift royalty constantine great emphasis descent wisdom greek people presenting culture integral byzantine defiance latin claims byzantine greeks felt superior ancient ethnic politically popular context increasing venetian power eastern mediterranean association took deeper root byzantine elite account desire distinguish latin west lay legitimate claims greek speaking lands claims association continued increased dynasty scholar teacher translator john addressed emperor john viii sun king urged byzantine emperor constantine king period neo philosopher george boasted race culture proposed byzantine_empire following system government centered according historian george eve fall constantinople byzantine emperor urged soldiers remember descendants greeks romans western perception eyes west coronation byzantines acknowledged roman empire byzantium perceived corrupted continuation ancient greece derided empire greeks kingdom greece byzantium roman heritage rights greeks latin rite ethnicity called greeks popular western opinion reflected anonymous latin author states greeks lost courage learning join war passage ancient greeks praised military skill learning means author draws contrast contemporary byzantine greeks generally viewed non people reputation strange modern eyes given military operations byzantines century struggle islam islamic states reflects byzantines employed diplomacy trade armed force foreign policy high level culture contrast zeal ignorance medieval west historian rough saw constantinople met disgust society read wrote ate food preferred diplomacy war fashionable pass byzantines use synonymous turning point sides viewed probably massacre constantinople massacre followed deposition maria norman latin princess ruling regent infant son emperor maria deeply unpopular heavy handed shown italian merchants regency popular celebrations downfall constantinople quickly turned rioting massacre event horrific reports survivors religious tensions west leading empire second largest city william sicily example western opinion time writings william tyre described greek nation brood like mouse wardrobe guests modern scholarship modern byzantine scholarship currently main schools thought medieval eastern roman identity treats medieval manifestation perennial greek national identity considers mode self identification subjects multi ethnic empire recently anthony argues eastern roman identity pre modern national identity ethnic religious political formations


warren warren known camp hectares acres biological site special scientific interest ancient monument near villages churchill north somerset south west england owned national trust acquired managed wildlife trust standing limestone ridge northern edge hills hill fort iron age occupied roman period extensive fort covers hectares acres single double defensive warren comes use medieval post medieval periods rabbit warren topography differing soil types provide habitat unusually wide range plants attracting variety insects including species butterfly geology location site limestone ridge northern edge hills forms black limestone exposed erosion soil depth varies considerably owing slope site effects exposure wind warren villages churchill provides good visibility surrounding lower lying areas far bristol channel highest point eastern end site metres metres starting point limestone link miles long distance ends cold gloucestershire description fort covers area hectares acres commands views surrounding countryside hill fort sides single southern protected steep slope rectangular longest axis east west metres long metres north south surrounded metres high metres wide protected limestone ditch sides south entrance west hectares acres protecting easier eastern approach history etymology means idol hill old english early hill forts developed late bronze early iron age roughly start millennium reason emergence britain purpose subject debate argued military sites constructed response invasion continental europe sites built invaders military reaction social tensions caused increasing population consequent pressure agriculture dominant view 1960s increasing use iron led social changes britain deposits iron ore located different places tin copper ore necessary bronze result trading patterns shifted old lost economic social status power passed hands new group people archaeologist barry believes population increase played role stated forts provided defensive possibilities community times stress increasing population burst open warfare wouldn having built state war functional defensive strongholds tensions undoubtedly attacked destroyed significant factor construction artefacts uncovered representing long period occupation site warren include bronze bronze age pottery roman pottery coins evidence occupation site iron age defences celtic field systems date 7th century 3rd century bce mask earlier developments occupied approximately possible roman post roman periods consultant peter suggested roman temple built aerial photographs suggest probable remains iron age roman field system local historian robin suggests emerged important centre population 5th century medieval medieval post medieval period remains rabbit warren breed rabbits providing valuable meat fur surrounded banks walls prevent rabbits escaping escaped rabbits caused damage nearby farmland meant loss profit warren completely enclosed substantial iron age hill fort provided ideal location breed rabbits presence traps demonstrate man management site ridge agriculture identified aerial photographs fort structures earlier iron age features damaged subsequent lead site described john 16th century storey building believed house possibly watch tower surrounded garden ruins 19th 20th centuries site visited early 19th century john skinner surveyed charles william lodge estate included warren sold scheduled ancient monument camp bought miss tobacco company prevent development warren notified site special scientific interest hectares acres acquired national trust kent managed wildlife trust ecology site fort warren grassy slopes attract wide range wild flowers butterflies differing soil types provide suitable habitats lime loving plants kidney thrive dry soils heath wood sage found acidic areas higher areas support bell heather western common heather trees shrubs include tree rose aria scarce plants found warren include slender butterflies recorded include small blue white small pearl bordered wall brown