people people named early spanish colonists spanish word means coast native american people central california coast spanish explorers missionaries arrived late 18th century inhabited area coast san_francisco bay bay lower valley time spoke variety languages languages belonging sub family language family belongs proposed language term place 1970s descendant groups historians writers popular literature pre colonial times lived distinct groups view distinct group lived hunting fishing gathering typical california pattern members bands interacted freely built friendships marriages traded tools cultural practices people practiced religion gold rush northern california region densely populated regions north mexico years spanish missions california effect culture population declined period living today belong number geographically distinct groups original home territory tribe members san_francisco bay area composed descendants san santa san_francisco missions nation consisting descendants speakers mission san centered tribe descendants speakers mission san_juan inland bay members group language descendants mission san tribe live southern_california groups smaller groups listed heading present day separately federal government tribal recognition culture inhabited fixed village locations moving temporarily gather seasonal like people lived northern california northern tip san_francisco peninsula big sur south pacific_ocean west range east vast region included san_francisco peninsula santa valley santa mountains bay area present day county county valley prior spanish contact formed complex association approximately different nations tribes members average distinct tribes villages recorded villages interacted trade ceremonial events conflict cultural arts included basket weaving skills seasonal ceremonial dancing events female ear nose ornamentation mainly hunter ways rough land practiced mainly annually setting fires burn old growth order better yield seeds told early explorers san county staple diet consisted crushed nuts grass seeds vegetation hunted trapped game fish including san_francisco bay pacific_ocean important diet food sources abundant earlier times maintained careful work active management natural resources hand animals mild climate included bear deer streams held salmon perch birds included plentiful ducks great red yellow billed important birds people diet captured nets traditional narratives refer ducks food juan observed journal stuffed dried use hunting ocean shore bays time thousands sea lions fact sea lions according looked like pavement incoming spanish general valleys constructed dome shaped houses woven bundled feet diameter hills trees accessible built conical houses bark attached frame wood houses remembered main village buildings sweat lodge low ground walls earth roof earth brush built boats navigate bays propelled double bladed generally men wear clothing warm weather cold weather don animal skin feather women commonly wore skirts bark skirts cool days wore animal skin wore ornamentation shell bone wood shells ornamentation indicated status community religion connect past researchers sensitive limitations historical knowledge careful place spiritual religious beliefs people single unified displacement indian people missions cultural groups working discover ancestral history information tells cultural group section religious spiritual beliefs practices lot specific details considering religion different depending band referring lot general overview shared components native people central california pre contact practiced believed spiritual doctors heal prevent illness probable belief bear spiritual beliefs recorded detail missionaries villages probably learned practiced form shared central northern california tribes question people learned tribes missions included elaborate acting dancing ceremonies traditional costume annual mourning ceremony rites passage intervention spirit world male society met subterranean dance rooms shared indigenous ethnic groups central california neighbors northernmost observed specialized termed southern dancing groups comparison groups sacramento valley noted probable southerly tribes northernmost real society connection ceremonies conditions joined spanish missions subject debate argued forced convert catholicism insisted forced baptism recognized catholic_church looked matter agree baptized indians tried leave mission communities forced return conversions catholicism mission san alias san_francisco bay area occurred mission san_francisco generation mission era conversions catholicism incomplete external spirituality healing apparent pre contact distinguished medicine persons tribe people healed use herbs believed heal ability contact spirit world typically engaged healing form dancing ceremony singing believed able tell influence future equally able bring fortune community indian canyon prayer houses sweat ceremony additionally bands built prayer houses called sweat ceremonial spiritual purposes built near stream banks water believed capable great healing men women gather sweat task like hunting spirit dancing today place located called indian canyon traditional sweat lodge built ceremonial purposes development sweat lodge early 1990s construction round house assembly house underway areas meant provide gathering place tribal meetings traditional dances ceremonies education activities indian canyon important place open native american groups united_states world place hold traditional native practices federal restrictions indian canyon home people specifically band serves educational cultural spiritual environment visitors indian canyon allows natives reclaim heritage implement ancestral beliefs practices lives sacred narratives mythology storytelling sacred narratives important component indigenous culture hundreds thousands years continues importance today narratives teach specific moral spiritual lessons cultural spiritual religious beliefs tribe bands shared unified identity varying religious spiritual beliefs stories unique tribe today sacred narratives important culture sadly minimal number sacred stories survived spanish colonization 1800s efforts missions bands refer records reconstruct sacred narratives people living missions acted professional research told past stories problem type recording stories complete translation differences meaning easily misunderstood bands today feel responsible adopting narratives discussing cultural representatives people decide meanings process important piece cultural identity past ancestors ultimately additionally knowing sacred narratives sharing public live performances storytelling people able create awareness cultural group extinct actually surviving wanting recognition folklore legend centered culture heroes spirit eagle region falcon like named spirit clever irresponsible competed despite small size regularly got better mythology creation stories mention world covered entirely water apart single peak near big sur mount northern version eagle stood humans descendants history pre era predominant theory settlement americas date original asia years ago land bridge claims northern california tribes descend arrived california sea years ago think people migrated san sacramento river system arrived san_francisco bay areas 6th century displacing earlier speaking populations south represent remnant ancient shell newark suggest villages locations established bce shell mound dating scholars noted periods ancient bay area history described peninsula careful study artifacts found central california resulted discovery distinguishable cultural history terms time counting system early horizon extends bce bce bay area bce central valley second middle horizon dates late horizon coming mission era arrival missionaries spanish explorers negative impact people inhabited northern california territory consisted northern tip san_francisco peninsula big sur south groups prior arrival spanish missionaries able thrive area hunting fishing gathering typical pattern found california coastal tribes villages interacted trade ceremonial events occasional conflict culture relatively stable spanish soldiers missionaries arrived double purpose native americans building series missions expanding spanish territorial claims people encountered documented spanish records explorer reached named area december year despite positive reports happened years spanish expedition arrived led time military expedition accompanied missionaries purpose establish chain missions bring christianity native people leadership father missions introduced spanish religion culture spanish mission culture soon disrupted undermined social structures way life father leadership spanish erected seven missions inside region brought missions live work missions erected region mission san founded mission san_francisco founded mission santa founded mission santa founded mission founded mission san founded mission san_juan founded went live missions called mission indians blended native american coast transported north bay mission san_francisco mission san spanish military presence established san_francisco mission outposts san san founded spanish soldiers traditionally escorted missionary outreach declined camp overnight years missions accepted converts time slowly gaining population november large wave bay area native americans baptized moved mission santa mission san_francisco including people mission santa entire village populations east bay mission san_francisco march migration followed immediately worst seen epidemic food shortages resulting statistics death escapes missions pursuing sent resort soldiers round runaway christians relatives bring missions running tribes outside missions sent bring mission spread illness outside missions indians thrive missions expanded populations operations geographical areas total indians baptized deaths recorded cause death varied result european diseases smallpox indians natural immunity causes drastic diet change hunter fare diet high low vegetables animal protein harsh lifestyle changes living conditions land property disputes spanish rule intent future mission properties difficult property disputes arose owned mission adjacent lands spanish crown catholic_church natives spanish settlers san heated debates spanish state ecclesiastical government authority missions setting precedent interesting petition governor priests claimed missions indians owned land cattle represented natives petition san settlers fathers mentioned indians crops damaged san settlers livestock mentioned settlers getting mixed livestock belonging indians mission stated mission indians property rights defend indians liberty slaughter san livestock unto lands law mission property pass mission indians period years spanish citizens interim period mission administrators held land trust natives mexican government ordered missions mission land property administered turned government point supposed receive land grants property rights mission lands went secular administrators end attempts mission leaders restore native lands vain time spanish land grants california new lands turned mexican owned laborers mexican owned survival eventually multi ethnic mission indians families spoke coast bay plains languages survived experience mission san went work communities mission survivors formed san_juan 1840s wave united_states settlers area california annexed united_states new settlers brought new diseases lost vast majority population birth rate