atomic energy act atomic energy act mcmahon act determined united_states control manage nuclear technology jointly developed world war allies united_kingdom canada significantly act ruled nuclear weapon development nuclear power management civilian military control established united_states atomic energy commission purpose sponsored senator brien mcmahon democrat connecticut chaired united_states senate special committee atomic energy hearings late early led fine tuning passing act senate passed act unanimously voice vote passed house_of_representatives signed law president harry august went effect january atomic energy commission assumed responsibility nuclear energy wartime manhattan_project act subsequently amended promote private development nuclear energy administration peace program restricting access nuclear information countries created rift united_states allies particularly britain canada participated manhattan_project resulted command control arrangements britain developing nuclear weapons act amended allow united_states share information close allies origins nuclear weapons developed world war wartime manhattan_project key scientists working project anticipated development wide ranging implications project director major general reluctant spend project funds activities required win war nonetheless arthur project chicago commissioned report post war nuclear energy military policy committee manhattan_project governing body commissioned similar study richard reports called comprehensive government supported nuclear energy program military scientific industrial aspects july bush james stewart produced proposal domestic legislation control nuclear energy submitted secretary war henry september interim committee body created president harry supervise regulate control nuclear energy time congress created permanent body june interim committee asked george harrison assistant member committee prepare legislation creation act johnson bill harrison brought experienced harvard law school educated war department lawyers brigadier general kenneth william job drafting legislation legislation based bush proposal organization proposed based existing structure manhattan_project draft bill created man commission consisting civilian military members granted commission broad powers acquire property operate facilities conduct research regulate forms nuclear energy administer security administrative regimes envisaged nuclear energy controlled experts minimum political interference commissioners appointed indefinite terms president power remove limited supported advisory boards military applications industrial uses research medicine membership restricted technical qualifications day day running organization hands administrator deputy bill reviewed interim committee july meeting revised line suggestions atomic bombings hiroshima nagasaki lifted veil secrecy surrounding manhattan_project able consult attorney general judge advocate general office scientific research development draft sent president august circulation comment affected government agencies state department objections basis involved trying hammer international agreement nuclear energy october bill introduced house_of_representatives congressman andrew kentucky chairman house military affairs committee senate senator johnson colorado ranking member senate military affairs committee bill known johnson bill sponsors immediately bill referred military affairs committee held hearings october bush testified committee senate military affairs committee bill held senator arthur storm criticism scientists particularly laboratory chicago particularly notable critics bill created powerful administrator deputy administrator specifically stated members armed forces feared dominate time commissioners fact bill emphasized administrator deputy fully informed aroused suspicion administrator army officer deputy navy officer secrecy provisions frightened scientists contained severe penalties years imprisonment fines security chicago sun headline accused war department attempting railroad legislation congress legislators found unusual uncomfortable situation nuclear weapons terrifying nature nuclear energy widely understood new policies guide legislators traditional party absent scientists developed new technology vocal suddenly victorious conclusion world war gave armed forces enormous prestige remained long standing american distrust standing armies tradition civilian control military mcmahon bill december senator brien mcmahon introduced alternative bill atomic energy drafted senate military affairs committee quickly known mcmahon bill initially liberal bill control scientific research broadly supported scientists mcmahon framed controversy question military versus civilian control atomic energy johnson bill provided civilian control mcmahon bill attempted address controversial aspects johnson bill number commissioners reduced serve time exemption provided serving military officers amendment specified terms years bill debated news broke february canada subsequent arrest people members congress debating bill feared atomic secrets systematically stolen soviet atomic spies mcmahon convened executive session federal bureau investigation director secretary state james called appear revealed british physicist passed information manhattan_project soviet agents conservative elements congress moved act section titled information control information new section contained novel doctrine later described born secret classified birth information concerning design development manufacture nuclear weapons restricted data regardless derived obtained considered classified specifically restriction free speech covering entire subject matter enforced wall secrecy set act meant atomic energy research development conducted supervision atomic energy commission representative helen douglas sponsored mcmahon bill house vigorously defended provisions section dismissed objections away secret bomb asserting america advantage nuclear weapons temporary bill lead scientific research important addition known amendment created military liaison committee advise commission defense matters section act created general advisory committee new joint committee atomic energy oversee new organization senate passed act unanimously voice vote june considerable political maneuvering required passed house july compromise bill agreed houses july signed compromise bill law atomic energy act august went effect midnight january newly created atomic energy commission assumed responsibility nuclear energy wartime manhattan_project amendment private production nuclear energy important omission atomic energy mention non governmental use nuclear energy military applications overshadowed time restrictions act related secrecy control materials ownership patents operation production facilities placed number legal way private nuclear power stations odds administration peace program resulted pressure federal officials develop civilian nuclear power industry help justify government considerable expenditures nuclear weapons program atomic energy commission presented set draft amendments joint committee atomic energy consideration debate resulted atomic energy act atomic energy act proved insufficient objective encouraging privately built run nuclear series accidents research including partial core private companies cautious reluctant involved nuclear energy protection liability led price anderson nuclear industries act capped private liability nuclear accidents providing adequate accident victims international relations implementing mcmahon act created substantial rift united_states britain new control restricted data prevented united_states allies receiving information despite fact british canadian governments contributing technology manpower manhattan_project agreements united_states post war sharing nuclear technology agreements quebec agreement case united_kingdom developed park agreement signed winston_churchill franklin roosevelt park agreement lost roosevelt papers death american copy document found american officials british mentioned quebec agreement executive agreement applied roosevelt administration senate seen document mcmahon told churchill seen agreement mcmahon act mcmahon act fueled resentment british scientists churchill led britain developing nuclear weapons lewis chairman atomic energy commission proposed january president able share nuclear information allies making substantial material contributions national defense security addition nuclear weapons britain hosted american strategic air command nuclear bombers congress modified atomic energy act june america britain began sharing nuclear research mutual defence agreement contained act caused significant controversy debates nato military command structure striking fleet atlantic united_states sixth fleet allowed placed directly american commanding officers supreme allied commander atlantic commander chief allied forces southern europe dominant legal interpretation mcmahon act nuclear striking forces controlled non commanders reason formation striking fleet atlantic independent entity instead operationally admiral serving commander chief eastern atlantic october november reason sixth fleet nato guise naval striking support force south placed american control allied forces mediterranean european commands agreed time case law court decision concerning state law attempting shut vermont yankee nuclear power plant affirmed act gives federal government exclusive authority safety nuclear power plants allowed vermont yankee continue operating voluntarily shut owner economic reasons


national popular vote interstate compact national popular vote interstate compact agreement states district_of_columbia award respective electoral votes presidential candidate wins overall popular vote states district_of_columbia compact designed ensure candidate wins popular votes elected president come effect guarantee outcome joined states district_of_columbia combined electoral votes total electoral college vote votes needed legal force mechanism proposed form interstate compact agreement effect participating states compact collectively represent absolute majority votes currently electoral college presidential election adoption number states participating states award electoral votes presidential associated candidate wins overall popular vote states district_of_columbia result winner national popular vote win presidency securing majority votes electoral college compact conditions met states award electoral votes current manner compact modify way participating states implement article section clause constitution requires state legislature define method appoint vote electoral college constitution mandate particular legislative scheme selecting instead state exclusive power choose states chosen methods allocation years regular changes nation early decades today states maine nebraska award electoral votes candidate votes statewide motivation compact current state laws presidential candidate lose popular vote nationally win presidency public opinion surveys suggest majority americans support idea popular vote president poll found favored replacing electoral college direct election including democrats republicans independent voters polls dating shown consistent majority public supporting direct vote reasons compact include electoral college allows candidate win presidency losing popular vote happened elections election outcome decided votes florida electoral college system effectively forces candidates focus small percentage pivotal swing states rest study reported candidates devoted quarters peak season campaign resources states states received little attention report stated states received candidate visits advertising means swing state issues receive attention issues important states largely ignored electoral college system tends decrease voter turnout states close races voters living outside swing states greater certainty candidate likely win state knowledge probable outcome decreases incentive vote report committee study american electorate found