climatic regions argentina vast size range altitudes argentina possesses wide variety climatic regions ranging hot subtropical region north cold far south lying region featuring mild humid climate regions different contrasting general argentina main climate types warm moderate arid cold relief features extent country determine different varieties main climate types northern parts country characterized hot humid summers mild drier winters highly seasonal precipitation located northeast argentina subtropical climate dry season characterized high temperatures abundant rainfall exposure moist easterly winds atlantic_ocean year region center north despite relatively terms precipitation temperature region argentina natural areas world located tropical temperate latitudes desert precipitation decreases east west region eastern areas influenced moist air atlantic_ocean west resulting vegetation transitioning forests marshes shrubs northwest argentina predominantly dry hot subtropical rugged topography results diverse climate central argentina includes east region west temperate climate hot summers cool drier winters region path rain bearing clouds pacific_ocean latitude subtropical high factors render region dry wide range altitudes region diverse conditions altitudes higher flat receives precipitation averaging western parts eastern parts weather variable contrasting air masses frontal storms impact region generate thunderstorms intense precipitation known frequent lightning highest convective cloud tops world south arid semi arid extreme west abundant precipitation supports dense forest coverage glaciers permanent climate classified temperate cool temperate surrounding oceans temperatures coast away coast areas large daily annual temperature ranges influence conjunction general circulation patterns generates strongest precipitation rate change mean annual precipitation relation particular location world decreasing rapidly east precipitation concentrated winter occasionally particularly mountainous west south precipitation evenly distributed east south defining characteristic strong winds west blow year round lowering perception temperature wind factor keeping region arid favouring definition regions vast size wide range altitudes contribute argentina diverse climate consequently wide variety country including subtropical rain forests semi arid arid regions temperate plains cold south general argentina main climate types warm moderate arid cold relief features extent country determine different varieties main climate types despite diversity thirds argentina arid semi arid argentina best divided distinct regions reflecting climatic conditions country north south regions northwest northeast climatic region distinctive vegetation region includes provinces lies rivers serve natural borders region humid subtropical climate according climate classification main features high temperatures abundant rainfall year year round rainfall occurs region lies north subtropical high pressure belt winter exposing moist easterly winds atlantic_ocean year water deficiencies extended periods drought uncommon region positive water balance precipitation exceeds potential precipitation region argentina average annual precipitation ranges southern parts approximately eastern parts precipitation slightly higher summer winter generally decreases east west north south summer december february humid season precipitation ranging fall march season places receiving rainfall summer fall caused convective thunderstorms winter june august season mean precipitation region winter precipitation result scale low pressure weather systems large scale storms extratropical cyclones particularly bring long periods precipitation cooler temperatures strong winds snowfall extremely rare mainly confined province significant snowfall occurred spring september november similar fall mean precipitation temperatures mean annual temperatures range south north summers hot humid winters mild mean january temperature region province lower owing higher elevation heat waves temperatures exceed summer months winter months cold air masses south push temperatures freezing causing frost cold fronts brief intense areas south higher altitudes statistics selected locations region center north completely includes provinces eastern parts province province province northern parts province santa province region del province lies region region subtropical climate climate classification western parts semi arid climate east humid subtropical climate natural regions world located tropical temperate latitudes desert precipitation temperature relatively region general atmospheric circulation influences climate region primarily permanent high pressure systems south pacific high south atlantic high low pressure system develops northeast argentina called low interaction south atlantic high low generates pressure gradient brings moist air east northeast eastern coastal central regions argentina summer interaction favouring development convective thunderstorms result heavy rainfall contrast winters dry systems weakening lower low northward displacement westerly winds entire year south pacific high influences climate bringing cold moist air masses originating leading cold temperatures frost particularly winter summers feature stable weather winter south atlantic south pacific highs southernmost positions making entrance cold fronts difficult precipitation mean annual precipitation ranges eastern parts province low west southwest precipitation concentrated summer decreases east west summer rains intense torrential rain common occasionally causing floods soil erosion winter months precipitation sparse eastern areas receive precipitation western areas influenced moist air atlantic_ocean eastern areas west bringing precipitation result vegetation differs eastern areas covered forests marshes subtropical wet forest western areas dominated medium low forests trees dense shrubs grasses western pronounced dry winter season eastern parts slightly drier season parts region precipitation highly variable year year eastern region receives precipitation positive water balance contrast western parts region negative water balance potential exceeds precipitation owing lower precipitation temperatures region hottest argentina mean annual temperature mean summer temperatures reaching region hottest summers country winters mild brief mean temperatures july ranging northern parts southernmost parts absolute maximum temperatures reach cold waves temperatures fall eastern areas strongly influenced maritime climate western areas leading smaller thermal difference average high average low temperatures results absolute maximum minimum temperatures east compared west statistics selected locations northwest northwest argentina consists provinces western parts province province del province northwest argentina province lies region northwest argentina predominantly dry hot subtropical owing rugged topography region diverse depending altitude temperature distribution precipitation consequently vegetation differs different climate types general climate divided main types cold arid semi arid climate higher altitudes warmer subtropical climate eastern parts region climate classification region different climate types semi arid arid temperate climate dry season dry season respectively alpine climate highest altitudes atmospheric circulation controlled semi permanent south atlantic south pacific highs low summer interaction south atlantic high low brings northeasterly easterly winds carry moisture region particularly northern parts movement moist air region summer results high precipitation precipitation comes east block moisture pacific_ocean southern parts region influenced cold fronts travelling northward cold fronts responsible producing precipitation summer example province cold fronts responsible rainfall province furthermore convergence zone reaches region summer months leading enhanced precipitation winter months convergence zone south pacific south atlantic highs northward low results suppression rain winter blocking rain bearing clouds pacific_ocean atmospheric circulation patterns unfavourable rain results dry season winter low attracts air masses south pacific high creating dry cold wind particularly winter highest altitudes westerly winds pacific_ocean penetrate winter months leading precipitation precipitation highly seasonal concentrated summer months distributed irregularly owing country topography generally decreases east west moist air reaches eastern slopes mountains rises leading formation clouds generate amounts rain eastern slopes mountains receive precipitation year places receive precipitation annually owing precipitation south effect enhanced advancing cold fronts south resulting increased precipitation high rainfall slopes creates thick jungle extends narrow strip ranges fall covered fog complete cloud cover slopes valleys air descends warming drier eastern slopes north south orientation mountains increase altitude west topography creates valleys regions relatively high precipitation west drier regions east temperate valleys include major cities average precipitation ranging example valley surrounded tall mountains northeastern valley surrounded shorter mountains precipitation ranges san away rainfall temperate valleys mainly concentrated summer months falling short heavy bursts valleys southern parts region drier valleys north greater height eastern slopes compared mountains north ranging presenting significant barrier blocks moist winds atlantic pacific oceans valleys receive precipitation year characterized sparse vegetation adapted arid climate area west region plateau average altitude desert easterly winds blocked northwest extension precipitation region averages year potential ranges year owing high strong winds low humidity dry conditions results region having water deficit months southeast parts region arid receiving average northeastern area average annual precipitation ranges easterly winds rare region bring area precipitation snowfall rare averaging days snow year mountains high altitudes extend far sea level southern influences precipitation levels northwest argentina year westerly flow strengthened moisture content east reduced resulting drier rainy season contrast year enhanced easterly moisture transport resulting intense rainy season nonetheless trend highly variable temperatures temperatures northwest argentina vary altitude temperate valleys temperate climate mild summers dry cool winters regular range cities fairly wide particularly winter jungle east climate hot humid temperatures vary significantly based latitude altitude mean annual temperatures range mean annual temperatures valley range depending altitude valleys province climate temperate arid large thermal long summers long frost free period varies altitude valleys winters cold occur march september valleys south provinces southwest parts del province temperatures summer high averaging january winters mild averaging temperatures exceed summer particularly central valley central valley capital lie lower altitudes winter cold fronts south bringing cold air cause temperatures fall severe contrast wind occurs winter months raise temperatures strong gusts causing crop damage temperatures colder region mean annual temperature owing high altitude region characterized