high infant mortality rate diseases social associated european immigration california estimates reduced percent original pre mission era population population continuing decline early 1880s northern virtually extinct southern people severely impacted largely displaced communal land grant valley attention plight california indians indian agent reformer popular novelist helen hunt jackson published accounts travels mission indians california considered fluent speaker language speaker isabella meadows died people attempting revive burial practices sacred sites importance arrival spanish culture sovereignty religion language spanish invasion estimated lining sea shores san_francisco bay essentially sites lived died buried consist shells lesser amounts fish bone materials organic material deposited thousands years direct result village life archaeologists examined refer kitchen meaning accumulation refuse theory massive remains represent ritual behavior spend months mourning dead large amounts disposed growing height mound found san_francisco bay area near creeks wetlands rivers san mountain home nation largest intact thought served practical purpose usually near waterways ocean protected village high tide provide high ground line sight navigation san_francisco bay site standing feet tall feet diameter believed occupied years ago burial practices san_francisco region burial practices changed time arrival spanish complete loved ones friends place ornaments offering dead believed good fortune artifacts found include wide variety shell ornaments frequently everyday items stone bone tools showcase territorial rights seen cultural statement villages clearly visible sacred dominant present day burial sacred sites cove tribes protested california insist cove sacred site natives native village sites san_francisco bay escaped urban development feel public land remain ancestors deserve place rest forever city planning turning sacred burial ground park intended families local tribes consider proposed idea offensive sacred land order compensate native people recreation district wants place educational signs parking lot respect culturally sensitive area archaeologists found pottery animal bones human remains shell fragments mortars site tribe members willing block roll sacred site santa year old grave site found home construction site city santa city santa builders area believes housing development profit precedence natural habitats ancestral lands city shows typical compromise politics nation simply allows destruction city santa continues allow development destruction ancient remains claim city legal obligation follow agreement volunteers gate creek construction site holding signs handing engaging santa similar situation happening santa california making effort preserve remaining sacred sites area san_francisco plan destroying sacred site containing different species plants planted city residents native joined residents site home village park said burial ground contains habitats including wetlands woodlands city tried bargain says acres site soccer complex residents natives fear bright lights games year pose threat wildlife site heritage determination passion preserve sacred ground largely influenced desire revive preserve cultural heritage natives today engaging extensive cultural research bring knowledge narratives beliefs practices post contact days spanish spanish stripped cultural heritage causing death ninety percent population forcing cultural military fortification catholic reform arrival americans land grants contested court preserving burial sites way gain cultural group site wolves site tribe active participants revival people east south bay key success involvement analyzing ancestral remains ancient burial sites allows recapture history reconstruct present future people spanish colonization cultural history knowledge identity lost death forced natives sacred cultural narratives survive recording stories told elders living missions makes analyzing pre contact sites difficult symbolism ritual unknown participation projects way bring tribal members unified community way link people today pre contact ancestors ability analyze remains reports major site tribe actively helped burial site san dating bce burial site excavated remains buried wolves found human remains grave site skeletal remains wolves found soap root fiber fragments remains animals like deer mountain lion bear fox blue found excavations clear animals buried truth known exactly findings mean team analyzed ritual burial animal remains way learn tell cultural system pre contact influence way team utilizing known narratives ascribed previous recorded sacred narratives elders missions bay narratives telling central california references meaning possible animals team animals served clans families animals dream personal spirit allies individuals lastly animals representations sacred deity like figures indian people organizing change indian people organizing change community based organization san_francisco bay area members including tribal members conservation activists work order accomplish social environmental justice bay area american indian community current projects include preservation bay area sacred burial sites nation homeland san_francisco bay area currently spread awareness community walks advocated preservation sacred burial sites mall cove site hunters point san_francisco etymology externally applied spanish explorers settlers referred native groups region collectively coastal people circa time english speaking settlers arriving later word english years people called english language records 1960s members popular media replace originally derived spanish called referred single band inhabited pacific_coast near creek traced mission records mission san_francisco native races frederick journal visit bay area spelling variations found mission san_francisco records tribal origin universally accepted native people members prefer continue use known maintains common usage traced creek states tribe existed san county coast states came tribe lower san creek creek pacific_coast popularity largely book history san surroundings hall noted tribe indians great santa valley san_francisco near san_juan mission names growing popularity use tribes instead notably north native people word people language native people word people divisions identified regional linguistic divisions listed north south called resided south derives dialect rest family called east bay speaking tribal groups resided east bay primarily county western portion county called san_francisco resided san_francisco bay pacific area san_francisco san counties grouping included villages surrounding mission mission creek valley near southwest villages creek san creek modern day called santa resided creek creek language spoken santa valley close point single language village near original site mission santa located river father mentioned letter area mission called called santa local bands speakers resided santa coast adjacent santa mountains point rivers called san_juan number distinct local territorial tribes speakers lived valley lower san river middle river san creek nearby creeks eastern coast range valleys including san creeks called independent speaking local territorial tribes resided river point sur lower courses lower sur rivers san counties called local bands speakers resided upper course san river farther east coast range valleys silver creeks mapped middle course river recent studies area people division designations derived selected local tribe names offered direct earlier designations based names local spanish missions forms written variety spanish missionaries soldiers trying capture sounds languages foreign divisions tribes villages spoke languages absorbed spanish missions present day tribe san_francisco bay area surviving groups today tribal recognition nation describes historically spoke southern entirely different language contemporary groups tribes petitions federal recognition pending bureau indian affairs tribe san_francisco bay area enrolled members tribe comprises known surviving native american san_francisco bay region trace ancestry missions santa san descend members historic federally recognized band county september received favorable opinion district washington court case tribe federally recognized tribe advisory council california indian policy assisted case lost case filed appeal band indians band enrolled members comprises surviving spoke language majority descend native people baptized mission san_juan nation san counties nation approximately enrolled members tribal council claims enrolled membership currently approximately people thirteen core trace direct missions san tribe federally recognized band county approximately reside san counties band mission indians tribe tribe indian canyon band indians near population published estimates pre contact population range combined historians differ widely estimates entire population native california modern researchers believe american alfred projection low later researchers richard levy estimated highest estimate comes cook later life concluded northern mission area cook northern mission area means region inhabited san_francisco bay river added convenience local area jurisdiction san infringement model people territory half northern mission area known densely populated southern territory cook density nearly persons square mile maximum bay region approximately lower estimate cook meant based statements northern mission area plus minus thousand margin error exact number population contact downwards cook describes rapidly declining indigenous populations california posthumously published book population california indians cook states population figures examined extent havoc evident population dropped original numbers population stabilized tribal membership rolls language language family commonly called member hypothetical language languages language family recent work suggests sub families single language family comprises separate languages aka records population began alfred researched california natives authored publications hart researched detail followed john researched languages aspects culture leaving volumes field notes death research added robert madison cook cases names vary spelling translation tribal boundaries depending source tried chronicle interpret complex society language pieces vanished noticeable competition disagreement scholars produced depth research shadow highly published competed print editor introduction robert curator work states men disliked independently working institution research specialty willing share findings students neglected clear recent historians published new research note availability mission records allow continual research understanding notable people chief local tribe time establishment mission san_francisco earliest known san_francisco leader baptized village indian mission san wife child died fled big sur coast lead extensive resistance colonization george names men village served mission san_francisco beginning long line san_francisco mission santa man provided surviving narratives life mission primarily stories told father barbara died linguistic consultant hart san_juan died renowned doctor principal linguistic cultural informant died principal linguistic cultural meadows died fluent speaker primary consultant director founder non profit native american affiliated food bank god provides located california anne marie leader tribal chair indian canyon california federally recognised indian country santa barbara