voter turnout competitive swing states grew previous presidential election compared increase states report center information research civic learning engagement circle found turnout eligible voters age closest states rest country gap debate project supported editorials newspapers including new_york_times chicago_sun-times los_angeles_times boston_globe minneapolis star arguing existing system voter turnout leaves emphasis states issues popular election voting power argued including honolulu star bulletin article governor delaware opinion section wall_street_journal called project urban power grab shift politics entirely urban issues high population states allow lower caliber candidates run collection readings pro con assembled league women voters major points debate detailed campaign focus current system campaign focus terms spending visits attention paid regional state issues largely limited swing states electoral outcomes competitive politically solid states ignored campaigns maps right illustrate spent advertising number visits state relative population major party candidates stretch presidential campaign supporters compact contend national popular vote encourage candidates campaign equal effort votes competitive non competitive states alike critics compact argue candidates incentive focus states smaller populations fewer urban areas address rural issues close elections election fraud opponents compact raised concerns election fraud article pete argues gore vote margin amounted votes country finding votes urban areas difficult thing national popular vote argued direct election fact reduce likelihood close election decrease feasibility fraud contend large pool million votes spread country close fraudulent outcome likely current system national winner determined extremely small vote margin statewide include provision nationwide event vote tally dispute state established rules governing recounts event close disputed statewide tally possible national vote close close result state proponents compact argue need likely national popular vote current electoral system populous states versus low population states debate electoral college favors large population states argue college favors low population states point states electoral votes relative populations state number greater allocated number congressional representatives populous state california results electoral smaller purely proportional allocation produce populous states hold voting power greater purely proportional allocation proposed compact equal weight voter ballot regardless state live believe states award electoral votes winner takes system potential populous states shift greater numbers electoral votes gives actual possible partisan advantage supporters opponents based position perceived partisan advantage compact governor republican argued compact urban power grab benefit democrats republican national committee wrote republicans need compact citing believes center right nature american electorate new_yorker maintains compact benefit party noting historically republicans democrats successful winning popular vote presidential elections elections democrats enjoyed advantage electoral vote system elections electoral system provided republicans advantage relevance state level governors vetoed legislation arnold california hawaii objected compact grounds require states electoral votes awarded candidate win majority state states enacted laws joining compact supporters compact counter national popular vote system state level irrelevant state votes cast contribute nationwide tally determines winner preferences individual voters paramount state level obsolete measure legality supporters believe compact legal article constitution establishes power states appoint manner fit state shall appoint manner legislature thereof direct number equal number senators representatives state entitled congress proponents position include law professors sponsored bill signed law reed compact original proponents assessment law school student david suggested potentially violate voting rights act department justice california entry compact section act concluding compact adverse impact california racial minority voters decision consistent argument rob treats voters equally end run constitutional amendment process responded term end run known constitutional legal meaning point extent follow meaning real usage end run perfectly play argues adoption term end run compact opponents plan legality drake assistant professor political science critic compact argued constitution requires prohibits congressional approval compact drake view constitutional amendment compact valid authors michael bradley examined compact concluded successfully enacted pass constitutional muster possible congress approve effect article section constitution states state shall consent congress enter agreement compact state foreign power supreme_court ruled virginia tennessee recent cases consent necessary compact federal supremacy vote equal argues compact federal power constitution explicitly gives power casting electoral votes states federal government argues nonetheless affect federal system way require congressional approval drake argues congress actually prohibited constitution granting approval supporters dispute conclusion state plan seek congressional approval compact approved sufficient number states history proposals abolish electoral college amendment proposals abolish electoral college constitutional amendment introduced congress decades efforts hampered fact thirds vote house senate required send amendment states ratification state required operative amendment amendment came closest success proposal congress introduced representative new_york house joint resolution replaced electoral college simpler system based national popular vote system pair candidates received highest number votes win presidency vice presidency respectively providing won national popular vote pair received popular vote runoff election held choice president vice president pairs persons received highest numbers votes election word pair defined persons shall joining names candidates offices president vice president proposed constitutional amendment passed house_of_representatives vote senate died vote counts amendment joint resolution amend constitution providing popular election president vice president new electoral system introduced representative gene green texas start congress green introduced commonly known vote counts amendment joint resolutions proposed congress amend constitution establish national popular vote president vice president sponsored congressman jackson illinois require majority vote president sponsored senator bill nelson florida leave method election act congress measures died committee academic plan northwestern university law professor robert bennett suggested plan academic publication implement national popular vote mechanism embrace state power appoint resist power coordinating states majority electoral college effectively implement popular vote law professors brothers reed defended plan proposed group states legislation form compact agree electoral votes national popular vote winner regardless balance votes state state laws triggered compact included states control majority electoral college votes national popular vote winner win electoral college academic plan uses constitutional features presidential clause article section clause gives state power determine manner selected compact clause article section clause creates compact brothers noted plan enacted passage laws states probably require congressional approval certain debate organization advocacy john computer science professor stanford lead author vote equal book makes detailed case plan interstate compact establish national popular vote previously exposure interstate work state lottery commissions scratch lottery ticket year barry formed national popular vote non profit group promote legislation group advisory committee including senators jake birch david representatives john anderson john tom campbell time group opening news conference february proposed interstate compact introduced illinois legislature backing national popular vote legislation introduced additional state session passed colorado senate houses california legislature vetoed governor arnold adoption legislation introduced states passed legislative chambers arkansas california colorado illinois new_jersey north_carolina maryland hawaii maryland state join compact governor martin signed law april new_jersey second state enter compact governor jon signed bill january illinois state join governor rod signed law april hawaii fourth legislature second veto governor washington fifth state join governor signed law april massachusetts sixth state join governor patrick signed law august district_of_columbia entered compact bill signed mayor adrian october chamber congress objected passage bill mandatory review period legislative days following date allowing district action proceed vermont joined compact governor peter signed law april california entered compact august governor jerry brown signature rhode_island entered compact july governor lincoln signature april new_york entered compact vote assembly governor andrew signature legislation introduced states states chamber adopted legislation arkansas connecticut delaware maine michigan nevada new_mexico north_carolina oklahoma oregon colorado legislation passed chambers different sessions bills seeking repeal compact maryland new_jersey washington failed prospects silver wrote swing states unlikely support compact reduces influence compact succeed adoption red states states adopted compact blue states ranking strongest vote shares barack_obama presidential election bills currently active bills table lists state bills join currently pending july column indicates number electoral votes state bills previous sessions table lists status past bills received floor vote chamber state legislature bills failed floor vote listed column indicates number electoral votes state time bill introduced number changed following census

National Popular Vote Interstate Compact


certificate division certificate division source jurisdiction circuit courts supreme_court united_states created judiciary act certification procedure available circuit court sat panel resident district judge circuit riding supreme_court justice chief justice john marshall wrote privilege dividing court certificate division procedure unique features unlike writ error jurisdiction certificate division procedure require federal question criminal cases certificate division source jurisdiction circuit courts save original civil cases ordinary error authorized certificate division remained important permitted appeals regard controversy appeals certificate division permitted supreme_court measure control precursor modern jurisdiction regards criminal cases supreme_court held judiciary act operated implied repeal authorization hear cases certificates division court retained authority hear civil cases certificates division abolition circuit courts judicial code different rarely certified question procedure adopted currently codified background circuit courts judiciary act circuit courts composed stationary district court judge supreme_court justices riding circuit following brief soon repealed midnight judges act abolished circuit riding judiciary act circuit courts composed stationary district judge supreme_court justice assigned circuit section judiciary act provided judges justices constitute practice sending single circuit rider explicitly authorized judiciary act common judicial act single judge district judge circuit rider early tie breaking methods united_states daniel chief justice john marshall recounted history tie breaking methods circuit courts judge justice disagreed majority prevailed supreme_court justice attend division arose district judge supreme_court justice practice required judiciary act hold case term division persisted different circuit riding justice opinion previous circuit rider broke tie cases judges sat divisions likely