cold sunny year occur month range large thermal exceed low humidity intense sunlight year absolute maximum temperatures region reach absolute minimum temperatures fall statistics selected locations region includes provinces san_juan san western parts province shown map belong region having similar climatic soil characteristics arid semi arid climate wide range latitudes combined altitudes ranging nearly means variety different climate types general region temperate climate higher altitude valleys having climate highest altitudes conditions persist year round low humidity abundant sunshine year temperate climate region suitable wine production prevent rain bearing clouds pacific_ocean moving latitude puts band sub tropical high pressure belt keeping region dry frequent prolonged region influenced subtropical semi permanent south atlantic high east atlantic semi permanent south pacific high west development low southern parts region precipitation falls summer stronger interaction low south atlantic high precipitation average annual precipitation ranges varies year year annual rainfall occurs october march constitutes warm season eastern southeastern areas region receive precipitation western areas receive summer rainfall san_juan provinces receive lowest annual precipitation mean summer precipitation averaging rare cases summer rainfall eastward san province mean summer rainfall averages exceed areas higher altitude locations receive precipitation form snow winter months region annual precipitation highly variable year year appears follow cycle dry wet years periods years wet years easterly winds caused subtropical south atlantic high stronger causes moisture flow region dry years winds weaker temperatures summers region hot generally sunny averaging hours sunshine day average temperature january region contrast winters dry cold average hours sunshine day july temperatures range region wide range altitudes ranging nearly temperatures vary widely altitude cross san_juan san provinces climate mean annual temperatures ranging locations altitudes present conditions persist year round altitudes region characterized large range hot temperatures day followed cold nights wind wind characterized warm dry air cause temperatures exceed cases exceed wind occurs passage cold argentina tends occur low pressure system brings heavy rain chilean upper level trough allows winds pass descend downwards temperature rise hours humidity approaching wind event contrast cold waves common owing cold air south allowing cold fronts come frequently winter months causing cool cold temperatures temperatures fall freezing temperatures dip higher altitudes statistics selected locations includes buenos_aires province eastern southern province eastern province southern santa province subdivided parts humid east dry semi arid west region land appropriate agricultural livestock activities flat area interrupted hills southern portion climate temperate humid dry season featuring hot summers mild winters according climate classification weather variable contrasting air masses frontal storms impact region maritime polar air south produces cool winds warm humid tropical air north produces sultry gentle wind usually northeast formed trade winds south atlantic high brings cloudy hot humid weather responsible bringing heat waves influenced southern responsible variations annual precipitation year leads higher precipitation year leads lower precipitation moderately sunny ranging average hours sunshine day winter months hours summer precipitation precipitation decreases east west ranges northeast south west regions receive precipitation year precipitation fairly evenly distributed year easternmost parts western parts precipitation concentrated summer months winters drier places precipitation occurs form convective thunderstorms high summer thunderstorms form cold air south caused wind meets humid tropical air masses north intense storms world frequent lightning highest convective cloud tops severe thunderstorms produce intense amounts precipitation cause floods flash floods consistently active tornado region outside central southeastern united_states autumn spring bring periods rainy weather followed dry mild stretches places east receive rainfall autumn west quickly dry winters drier places weaker easterly winds stronger southerly winds prevent moist air coming winter precipitation occurs frontal systems associated cyclogenesis strong southeasterly winds bring long periods precipitation particularly southern eastern parts precipitation evenly distributed eastern parts western parts away frontal systems dull grey damp weather characterize winters snowfall extremely rare snow usually lasts day temperatures annual temperatures range northern parts south summers hot humid coastal areas cold current heat waves bring temperatures range days usually followed day strong winds south bring cool dry air autumn arrives march brings periods mild daytime temperatures cool nights generally frost arrives early april southernmost areas late north ends mid september dates vary year year frost rarely intense prolonged occur years winters mild frequent cold spells temperatures usually mild day cold night occasionally tropical air masses north southward providing relief cool damp temperatures hand winds bring periods cool cold temperatures statistics selected locations negro santa del provinces climate classified arid semi arid temperate cool temperate exception forested area located extreme west southern parts del province humid wet cool cold climate defining characteristic strong winds west blow year round stronger summer winter favor factor making region arid mean annual wind speeds range mph gusts mph common major factors influence climate region south pacific south atlantic highs higher eastern western areas play crucial role determining climate north south orientation creates barrier humid air masses coming pacific_ocean predominant wind west air masses come pacific_ocean cause air masses ascend cooling moisture dropped chilean resulting abundant precipitation argentine air drier descends result create extensive rain shadow argentine causing region arid south lower elevation reducing rain shadow effect del province allowing forests thrive atlantic coast located subtropical high pressure belt low pressure zone meaning exposed westerly winds strong south little land block winds located south pacific south atlantic highs low movement high low pressure systems ocean currents determine precipitation pattern winter south pacific south atlantic highs north low combined higher ocean temperatures surrounding land results higher precipitation time year northward migration south pacific high frontal systems pass allowing precipitation occur summer south pacific high southward preventing passage fronts cyclones cause precipitation occur resulting lower precipitation time year northeastern areas southern parts region influenced air masses atlantic_ocean resulting precipitation evenly distributed year precipitation comes frontal systems particularly stationary fronts bring humid air atlantic_ocean cold fronts usually west east southwest northeast rarely south cold fronts result cold intense pass surrounding oceans rare cases cold fronts northwards south antarctica cold air masses surrounding oceans resulting cold temperatures region general passage cold fronts common south north occurs winter summer movement warm subtropical air region occurs frequently summer warm subtropical air arrives region air dry resulting little precipitation causes temperatures higher observed northeast argentina precipitation influence pacific_ocean general circulation patterns barrier caused results strongest precipitation world precipitation decreases west east ranging west foothills central example mean annual precipitation foothills east precipitation decreases high precipitation region supports glaciers permanent region receives precipitation year areas receive northern negro province eastern province mean annual precipitation south precipitation increases southwards reaching narrow transition zone running receives precipitation year northwestern corresponding northern parts region receives abundant precipitation winter occasional summer allowing support forests dense coverage exception certain areas puerto major towns receive precipitation year southern parts region receive resulting dense forest coverage lower precipitation compared northern parts winds intense drier favouring region combination low precipitation strong winds high temperatures summer months cause high rates mean ranges decreases northeast southwest precipitation concentrated winter months exception northeastern southern areas region distribution precipitation year result areas winter precipitation results strong water deficit summer precipitation events light event usually results thunderstorms region occurring average days year summer del thunderstorms non existent snowfall occurs days year mainly west south snowfall events result strong snow storms despite low precipitation cloudy mean cloud cover ranging eastern parts province northeast negro province del province region highest cloud cover argentina general mountainous areas coastal areas inland areas northern areas possible sunshine southern parts region western santa del provinces possible sunshine southernmost islands receive lowest average annual sunshine hours world temperatures temperatures relatively cold latitude cold current high altitude example del temperatures colder equal latitudes northern hemisphere europe influenced cold current warm north_atlantic current characteristic temperature pattern distribution presence areas northern parts negro provinces mean annual temperatures range western santa del provinces mean annual temperatures range mean annual temperatures range decreases west daily annual range temperatures high atlantic_ocean climate coastal areas resulting lower annual daily range temperatures south land masses narrow pacific_ocean influences coastal areas addition atlantic_ocean ensuring cold prolonged intense higher altitudes stretching province del province mean annual temperatures generally mean annual temperatures vary altitude latitude temperature gradient latitude relatively moderate owing ocean currents summers uniform distribution temperature months december january mean temperatures range northern negro province eastern parts province del winters uniform temperature distribution july mean temperatures extra ranging north exposed strong westerly winds decrease perception temperature wind particularly summer wind perception mean annual temperature region annual range temperatures lower areas northern hemisphere latitude owing maritime influences sea annual range temperatures ranges north decreases progressively southwards southernmost islands contrasts annual range north_america latitudes absolute maximum temperatures exceed northern negro province province region exceed south del province absolute maximum temperatures exceed southernmost islands exceed absolute minimum temperatures coastal areas central reach statistics selected locations books