keith november august american political scientist principal architect national environmental policy act act kind world educated university_of_chicago spent career indiana university received tenure retired arthur professor emeritus political science internationally acclaimed author books scholarly articles found different languages served boards advisory committees consultant environmental policy issues worldwide received numerous honors awards early life education born iowa lee alberta died indiana age earned undergraduate degree english university_of_chicago master degree harvard history government doctoral degree political science university_of_chicago married helen december raised children academic career public service director research publications council state governments chicago appointed professor political science school citizenship public affairs syracuse university sponsored missions public administration colombia philippines japan year appointment director public administration institute turkey middle_east turkey indiana university appointed director institute training public service coordinator indonesian thailand public administration programs time retirement appointments research lecture tours enabled visit nearly countries world state union year visiting professor government university california berkeley returned professor government indiana university remained retirement course career secured national science foundation grants support research career served university_of_chicago northwestern university university oklahoma syracuse university university california berkeley shorter appointments collegiate institutions overseas times served advisor consultant senate united_nations departments commerce energy defense interior national health natural scientist work establishing study universities achieving greater merging worlds science public policy deeply involved national international environmental affairs worked closely important scientific bodies serving appointments sea grant program national oceanic atmospheric administration environmental advisory board united_states_army corps engineers pacific science congress president national commission materials policy science advisory board great lakes international joint commission chair commission environmental policy law administration international union conservation nature natural resources iucn advisor man program working program environmental education training engineers served editorial boards numerous prestigious scientific professional journals lover nature bird watching early age founding member south bend indiana chapter society local chapter nature new_york indiana chapter served board governors notable accomplishments 1960s virtually lone voice attempting establish policies environment approach solving environmental problems exist groundbreaking article environment new focus public policy appeared public administration review launching development new environmental policy studies changed main focus career examining policies protecting quality human environment catalyst founding school public environmental affairs indiana university article heritage american public administration public administration review defining paper modern history public administration best known principal architects national environmental policy act act kind world signed law january drafting national policy environment consultant senator henry jackson head powerful senate interior affairs committee realized needed mere policy statement action forcing mechanism necessary secure federal agency compliance act requirements origin requirement preparation environmental impact statement attributed testimony senate hearing april laid inclusion provisions requiring evaluation effects major federal projects significantly affecting quality human environment detailed statements termed act reasonably social economic environmental effects proposed action possible alternatives identified assessed federal action takes place emulated form countries states established mini national government agencies started prepare professional associations dedicated planning problem solving demanded subsequently efforts later promoting led formation national association environmental professionals national professional association persons prepare honors awards awards received included william award marshall award american society public administration john award american political science association national environmental quality award natural resources council america named united_nations environmental program global distinguished environmental services awarded honorary western michigan university recipient indiana university distinguished service award fellow royal society arts honorary member international association impact assessment annually american political science association awarded keith prize best book environmental politics policy published previous years shortly death center culture ecology established provide environmental education youth adults scholarly publications administrative theories hamilton jefferson contribution thought public administration new_york russell russell government administration new_york new_york environment challenge modern society garden city natural history press published american museum natural history defense earth international protection indiana university press man environment policy administration new_york harper row isbn citizens environment case studies popular action indiana university press isbn science national environmental policy act policy procedural reform university university alabama press isbn interests global environment stanley foundation public policy life sciences boulder press isbn perspectives ecosystem management great lakes reader albany state university new_york press isbn worlds science environmental movement policy choice new_york cambridge_university press isbn international environmental policy emergence dimensions durham duke university press isbn threshold new phase international relations american environmental movement riley angela new_york taylor francis isbn policy land law ethics karen publishers isbn environment focus public policy robert james college station texas university press international environmental policy twentieth century paul durham duke university press isbn environmental policy issues national trends robert books isbn national environmental policy act agenda future indiana university press isbn


foreign domestic hong_kong foreign domestic hong_kong chinese domestic workers employed typically families percent hong_kong population overwhelming majority women foreign domestic territory percent philippines percent indonesia percent thailand required law live employer residence perform household tasks cooking serving cleaning child care october employment domestic workers subject unpopular employees levy totalling year contract applied july abolished foreign workers able apply hong_kong residency subject debate high profile court battle residency foreign worker failed condition foreign domestic workers increasingly human rights groups criticised modern slavery documented cases worker abuse including successful prosecution employer harm assault criminal intimidation unpaid wages increasing number march justice centre reported findings domestic worker hong_kong deemed forced labour terminology hong_kong maid foreign servant neutral socially acceptable words foreign domestic filipino servant referred foreign domestic regardless origin time philippines slang term girl widely local residents chinese language government documentation foreign domestic referred domestic workers foreign recruited abroad government uses words meanings english language documentation term domestic domestic worker director house shelter domestic workers criticised term saying migrants dirty jobs calling strips dignity accorded workers implies like slaves history faced poor economy filipino president ferdinand implemented labour code began country export labour form overseas workers philippine government encouraged labour export reduce unemployment rate treasury workers economy philippines increasingly dependent labour export labour export recruiting agencies cornerstone economy increasing labour export philippines coincided economic rise hong_kong late 1970s early 1980s people republic china implemented wide reaching economic reform late 1970s initiated trade countries hong_kong mainland china biggest investor labour intensive hong_kong industries moved mainland high profit service industries territory design marketing finance expanded dramatically deal resulting labour shortage increase labour costs female labour force income families sought help manage households creating demand domestic workers female participation workforce increased percent percent families began hiring foreign domestic workers philippines number workers steadily increasing 1980s 1990s prevalence demographics singapore hong_kong taiwan considered attractive destinations seeking employment domestic workers according hong_kong highest foreign domestic workers world pay scale jurisdictions mid-1970s foreign domestic policy initiated number workers increased end average foreign domestic worker households overall households children average foreign domestic percent working population december number workers employed percent total population vast majority female 1980s increased prosperity mainland chinese domestic workers dominant 1990s workers came primarily philippines percentage shifting philippine workers indonesian 1990s indonesia thailand followed filipino model labour export deal domestic economic crises hong_kong families began hiring workers countries provided competition workers prepared accept half minimum wage according immigration department filipino domestic workers hong_kong indonesia official figures indicated foreign domestic territory percent philippines percent indonesia percent thailand respective numbers philippines percent indonesia percent thailand percent vietnamese permitted work hong_kong domestic workers authorities security reasons linked according historical problems vietnamese refugees attempts import workers bangladesh failed indonesian president reportedly said considers export domestic labour national embarrassment government end practice february foreign domestic workers hong_kong philippines increase previous year number remaining static recruitment foreign domestic workers recruited primarily large number specialised agencies local firms connected workers home countries agencies paid employers workers regulated according employment ordinance employment agency regulations local agencies dealing workers philippines philippine hire indonesian worker employer use agent similar requirement filipino workers agency fees regulated law percent month salary agencies workers countries charge commissions training fees months pay philippine government outlawed commissions employment agencies charge fees employment regulations government hong_kong drawn rules regulations concerning employment labour conditions stay foreign domestic foreign domestic required law live employer employee required enter standard year contract specifically employment foreign domestic employer regulations include household income month foreign domestic employed levy employing foreign domestic duration year contract abolished july