resolved continuing case term circuit riding justice barring change membership court prior way supreme_court resolve ties circuit courts alexander dallas supreme_court reporter reporter eclectic assortment cases state federal courts pennsylvania noted united_states court divided opinion doubt sentence pronounced defendant wish expressed judges attorney district case form admit obtaining ultimate decision supreme_court important principle discussion counsel prisoner dallas think authorized enter compromise nature involved criminal prosecution robert commissioner revenue department treasury conviction jury dallas moved judgment ground judiciary act circuit court try common law crimes federal statute relevant federal official despite divided opinion circuit court sentenced months imprisonment fined short consultation referred official report prior reduced sentence members supreme_court resident philadelphia statutory basis judiciary act permitted circuit courts questions law supreme_court judges divided question specifically provided question occur circuit court opinions judges shall opposed point disagreement shall happen shall term request party counsel stated direction judges certified seal court supreme_court session held shall said court finally decided decision supreme_court order premises shall circuit court entered record shall effect according nature said judgment order provided contained shall prevent cause proceeding opinion court farther proceedings prejudice merits provided imprisonment shall allowed punishment case inflicted judges said court divided opinion question touching said imprisonment punishment statute modified certificate division procedure require waiting final decision circuit court case interim opinion presiding judge prevail statute repealed modification criminal cases left place civil cases statute provided certification point disagreement shall happen justices took liberty question example united_states hudson question certified circuit court united_states common law jurisdiction cases libel question answered circuit courts united_states exercise common law jurisdiction criminal cases united_states court noted deemed scope question certified court murder crimes act defendant indicted history use certificates division began fall increasingly common circuit courts sit single judge judiciary act circuit judges act reduced circuit riding duties supreme_court justices reduced possibility certificates division chief justice marshall wrote privilege dividing court criminal cases united_states court held ordinary means appeal writ error utilized criminal cases circuit courts contributed importance certificate division criminal cases marshall court heard thirty criminal cases arising certificates division court chase court seventeen court thirty fuller court fourteen judiciary act contemplated certificates division issue criminal cases section provided imprisonment shall allowed punishment case inflicted judges said court divided opinion question touching said imprisonment punishment justice story opinions court cautioned frequent use certificates division criminal cases united_states court justice story wrote opportunity expressing anxiety great wishes counsel questions sort frequently brought court effect appeal criminal cases ordinary proceeding manifest public justice plain acts congress question criminal case eligible certificate division united_states daniel court held motion new trial authorized judiciary act subject certificate division division operate rejection motion similarly united_states bailey court held question evidence legally sufficient support offense charged certified united_states court limited jurisdiction hear criminal certificates division holding question indictment sustained general certified united_states hamilton court reaffirmed earlier holdings certificates issue motions indictment united_states united_states court held motion indictment certified motion called question jurisdiction circuit court cases tom court held amendments certification procedure went effect chase court era corpus civil proceeding questions arising cases certified supreme_court final judgment entered repeal amendments court held petitions circuit courts source certified questions supreme_court civil cases college famous use certificate division procedure civil case order certificate division procedure available college story closely involved outset litigation early lawyer daniel sought cooperation story carrying case marshall court pro certificate division contract clause question college famous appealed supreme_court case brought courts new_hampshire rights argument story regarded potentially stronger matter federal law appealed writ error fact new_hampshire supreme_court ruled college addition filing appeal new case filed federal circuit court wrote letter lawyer college doubt justice story send new cause convenient manner giving opinion probably argument district judge agree divide argument pro think judge story dispose cause story predicted certificate division heard supreme_court direct appeal decided certificates decided addition college case reports certificates division issued decided supreme_court indictment jefferson davis president confederacy treason william henry reports certificate division issued davis motion dismiss indictment grounds owed allegiance united_states state reportedly chief justice salmon chase sided davis district judge john sided government response supreme_court certificate reported davis bail eventually released abolition criminal cases congress created right ordinary appeal capital cases act act congress authorized criminal case brought circuit court united_states court certificate division opinion judiciary act act congress extended right crimes act explicitly repeal authorization issue certificates division provided prior inconsistent laws repealed passage act supreme_court initially continued decide questions presented criminal cases certificate division merits decisions united_states united_states united_states thomas mention act united_states rider united_states court held act implied repeal authorization certificates division criminal cases rider held opinion scheme act march contention certificates division opinion sections revised statutes review appeal writ error prescribed act review certificate limited act certificate circuit courts final judgment questions raised jurisdiction certificate circuit courts appeals questions law relation advice sought provided certificates governed general rules applied certificates division true favored escape conclusion tested scope obvious purpose terms act march covers subject matter consideration exclusive rule respect jurisdiction appeal writ error certificate criminal certificate division case declined reconsider question grounds rider decided narrower ground certificate division issue matter committed district judge discretion civil cases following rider certificates division continued issued civil cases united_states civil certificate division case possibility civil certificates division completely abolished judicial code abolished circuit courts forms certification modern form supreme_court certified question jurisdiction enacted amended provides cases courts appeals reviewed supreme_court following methods writ granted petition party civil criminal case rendition judgment decree certification time court appeals question law civil criminal case instructions desired certification supreme_court binding instructions require entire record sent decision entire matter controversy section represents far common route source nearly supreme_court current section represents common route certification supreme_court heard certified question cases modern certification rare example fifth circuit attempted question rare occurrence supreme_court declined consider case certified questions governed supreme_court rule analysis scholars argued certificates division pro judge justice merely agree disagree writing opposing opinions example circuit court decision leading united_states reporter records district judge concurred opinion matter occurrence important practice court judges divided opinion purpose obtaining decision superior court similarly united_states circuit court opinion notes point taken supreme_court certificate division opinion court white writes certificate division procedure constituted principal opportunity control common marshall court justices riding circuit vacation exchange letters cases circuit courts appropriate certificates division


title court supreme_court united_states chief justice roger issued important decisions status title united_states building opinions title marshall court court heard new_york title cases involving indigenous reach supreme_court nation georgia cases won indigenous parties supreme_court marsh brooks court declared action maintained indian right occupancy use open question remaining cases involved indigenous parties united_states brooks court refused allegations fraud commissioner brooks negotiating treaty following marshall court precedent court continued uphold validity state land grants issued title depending applicable law court held title asserted defense writ right actions claim title united_states brooks treaty negotiated commissioner brooks provided certain lands sons sold land col brooks february united_states attorney district louisiana filed suit col brooks alleging included lands ceded united_states trial judge refused allow federal government read documents evidence jury returned verdict brooks court affirmed holding brooks entire reservation hold claim united_states court refused consider argument concerning influences secure reservation designs commissioner having cases title cases involving indigenous reach court involved band indians reservation argued john district attorney county new_york private practice originated new_york state courts litigation title supreme_court indigenous nation georgia supreme_court case won indigenous according contemporary new_york_times article questions involved great magnitude affect title large portion state new_york court affirmed judgement cause action court held indian removal treaties enforced private parties self help courts importance trust relationship federal government tribes holding federal government retained sole discretion enforce enforce treaties tribes new_york new_york companion case individual party interest prevailed suit brought new_york statute authorizing state district attorneys remove non indian indian lands county courts time decided case reached supreme_court argued defendant court unsuccessfully challenged state statute indian commerce clause united_states_constitution federal act treaty buffalo creek federal government relied state law defendants relied federal law case essentially act litigation years disputes non indians decisions note title condition land grants court cited purchase title new_jersey sac fox half breed tract cases federal treaty sac fox tribes set aside acre half breed tract iowa mississippi_river des river treaty declared lands congress transferred fee title lands half breeds rendering land tract owned fee entirely non indians court heard land disputes involving iowa half breed tract supreme_court iowa territory second united_states district court district iowa marsh brooks marsh brooks writ right action involved holding federal land patent issued statute defendant asserting title invalid half breed tract treaty legislation iowa supreme_court refused let defendants raise defense justice john unanimous court reversed court provided following title indian title consisted right occupancy enjoyment long continued superior excluded claiming reserved lands patents subsequent ratification treaty occupants indian title action maintained indian right occupancy use open question result decision johnson written justice tennessee high_court supreme_court held defendant assert defense title defendant claim hold title insisted argument appear half breeds heirs assigns existence trial took place outstanding title relied set defendants answered