urban heat island urban heat island city metropolitan area significantly warmer surrounding rural areas human activities phenomenon investigated described luke howard phenomenon temperature difference usually larger night day apparent winds weak noticeable summer winter main cause urban heat island effect modification land surfaces waste heat generated energy usage secondary contributor population center grows tends expand area increase average temperature term heat island refers area populated consistently surrounding area monthly rainfall greater cities partially increases heat urban centers increases length growing seasons decreases occurrence weak tornadoes decreases air quality increasing production decreases water quality warmer waters flow area streams stress ecosystems cities distinct urban heat island urban heat island effect accomplished use green roofs use lighter colored surfaces urban areas reflect sunlight absorb heat concerns raised possible contribution urban heat islands global warming research china india indicates urban heat island effect contributes climate warming hand comparison urban rural areas proposed urban heat island effects little influence global mean temperature trends studies reveal increases severity effect progress climate change causes causes urban heat island example dark surfaces absorb significantly solar radiation causes urban concentrations roads buildings heat suburban rural areas day materials commonly urban areas pavement roofs concrete asphalt significantly different thermal bulk properties including heat capacity thermal surface properties surrounding rural areas causes change energy budget urban area leading higher temperatures surrounding rural areas major reason lack example lack vegetation urban areas decreased vegetation cities lose shade cooling effect trees removal carbon dioxide causes geometric effects tall buildings urban areas provide multiple surfaces reflection absorption sunlight increasing efficiency urban areas heated called urban canyon effect effect buildings blocking wind cooling convection prevents pollution dissipating waste heat automobiles air conditioning industry sources contributes high levels pollution urban areas increase forms pollution change properties atmosphere raises temperature cities increases concentration greenhouse gas production increase temperature cities exhibit heat island effect largest night shows summer winter typical temperature difference degrees center city surrounding fields difference temperature inner city surrounding suburbs frequently mentioned weather reports downtown suburbs annual mean air temperature city million people warmer surroundings evening difference high behavior stated known compared non urban areas urban heat islands raise night time temperatures daytime temperatures example barcelona spain cooler daily warmer nearby rural station description report luke howard late said urban center london warmer night surrounding countryside warmer air temperature generally apparent night urban heat islands exhibit significant somewhat behavior air temperature difference surrounding environment large night small day opposite true skin temperatures urban landscape daytime particularly skies free clouds urban surfaces warmed absorption solar radiation surfaces urban areas tend warm faster surrounding rural areas virtue high heat capacities urban surfaces act giant reservoir heat energy example concrete hold roughly times heat equivalent volume air result large daytime surface temperature easily seen thermal remote sensing case daytime heating warming effect generating convective winds urban boundary layer atmospheric mixing results air temperature generally minimal day surface temperatures reach extremely high levels night situation absence solar heating causes atmospheric convection decrease urban boundary layer begins stabilize occurs layer formed traps urban air near surface keeping surface air warm warm urban surfaces forming nighttime warmer air temperatures heat retention properties urban areas nighttime maximum urban blocking sky view cooling surfaces lose heat night principally radiation comparatively cool sky blocked buildings urban area cooling dominant wind speed low sky found largest night conditions prediction city town good system taking weather observations measured directly alternative use complex simulation location use approximate method models allow included estimates future temperatures rises cities climate change professor university california davis developed published comprehensive numerical treatment predict effects urban heat island paper published american meteorological society journal applied surveys criticizes existing theories excessively general purpose numerical energy budget model described applied urban atmosphere calculations special cases sensitivity analysis presented model found predict correct order magnitude urban temperature excess heat island effect found net result competing physical processes general reduced city center thermal properties city building paving materials dominant parameters suggested model engineering calculations improve climate existing future cities impact animals colonies urban heat islands increased heat tolerance cost cold tolerance species good utilize conditions provided urban heat islands thrive regions outside normal range examples include grey headed flying fox common house grey headed flying found melbourne australia urban habitats following increase temperatures increased temperatures causing warmer winter conditions city similar climate northerly habitat species attempts manage urban heat islands temperature changes availability food water reduced temperate climates urban heat islands extend growing season altering breeding strategies inhabiting species seen best effects urban heat islands water temperature temperature nearby buildings reaching degrees different near surface air temperature precipitation warm rapidly causing runoff nearby streams lakes rivers bodies water provide excessive thermal pollution increase thermal pollution ability increase water temperature degrees increase cause fish species inhabiting body water undergo thermal stress shock rapid change temperature climate urban heat islands caused cities altered natural selection process selective pressures like temporal variation food predation water relaxed causing new set selective forces roll example urban habitats insects abundant rural areas insects means depend temperature environment control body temperature making warmer climates city perfect ability thrive study north_carolina conducted oak scales showed particular species preferred warmer climates found higher abundance urban habitats oak trees rural habitats time living urban habitats adapted thrive warmer climates cooler presence non native species heavily dependent human activity example seen populations cliff seen taking nests homes urban habitats homes shelter provided humans upper regions homes allowing influx populations added protection reduced predator numbers impacts weather climate aside effect temperature produce secondary effects local including altering local wind patterns development clouds fog humidity rates precipitation extra heat provided leads greater upward motion induce additional shower thunderstorm activity addition creates day local low pressure area relatively moist air rural surroundings possibly leading favorable conditions cloud formation rainfall rates cities increased partly result warming monthly rainfall greater miles miles cities compared cities total precipitation increase research areas suggesting metropolitan areas susceptible weak tornadoes turbulent mixing caused warmth urban heat island satellite images researchers discovered city climates noticeable influence plant growing seasons kilometers miles away city edges growing seasons cities eastern north_america days longer urban areas compared rural areas outside city influence health effects potential directly influence health welfare urban residents united_states average people die year extreme heat characterized increased temperature potentially increase magnitude duration heat waves cities research found mortality rate heat wave increases maximum temperature effect exacerbated nighttime effect particularly harmful heat wave urban residents cool relief found rural areas night research united_states suggests relationship extreme temperature mortality varies location heat likely increase risk mortality cities mid latitudes high latitudes significant annual temperature variation example chicago new_york philadelphia experience unusually hot temperatures elevated levels illness death predicted contrast parts country mild hot year round lower public health risk excessive heat research shows residents southern cities los_angeles phoenix miami tend hot weather conditions vulnerable heat related deaths high humidity large southern cities atlanta dallas houston nashville new_orleans lead deadly conditions temperatures rise normal increased temperatures reported cause heat stroke heat exhaustion heat heat studies looked severe heat stroke lead permanent damage organ systems damage increase risk early mortality damage cause severe organ function complications heat stroke include respiratory distress syndrome adults researchers noted compromise human body ability theory increase risk mortality includes illnesses affect person mobility awareness behavior researchers noted individuals health issues depression disease risk faced high temperatures need extra care performance shown affected heat people diabetes overweight sleep conditions avoid heat exposure common effect increase risk mortality specific examples include health heat affect behavior study suggests heat people aggressive noting violent crimes increased degree increase temperature researcher found high intensity increased concentrations air gathered night affect day air quality include volatile organic compounds carbon nitrogen matter production combined higher temperatures production surface level considered harmful studies suggest increased temperatures increase days note factors air pressure cloud cover wind speed effect pollution centers disease control prevention notes difficult valid projections heat related illness death varying climate change scenarios heat related deaths evidenced decline cause mortality heat events past years studies suggest possibility health impacts impacts distributed based variety factors age ethnicity status raises possibility health impacts environmental justice issue inequality tree canopy cover relationship neighborhood income tree canopy cover recent years researchers discovered strong neighborhood income tree canopy cover researchers auburn university university southern_california found presence trees highly responsive changes neighborhood income low income neighborhoods tend significantly trees neighborhoods higher described unequal distribution trees demand luxury necessity according study percent increase capita income demand forest cover increased percent income dropped demand decreased percent trees necessary feature urban heat island effect reduce air temperatures surface temperatures researchers neighborhoods financial resources plant maintain trees affluent neighborhoods afford trees public private property communities afford land kept open green space poorer ones landowners try maximize profit putting density possible land additionally sites satellite imagery provided google maps census data confirm debunk aforementioned research impact nearby water bodies water quality hot pavement rooftop