free medical treatment foreign domestic monthly salary minimum wage set government rights obligations include perform domestic duties outlined employment contract accept employment effective period contract work live employer place residence provided suitable living accommodation reasonable privacy rest day continuous period hours week minimum wage foreign domestic workers wages subject statutory minimum breach employment ordinance employer convicted paying minimum wage subject maximum fine years imprisonment minimum wages inflation adjusted annually contracts signed apply duration contract reduced percent april period government announced reduction pay steady drop basket economic minimum wage raised month contracts signed june cost living adjustment took effect employment contracts signed july increasing minimum wage month minimum wage reset month june raised month contracts signed september onwards criticised workers welfare groups making second class citizens statutory minimum wage apply local worker working hour week earn paid minimum hourly wage march international domestic workers federation complained rose percent failing pace hong_kong median monthly income rose percent period hong_kong market asian workers pressure wages low wages held check competition indonesian workers began arriving large numbers 1990s workers asian countries bangladesh willing work employees levy recession october hong_kong government imposed monthly employees levy hiring foreign domestic employees ordinance tax proposed liberal party tackle fiscal deficit introduced government population policy chief secretary administration called foreign local domestic workers distinct labour markets said employers foreign domestic play role helping hong_kong upgrading local workforce according government policy support strategic planning levy local workforce improve employment opportunities government said extension levy domestic remove imported local workers according standard hoped fewer foreign employed hong_kong senate philippines disagreed hong_kong government denounced levy hinted issue international labour organization senate president franklin said tax domestic workers countered hong_kong free market principles damage reputation foreign trade investment services earlier year minimum wage foreign domestic lowered government said reduction minimum wage levy unrelated lawyers government called moves unfortunate coincidence measure expected bring million annually government thousands workers fearing financial burden passed protested measures government defending measures necessary hong_kong changing economy said foreign domestic workers better paid counterparts asian countries according james monthly wage singapore malaysia legal challenge mounted asserting levy employers unlawful tax january high_court justice michael ruled levy instituted law tax fee privilege employing non local workers permitted work hong_kong liberal party urged government abolish employees levy district council election platform saying billion fund originally intended employees august south china morning post column chris called case retaining levy increasingly morally financially weak middle class people feel sense injustice levy according regina levy lost government abolished levy chief executive policy address effective july levy controversy extraordinary measures extraordinary times totalling billion announced july levy temporarily waived estimated cost billion chinese press measures called handing candy levy waived year period employment contracts signed september apply existing contracts immigration department said announcement resulted confusion uncertainty workers october policy address chris called gimmick dressed economic relief initiative designed boost administration popularity representatives said announced guidelines unclear implementation date employers deferred contracts dismissed workers pending confirmation effective date leaving protested uncertainty demanding increase minimum wage employers reportedly began terminating contracts fears mass july secretary labour welfare matthew announced commencement date moved month immigration department temporarily relaxed day employment requirement contracts expired july executive council approved suspension levy years august july widespread criticism government said advanced contract required leave hong_kong employers benefit contracts year period according government employers benefit years effect turning year year suspension denounced newspapers political spectrum levy called south china morning post editorial stephen wrote plan year suspension levy provides perfect example government arrogance albert said controversy exposed worst government bureaucracy columnist frank criticised senior officials living ivory towers said disruption government suspended payment immediately hong_kong human rights monitor called levy permanent abolition saying temporary year criticising confusion caused employers immigration department policy thought administrative crush morning august immigration department issued passes workers agents collect submit applications work hong_kong promising handle applications submitted offices opened hour earlier usual added staff extended hours guarantee cases processed philippine expected large workload result provisions chinese newspapers published articles calculating households benefits rules street protests august burden immigration department according teach households use legal west immigration office processed advance contract regular august despite availability online booking slots branch offices daily number applications processed resulted overnight positions waiting line illegally sold legislative council debate government required amendment legislative council suspend levy accordance executive council decision faced calls abolish levy government opposed according secretary labour welfare billion fund support employment board years levy permanently waived regina began campaign abolish levy amendment government said attempt rule order grounds breach rule rules procedures prohibit amendments government revenue compared stance high_court decision employees levy tax according government bill abolish levy breach article hong_kong basic law article central government interpretation legislators commentators called proposal nuclear bomb university hong_kong academic said totally route resolve dispute pressure legislators government executive council agreed extend levy suspension years amendment year suspension proposed amendments employees ordinance notice democratic alliance progress hong_kong apply time renewed contracts issued august july grievances foreign domestic workers supporters including activists employers periodically staged rallies protesting perceive treatment hong_kong government grievances include discrimination minimum wage week stay limit end domestic worker employment contract according hong_kong human rights monitor foreign domestic face discrimination hong_kong government employers amnesty international report indonesian domestic workers exploited profit failed governments indonesian domestic workers hong_kong suggested victims labour rights violations hong_kong regulations problem worse abuses noted include travel documents lack privacy pay minimum wage hours subjected physical verbal abuse employers forced work seven days week exploitation workers little education little knowledge law rights leave home support families fall victim agents official unofficial officials lack legal protection home host countries debts secure employment overseas lock cycle abuse exploitation criticism philippines country biggest human association southeast asian nations manila standard del criticised government continuing 1960s policy labour export instead domestic production job creation allowing program expand contributing brain drain amnesty international suggests lack oversight allows criminal profit foreign workers unaware legal rights host country report victims forced human trafficking indonesian hong_kong governments having failed adequate action enforce domestic legislation territories protected workers trafficking exploitation forced labour particular properly monitored regulated punished recruitment placement agencies law incidents involving worker surfaced indicating employment agencies neglect workers rights cycle abuse instances failure provide service employers according media reports consumer council hong_kong received nearly complaints agencies complaints concerned workers match descriptions provided extent suspected agencies deliberately workers experience death awaiting work beginning employment exposed grey areas legal employment agency regulations crushed death falling masonry agency boarding house north point worker illegal fees accommodations lack insurance criticised inadequate right immigration ordinance eligible apply permanent residency having resided hong_kong seven continuous years enjoy right hong_kong definition ordinary residency groups lived territory foreign domestic effectively denied foreign workers rights permanent residents including right vote lived hong_kong years section immigration ordinance stated person shall treated resident hong_kong employed domestic outside hong_kong issue foreign workers applying hong_kong residency debated million families live poverty line territory political parties argued hong_kong insufficient welfare funding support foreign workers apply public housing social welfare benefits court instance found commissioner registration definition resident article basic law persons chinese entered hong_kong valid travel documents resided hong_kong continuous period seven years taken hong_kong place permanent residence establishment hong_kong special administrative region feeding speculation domestic obtain right appeal court appeal high_court overturned judgment court instance appealed court final appeal ruled unanimous judgment week rule government requires foreign domestic leave hong_kong weeks termination employment contract find employer week rule according hong_kong human rights monitor form discrimination foreign domestic southeast asian limitation enforced foreign workers week rule condemned united_nations committees committee elimination discrimination women committee economic social cultural rights according human rights groups week rule pressure workers remain abusive employers committee economic social cultural rights urged government review existing week rule legal protection benefits foreign domestic workers line afforded local workers particularly regard wages retirement benefits following year committee elimination discrimination women called government repeal week rule implement flexible policy foreign domestic workers calls state party strengthen control employment agencies provide workers easily accessible avenues abuse employers permit stay country seeking week live rules criticised united_nations human rights committee abuse employers hong_kong government enacted legislation nominally protects workers time consuming costs considerable legal process months reach district court labour tribunal workers income welfare groups expressed concerns treatment segment hong_kong workforce abuse case attracted international news headlines focused plight foreign workers territory thousands took streets demanding justice government calls case isolated welfare groups workers victims modern day slavery abuse employers hong_kong human rights monitor reported substantial percentage