necessary owners land land previously granted left pass second patent general rule land twice granted elder patent set defence sued younger grant actual owner land time trial court declared unconstitutional iowa territorial statute authorized bench trials owners half breed lands lying lee county notice publication marsh brooks marsh brooks involved parties court having filed federal court prevailed time court opinion authored justice affirmed court offered following interpretation status title spanish louisiana territory claim country generally land lies claim ceded united_states till raises question according spanish usage whilst power governed louisiana existing indian claim territory cultivation permit inhabit particular place designated permit indian country spain treaties indian tribes louisiana fixing limits claims far informed indians kept quiet peace spanish subjects kind treatment precautions allow lands claimed written permits governor permits usual doubted court apply concept adverse possession lands tract held improved authority spanish government claimed individual property indian right possession extend indians complained complain half breed owner indian descendant defending suit defended showing color claim half breeds shelter sought assumption permit known recognized additional article treaty protect title presumed indians knowledge claim furthermore opinion indian tribes half breeds claim held knowledge consent took held rightful possessions fact open notorious actual occupancy holding midst mason mason dispute non indians remarked half breed tract held title manner indian titles held scott scott comments title chief justice present opinion announcement home working scott opinion announced day scott opined following title situation blacks altogether unlike indian race situated territories white race claimed ultimate right dominion claim acknowledged subject right indians occupy long thought proper english colonial governments claimed exercised dominion tribe nation occupied claimed right possession territory tribe nation justice john scott noted congress express power regulate commerce indian tribes prohibit intercourse indians title defeated country ceded indians united_states early state land grants appeal judgment defendant action united_states circuit court north_carolina undisputed title arose north_carolina state land grant lands boundaries federal treaties sole defense state grant void federal treaties supreme_court argued power united_states nation treaty vary degree treaty line affect private rights rights north_carolina court responded matter fact treaty merely confirmed treaty boundaries interpreted parties treaty court held matter federal law state grants void merely granted title extinguished indian title right occupancy state north_carolina power grant fee lands subject right north_carolina surveying statute interpreted north_carolina courts grants invalid court affirmed chief justice concurred judgment disagreed political branches interpreted treaty relevant boundary justice concurred admit contracting parties power settle position argued saw proper argued land controversy granted line run treaty tend titles reference line concurred bill exceptions sets forth single fact instructions court tested evidence given trial right wrong impossible instructions proper justice wayne opinion clark clark involved virginia land grant given title lands extinguished court opined clark entry lands reserved location act void act open land office purpose extend lands court quoted length long_island treaty noted treaty fully explains country land law locations prohibited reasons add force court determined opinion virginia court appeals conclusive point land dispute country exception land law clark title good lands commonwealth subject appropriation treasury claimed indians lands protected location statute finally decision united state circuit court kentucky affirmed basis kentucky statute limitations spanish florida louisiana united_states united_states sued federal government florida state courts basing claim grant creek indians ratified spanish rule florida claim allowed appealed justice wayne noted case involved united_states decision marshall court wayne opined case require discussion nature extent property held florida indians lands spain decision given court original case court noted enter question far appropriation land fortress order government extinguished indian title successfully positions taken court respect rights european monarchs indian lands north_america johnson justice wayne unanimous court interpreted grant fox tribe mere right lead grant land confirmed spanish authorities required spanish law included fox village tribe unlikely porter chief justice held porter court jurisdiction review state court actions claiming money damages fraudulent land sales suit brought uphold title right claimed treaty law congress states passed subject ask reservations indian title claims valid title contrary charges claims secured states think probable obtained indians case removed decision state court right review claimed right treaty act congress case title right privilege claimed bill course decision state court exercise jurisdiction authorized examine questions fraud failure consideration breach contract justice nelson wrote following doubt persons behalf reservations indian treaty improvements entitled section including improvements preference right previously acquired government land embraced section previous grant congress paramount according right occupancy government conceded indian tribes jurisdiction carved territory ceded remained indian parted holds strictly speaking treaty original title confirmed government act agreeing reservation wilson wilson justice court held treaty created individual individual good title


case case legal struggle end life care united_states involving marie woman persistent state husband legal guardian argued wanted prolonged artificial life support prospect recovery elected remove feeding tube parents argued favor continuing artificial nutrition challenged medical diagnosis highly publicized prolonged series legal challenges presented parents ultimately involved state federal politicians level president george bush caused seven year delay feeding tube ultimately removed suffered cardiac arrest florida home february suffered massive brain damage lack oxygen brain left half months improvement diagnosis changed persistent state years doctors attempted speech physical therapy experimental therapy hoping return state awareness success husband michael petitioned sixth circuit court florida remove feeding tube florida law opposed parents robert mary argued conscious court determined wished continue life measures april feeding tube removed time days later february county judge ordered removal feeding tube appeals federal government intervention followed included president george bush returning washington sign legislation designed alive appeals federal court system upheld original decision remove feeding tube staff park facility disconnected feeding tube march died march case involved appeals numerous motions petitions hearings florida courts suits federal district court extensive political intervention levels florida state legislature governor bush congress president george bush supreme_court united_states case spurred highly visible activism pro life movement right die movement disability rights groups death husband family written books sides case involved activism larger issues background early life born marie december lower township montgomery county pennsylvania suburb philadelphia overweight childhood teenager stood tall weighed pounds attended jesuit high school lost pounds time attended college attended county community college met michael began dating married november moved florida following parents michael worked restaurant manager took job insurance company initial medical crisis early morning february collapsed hallway florida apartment firefighters arriving response husband michael found face unconscious breathing pulse attempted transported hospital initial medical assessments medical chart contained note apparently trying weight drinking time day drinking glasses tea admission hospital noted suffering low potassium levels potassium level low normal range adults calcium levels normal caused drinking excessive consequence heart rhythm including sudden death syndrome self induced act patients cause low potassium levels eventually switched fed feeding tube feeding tube board certified florida previously treated cared initial admission victor family physician independently diagnosis persistent state approximately year sudden cardiac arrest relationship husband parents michael parents enjoyed relationship allowing michael live rent free months rehabilitation efforts november michael took university california san_francisco experimental nerve treatment took months unsuccessful returned florida january admitted rehabilitation center florida july transferred skilled care facility received testing regular speech therapy michael requested order contracted tract infection court appointed guardian jay later wrote report stating michael decision reasoned belief longer hope recovery legal cases michael filed suit basis failed cause gone doctor stopped doctor failed medical history account revealed eating disorder case friends testified knew november michael won case awarded million jury later reduced million found partly fault condition attorneys fees expenses michael received trust fund medical care according michael early demanded share money petition remove feeding tube june court appointed michael legal guardian appointment disputed time michael filed petition remove feeding tube parents opposed richard appointed court second guardian gal december reported opinion ward condition substantially shared physicians recently involved treatment concluded vincent diagnosis legally persistent state defined florida statutes title chapter includes absence voluntary action inability communicate interact found possibility improvement michael decisions influenced potential inherit remained estate long remained married lack living questions michael credibility recommended denying petition remove feeding tube reported issue conflict interest applied michael divorced wanted inherited remainder estate death end life wishes given lack living trial held county judge george week january determine wishes life procedures michael represented attorney george won landmark right die case florida supreme_court trial included testimony eighteen witnesses medical condition end life wishes michael claimed wife want kept machine chance recovery according abstract appeal trial order parents claimed devout roman catholic wish violate church teachings refusing nutrition judge issued order granting petition authorization artificial life support february decision court found persistent state reliable oral wanted feeding tube removed decision upheld florida second district court appeal 2nd came known court later oral feeding second challenge march filed motion permit assisted feeding considered life procedure florida law clinical records indicated responsive tests required feeding tube judge ruled capable sufficient nutrition sustain life denied request medical report definitive reaffirmed challenged michael suggested assets account transferring park florida clear terminal guidelines time legally married michael relationship fathered child said chose divorce wife relinquish wanted ensure final wishes kept alive carried court denied motion remove guardian allowing evidence sufficient instances relevant set april date tube removed april filed motion relief judgment citing new evidence wishes judge denied motion rule florida rules civil procedure second district court appeal upheld decision issue order opportunity file new motion april feeding tube removed time filed civil suit michael alleging assigned court judge frank issued injunction removal feeding tube settled feeding tube april appeal michael second district court appeal reversed judge order