surfaces transfer excess heat drains storm raises water temperatures released streams rivers ponds lakes additionally increased urban water body temperatures lead decrease diversity water august rains cedar iowa led rise nearby stream hour led fish kill temperature rain comparatively cool attributed hot pavement city similar events documented american midwest oregon california rapid temperature changes aquatic ecosystems effects water pavement storage areas dissipate absorption impact energy usage consequence urban heat islands increased energy required air conditioning cities comparatively hot climates heat island group estimates heat island effect costs los_angeles million year energy conversely cold climates moscow russia demand heating implementation heat island reduction strategies significant annual net energy savings calculated northern locations chicago salt_lake_city toronto temperature difference urban areas surrounding suburban rural areas nearly percent increase prevalence dark roofs remainder coming dark colored pavement declining presence vegetation heat island effect slightly white reflective materials build houses roofs roads increasing overall city relative sources problem replacing dark requires investment immediate return cool roof reflective material vinyl reflects percent sun rays percent solar radiation absorbed building envelope asphalt built roofs comparison reflect percent percent solar radiation light colored concrete proven effective reflecting light asphalt reducing ambient temperature low value characteristic black asphalt large percentage solar heat creating warmer near surface temperatures paving light colored concrete addition replacing asphalt light colored concrete communities able lower average temperatures research interaction reflective buildings found nearby buildings fitted reflective glass solar radiation reflected light colored increase building temperatures increasing air conditioning demands second option increase vegetation options combined implementation green roofs green roofs excellent warm weather months plants cool surrounding environment air quality improved plants absorb carbon dioxide production oxygen city new_york determined cooling potential area highest street trees followed living roofs light covered surface open space planting standpoint cost effectiveness light surfaces light roofs planting lower costs temperature reduction hypothetical cool communities program los_angeles projected urban temperatures reduced approximately planting million trees million homes painting quarter roads estimated cost billion giving estimated annual benefits million reduced air conditioning costs million related health savings strategies include white roofs painting white common strategy reduce heat island effect cities dark colored surfaces absorb heat sun turn lowering city white allow high solar high solar increasing city area effect occurring green roofs green roofs method decreasing urban heat island effect green practice having vegetation roof having trees garden plants roof increase decreases urban heat island effect method studied criticized fact green roofs affected climatic conditions green roof hard measure complex systems planting trees cities planting trees city way increasing decreasing urban heat island effect trees absorb carbon dioxide provide shade recommended plant deciduous trees provide benefits shade summer blocking warmth winter green parking lots green parking lots use surfaces asphalt vegetation limit impact urban heat island effect policies measures strategies plan required california air resources board create plan plan california approach carry goal climate change reducing greenhouse emissions levels 1990s plan primary programs advanced clean cars cap trade portfolio standard low carbon fuel standard geared increased energy efficiency plan main strategies reduce green house gases having monetary incentives regulations voluntary actions years plan updated advanced clean car rules program reduce tail pipe emissions air resources board approved program control emissions newer models year goals environmentally superior cars available different models different types cars new automobiles percent fewer global warming gases percent fewer forming emissions fully implemented consumers save average life car portfolio standard increase energy variety sources solar power wind investor owned utilities community choice electric service providers required increase low carbon fuel standards administered california air resources board attempts wider choice cleaner producers petroleum based required reduce carbon intensity products percent cap trade designed reduce effects climate change setting cap greenhouse gases released atmosphere cap decline approximately percent year trading create incentives reduce effects climate change california communities reducing greenhouse gases investments clean technologies clean air act initiated air quality requirements help reduce ground level leads urban heat islands clean air act chief policies certain regulations place ensure state emissions stay certain level included clean air act states set forth state implementation plan designed guarantee states meet central air quality standard state implementation plans policies emerging voluntary measures policy allows state add unconventional forms heat island include removing pollution emitted air water soil measures implemented law possible certain parties voluntarily efficient purpose policy sources follow example use successful forms guidance state implementation plan credits emissions reductions electric sector energy efficiency energy measures educational tool states create date organized allows states include plans meet guidelines plans exceed expectations based success states plans incorporated bundled measures policy different factions state collaborate projects policy takes community based approach adding groups purpose multiple perspectives inventive approaches bundled measures policy method generates benefits parties example business add cool roofs reduction greenhouse gases beneficial environment need excess energy beneficial business implementation policies seattle green factor system urban landscaping seen success urban heat islands program focuses areas prone high pollution business districts strict guidelines new construction exceeds roughly parking spaces platform helps developers physically levels pollution trying different methods construction figure effective course action seattle produced score sheet cities use city planning urban heat islands urban heat islands increase demand energy consumption summer temperatures rise result increased energy consumption increase air pollution greenhouse gas emissions policy focuses lowering greenhouse emissions contributes lowering heat island effect strategies focuses variety issues dealing urban heat islands describe urban heat islands created affected people difference reduce temperature shows examples policies voluntary actions state local governments reduce effect urban heat islands incentives sacramento municipal utility district sacramento tree foundation partnered provide city sacramento shade trees free program allows citizens receive trees seven feet tall delivery cost encourage citizens plant trees benefit home reducing air conditioning costs approximately shade trees planted sacramento area roof incentive program canada grants distributed toronto installing green cool roofs residential commercial buildings reduce usage energy lower green house gas emissions tree program partnership multiple entities focuses helping restore tree cover city citizens positive effects trees climate change urban heat island effect goal build capacity local governments understand protect restore urban trees need citizens maintenance trees provides hours classroom field training community residents classes cover variety topics tree identification tree biology proper species selection department energy assistance program helps low income recipients covering heating bills helping families homes energy efficient addition program allows states use funds install cooling efficiency measures devices outreach education tree utah statewide non profit organization dedicated communities environmental social benefits provided trees committed planting thousands trees state utah lawrence hall science berkeley high school level course called global systems science course focuses variety topics including climate change greenhouse effect tree protection variety local governments implemented tree landscape help communities providing shade summer tree protection ordinance allow remove trees city permit example city california indigenous tree ordinance city protects following species trees california coast live oak oak valley oak oak california bay planning removing trees obtain indigenous tree permit permit provide detailed information number trees affected trunk diameter health tree submit photographs site site plan sketch example city berkeley california tree protection ordinance prohibits removal coast live oak trees excessive cause harm tree prohibited exception tree poses danger life limb danger property city california implemented street tree ordinance intended promote regulate planting maintenance protection street trees city ordinance allow street trees altered removed street trees protected construction benefits strategies trees gardens aid mental health large percentage people live urban areas access parks gardens areas probably connections nature study shows having contact nature helps promote health people access gardens parks found study investigating viewing natural scenery influence people undergoing found people window scenic view shorter hospital stays fewer negative comments nurses tree planting empowerment community building los_angeles example tree planting community tree people provides opportunity people come build capacity community pride opportunity collaborate network green roofs food production growing food option fast growing communities popular plants grown food include plants suitable green roofs equipped mediterranean climate green roofs wildlife biodiversity green roofs important wildlife allow organisms inhabit new garden maximize opportunities attract wildlife green roof aid garden diverse possible plants added planting wide array plants different kinds species able provided foraging sources habitat opportunities urban forests cleaner atmosphere trees provide benefits absorbing carbon dioxide trees provide shade reduce emissions vehicles having trees cool city heat approximately degrees degrees help reducing helping communities affected effects climate change urban heat islands green building programs voluntary green building programs promoting heat island effect years example ways site earn points green building council leadership energy environmental design green building rating system action reduces heat islands impacts human wildlife habitats credits associated reflective planted roofs help building achieve certification buildings receive credits providing shade similarly green building initiative green program awards points sites measures decrease building energy consumption reduce heat island effect points awarded sites roof coverage vegetation highly reflective materials combination cost analysis year energy goes air conditioning buildings urban