workers employers workers interviewed percent said experienced violations contract including pay denied mandatory weekly day rest statutory holidays percent experienced physical verbal abuse including significant sexual abuse according hong_kong asian worker social service project received thousand calls workers workers received assistance remain hong_kong pursue claims according house executive director shelter dealt cases alleged abuse quarters compared contributing factors include artificially low wages live requirement workers accumulate months debt commissions commissions limited law percent month pay ease foreign workers deported difficulty finding employment abroad reporting violations discrimination live requirement workers required live employers vulnerable working long hours according amnesty international welfare groups workers routinely work hours day escape abuse philippine government policy filipino workers protested philippine government targeting overseas filipino workers protest opposed executive order implemented ferdinand according order overseas contract workers required percent total earnings authorised government channels worker groups overseas filipino workers pay government recruiting agency fees leave country philippine government proposed law requiring workers submit training assessment program cost half average monthly salary typically according philippine department labor employment policy help protect domestic overseas workers abuse employers government agencies receive total billion million year foreign workers police national bureau investigation passport fees membership overseas workers welfare administration local health insurance philippine overseas employment agency home development mutual fund fees charges indonesian agencies dormitory housing lessons chinese cuisine capped government interest excluded cap reporters suggested agencies contract workers convert sums owed arrival hong_kong advances bypassing hong_kong law hong_kong government policy according time week rule live requirement protect hong_kong employers foreign workers government argues week rule needed maintain immigration control preventing job imported workers working illegally contracts end workers concerned working hong_kong returning place government implies absence rules workers easily leave unsatisfactory employers creating disruption having find new employee additional fees new contract early government labour mobility longer workers change employers times year hong_kong regards case isolated labour minister pledged increase regulation enforcement employment agency conducted raids workers accused living employer residence robert amnesty asia pacific said factors leading abuse applied thousands domestic workers restrictions movement heavily illegal recruitment fees charged agency didn know access justice labour department prosecuted employer allegedly abused month employment march justice centre reported findings deemed domestic worker hong_kong forced labour criticised government denial hong_kong source destination transit area human trafficking forced labour said hong_kong countries having comprehensive set laws policies tackle forced labour trafficking


people ethnic group madagascar living southeastern coast numbering ethnic group traces origins arab settlers arrived 15th 16th century settling madagascar arabs converted islam religion soon abandoned favor traditional beliefs practices associated respect ancestors remnants islam remain prohibition consuming pork 16th century kingdom established power earlier descended arab soon developed reputation powerful large owing monopoly knowledge writing termed uses arabic script language migrated island practiced arts local communities served advisers kings founded new mobility creation network powerful spiritual advisers island credited forcing awareness communities sparking sense common identity kingdom disbanded late 19th century following uprising noble class today remain southeast coastal homeland grow rice coffee produce salt manufacture leave homeland months year work offering spells services nearly village madagascar traveled homeland receive training community historic production paper flower embedded paper traditionally record secret knowledge major source income paper commonly sold tourists exported overseas ethnic identity language means people coast live southeastern coast descendants arabs settled madagascar 14th century local population population estimated history figure recent settlers island madagascar descended arab muslim believed arrived southeast coast boats carrying arab settlers arrived madagascar shores past marked arrivals time arrival encountered ethnic groups including traced origins way east africa developed high status communities knowledge technology carried overseas practicing ritual animal sacrifice ancestors highly powerful important rite communities oral written historical traditions describe desire secure marriages communities efforts rejected conflict developed groups supremacy oral histories groups describe battle giants conflict evolved additional arab settlers arrived joined fellow newcomers mounting conflict reached turning point noble family rising power following family leader marriage local woman historical texts tie lineage family leader noble settled generations historical sources confirm described texts factual family newly arrived descent local nobles texts suggest took generations successfully integrate society means reflect awareness importance local lineage traditions need find place rising power clan absorbed ritual privileges clan established premier wise men practiced served regularly left homeland provide services needed trained spiritual leaders communities reinforcing masters knowledge outside clan sought learn right conduct ritual sacrifice shape increasingly control political economic activities area end conflict executed males group possible relegated women children restricted areas way established strong kingdom rare clans newcomers successfully established kingdom short time landing island leadership freedom significantly reduced religion central feature social political life conflict nobles resulting rule established tradition emigration island unlike majority generally seek return ancestral land initially felt remain linked geographic area result traveled widely moving place place settling permanently royal courts knowledge writing medicine technology areas established reputation advisers nobles alike island wide feature community shapes daily life according historian network stationary key transforming societies madagascar clans outward looking communities greater awareness leading territorial expansion larger complex kingdoms addition oral histories suggest ancestors migrated away country early 18th century established major rice slave embroiled conflict culminated bloody invasion eastern coastal plain shortly afterward major leader named established alliance vassal relationship king ruling peace society villages primarily southeastern coastal area near society traditionally divided broad categories nobles said descended arabs composed working slave classes said descended local submitted arabs rule alternately slaves arabs brought comprised noble clans particular clans society historically held distinct privileges responsibilities certain animals human consumption assigned specific clans kings selected popular decision clan originally mouth river near town shares selected rulers accorded near sacred status established observed centuries ruler death responsible sacred idols texts spoke secret language communicating knowledge rarely clans clan believed communication powerful spirits reputed produce powerful island knew manufacture cast spells practice local maintain distinction members society lived villages sealed wooden enter permission rulers distinguished forbidding wear shirts hats family affiliation clan marriage outside clan deeply taboo dead entirely cut community religious affiliation adhere traditional spiritual beliefs practices common island different clans families incorporate aspects islam varying degrees commonly wear verses written script converting islam seventh eighth century clans later arabs found dynasty believed creator god numerous spirits served living beings creator time conversion islam creator god forgotten greater focus placed spirits raised level deities arrival arab settlers prompted large scale conversion islam core soon lost gave way honoring ancestors culture arab islamic influences strongly mark culture traditionally men clothing included style hat long loose robes similar worn parts muslim world woven form form jackets long older men beaten worn beneath ensemble women wore dresses reed waist drawn shoulder adolescent adult women wore mat historically forbidden women wear cotton material woven believed render attractive men outside clan forbidden marry reputed island ethnic group developed written form language arabic script form writing largely replaced latin alphabet monarchy 19th century widely reputed pre colonial period predict future based lunar phases known madagascar acted advisers court kings including celebrated king advised taught writing pan madagascar tradition rooted element culture introduction royal idols kingdom likewise attributed derive ancestral traditions aspects islamic arab culture taboo dogs shared islam actually arrival religion island prohibition eating pork originated introduction islam traditionally members given clan eat clan funeral rites death member community way regardless social class community members participate week long period mourning deceased time forbidden wash change clothing eighth day mourning period broken dresses fresh attire female widow continue mourning period parents deceased declare completed male remains shut away home period weeks time parents deceased send female family member care company language speak dialect language branch language group derived languages spoken southern borneo language traditionally written script master form writing called considered possess unusual power writings traditionally ranged texts teaching historical records forms documentation materials written script considered sacred economy work earn selling services powerful common men travel months year coffee production widespread homeland generates income families little land work agricultural laborers north west clan historically main producer trader sea salt known paper decorated pressed fresh flowers leaves paper major product marketed tourists notable formal school kingdom established run taught future king children read trained manufacture ink paper educated art party served ambassadors britain mauritius died poison administered trial ordeal reign queen