time frame michael filed motion enforce mandate court feeding tube removed second district court appeal denied motion decisions published single order florida second district court appeal came known court later iii diagnosis challenge august florida second district court appeal judge heard motion claiming new medical treatment restore sufficient ability able decide continue life measures court heard motions remove guardian michael require judge judge denied motions appealed second district court appeals october court appeal affirmed motions remove court appeals acknowledged opinion trial court question wishes trial court required hearing held court specified board certified testify allowed choose doctors present findings hearing michael introduce experts finally trial court appoint new independent physician examine evaluate condition decisions published single order florida second district court appeal came known court iii later october second district court appeal hearing held judge court determine new therapy treatments help restore function preparation trial new scan cat scan performed showed severe cerebral showed brain activity physicians chosen william william peter doctors examined medical records brain videos testified persistent state testified conscious state court ordered medical exam hours video taped filed county courthouse tape included mother william entire tape viewed judge wrote clearly consistently respond mother hours video supporters produced clips showing reactions emotions totaling minutes released clips public websites judge ruled hope significant improvement trial court order particularly critical testimony claimed positive results similar cases use therapy success medical literature ruling later affirmed florida second district court appeal stated court closely examined evidence record carefully observed video tapes entirety court concluded called review court decision decision second district court appeals came known later start began create publicity lobbying case daughter alive selected pro life activist terry spokesman continued pursue available legal options september petitioned court removal feeding tube provide weeks therapy accompanying petition members family alexander hearing counsel read record additional speech professionals nurses september judge george denied petition wrote petition attempt entire case disguised attempt exhibits relied clearly demonstrate true nurse statements wrote incredible details amounts month cover april july include staff palm garden center guardian person guardian medical professionals police believe impossible believe january hearing contacted law government delays october feeding tube removed week final appeal exhausted state frank florida legislature hastily passed law giving governor bush authority intervene case governor bush immediately ordered feeding tube governor bush sent florida department law enforcement remove taken plant rehabilitation hospital feeding tube returned legislation required appointment guardian gal jay represent best wishes best interests report governor bush report change michael role legal guardian legally michael opposed governor intervention case represented american civil liberties union time robert mary parents attempted intervene participate law case denied judge douglas circuit judge florida sixth circuit circuit judge george appealed february florida second district court appeal second district court appeals reversed ruling allowing participate march denied right intervene second time represented american center law justice appealed right participate law case court scheduling oral argument date june attorney pat anderson concurrently challenging michael right guardian june petition writ quo found law unconstitutional struck bush appealed order second district court appeals court issued order case entry final judgment order cause proceeding certified supreme_court requiring immediate resolution second district court appeals sending directly florida supreme_court invoked pass jurisdiction florida supreme_court overturned law unconstitutional final feeding tube removal federal involvement early motions february filed motion relief judgment pending medical wanted tested given therapy called motion accompanied thirty doctors speech language urging new tests undertaken fields anderson family attorney held hope able despite past findings incapable judge formally denied motion ordered removal nutrition ward set time date removal feeding tube friday march february filed motion asking permission attempt provide food water natural means second motion asked permission attempt feed mouth judge denied second motion march saying clear second motion parcel previous motion medical motions motion appears alternative pleading previous motion asking experimental procedure following day denied motion citing doctor michael cautioned experimental procedure conducted academic setting undergone tests failed performed patients noted doctor submitted based understanding condition news reports video clips seen obviously aware medical exams undertaken trial following order march remove feeding tube republicans united_states congress michael testify congressional hearing told congressional attorneys reason congressional committee intervene stated minute action congress years court palm sunday compromise president bush congressional republicans anticipated adverse ruling delivered worked daily basis find alternative means legal process utilizing authority united_states congress march senate unanimous consent passed version relief bill vote taken voice vote official tally voting favor opposed soon senate approval house_of_representatives passed identical version bill came called palm sunday compromise transferred jurisdiction case federal courts bill passed house march president george bush flew washington vacation texas order sign bill law bill proposed republican senators support democratic senator tom disability rights concerns case worked disability rights groups years authored americans disabilities act american disability rights groups traditionally tend ally democrats political left case joined pro life organizations opposing removal feeding tube supporting palm sunday compromise according golden support necessary passage bill voice opposition democrats delayed state courts federal petitions appeals denied supreme_court declined grant effectively ending judicial options time called memo surfaced causing political memo written brian legal counsel florida republican senator suggested case offered great political issue appeal party base core supporters senator bill nelson democrat florida refused sponsor bill nelson easily won election senator physician bill opposed removal feeding tube speech delivered senate floor challenged diagnosis physicians persistent state question based review video footage spent hour looking night office criticized medical northwestern university making diagnosis personally examining patient questioning diagnosis death autopsy showed signs long term damage brain consistent defended actions autopsy final local motions death autopsy burial march judge denied petition intervention department children families signed order forbidding department taking possession marie removing directed singular sheriff state florida enforce order order appealed second district court appeals following day resulted automatic stay state law stay effect florida department law enforcement personnel prepared custody transfer local hospital feeding tube aware stay ordered lifted parties stood governor bush decided obey court order despite enormous pressure political right bush florida legislature ignored order attempting remove confrontation park police department agents ensued official said local police discussed officers hold national_guard died park march concern experience significant symptoms removal feeding tube studies shown patients feeding tubes removed case usually peaceful death death body taken office district medical counties based florida autopsy occurred april revealed extensive brain damage manner death certified autopsy led chief medical jon addition consultation stephen nelson arranged specialized cardiac genetic examinations official autopsy report released june addition studying remains court medical records interviewed family members doctors relevant parties examination nervous system stephen nelson revealed extensive injury brain weighed half weight expected female age height weight effect caused loss massive number microscopic examination revealed extensive damage nearly brain regions including cerebral basal changes brain precisely type seen patients enter following cardiac arrest cerebral large comprise cells critical functioning completely lost pattern damage injury tending typical marked damage important relay circuits deep brain common finding cases damage words therapy treatment massive loss cardiac studied heart found vessels healthy possibility initial collapse result localized area healed opening possibility found proof eating disorder possibility domestic violence cause initial collapse report states trauma noted numerous physical exams performed day days months initial collapse hour initial hospital admission examination spine negative specifically external signs including deep neck injury facial blunt trauma observed recorded initial hospital admission autopsy examination neck structures years initial collapse detect signs remote trauma delay exam unlikely neck findings cause manner death wrote suffered severe brain injury cause determined reasonable medical certainty manner death certified surprised medical said brain damaged said bobby brother interview hours autopsy report released fact medical ruled ruled heart attack doubt adds questions burial body cremated following autopsy parents offered memorial mass holy jesus catholic_church april father frank founder priests life delivered main audio format parents public complaint informed ashes daughter buried michael court order provide information june cremated remains buried attorney stated family notified memorial service family started getting calls reporters ashes interred abbey memorial park florida pictured reads ethical legal issues right die case compared karen ann nancy highly influential right die cases entered persistent state family allowed remove ruling new_jersey supreme_court died pneumonia diagnosed legal case reached supreme_court ruled clear convincing evidence wishes die circumstances needed family evidence later produced died removed life support case differed cases involving settled law breaking new legal ground right die issue case instead involved dispute family members wishes situation according medical matthew movement challenge decisions threatened end life law developed quarter 20th century principally cases karen ann nancy outcome case determined florida case case george attorney michael case represented relative successfully argued florida supreme_court feeding tube removed elderly expressed living wish kept alive artificial means including receiving food water tube time common remove people law florida wasn clear removing feeding tubes landmark ruling florida supreme_court decided constitutional right choose refuse medical treatment right extends relevant decisions concerning health disability rights years legal proceedings disability rights groups activists closely monitored involved case march disability rights groups led dead filed brief opposed removal feeding tube case advocate federal review cases parties decide withdraw life support patients unable consent argued persistent state frequently reasons withdrawal life support patient family member conflicts interest palm sunday compromise granted federal review sought limited case public opinion activism seven year case generated great deal public attention activism extensive media coverage sides courted public opinion created foundation garner support weeks feeding tube removed activists kept clock outside protests described loud non violent dozens arrests crossing police line water polls conducted shortly feeding tube removed final time showed large majority americans believed michael authority decisions behalf wife united_states congress bounds intervention case polls favor family position questions raised wording polls developments death death march family michael clashed number times worked promote causes related case april families disagreed burial wanted body buried florida michael said time body ashes buried home state pennsylvania june ashes buried florida instead words kept promise included marker referring promise follow said wish kept alive artificially statement angered december michael created political action committee formed raise money support right die candidates oppose candidates voted government involvement case paid fine federal election commission failing file complete timely records shut later year continued operation foundation new goal helping individuals situations similar april michael charged held rights family foundation order money florida television station looked foundation tax records found paid raised salaries father robert sister brother robert attorney said foundation work effectively high percentage salaries small money foundation raises said right use public figure foundation fined shortly death failing file timely september renamed organization life hope network michael released books telling sides story called truth titled life matters legacy lesson