heat islands according air conditioning demand risen years home business owners alike benefit building cool community decrease energy usage directly cost efficiency areas substantial vegetation reflective surface materials roofs houses pavement roads proven effective cost efficient case study los_angeles basin showed trees strategically placed urban heat islands aid energy reduction estimated wide scale implementation city los_angeles annually save savings coming cool roofs lighter colored pavement planting trees city wide implementation added benefits lowering level result billion dollars saving year cost efficiency green roofs high reasons according carter conventional roof estimated green roof estimated green roofs double lifespan conventional roof effectively roof replacements year addition roof life green roofs add management reducing fees utilities cost green roofs beginning period time efficiency provides financial health benefits capital analysis conclusions financial benefits green buildings determined green roofs successfully lowered energy usage raised health benefits square foot green roof study savings amounted energy wise savings seen emissions water maintenance categories overall savings amounted average cost going green totaled global warming parts cities surroundings concerns raised effects urban increase global temperature effects removed raw climate record comparing urban stations surrounding stations heat island warming important local effect evidence trends historical temperature record example urban rural trends similar assessment report says northern hemisphere land areas urban heat islands apparent trends lower temperature surface air temperature significant differences fact lower temperatures warm slightly greater rate north_america decade satellite data surface temperatures decade difference significant ground temperature measurements like weather observations logged location massive programs medium rise expansions contribute importantly station logs allow sites question filtered easily data sets presence heat islands visible overall trends change magnitude direction effects urban heat island study stated contrary generally accepted wisdom significant impact found annual temperatures satellite based night light detection urban areas thorough time series example tendency surrounding rural stations slightly higher elevation cooler urban areas conclusion accepted necessary mystery global temperature time series created partly urban stations contamination urban warming main conclusion local scale impacts dominate impact urban heat island sections towns warmer rural sites surface weather observations likely park cool islands cities warming relative rural surroundings trends adjusted urban weather stations world match rural stations regions effort temperature record percent cases cities getting cooler relative surroundings warmer reason urban areas weather stations sited cool islands parks example urban areas studies attempted test urban heat island theory comparing temperature readings taken calm nights taken nights urban heat island theory correct instruments recorded bigger temperature rise calm nights ones wind blows excess heat away cities away measuring instruments difference calm nights study said globally temperatures land risen nights calm nights indicating observed overall warming consequence urban development view held reject evidence global warming temperature increase seen land based increase measurement stations urban areas example ross patrick michaels conducted statistical study surface temperature data concluded half observed warming trend accounted effects corrected temperature data set studied processed remove modeled contribution critics paper including said results explained away artifact spatial stated evidence contamination climatic data robust numerous data sets preliminary results independent assessment carried berkeley earth surface temperature group available public october found scientific concerns raised urban heat island effect bias results obtained centre nasa berkeley earth group confirmed past years land surface warmed results closely matched obtained earlier studies climate change fourth assessment report states following studies looked global scales conclude urban related trend order magnitude smaller longer time scale trends evident series jones result partly attributed omission data set small number sites clear urban related warming trends worldwide set stations parker noted warming trends night minimum temperatures period enhanced calm nights time likely affected urban warming global land warming trend discussed unlikely influenced significantly increasing parker accordingly assessment adds level urban warming uncertainty tar decade land decade blended land ocean ocean zero study published proceedings national academy sciences united_states_of_america looks potential large scale urban adaptation counteract effects long term global climate change researchers urban design expansion existing cities regional raise near surface temperatures degrees large regions significant fraction 21st century greenhouse gas induced climate change simulated global climate models large scale design completely offset increase example temperature increase california calculated high degrees deployment cool roofs result temperature drop degrees increase


sea surface temperature sea surface temperature water temperature close ocean surface exact meaning surface varies according measurement method millimetre metres sea surface air masses earth atmosphere highly modified sea surface temperatures short distance shore localized areas heavy snow form bands warm water bodies cold air mass warm sea surface temperatures known cause tropical cyclogenesis earth oceans tropical cyclones cause cool wake turbulent mixing upper metres ocean changes like air lesser degree variation breezy days calm days addition ocean currents atlantic effect multi time scales major impact results global circulation affects average significantly world oceans coastal cause offshore winds generate significantly cool warm nearby shallower waters continental shelf warmer onshore winds cause considerable warm areas fairly constant northwest coast south_america values important numerical weather prediction influences atmosphere formation sea sea fog measurements weather satellites measurement variety techniques measuring potentially yield different results different things actually measured away immediate sea surface general temperature measurements accompanied reference specific depth measurement significant differences encountered measurements different depths especially daytime low wind speed high sunshine conditions lead formation warm layer ocean surface strong vertical temperature sea surface temperature measurements confined portion ocean known near surface layer measured benjamin franklin suspended mercury ship travelling united_states europe survey gulf stream late eighteenth century later measured bucket water manually drawn sea surface automated technique determining accomplished measuring temperature water intake port large ships underway observations warm bias heat engine room bias led changes perception global warming fixed weather measure water temperature depth metres measurements inconsistencies years way taken nineteenth century measurements taken bucket ship slight variation temperature differences samples collected wood canvas bucket canvas bucket cooled quicker wood bucket sudden change temperature result change procedure samples taken near engine intake dangerous use lights measurements ship night different drifting exist world vary design location reliable temperature sensors varies measurements satellites automated immediate data distribution large network coastal waters maintained national data center extensive array moored drifting deployed pacific_ocean designed help monitor predict phenomenon weather satellites weather satellites available determine sea surface temperature information global created satellites increasingly utilized measure allowed spatial temporal variation viewed fully satellite measurements reasonable agreement temperature measurements satellite measurement sensing ocean radiation infrared electromagnetic spectrum parts spectrum related chosen peak radiation expected earth able transmit adequately atmosphere satellite measured provides view ocean high frequency repeat views allowing examination basin wide upper ocean dynamics possible ships nasa national space administration moderate resolution imaging satellites providing global data available day goes earth satellites satellites stationary western hemisphere enables deliver data hourly basis hours time difficulties satellite based absolute measurements infrared remote sensing radiation skin ocean approximately represent bulk temperature upper meter ocean primarily effects solar surface heating daytime reflected radiation sensible heat loss surface factors somewhat difficult compare satellite data measurements methods ground truth efforts secondly satellite look clouds creating cool bias satellite derived cloudy areas passive microwave techniques accurately measure clouds atmospheric channels weather satellites peak ocean surface knowledge sea surface temperature important local variation range like earth atmosphere lesser degree greater specific heat calm days temperature vary temperature ocean depth earth atmosphere temperature days metres means locations like sea temperatures near reach maximum december minimum june near coastline offshore winds warm waters near surface offshore replace cooler water process known transport pattern increases nutrients marine life region offshore river freshwater flows allows heat faster limited vertical mixing remotely detect surface temperature signature tropical cyclones general cooling observed passing hurricane primarily result mixed layer deepening surface heat losses wake day long dust adjacent northern atlantic_ocean sea surface temperatures reduced sources short term include extratropical cyclones rapid glacial fresh water concentrated seasonal cycles agricultural run atlantic atlantic important external linked north_atlantic regional variation defined prolonged differences pacific_ocean surface temperatures compared average value accepted definition warming cooling averaged east central tropical pacific_ocean typically happens irregular intervals years lasts months years average period length years warming cooling occurs seven months classified conditions occurs period classified episodes sign sea surface temperature pattern warm water spreads west pacific indian_ocean east pacific takes rain causing extensive drought western pacific rainfall normally dry eastern pacific warm rush nutrient poor tropical water heated eastward passage current replaces cold nutrient rich surface water current conditions months extensive ocean warming reduction easterly trade winds limits cold nutrient rich deep water economic impact local fishing international market importance earth atmosphere sea surface temperature affects behavior earth atmosphere atmospheric models important sea surface temperature important tropical cyclogenesis important determining formation sea fog sea heat underlying warmer waters significantly modify air mass distances short kilometres kilometres example southwest northern hemisphere extratropical