catholics catholics religious community roman catholics following latin rite diocese south district southwestern coast india people speak language language contemporary catholics descended mainly catholics migrated south course portuguese wars portuguese wars learned languages south retained mother tongue preserved lifestyle year captivity imposed sultan facto ruler kingdom february led near extinction community defeat subsequent killing british community south later prospered british rule early distinct catholic identity date migration period developed catholic cultural identity emerged following captivity culture catholics blend cultures migration adopted aspects local culture retained customs traditions like ancestors modern catholic culture best described increasingly latin culture catholic concentrated arab states persian gulf ethnic identity roman catholics diocese newly formed diocese south district generally known catholics diocese located southwestern coast india comprises civil districts state state region collectively referred south british partition india states reorganisation act portuguese ships arrived number local converts christianity slowly increased christian population exist second half 16th century large scale immigration christians south reluctant learn local languages south continued speak language brought local christians learn migration skilled catholic offered land grants native rulers south observed traditional hindu customs conjunction newfound catholic practices preserved lifestyle migrants people lower economic strata left government economic jobs lands confiscated heavy taxation portuguese consequence wealth privileges migrants enjoyed began feeling superior captivity died killed forcibly converted islam led formation separate common catholic cultural identity members group hitherto considered extension larger catholic community longer self identified catholics years captivity prosperity british italian followed migration employment bombay calcutta persian gulf arab states enabled community restore identity overwhelming majority catholics lineage historian estimates cent catholics origins history pre migration era records early existence christians south lost time sultan known exactly christianity introduced south possible syrian christians settled south state south italian traveller polo recorded considerable trading activities red_sea coast 13th century foreign christian merchants visiting coastal towns south period commerce possible christian priests accompanied work april french dominican south western france landed travelled north port town coastal route bishop india diocese entrusted spiritual christian community parts india pope john according historian concrete evidence found permanent settlements christians south 16th century advent portuguese region christianity began spread portuguese explorer landed group islands south voyage portugal india named islands santa maria later came known mary islands portuguese explorer arrived north missionaries leadership missionaries converted natives christianity region early 16th century ruler empire granted commercial privileges portuguese coast complete freedom worship belief propagation religious empire portuguese took possession portuguese slowly started christianity prominent local convert travelled wife baptised portuguese assuming role godfather honoured took francisco properties subsequently taken hindu relatives instructed factor property restored placed jurisdiction bishop portuguese strong presence missionaries soon arrived gained converts number local converts south continually increased century portuguese faced resistance queen dynasty halt conversions battle portuguese fought emerged victorious drove portuguese south migration era portuguese fleet sent king portugal state sultan diocese established soon missionaries sent led conversion population roman catholicism bulk christian settlers came major migration waves south occurred periods great unrest occurred onwards portuguese wars portuguese wars occurred factors led mass disease natural poor living conditions heavy tax social discrimination portuguese jesuit francis founder society jesus arrived discovered newly converted christians practising old hindu customs traditions requested portuguese king iii install ancestors present catholics fled began king decreed trace indian customs christians attached ancient indian customs especially traditional hindu marriage costumes refused abandon refused comply forced leave settle outside portuguese dominion resulted major wave south christians left skilled abandoned fields achieve freedom remainder skilled merchants time migration ruled king great interest development agriculture empire welcomed kingdom giving fertile lands recruited armies dynasty confirmed francis scottish physician visited book journey madras countries stated princes house given great encouragement christians induced settle later identified probable mistake read figure included second emigration christians taxation policies enabled catholic migrants emerge prominent gentry south migrants usually brought capital invested new lands indirectly contributing prosperity kingdom provisional treaties portuguese rulers christians allowed build churches help foster growth christianity south arrival british dutch halted activity portuguese gradually unable send required number missionaries previously expelled portuguese forts little brought considerable changes ecclesiastical situation appointment vicar felt holy critical importance pressured church authorities appoint native priest vicar resulted appointment andrew post died nomination papers reach recommendation vicar general joseph pope appointed bishop thomas bishop vicar propaganda august purpose providing spiritual leadership christians went moved served bishop entered conflict archbishop consequently jurisdiction despite pope letter appointment propaganda conflict ensued divided catholics sides recognised authority archbishop versus supported portuguese refused recognise bishop appointment vigorously opposed activities archbishop sudden death july complicated matters cathedral chapter following vacancy created death forbade catholics receiving bishop priests appointed turn bishop catholics authorities priests holy appointed priest joseph vicar asked submit bishop showed letter appointment convinced legitimacy submitted bishop brought truce managed persuade bishop delegate jurisdiction retaining post catholics brought jurisdiction archbishop church oldest churches south built bishop thomas church lady erected portuguese churches lady mercy francisco francis erected portuguese south time churches mentioned italian traveller visited sultan ali entered alliance sultan simultaneous attack portuguese territories attacked ended portuguese influence region especially renowned christianity fearing persecution catholics fled south second wave settled century continual migration catholics southwards considerable number catholics settled christian came wave belonged attacks empire century precipitated major wave founder empire attacked town north began campaign death april son ascended throne onslaught northern territories drove nearly christians migrated south migration increased fall portuguese province north included direct threat existence according estimate district rate annually jesuit priests estimated christians emigrated district going southward government report presently archives records christians fled districts invasion raids christians migrated south new migrants given lands kings kings later years migration slowed wars christians returned according catholics numbered subsequent steady rise south catholic population portuguese took advantage opportunity extend control catholics came identified portuguese interests portuguese sought expand power priests beginning empire priests accompanied portuguese diplomatic missions occasion principal treaties signed progressively incorporated clauses increased authority priests local catholic population making priests matters christian laws granting priests authority punish violations portuguese promised refrain cows halt conversions factories terms treaties honoured portuguese result hostilities broke portuguese catholic settlers harassed arrested post migration era captivity capital kingdom community catholics community severely harassed following decades churches destroyed priest house confiscated destruction undertaken king finance minister priest house returned church relations catholics improved anti christian resident priest expelled forbidden preach anti christian followed better relations groups onwards ali distinguished soldier army took facto control throne kingdom dynasty occupied catholics numbered february british captured end son sultan defeated british recaptured fort conquest informed catholics helped british conquest believed behaviour christians amounted sovereign christians alleged helped general sum summoned portuguese officer christian priests suggest punishment catholics portuguese officer suggested death penalty catholics helped british fitting punishment people betrayed sovereign exhibited diplomatic stance imprisoned christians killing later opened negotiations portuguese result agreement suspicion clergy christians removed regime catholic community continued flourish death second anglo war december british captured fort succeeded son sultan laid assaults fort january resulted failure fort finally delivered british january received highly exaggerated reports role catholics help british second anglo war british threat kingdom sultan rage islam began breast banished catholic community lands imprisoned capital empire captivity catholics began february ended remains memory history soon treaty gained control issued orders seize christians estates fort route accomplished secret planned ash wednesday february accounts number captives differ ranging generally accepted figure records forced climb nearly feet dense western mountain ranges routes group travelled route falls route miles journey took weeks according manuscript written catholic return died march hunger disease ill treatment soldiers camp fort catholic leaders thrown fort christian churches south church church razed ground land owned captured christians taken distributed favourites freed belongings disappeared deserted lands cultivated arriving christian captives forcibly embrace islam tortured sentenced death young men refused embrace islam cutting upper lips ears seated city thrown dungeons historian author storm incredible story ali sultan states contrary popular belief christians kept dungeons von pastor german historian author history close middle ages volume saying countless catholics hanged including women children dragged elephants able bodied young men drafted army converted islam young women girls distributed wives muslim officers favourites living according survivor captivity person escaped found ordered cutting ears nose feet hand punishment continued followed brief period catholic families managed escape resumed british modern era battle british_army officers george harris david arthur stormed fortress breached town killed death fourth anglo war catholics freed captivity catholics taken captive christians historian mentions survived captivity christians british general arthur helped return south lands remaining christians freed thousand went hundreds settled according francis returned vicinity migrated bombay presidency mentions persons returned south north according michael present catholic community descended entirely small group survivors later british took south took census region people living south christians thomas appointed collector june passed orders respect estates christians taken non christians captivity assistance church support christians able recover lands estates catholic priest appointed vicar lady december took interest establishment community later british general john appointed collector south took active restoration catholic community possessions recovery estates constructed church completed catholic households population population doubled according parish books catholics numbered south churches earlier destroyed rebuilt community prospered