honest services fraud honest services fraud crime defined word sentence federal mail wire fraud statute added united_states congress states purposes chapter term scheme includes scheme right honest services statute applied federal prosecutors cases public corruption cases private individuals breached duty courts divided question state law violation necessary honest services fraud occurred courts taken differing approaches determining private individual committed honest services fraud test based reasonably economic harm test based statute target criticism given narrow construction supreme_court united_states case united_states order avoid finding statute vague court interpreted statute cover fraudulent schemes honest services bribes supplied party history case law particularly 1970s 1980s prior courts interpreted mail fraud wire fraud statutes schemes victims money property schemes victims rights honest services public official supreme_court united_states ruled united_states mail fraud wire fraud statutes strictly schemes victims property including money congress enacted new law specifically schemes victims right honest services meaning honest services public corruption honest services fraud generally easily proven public sphere private honest services fraud public officials include conduct honest services fraud private individuals includes conduct federal courts generally recognized main areas public sector honest service fraud direct indirect public official paid way particular decision action failure disclose conflict interest resulting personal gain necessity lack thereof state law violations united_states court appeals fifth circuit decided united_states order state official committed honest services fraud violated state statute defining services owed employer state find suggest congress attempting garner federal government right impose states federal vision appropriate services establish words ethical regime state employees taking power tax separation powers structure natural reading statute federal prosecutor prove conduct state official breached duty provision services owed official employer state law stated directly official act fail act contrary requirements job state law means official required state law alleging services honestly charge violation mail fraud statute fourth ninth eleventh circuit courts held federal statute limit meaning honest services violations state law ninth circuit decided united_states laws governing official conduct differ state state conditioning mail fraud convictions state law means conduct state violate mail fraud statute identical conduct neighboring state congress given indication intended official conduct federal law depend geography defendant case bruce currently appealing decision united_states supreme_court granted intent personal benefit united_states court appeals circuit set key limit honest services fraud united_states ruling mere workplace violation constitute fraud evidence employer property way richard employed massachusetts internal revenue service violated rules carrying unauthorized searches database files outside course official duties convicted wire fraud property public honest services computer fraud court reversed honest services fraud conviction basis actions workplace violation dismissal influenced public capacity funds receive found intended receive benefit conclusive consideration government simply prove deprived intended public employer right honest services clearly committed wrongdoing searching confidential information suggestion failed carry official tasks adequately intended convictions reversed meaning honest services private relationships law applied corrupt public officials federal courts upheld honest services fraud convictions private individuals breached duty employer generally federal circuit courts adhered approaches dealing honest services fraud cases reasonably economic harm test requires defendant intentionally breached duty reasonably actions cause economic harm victim test requires defendant possessed fraudulent intent natural tendency influence capable influencing victim change behavior reasonably economic harm test united_states court appeals sixth circuit held united_states frost private individuals convicted honest services fraud professors university tennessee space institute walter frost robert eugene turner president vice president respectively associates private atmospheric science research firm frost turner gave reports students doctoral candidate employed department army master degree candidate employed nasa allowing overwhelming majority reports respective allowed doctoral candidate employed nasa submit written employees aim secure federal contracts agencies employing students students received degrees facilitated frost turner addition charges frost turner convicted counts mail fraud university tennessee honest services employees appeal frost turner argued apply public servants court disagreed ruling private individuals frost turner commit mail fraud duty person entity duty owed right honest services individual united_states court appeals circuit upheld wire fraud conviction sun diamond california hired public relations firm honest services agents james lake order favor united_states secretary agriculture mike corporation vice president corporate affairs richard douglas acted scheme manner potentially caused economic harm public relations firm reputation engaging lake illegal activity lake illegally contributions congressional candidate brother sun diamond argued actions criminal intent economic harm firm court ruled intent economic harm necessary committed wire fraud pre decision light statute private sector context poses special risks material act employee employer worker honest services act converted federal crime mere use interstate phone system aware risk federal criminal liability held breach duty works criminal fraud failure disclose knowledge employee poses independent business risk employer sun diamond appears confuse requirement intent requirement intent cause economic harm united_states court appeals eleventh circuit adopted similar interpretation united_states michael financial advisor hired county georgia craft professional recommendation best county hire accepted payment richard exchange manipulating report influence county hiring investment banking firm job indicted conspiracy wire fraud including charges honest services statute district court dismissed honest services charges lack evidence trial began government appealed court agreed government sufficient evidence alleged indictment defendants charged honest services fraud allegations showed breach duty intent manner reasonably economic harm county consequence scheme united_states court appeals fourth circuit recognized different tests circuit courts generally determine honest services fraud committed united_states concluded reasonably economic harm test superior based employee intent employer response applied test case hand defendant case michael convicted united_states district court district south_carolina fourteen counts mail fraud counts money brother james employee products corporation charged finding independent broker research recycled manufacture plastic bags brothers instead created charles stewart enterprises incorporated state iowa legitimate independent firm supplying recycled lowest possible price purchased recycled plastic vendors marking price sold eventually yielded million profits brothers profits entity order conceal involvement tax returns brothers eventually indicted mail fraud money james pleaded guilty testified brother michael appealed arguing conviction honest services fraud honest services brother employee cause harm intend cause economic harm victim conviction court rejected argument reasonably harm test met time fraud scheme employee scheme potentially detrimental employer economic furthermore concept economic risk idea risk future opportunities savings profit focus employer encompasses long term short term health business risk irrelevant point employee right employer financial health employer long term prospects self dealing long employee reasonably risk exposing employer requirements met united_states court appeals ninth circuit treated issue private defendants prosecuted settled law citing numerous circuits affirmed practice case united_states williams defendant john anthony williams oregon insurance salesman sold elderly named williams deposited resulting funds joint bank account opened names williams proceeded massive cash account money personal account spending wired money personal bank accounts belize louisiana williams convicted counts wire fraud counts mail fraud counts money count foreign transportation stolen money fraud charges stemmed schemes money williams honest services financial advisor appeal williams argued apply private commerce court disagreed citing previous case law ruled relationship statute applied test united_states court appeals fifth circuit laid test decision united_states gray kevin gray thomas members men basketball coaching staff university texas coaches helped players recruited year colleges obtain credits required eligibility possibly scholarships providing students written course work answers correspondence exams sent schools students work convicted conspiracy mail fraud wire fraud fraud charges stemmed schemes university property form scholarships coaches honest services employees court upheld convictions honest services fraud convictions basis coaches material breach duty constitute illegal fraud employer employee faithful honest services violation employee duty disclose material information involved exists employee reason believe information lead reasonable employer change business conduct information withheld coaches cheating scheme material quality student expected failure disclose scheme material able recruit qualified eligible students play basketball instead scheme suspected forced institute costly investigation players suspicion withheld competition reasonable believe changed business conduct known cheating scheme united_states court appeals tenth circuit applied test decision united_states robert bond oklahoma convicted counts wire fraud counts money count interstate transportation stolen property wire fraud counts convicted honest services fraud firm company served managing healthcare system non profit corporation operating hospitals nursing homes issued million tax exempt bonds global capital bid provide forward supply contract subsequently secret payment firm course wire supposedly deprived honest services court reversed conviction deciding government provide sufficient evidence actually honest services applying test pay additional fee forward supply contract