cyclones curved cyclonic flow bringing cold air relatively warm water bodies lead narrow lake effect snow sea effect bands bands bring strong localized precipitation form snow large water bodies lakes efficiently store heat results significant temperature differences larger water surface air temperature difference warmth moisture transported upward vertically oriented clouds produce snow showers temperature decrease height cloud depth directly affected water temperature large scale environment stronger temperature decrease height taller clouds greater precipitation rate tropical cyclones ocean temperature spanning minimum metre depth needed maintain tropical cyclone type warm waters needed maintain warm core tropical systems value long term global average surface temperature oceans requirement considered general assumes ambient atmospheric environment surrounding area disturbed weather presents average conditions tropical cyclones intensified slightly standard temperature tropical cyclones known form normal conditions met example cooler air temperatures higher altitude hpa level lead tropical cyclogenesis lower water temperatures certain lapse rate required force atmosphere unstable convection moist atmosphere lapse rate atmosphere relative humidity required lapse rate hpa level air temperature averages tropics air tropics normally dry height giving air room wet cool favorable temperature support convection temperature hpa tropical atmosphere required initiate convection water temperature temperature requirement increases decreases sea surface temperature change hpa inside cold cyclone hpa temperatures fall low initiate convection explains moisture mid levels roughly hpa level normally requirement development dry air found height temperatures hpa need colder dry require greater lapse rate instability moist heights near year average temperature measured period encompassing recent example tropical cyclone maintained cooler waters atlantic hurricane season


snow snow precipitation form water ice falls clouds snow composed small ice particles material open soft white structure subjected external pressure come variety sizes shapes types fall form ball melting hail ice snow grains process snow called snowfall snowfall tends form regions upward movement air type low pressure system known extratropical cyclone snow fall systems associated warm fronts head precipitation patterns called like shape cloud precipitation pattern west sides extratropical cyclones relatively warm water bodies present example water lakes lake effect snowfall concern warm lakes cold cyclonic flow extratropical cyclones lake effect snowfall heavy locally possible cyclone head lake effect precipitation bands mountainous areas heavy snow possible flow sides terrain elevation atmosphere cold snowfall related liquid equivalent precipitation measured variety different rain forms ground snow categorized light fresh recent heavier begins cycle melting eventually ice comes multiple melting cycles dense mass called snow pack snow moves wind location originally landed forming deposits called depth meters blown snow evolve snow slab hazard steep slopes existence keeps temperatures lower snow reflects sunlight absorbed heat goes melting snow increasing temperature water equivalent snowfall measured monitor liquid available flood rivers occur following spring snow cover protect crops extreme cold snowfall stays ground series years develops mass ice called fresh snow sound lowering ambient noise landscape trapped air vibration acoustic qualities quickly minimize reverse layer freezing rain falls snow cover walking snowfall produces sound low temperatures energy balance dictated heat exchange processes solar radiation partially blocked cloud cover reflected snow surface long wave heat exchange takes place surrounding environment includes air mass tree cover clouds heat exchange takes place convection air mass governed temperature gradient wind speed moisture exchange air mass accompanied heat transfer influenced pressure gradient air wind rain snow add significant amounts thermal energy generally insignificant heat exchange takes place ground small temperature change snowfall result heat transfer air snow surface develop characteristic textures term snow storm describe heavy snowfall involves snow wind visibility snow shower term intermittent snowfall light brief snow fall meter time single storm flat areas meters time rugged terrain mountains snow falls significant quantities travel foot car airplane means severely restricted methods mobility possible use heavy snow occurs early fall occasions late spring significant damage occur trees leaf areas significant snow year store winter snow ice house cool structures following summer variation snow observed venus composed metallic compounds occurring substantially higher temperature cause extratropical cyclones bring cold dangerous conditions heavy rain snow winds exceeding mph referred europe band precipitation associated warm extensive forced weak upward vertical motion air frontal boundary produces precipitation elongated band wide meaning falling clouds moist air tries arctic air mass snow result elongated precipitation band northern hemisphere north pole north southern hemisphere south pole south cold sector west cyclone center small scale bands heavy snow occur cyclone head pattern cyclone head pattern shaped area clouds precipitation found mature extratropical cyclones snow bands typically width miles kilometers bands head associated areas zones strengthening temperature contrast southwest extratropical cyclones curved cyclonic flow bringing cold air relatively warm water bodies lead narrow lake effect snow bands bands bring strong localized snowfall understood follows large water bodies lakes efficiently store heat results significant temperature differences larger water surface air temperature difference warmth moisture transported upward vertically oriented clouds satellite picture produce snow showers temperature decrease height cloud depth directly affected water temperature large scale environment stronger temperature decrease height deeper clouds greater precipitation rate mountainous areas heavy snowfall air forced ascend mountains squeeze precipitation slopes cold conditions falls form snow terrain location heavy snowfall remains significant challenge snow crystals form tiny cloud diameter freeze able remain liquid temperatures lower freeze molecules need chance form arrangement similar ice nucleus experiments cloud occurs temperatures lower warmer clouds particle ice nucleus present contact act nucleus ice rare compared cloud liquid form desert dust biological particles effective extent unclear artificial include particles silver dry ice stimulate precipitation cloud frozen grows environment air saturated respect ice temperature freezing point grows water molecules air ice crystal surface collected water numerous ice crystals sheer abundance crystals able grow hundreds millimeters size expense water process known process corresponding water causes ice crystals grow expense large crystals efficient source precipitation fall atmosphere mass stick clusters usually type ice particle falls ground world records list world largest january fort montana allegedly measured wide ice clear scattering light crystal mean crystals appear white color reflection spectrum light small ice particles shape determined broadly temperature humidity formed common snow particles visibly irregular crystals thin flat grow air crystals form hollow columns long thin pencil like shapes shape plate like branched features temperatures crystal development column like complex growth patterns form planes bullet types depending conditions ice crystal started forming column growth regime falls warmer plate like regime plate crystals end column producing called capped columns consists roughly water molecules added core different rates different patterns depending changing temperature humidity atmosphere falls way ground result extremely difficult encounter identical initial attempts find identical thousands images microscope onward wilson found wide variety know today likely virtually identical environments similar matching snow crystals discovered wisconsin crystals usual sense hollow types types snow designated shape rate accumulation way snow collects ground types fall form ball melting cycles known ice snow types associated precipitation ground snow categorized begins cycle melting eventually ice packs dense drift multiple melting cycles snow wind location originally fell forming deposits depth meters isolated locations snow fences constructed order help control snow drifting vicinity roads improve highway safety blown snow evolve snow slab hazard steep slopes frozen equivalent known frost forms snow pack winds light ample low level moisture snow pack snowfall intensity determined visibility visibility kilometer snow considered light moderate snow describes snowfall visibility restrictions heavy snowfall describes conditions visibility steady significant intensity referred snow variable intensity short duration described snow shower term snow describe form snow shower weather condition involving snow varying definitions different parts world united_states occurs conditions met period hours sustained wind frequent gusts miles hour sufficient snow air reduce visibility kilometers canada united_kingdom criteria similar heavy snowfall occurs conditions falling snow requirement blowing snow create ground colours snow pure form white colour different colours caused factors including algae air pollution numerous cases yellow black red pink blue brown orange snow reported yellow yellow snow commonly known result animal marks occur result pine snow certain air sunlight hitting snow yellow falls sky sand particles cloud seeds industrial waste present air cases yellow snow cause health hazards density snow remains ground snow directly water likely occur dry day strong wind wind exists snow ground settle weight largely differential density approximately water increases density initial compression occur primarily melting caused temperatures freezing direct solar radiation colder climates snow lies ground winter late spring snow typically reach maximum water snow melt summer individual spherical nature evolving ice flows downhill snow water equivalent snow water equivalent product snow depth snow bulk density quantity type mass density having units area density usually reported normalized density liquid water units expressed units length millimeter inches corresponds depth layer water accumulate area snow ice melted given area example snow covering given area water equivalent centimeters melt pool water centimeters deep covering area useful measurement snow depth density cool fallen snow widely varies new snow commonly density water means centimeters snow centimeters water cloud temperatures physical processes cloud affect shape individual snow crystals highly branched crystals tend space arms ice form snow lower density referred dry snow conditions create plate like crystals air space crystal feel acoustic properties newly fallen snow acts sound absorbing material sound surface trapped air individual trapping sound waves vibrations blown wind exposed sunshine snow sound quality snow cover thin centimeters thick changes acoustic properties landscape studies concerning