british jurisdiction archbishop opening protestant german mission brought industries cotton weaving tile manufacturing region led large scale rise employment political situation portugal turmoil santa portuguese priest appointed archbishop elect september pope gregory catholics accept leadership instead submitted vicar continued jurisdiction roman catholic parishes south divided groups leadership catholic priest john joseph catholic judge catholics sent petition holy establish separate conceding request pope gregory established separate february mission transferred french bull dated january regime catholics constantly sent holy send start institutions higher education students frequently bombay madras educational purposes pope leo brief september handed mission italian jesuit naples reached december italian played important role education health social welfare community built college chapel joseph seminary institutions churches january pope leo established diocese considered important landmark community history later half 19th century catholics involved tile industry coffee plantations trade plantation products prospered british competed local offices service british overwhelming majority catholics continued remain later 19th century started migrating urban areas especially bombay calcutta madras catholics came bombay economic necessity permanent settlement catholics bombay recorded 1890s catholic settlement madras recorded 1940s catholic politician actively participated uniting catholic community british indian independence movement catholics accounted total christians south numbered mid-20th century victor bishop erected large cross near hills outskirts honour memory catholic died march year captivity 1970s coastal communication increased bombay introduction ships london based trade firm shepherd ships facilitated entry catholics bombay diocese estimated population catholics total south population amounts cent population notable post independence era event pertaining catholics occurred southern national headlines attacks christian religious institutions september geographical distribution roman catholic diocese estimates population catholics areas comprise historical south total population approximately cent population regions india having significant proportion catholics characterised presence catholic organisations celebration unique catholic festival delhi mumbai catholics found tiny pockets concentrated mainly descended catholics fled persecution sultan catholic scattered globe catholics found persian gulf arab states middle_east catholic association sydney estimated catholic families live sydney australia lot second generation families multi racial married anglo saxon spanish italian greek michael estimated approximately half catholics reside towns south district remaining half cent reside parts cent reside mumbai neighbouring areas cent reside persian gulf countries cent reside parts india remaining cent reside parts world culture architecture german missionary set tile factory called mission tile factory catholics learnt technique preparing tiles tile factory indian tile factory started south catholics actively involved manufacturing tiles tile factory established simon catholic bombay tile manufacturing factories owned christians tiles prepared hard clay great demand india sri_lanka shipped east africa middle_east europe australia tiles recommended government buildings india define skyline urban setting urban rural housing follows traditional variety brick structures tile sloped roofs inside house hall present large present house traditional houses tend red cement floors fruit trees outside house old catholic houses south bear traces portuguese influence tall windows pointed roofs portuguese influenced architectural features century old houses cuisine historically catholic diet completely vegetarian changed 20th century advent meat came consumed increasingly community especially elite leaves common ingredients pork popular dishes catholic community fish milk traditional served ceremony dish leaves stuffed rice popular sweet prepared christmas include varieties fish rice form staple diet catholics par boiled rice known red rice traditional rice eaten preferred raw rice names bilingual names having variants english like portuguese meaning john common catholics catholic names males follow second women names follow young girls names follow second portuguese like common catholics generally follow second european found catholics use native language forms language contexts english forms english language contexts instead families use original original actually names classes persons lord merchant warrior writer exception trace origins ancestral pre conversion catholics called capture tradition reverted use names consisting post conversion conjunction ancestral ones unique catholic surname found catholics hail language literature catholics speak language retained mother tongue despite migration language central community identity speak dialect known catholic broadly identifies dialect catholic dialect sanskrit influences preserves features uses languages written script dialect distinguish developed language practical business disappeared influence portuguese entered portuguese items found catholic dialect half related religious terminology influence portuguese found sets phrases prayers come pre migration era catholic dialect largely derived north dialect bears good degree modern dialect spoken north christians north south slightly lesser extent standard dialect consequently differs dialect spoken south derived bears good degree modern south dialect spoken south christians north closer catholics italian arrived devoted study development responsible revival language origin literature dates francis italian jesuit published english dictionary published book grammar revised version periodical treasure published louis popular periodicals published include guardian heritage donation twentieth century literature focused themes like suffering catholics year captivity oppression catholics novel written script bombay small catholic community periodicals like ups downs youth george traveller lamp published modern literature diverse includes themes indian politics books like george historical awakening books children history christians sexual desires revised novel desire richard michael published encyclopedia catholic community exceeds pages covers thousand families researched far ancestry traced far launched include worldwide international distinguished catholics catholic community professional history william robert translated complete bible english work entitled bible written script published based bible committee diocese released bible script entitled holy book available online july traditions festivals catholics retained indian customs traditions especially visible celebration marriage culture traditional indian portuguese traded frequently priests arriving region portuguese develop community identified portugal portuguese culture catholics uniform rituals belong stock non stock marriage rites share similarities sub mainly pre christian marriage rites portuguese found prohibited ceremony conducted days wedding celebrates day bride involves parents blessing bride groom mixture milk oil cross inscribed bride forehead marriage traditions include exchange pod leaves marriage ceremony known changing hands formal acceptance promise bride father father daughter marriage bride adorned wedding wedding necklace rites include giving away bride formally father guardian bride invitation bride house singing hymns non marriage traditions include food prepared new corn blessing new addition common christian festivals like christmas good friday easter community celebrates festivals religious historical significance major festivals celebrated september combines blessed virgin mary blessing new crops festival derives church south initiated catholic priest sultan destroyed churches spared church friendship father ali festival feast lawrence celebrated lawrence shrine outskirts south shrine existence said history procession annual religious procession led bishop church cathedral procession held sunday new year calendar seeks new year costumes ornaments catholic men traditionally wore long loose white black coats known similar loose coats buttons loose shirt piece cloth usually yards long wrapped waist legs waist called usually flattened like long white piece cloth golden tied head like particular manner easily identified catholics modern times mode changed older people seen wearing traditional dress church going occasions marriage women wear piece cloth longer feet feet wide wrapped body waist jacket long called cover upper body dress sign bride worn ceremony wrapped waist end thrown shoulder wear end thrown shoulder known exclusive right married woman married women wear general way form popular dress females catholic bride wedding known usually red coloured finely woven silk decorated elaborate days bride wore head red cloth feet square gold ornaments absent days bride went church dressed virgin girl modern times bride wears place red end thrown shoulder wrapped waist bride wears gold ornaments rings fingers golden ornaments worn bride days included consist ordinary upper gold worn hair sides head ears way church bride wears white red flowers stuck hair centre forehead bang gold chain placed necklace black gold wire single chain double chain connecting necklace worn long husband alive widow expected highly prized women symbol married state widow expected wear black remainder life allowed wear ornaments dress early times consisted short hand woven cloth cover shoulders red head later dress consisted white red gold shirt gold buttons coat shoulders head wore neck chain neck wore pair pair present catholic couples opt white wedding wears suit bride wears white wedding gown traditional style wedding rare historical society catholics retained system ancestors mainly divided biggest group converts class sub especially merchants christian descendants converts comprised majority divided according rank sub divided highest class names taken villages belonged group constituted landed gentry accordance traditional hindu law allowed practice occupation cultivation lands leased tenants second largest group converts warrior class merchant class generally engaged trade commercial converts formed biggest group known word labour class workers agricultural labourers engaged service converts fisher residing places called formed fourth group cultivated lands high minor included historian assumes local converts catholics constituted small community widely scattered south district closely united group catholic immigrants associate native catholics account origin language strongly divided including indigenous belonging sub groups associate catholics admit houses account religion close contact kept catholics refugees catholics invite hindu cousins festivities birth celebrations weddings funeral accepted unlike hindu counterpart high catholic consider physical contact member lower members different invite home dinner marriage members permitted matches strictly discouraged elders instance boy marry girl boy marry girl invite neighbours friends belonging special occasions weddings observe certain restrictions regards sitting eating lower felt honoured invited usually accepted upper usually attend ceremonies lower invited system continues persist catholics times figure prominently formation marriage alliances