information resulted actual potential harm evidence independent alleged scheme suggests way sought harm know record changed conduct disclosure united_states court appeals eighth circuit diverged circuit sun diamond ruling decision united_states president harvest foods grocery store chain eastern arkansas company contracted food broker consultant john negotiate deals suppliers broker consultant portion money harvest foods supplier corporation capitol city marketing convicted money mail fraud appeal contended insufficient evidence convict government failed intent harvest foods honest services president court upheld conviction stating sufficient evidence actions breach duty harvest foods disclose material interest contracts broker court went required found intent economically harm correctly assert dealing business transactions private sector mere breach employee duty sufficient client corporation honest services purposes guilty mail fraud defendants cause intend cause actual harm injury business contexts means financial economic harm proof intent harm non disclosure corporate officer material information duty disclose united_states court appeals second circuit like fourth circuit noted existence tests unlike fourth circuit opted use test describing arising fundamental principles law fraud alternative designed simply limit scope law applied test case hand united_states defendants personal injury lawyers thomas state new_york convicted counts mail fraud counts wire fraud count conspiracy fraud charges scheme illegal payments insurance claims intent inducing settlement certain claims payments cases acceptance payments insurance companies policies insurance companies honest services employees basis successful fraud prosecution court affirmed conviction determining necessary elements crime honest services fraud occurred present including material court defined crime phrase scheme ing right honest services private sector context means scheme use wires enable officer employee private entity person relationship gives rise duty loyalty comparable owed employees employers act interests employer person duty loyalty owed secretly act defendant interests instead accompanied material omission information disclosed employer person usage criticism statute grants jurisdiction federal government prosecute local state federal officials frequently fight public corruption easier prove term honest services broad open jury interpretation according legal experts influenced corrupt organizations act frequently use violations honest services statute mail wire fraud acts wire execution honest services fraud form pattern activity honest services fraud involve public corruption generally involve corporate crime line crimes cases considered unclear law reportedly favorite federal prosecutors language statute vague applied corrupt political officials criminal activities fall specific category similar reasons defense attorneys dislike law viewing poorly defined law prosecutors convert kind behavior federal crime prosecutors prove elements mail fraud wire fraud case scheme honest services supreme_court justice criticized statute stating clause poorly defined basis mayor prestige office table restaurant reservation perfect villain john_mccain jack investigative journalist argued honest services fraud vague unconstitutional prosecutors abused tool increase conviction rates bennett professor pace university law school similarly contended law subject abuse abused case alabama governor don cited example possible misconduct abuse honest services law interest groups oppose usage honest services law including conservative united_states chamber commerce washington legal foundation liberal national association criminal defense lawyers notable proponent law citizens responsibility ethics washington recent notable notable figures charged convicted honest services fraud washington jack pleaded guilty honest services fraud addition conspiracy tax convicted charges honest services fraud addition charges conspiracy tax ceo convicted honest services fraud addition fraud illinois governor george ryan convicted honest services fraud addition tax fraud justice making false statements federal agents alabama governor don convicted honest services fraud addition conspiracy justice duke congressman california convicted corruption charges including honest services fraud bob congressman ohio convicted corruption charges including honest services fraud newspaper magnate black convicted honest services fraud addition justice alaska state legislator bruce convicted honest services fraud addition new_york senate majority leader joseph convicted counts honest services fraud mary palm beach county commissioner currently serving federal prison sentence honest services fraud new_jersey political boss joe convicted conspiracy counts mail fraud illinois governor rod indicted allegedly commit honest services fraud allegedly bribes alabama state legislator sue convicted counts mail fraud counts fraud involving program receiving federal funds judges mark michael originally pleaded guilty honest services fraud conspiracy kids cash scandal pleas later withdrawn virginia governor bob wife convicted multiple counts including public honest services violations september supreme_court cases term appeals statute united_states supreme_court challenging convicted honest services fraud united_states alaska state legislator bruce deals public official charged honest services fraud violating duty state law black united_states newspaper magnate black deals proof defendant knew actions cause economic harm company united_states ceo deals honest services statute requires proof personal gain statute vague unfair december associated_press reported justices court broad agreement law vague crime mistakes minor mere ethical violations liberal conservative justices criticized law richard united_states attorney general remarked court issue fairly sweeping violence proper law enforcement june supreme_court ruled unanimously cases black law honest services fraud vague constitute crime bribe involved


laws henry legal treatise written records legal customs medieval england reign king henry england official document written apparently associated royal administration lists explains laws includes explanations conduct legal proceedings title implies laws issued king henry lists laws issued earlier monarchs force henry reign law henry included coronation charter issued start reign covers diverse range subjects including ecclesiastical cases treason murder theft feuds assessment amounts judicial fines work survives manuscripts range date belonging different manuscript traditions surviving manuscripts known scholars 17th 18th centuries survived present day separate copies existed complete work printed earlier partial edition appeared legal treatise english history credited having greatest effect views english law reign king henry_ii work kind background similar works laws henry merely compilation laws integrated legal treatise history england written latin language records legal customs medieval england small group similar writings devoted legal procedures written royal administrators works type produced time parts possible written time period longest legal tracts time effort comprehensive authorship title written unknown norman likely author legal work historians including richardson argue works different authors probably project including works planned work volumes cover laws writer time previous laws anglo saxon monarchs handle legal cases works author included charter liberties king henry coronation charter promising follow administrative legal policies predecessor king william material evidence author works member household chancellor kings william william archbishop york henry work likely composed winchester usually work known laws henry gained inscription occurs extant manuscripts sixth manuscript adds end inscription historian called work fuller title generally help differentiate henry referred contents work law code issued king henry compilation extant legislation current reign comprehensive listing laws force early 11th century begins henry charter liberties issued coronation actual legal document reproduced discussions matters follow long treatment ecclesiastical issues rest treatise concerned non ecclesiastical subjects including cases injury theft murder feuds procedural topics included court formed notices need judicial procedures handled concerns strong organizational framework entirety leads author repeat subjects treating subjects adequately law code recognised difference laws old kingdom lands kingdom set list legal proceedings tried king officials cases known royal pleas pleas crown included crimes treason murder rape robbery arson types theft treasure salvage matters interest crown royal cases involved false judgement violent acts king household servants king reserved right hear appeals courts conducted local authorities nobles tract set attend court ruling local bishop earl sheriff local barons attend work assumes royal legal system address issues later dealt ecclesiastical courts clergy court summoned answer charges court sets courts established jurisdiction takes granted anglo saxon laws england effect addresses administration forest law henry new concern law covering roadways highways area covered work royal finance setting rate rate hide covers judicial fines setting forth fine marks penalty committing murder author work criticised royal justices calling sets elaborate procedures conduct murder cases devoted effort theory law attempted legal procedures practices contains number amend witness needed occur accused claims occur manuscripts work comes present day manuscript traditions contains manuscripts surviving manuscripts traditions manuscript copies london group group composed manuscript probably dates copy written currently red book held public record office held british library consists manuscript extant manuscripts belong london tradition lost manuscripts known belonged grouping surviving manuscripts known lost manuscripts assigned names manuscript currently british library cotton library british museum british library given catalogue cotton illuminated manuscript dates currently corpus college cambridge library parker library 16th century bequeathed corpus parker death manuscript dates corpus college occupies manuscript originally college oxford library library dates college extant manuscript currently john library manchester written known lost manuscripts included known owned london david work anglo henry correct manuscripts manuscript belonged john 17th century unclear created roger edition known lost manuscript manuscript edition owned possibly manuscripts existed little known designated manuscripts subsequently designated appears belonged london grouping separate manuscript description usage unclear possibility likely possible manuscript referred found searches library canterbury medieval manuscripts early modern work 16th century cambridge_university library manuscript second trinity college cambridge 17th century cambridge british library dating 17th century publishing history complete printed edition appendix new edition prepared actual text edited prior scholars william intended produce printed editions unable follow project portion earlier appeared edward laws england edition appeared publication anglo built work william david reprinted text sur les anglo reproduction text appeared legs considered scholarly discussion appeared george reproduce entire text provide couple extracts discussion sources work description work record commission published edition text edited richard price benjamin major production produced volumes der legal reproduced modern translation original latin text pages facing translation published press edited includes updated commentary manuscript information legacy influence work important historical source study middle ages edition published 12th century legal die der recently studied historian historian patrick says effect views english law henry_ii