acoustic properties snow revealed loud sounds pistol measure snow cover depth motion pictures sound walking snow simulated salt cat litter temperature falls snow walked crushing ice crystals snow covered layer freezing rain hardened frozen surface acts echo sounds similar concrete water snowfall unique sound compared forms precipitation sound varies little differences size shape snowfall measurement snowfall defined national_weather_service maximum depth snow typically piece painted white observed hour period end hour period snow cleared measuring surface daily total snowfall hour snowfall measurements summed snowfall difficult measure melting blowing drifting liquid equivalent snowfall evaluated snow gauge standard rain gauge having diameter plastic metal rain adjusted winter removing funnel inner cylinder allowing snow freezing rain collect inside outer cylinder liquid added melt snow ice falls gauge types snowfall ice finished accumulating height gauge approaches snow melted water recorded type gauge measure liquid equivalent snowfall weighing precipitation gauge wedge bucket problems snow measurement attempts compensate snow ice warming bucket meet limited success snow gauge kept freezing temperature weighing fine snow funnel needs removed event begins automatic weather stations snow depth augment precipitation gauge spring snow melt major source water supply areas temperate zones near mountains catch hold winter snow especially prolonged dry summer places water equivalent great interest water managers wishing predict spring runoff water supply cities downstream measurements manually marked locations known snow courses remotely special scales called snow snow measurement networks exist united_states rainfall measurements submitted internet globe network available area lives nearest local weather office likely interested measurement records world record highest seasonal total snowfall measured united_states mount baker ski area outside town washington season mount baker received snow surpassing previous record holder mount washington season received snow world record highest average yearly snowfall measured japan period north american record highest average yearly snowfall measured mount washington world record snow depth measured slope japan altitude february north american record snow depth measured california altitude march world city population million japan average yearly snowfall snow fresh snow reflects radiation causes snow reducing absorption sunlight ground snow known painful eye condition caused exposure unprotected eyes rays bright sunlight reflected snow ice condition problem polar regions high altitudes meters elevation sea level intensity rays increases snow large reflection light makes night skies brighter reflected light directed sky cloud cover light reflected ground greatly light emitted city lights causing bright night effect similar effect occurs snow falling moon large snow relation river flow rivers originating mountainous high latitude regions receive significant portion flow makes river flow highly seasonal resulting periodic flooding spring months dry mountainous regions like mountain west iran afghanistan low flow rest year contrast melt nearly areas melt continues warm season peak flows occurring mid late summer effects human society substantial snowfall disrupt public infrastructure services slowing human activity regions accustomed weather air ground transport greatly shut entirely populations living snow prone areas developed ways travel snow pulled horses dogs animals later basic utilities electricity telephone lines gas supply fail addition snow roads harder travel vehicles attempting use easily stuck snowfall small negative effect yearly yield solar systems combined effects lead snow day gatherings school work officially canceled areas normally little snow snow day occur light accumulation threat snowfall areas unprepared handle snow areas states united_states schools given yearly snow days days exceeded snow days states snow days example schools extend remaining school days later afternoon spring break delay start summer vacation accumulated snow removed travel easier safer decrease long term impact heavy snowfall process utilizes snow assisted salt based chemicals reduce melting temperature snow areas abundant snowfall japan people harvest snow store surrounded ice houses allows snow summer air conditioning requires far electricity traditional cooling methods agriculture snowfall beneficial agriculture serving thermal heat earth protecting crops weather agricultural areas depend accumulation snow winter melt gradually spring providing water crop growth water sensitive crops resulting ice protect fruit exposure lower temperatures recreation winter sports skiing depend snow snow scarce temperature low snow cannons produce adequate sports children adults play ride person footsteps remain visible snow covered landscape snow cover considered general danger hiking snow landmarks makes landscape appear uniform recognizable recreational uses snow building created making man shaped figure snow large shaped body smaller head decorated simple household items traditionally including nose coal eyes nose mouth occasionally including old clothes hat snow snow known usually eaten summer months flat areas snow snow angels popular children snow alter format outdoor games capture flag fights world biggest built finland winter michigan technological university michigan held annual winter carnival mid february large snow sculpture contest takes place clubs organizations community university year central theme prizes awarded based creativity tournaments held snowy areas usually bright orange visibility sacks filled snow bases damage heavy wet snow snow water equivalent ratio extreme cases heavy weight excess pounds square foot piles trees electricity lines particularly trees leaves adapted snow significant damage occur scale usually associated hurricanes occur sudden thermal mechanical impact snow accumulated mountain causes snow rush downhill preceding phenomenon known wind caused approaching adds destructive potential large amounts snow accumulate man structures lead structural failure acidic precipitation previously fell snow pack released marine life popular snow heavier starts melt people risks climbing roofs remove snow weather starts warmer fear roofs collapse fact snow starts melt volume decreases ice crystals spaces crystals makes density wet melting snow greater fallen snow makes feel heavier mass increase fact decreases runs roof weight snow roof actually decreases starts melt design structures considering snow load designs structures buildings use ground snow load determined professional engineers designers data ground snow provided american society civil engineers latest edition jurisdictions load typically governing design factor roofs structural elements exposed effects snow northern united_states closer equator snow load important governing factor extraterrestrial snow light snow known occur high latitudes mars snow occur saturn moon little water venus phenomenon similar snow probe highly reflective substance tops venus highest mountain peaks bore strong resemblance terrestrial snow substance arguably formed similar process snow albeit far higher temperature volatile surface rose gas form cooler higher elevations fell precipitation identity substance known certainty speculation ranged lead


climate north_carolina north_carolina climate varies atlantic coast east mountain range west mountains act shield blocking low temperatures storms midwest entering north_carolina state humid subtropical climate climate classification higher elevations subtropical highland climate areas state temperatures july daytime january average temperatures range near polar vortex cold blast significantly bring average temperatures seen winter winter precipitation average inches rain year mountains july storms account precipitation rainfall warm season carolinas attributed tropical cyclones mountains usually snow fall winter moist winds southwest drop average inches precipitation western mountains northeast facing slopes average half snow snow north_carolina seen regular basis mountains north_carolina averages inches snow year varies greatly state coast areas register inches year state capitol averages inches farther west average grows inches charlotte area averages inches mountains west act barrier preventing snow storms entering north_carolina snow past mountains usually light seldom ground days storms dropped inches snow normally warm areas storm century lasted march march affected places canada central_america brought significant snow north_carolina newfound gap received inches snow feet mount mitchell measured feet snow feet northwestern state received feet feet snow significant snowfall hit area january inches snow fell heavy snowfall totaling inches hit wilmington christmas little snow measured west big impact areas east mountains come extratropical cyclones approach south georgia south_carolina offshore carolinas storms track far_east snow limited eastern state cyclones travel close coast warm air pulled eastern north_carolina increasing flow atlantic_ocean bringing rain snow line inland heavy snow restricted storm tracks inland eastern north_carolina rain snow line ranges tropical cyclones located atlantic coast north_carolina stranger hurricanes hurricanes come caribbean_sea coast eastern america passing north_carolina october hurricane struck north_carolina time category hurricane saffir simpson hurricane scale caused significant damage strong winds weather station oak island reported maximum sustained winds miles hour winds miles hour measured hurricane caused deaths significant destruction person long beach claimed buildings existed town totally destroyed damaged described destructive storm history north_carolina report hurricane landfall north_carolina category hurricane caused great deal damage mainly winds maximum sustained wind speeds miles hour north_carolina coast saw feet feet sea level damage caused ranged billion north_carolina rain heavy rains accompany tropical cyclones remnants northeast gulf_of_mexico coastline inland western subtropical atlantic_ocean past years tropical cyclone strike coastal plain hurricane floyd september dropped inches rainfall north unlike main force destruction precipitation hurricane floyd reached north_carolina state received large amounts rain hurricane dennis weeks floyd saturated eastern north_carolina soil allowed heavy rains hurricane floyd turn floods people died floyd mountains hurricane september nearly wet bringing inches rainfall mount mitchell severe weather years greatest weather related economic loss incurred north_carolina severe weather spawned summer thunderstorms storms affect limited areas hail wind accounting average annual loss million north_carolina averages tornadoes year seeing tornadoes average month june july august average tornadoes increase average tornadoes month september september early november north_carolina typically expect smaller secondary severe weather season severe weather season technically march tornadoes touched north_carolina month year seasonal conditions winter winter north_carolina protected mountains western cold fronts canada gulf_of_mexico rarely past mountains cold winds peaks twice year force temperatures drop central north_carolina temperatures zero degrees extremely rare outside mountains recorded temperature north_carolina january mount mitchell winter temperatures coast atlantic_ocean gulf stream average ocean temperature january higher average ocean temperature maine july snow common mountains ski resorts use equipment sure snow land north_carolina relative humidity highest winter spring tornadoes likely early spring month experiences greatest rise temperatures spring warm days cool nights temperatures somewhat cooler mountains warmer particularly night near coast north_carolina humidity lowest spring summer north_carolina experiences high summer temperatures cool dry air north invade north_carolina brief periods time temperatures quickly remains colder high elevations average summer temperature mount mitchell lying morning temperatures average lower afternoon temperatures atlantic coast largest economic loss severe weather north_carolina severe thunderstorms summer usually hit small areas tropical cyclones impact state summer frequent summer fall fall rapidly changing season temperature wise especially october november tropical cyclones remain threat late season mountains frequently visited time year leaves changing color trees southern events winter early spring temperatures cooler average average precipitation central eastern parts state drier weather western usually brings warmer average temperatures average precipitation western state central coastal regions stay drier average changes water north_carolina shores risen inches reason heavily discussed temperatures north_carolina risen years average temperature chapel hill gone precipitation parts state increased percent