difficult priests accompanied christian south look properly system came existence catholic men good moral character selected christian settlements entrusted social religious supervision community migration possible occupation catholic agriculture skilled farmers farmer practised primitive crafts industries non existent mass celebrated latin sermon mysteries delivered congregation parishes grouped called parish divided parish councils present parishes percent households parishes widow remain indoors practically rest life high hindu death husbands high christians considered widow unnatural canon law allow direct prohibition society christians south women courage strict conventions community widow remarried looked ill treated stigma attached husband succession property practised hindu laws songs music january cultural event held catholic organisation entered book world records non stop singing hymns members sang hours surpassing old record hours held brazilian musical troupe lutheran evangelical community lutheran university brazil silver band started lawrence oldest popular brass bands known hymn jesus entered garden written 18th century catholic priest held captive sultan mission wrote hymn jesus love translated latin hymn mater title holy cross joseph hymns master popular popular hymns composed catholics listen christian people wake creatures heaven pop music popular indian independence henry helen known love duet love ballad lamp house 1970s loved thee popular plays especially religious ones written staged 20th century prominent john popular musical instrument played especially weddings instrument form pot open sides end covered skin wild animal left open traditional theatre form called performed eve marriage connection marriage celebrations decorated stage play conducted males belonging parties usually takes place nights plays performed usually biblical stories morals presented purpose bride tradition completely died present generation tradition wedding songs sung women important community procedure elderly lady usually wife master ceremonies known knows leads song rest women sing women husbands living sing ancient times wedding songs expressed sentiments gave vent feelings people marriage partners families blessing god organisations organisations cater community south notable broke record non stop singing catholic association south session catholic world convention took place december convention aimed establish institutions conduct research history catholics india catholic association established catholic association established february known united_kingdom united association nottingham popular catholic association victoria established melbourne organisation community australia catholic association sydney established australia north_america association canada christian association chicago known middle_east cultural association established march


people group speaking described hunter madagascar inhabit forest patch mixed forest dry deciduous forest coast southwestern madagascar predominantly origin term describes lifestyle ethnic group individuals variety ethnic groups found family shift prime corn planting territory edge forest rainy season interior forest rich game dry season community highly dependent meet daily demand water lifestyle neighboring fishermen farmers trade products caught cultivated forest occasionally engage paid work guarding tending corn fields present day remnant ancient hunter society instead descendants individuals took refuge forest beginning 1800s escape military conflict heavy taxation oppressive factors way life perceived villagers city alike ancestral contributing inspired myths legends commonly believed mythical original inhabitants island evidence support view individuals known identify community continues exist present day ethnic identity hunter called practice limited farming label applied live lifestyle tied specific ethnicity numerous groups termed west southwest coast madagascar majority living forest southwestern coast area extending square kilometers historically main concentration extended far south river far north river main cluster live west southwest lake typically considered ethnic group individuals trace origins ethnic groups adherence way life perceived villagers city ancestral contributed myths legends believe original inhabitants island evidence support view majority believe existence myth unaware continue live lifestyle present day term principally outsiders label group members community prefer depending specific family history remnants early hunter society researchers remain uncertain adopted forest dwelling hunter lifestyle determined recently established community current population believed descended largely villagers fled forest escape advancing armies 18th 19th centuries colonial french documents dating describe hunter living southwest island population believed uprising french colonial rule families left towns villages hide forests country oil exploration 1950s 1960s entailed cutting paths untouched forests southwest contributed migration villagers forest adopt lifestyle society subject national laws like citizens practice national laws government social services reach population dwelling forest forest form self government eldest male family member having main decision making authority group contrast certain ethnic groups complex form social organization system specific social roles assigned particular family groups estimated living lifestyle primarily forest area receives limited rainfall number estimated 1950s suggesting growth population true number people living forest difficult estimate accuracy label flexible degree reliance opposed seasonal farming vary significantly given time depending economic environmental conditions subject social stigma linked image primitive people housing social organization vary individual community remain forest entire lives live lives villages towns living forest groups typically nearest critical resources rainy season live groups people near tracts virgin forest proximity newly cleared planted corn fields houses settlement square peaked roofs madagascar typically bark wooden pole frame houses loosely generous space lodging rainy season serves years base forest foraging resource requires new location working corn fields live simple grass shelters alongside crops april return bark houses dry season october splits smaller groups relocate deeper forest settle near patches dwellings limited brush shelters individuals living shelters types settlements furniture nearly non existent typically sleep sand pits dug base giant struggle ensure quality life seek forest long provided basic needs population growth resources addition increasingly seeking obtain better quality material goods clothing greater engagement external economy trade wage labor earn local currency lack access social services education health taking toll health clinic forest area low access water bathing rates diseases tuberculosis skin disease prevalent family affiliation tend trace lineage specific villages main associated respectively northern southern central parts forest relatives living villages region families established relationship commonly found southern eastern africa clan indicates degree typically family groups consist elder couple married sons daughters law grandchildren marriages elder couple unmarried children age adult daughters typically join husband family marriage married couples share time husband wife parents family unions formed ceremony man presented intended bride family acceptance parents union children marriage husband presents wife parents relationship wife brother male mother children strong marriages commonly adopt children sister husband husband wife right divorce time practiced religious affiliation like spiritual belief system revolves respect ancestors share common belief creator god termed believe types forest spirits associated certain natural spots forest deemed sacred sites serve focus ceremonies spiritual symbolic significance greatest nature spirits lord forest extended family group spreads multiple united central priest figure major family ceremonies dedicated ancestors addition interprets ancestors spirits plays important roles ceremonies marriage ancestral rituals spirit possession ceremonies practice forms provide spiritual advice best days places hunt plant shift camp events daily life culture culturally nearly identical neighboring fishing clan farming clan traditional source distinguishes groups popular association ancestral clan contributed widespread belief possess attributes small stature shy contact outsiders living perfect harmony natural environment borne evidence known masks rarity madagascar human teeth hair dance music music significant social spiritual life specific songs associated wide range life events ceremonies including magical healing rituals spirit possession martial arts matches ceremonies music vocal making use shouts vocal effects addition singing percussion accompaniment ranging drums shells lava instrument played bow performed ancient instruments increasingly rare madagascar performed men costly instruments like wooden box bamboo tube certain sacred rituals ancestors player typically paid monetary tribute perform ceremonial music songs accompanied specific dances rituals continue practiced daily life language speak dialect language branch language group derived languages spoken southern borneo dialect close spoken fishing clan clan people economy arid conditions forest receives millimeters rainfall year largely shape economic activities nearly consume forest average needs hours collect adequate food day main source food particularly dry season foods reliably available adults children work dig metal tipped digging stick digging bowl boiled eating eat raw use water boiling foods dried ground flour sold village markets gather forest fruits honey particularly important source income rainy season obtain water rainy season capture rain run houses logs transport water foot drawn wagon villages cool dry season consume store water drink water natural man wells possible key protein sources include birds adults children sexes use clubs kill small kilograms widespread year round larger kilograms mainly caught rainy season lesser extent hunt trap species feral cats occasional wild turtles spears dogs use hook line catch fish inland lakes raise animals food sale market including goats chickens guinea tree nuts provide additional protein principal crop corn introduced madagascar 1890s occasionally grow dry season cut new corn fields burned october agriculture locally termed planted november december rains begin fall corn harvested months later consumed wet season surplus dried sold saved following year planting consumption traders gather process international export significant profit live relationship neighboring farmers fishing clan live primarily food forest grow seasonal crops mobility reliance opposed crop growing shifts response changes environmental economic pressures availability resources community neighbors sell forest products woven food animals raise weekly markets nearby villages obtain clothing medicine migrate periods time work local villages town hired work villagers cutting forest villagers corn fields guarding villagers occasionally acquire addition lieu payment seen form wealth mainly sacrificed ancestral ceremonies eaten food rainy season time likely leave wage labor opportunities villages corn harvest time villagers likely forest grow corn