trial thomas trial thomas libel held december response publication second rights man government william worried possibility french revolution spread england begun suppressing works espoused radical work advocated right people overthrow government duly targeted writ arrest issued fled france september having elected member national convention france instead represented thomas noted lawyer severely criticised government supporters months leading trial trial representing prosecution argued work served populace distribute radical ideas experience understand context reply opened defence freedom lawyers represent clients came followed exposition views nature freedom press arguing publication radical tracts served improve government highlighting weaknesses published good faith despite speech later receiving response found guilty replied verdict seen government repression paved way treason trials played prominent role background french revolution involving seven years war american revolutionary war france found financially ruined attempts pass economic plan alleviate estates general led instead estate form national assembly succeeded turn national constituent assembly legislative assembly legislative bodies succeeded rendering monarchy constitutional limited democratic institutions attempts remove monarch entirely thwarted june led effective overthrow louis august october france formally declared republic britain initially sympathetic revolutionaries france sympathy dissolved execution louis replaced hostility growing branch argued revolution source general liberty administration william increasingly fearing spread united_kingdom overthrow government split reflected behaviour people joined societies dedicated parliamentary reform formed banner church king attacking homes liberals french revolution including joseph association preserving liberty property republicans formed serving organised body private agents engaged raised head rights man thomas noted writer political theorist work influenced helped drive american revolution having returned england decided write book addressing arguments prominent conservative strongly fearful french revolution simply titled rights man published attracted attention administration second published february advocated things right people replace government thought appropriate work immediate success selling million half copies generated public support reform movements brought attention government subject crackdown visiting aunt kent writ issued jordan publisher libel crime based concept executive illegal government returned london began campaign jordan finding lawyer agreeing pay legal fees jordan likely frightened life pleaded guilty turned files court additional evidence writ issued charging crime trial date set june later rescheduled december left england tried elected member national convention france tasked writing new constitution departed england september return infuriated government remotely rights man writing letter addressed late proclamation defended actions beliefs chosen government instead represented thomas famous lawyer served attorney general prince wales trial date approached targeted vicious personal attacks writ followed hundreds loyal addresses targeted burning exeter banning sale books chester pamphlets widely published personal lives dug trial trial finally held december court king bench lord presided representing defence government represented john scott opened prosecution expressing outrage publication rights man concern available members public unfamiliar political philosophy read excerpts letter written arrival paris contained jury presented witnesses starting thomas testify works published following thomas printed rights man testified intended print second came passage appeared dangerous tendency argument drunken returned book offered evidence admitting written rights man letter instead chose begin speaking opened statement pressured refuse case stating brilliant exposition principles involved hazards assert dignity independence integrity english bar justice valuable english constitution existence moment advocate permitted stand crown subject court daily sits moment liberties england end advocate refuses defend think charge defence assumes character judge assumes hour judgment proportion rank reputation puts heavy influence mistaken opinion scales accused favour principle english law makes moved addressing freedom press limits arguing freedom speech necessary identify flaws structure government constitution author mistaken flaws long writer intended prohibiting speech serve undermine government opportunities improve argued book problematic circulated classes society argued test rights man instead test exclusively dealt believed best interests england government people opinions ran counter existing system government argued opinion free conduct law libel claim succeed libel act required prosecution publication motivated intended help mankind pure motive guilty despite speech jury found guilty replied argument aftermath failed sway jury speech given response left court confronted mob shouted damn tom liberty press king constitution crowd proceeded horses carriage carry carriage inside inn reports trial printed contained speech editions emphasised theme speech title pages sell copies reactions positive william wrote letter shortly trial arguing statement individuals free publish works attacking criticising constitution considerable share verdict guilty found speech conduct trial disappointing expecting defend principles rights man administration took guilty verdict trial sign possible began months following trial publishers rights man prosecuted receiving prison sentences years acted prelude treason trials dozen indicted allegedly bring revolution played prominent role defending including thomas hardy john john acquitted


roman law comparable modern offence theft usually translated despite civil criminal wrong classical law later denoted handling types property particular sort intention fraud later law view gain unclear view gain required added later meant owner consent case law protected variety property interests land things owner types state religious things owner commit theft taking things certain circumstances similar user romans distinguished manifest non manifest theft based close scene crime thief caught exactly line debated tables death expected manifest thief later changed damages times thing penalty non manifest theft times actions property stolen goods found defendant bring thing court refused search undertaken owner thing addition action meant handling established prohibited action associated end republic early mid republic required carrying away thing widened examples classical rome later hard find physical contact sense extended dealing thing owner physical interference considered accurate term touching idea particular republic complement narrowly defined example include borrowed thing way went agreed borrowing horse riding longer agreed republic distinction language general included thought fraud accepting payment example case payment problematic mistaken payment transferred ownership contradictory receiver granted ownership liable theft accept thing pledge knowing belong merely acting accomplice playwright suggests failing report theft fact assumed development preferred prohibited act accompanied criminal law fraud actions accomplice sued provided help physical act relating method execution mere encouragement appears require help advice earlier sources suggest help advice required version certainly entrenched early second century accomplice treated committed crime person needed handled thing liable republican harder later empire considers accomplice accidentally knocks victim hand coins stolen accomplice theft commentators gone far required party remove coins long lost owner intent intention described fraud act owner prospective thief believe owner consent confirmed case slave master fact steal master owner thief appropriation caught act prevents crime actually occurring distinction public policy reasons creates acts deliberately merely intention gain probably necessary time thought case classical rome example quoted digest implies quoted including condition entirely clear rule existence notable example man acting calls driver court caused lost classed theft obvious intention gain lost necessarily stolen case held accomplice damage property form appropriate action cases loss caused penalty nature mean result higher payment young children considered incapable necessary intention commit protected interests thing stolen whilst thing carried away pre classical extension types interference property means nature excluded indicates certain believed land stolen view rejected classical thing separated land stolen particularly important regard land exclusion retained help good faith land covered separate steal commit property example taking thing pledged secretly thing good faith free persons stolen example children wife probably hang time ownership indistinct formally separate stolen want suitable sufficient interest general rule interest safety thing stolen sue owner sufficient interest bring action person positive right thing good faith owner sue obliged contract return thing forms negative interest action available expense owner true long person obliged real risk losing theft person obliged owner action instead negative interest action fault lower standard care required meant sued action available agreed price delivered thing retained legal ownership thing thing stolen action theft liable applicable actions possible actions available typical theft damages multiple value thing stolen available subsequent rise value thing stolen whilst claim brought borne defendant found liable thing stolen probably value successful action theft brought thief interest short ownership value interest formed basis damages instead heir sue heir thief liable types theft criminal end republic reports criminal proceedings common julian successful prosecution prevented civil action nature time tables manifest thief non manifest thief treated differently manifest theft denoted sort caught act found later stolen thing manifest theft found seemingly bizarre ritual lance come silver wearing clothes highly critical obsolete ritual imagining removal goods practice offering household gods naked prevented bringing thing pretend find reports manifest theft brought penalty severe slaves found liable manifest thrown deaths rock manifest thief time tables given trial case merely magistrate extreme penalty acted victim kill thief spot situations night thief weapon verbally warned verbal warning designed act killing public prevent way committing murder rule accepted questioned penalty non manifest theft double damages classical period physical punishment abandoned manifest theft records merely times damages introduced meant somewhat strangely action civil action unusual slightly constitutes manifest theft says believed extended caught place theft thing julian described including thief carrying thing intended hiding place maximum time limit manifest theft type unclear long general rules fully developed classical period significant changes possible actions theft victim action actions available building stolen goods found regardless knowledge brought times damages pursued declined search witnesses times damages non brought bring thing court penalty unclear action available found liable sue person gave extent liability victim sue thief thief difficult presence thing attempt actions compensate thief usually time scheme simpler instead actions manifest non manifest theft handling stolen goods instead liable non manifest theft times penalty maintained searches carried public authorities wide definition theft covered bad faith receiver goods actions available addition actions actions followed finding theft additional action allowed heirs claim action result thing returned value paid instead allowed claim owner thing value thief successful allowing action usually brought non owner possibly kept restricted way possible allowed granted advantage need property suggests kept hatred thieves option case