red rain red rain phenomenon blood rain event occurred july september heavy red coloured rain fell sporadically southern indian state clothes pink yellow green black rain reported coloured rain reported times recently june november december eastern north central provinces sri_lanka following light examination initially thought rains coloured fallout hypothetical burst study commissioned government india concluded rains coloured airborne spores locally prolific terrestrial green genus international team later identified exact species occurrence coloured rain began falling july districts southern state yellow green black rain reported occurrences red rain reported following days diminishing frequency late september according locals coloured rain preceded loud flash light followed trees grey burnt leaves leaves disappearance sudden formation wells reported time area typically fell small areas square kilometres size normal rain falling meters away red rain red typically lasted minutes rain water contained million red particles figures total red rain estimated fallen estimated kilograms red particles fallen description particles brownish red solid separated red rain consisted round red particles balance consisted debris particles suspension rain water responsible colour rain times strongly coloured red small percentage particles white light yellow bluish grey green particles typically spherical oval electron microscope images showed particles having depressed centre higher particles showed internal structures chemical composition water samples taken centre earth science studies india separated suspended particles water found neutral electrical showed absence dissolved sediment red particles plus debris collected analysed combination coupled mass atomic absorption wet chemical methods major elements found listed analysis showed significant amounts heavy metals including copper louis energy ray analysis red solid showed particles composed carbon oxygen trace amounts iron showed content carbon hydrogen nitrogen thomas division sciences university conducted carbon nitrogen analyses scanning electron microscope ray micro analysis ratio mass red particles collapsed dried suggested filled fluid particles analysed seven identified order concentration acid acid results consistent marine origin terrestrial plant uses government report initially centre earth science studies stated likely cause red rain exploding dispersed ton material days later following basic light evaluation retracted noticed particles resembled spores debris continued fall area unaffected wind sample handed tropical botanical garden research institute studies spores allowed grow medium suitable growth algae fungi dishes conical seven days cultures observed microscope november commissioned government india department science technology centre earth science studies tropical botanical garden research institute issued joint report concluded colour found presence large spores forming belonging genus field showed region plenty samples taken area growth medium showed presence species algae samples trees produced kind algae indicating spores seen probably came local sources site visited august found trees rocks lamp posts region covered estimated sufficient amounts generate quantity spores seen red orange green grow tree bark damp soil rocks including abundant trees area strong orange colour algae masks green caused presence large quantities orange single organism result partnership fungus report stated volcanic desert dust origin present colour dissolved gases report concluded heavy rains weeks preceding red caused widespread growth given rise large quantity spores atmosphere release spores simultaneously necessary enter reproductive phase time report noted possibility find satisfactory explanation apparently extraordinary dispersal apparent spores clouds scientists noted cause colour rainfall identified finding answers questions challenge attempting explain unusual spore dispersal researcher proposed local atmospheric models parts report supported sheffield university studied spores march said particles similar appearance spores fungus later saying confirmed presence dna reported similarity spores found evidence suggest rain contained dust sand fat blood november stuart university confirmed red rain cells contain dna february team scientists india austria supported identification spores speculate spores incident carried winds europe indian study published february established exact species green study molecular compare evolution dna sequences isolated colored rain samples austria results suggest recently introduced species austria researchers suggest introduction happened clouds phenomenon intercontinental species dispersal previously reported bacteria fungi time exactly lower clouds containing spores got remains unknown alternative history records instances unusual objects falling rain example animals small north_sea school fish mile shore shortly great united_kingdom coloured rain means rare explained airborne transport rain dust desert dry regions washed rain red rains frequently described southern europe increasing reports recent years case occurred england dust carried fell rain february year red rain attributed effect dust initially suspect observations detected cloud dust atmosphere near days preceding outbreak red rain laboratory tests involved teams ruled particles desert sand senior scientific assistant indian meteorological department proposed dust acidic material eruption volcano philippines explanation coloured rain burnt leaves volcano june july calculated eastern jet stream transported volcanic material hours jet stream unusual flows east west approximately latitude volcano hypothesis ruled particles acidic volcanic origin spores study published showing historic reports coloured rains author paper patrick stated events coloured rain linked activity strongly fall red rain occurred air burst exploding air times odd rainfall merely recorded year appearance hypothesis louis university posted article entitled explains red rain non peer reviewed web site report said apparent relationship loud sound possibly sonic boom flash light preceded red rain louis key piece evidence proposed containing red particles caused sound flash released red particles slowly fell ground omitted explanation debris continued fall area period months unaffected winds work indicated particles biological origin consistent report invoked hypothesis explain presence cells supposed fall material additionally unable detect dna particles months later posted paper web site entitled new biology red rain prove reported isolated red rain shows extraordinary characteristics like ability grow capacity wide range organic materials claims data verified reported peer reviewed publication louis published paper space science entitled red rain phenomenon possible extraterrestrial origin reiterated arguments red rain biological matter extraterrestrial source mention previous claims having induced cells grow team observed cells phase contrast concluded behaviour red cells shown remarkable correspondence extended red observed red dust clouds suggesting proving extraterrestrial origin conclusions red rain particles biological cells origin phenomenon case august louis presented case conference abstract paper states red cells found red rain india considered possible case extraterrestrial life form cells undergo rapid extreme high temperature diverse unconventional chemical molecular composition cells identified september presented similar paper conference california usa cosmic ancestry researcher louis extraterrestrial origin claim support hypothesis called cosmic ancestry hypothesis life product supernatural creation spontaneously generated existed universe cosmic ancestry speculates higher life forms including intelligent life descend ultimately pre existing life advanced descendants criticism louis publication finding web site presented papers conferences magazines number times controversial conclusion louis hypothesis suggesting organisms extraterrestrial origin reports popular media major news agencies like cnn repeating theory critique hypothesis authors louis explain debris continued fall area period months despite changes climatic conditions wind pattern spanning months samples red particles sent analysis collaborators sheffield university cardiff university louis incorrectly reported august non peer reviewed online physics archive able cells reproduce high pressure saturated steam hours conclusion cells reproduced dna temperatures higher known life form earth able claimed cells unable reproduce temperatures similar known organisms absence dna louis admits training biology reported use standard growth medium culture induce growth spores basing claim biological growth light absorption measurements following physical observation collaborators independently extracted confirmed presence dna spores absence dna key louis hypothesis cells extraterrestrial origins louis reported attempt stain spores dna use green generally stain spores primary function cell wall ensure survival periods environmental stress resistant gamma radiation temperature starvation chemical spore dna light microscope difficult highly resistant spore wall normal procedures spores dna tightly packed spores suitable growth medium temperature induce cell growth followed reproduction dna researchers noted recurring instances red including described charles darwin times recently coloured rainfall occurred summers found spores time supports notion red rain seasonal local environmental feature caused spores popular culture science fiction film red rain loosely based red rain story directed released india december