history poland dynasty history poland dynasty major stage history poland period lasted 10th 14th century poland established state nation middle ages european history history poland founding dynasty listed chronicler rule proper founder polish state indigenous ruling house largely responsible formation state remained power chose baptized western latin rite established major cultural boundary europe completed unification west slavic tribal lands fundamental existence new country poland following emergence polish state series rulers converted population christianity created strong kingdom integrated poland european culture son established polish church province pursued territorial conquests officially crowned king poland monarchy collapsed death followed restoration son bold brought military fatally involved conflict bishop expelled country iii duke early period succeeded defending country recovering territories previously lost death poland divided sons resulting internal eroded initial monarchy structure 12th 13th centuries caused fundamental lasting changes invited knights help fight baltic prussian led centuries poland warfare knights german prussian state kingdom restored elbow high strengthened expanded son iii great western provinces lost poland began expanding east period ended reigns members dynasty consolidation 14th century laid base new powerful kingdom poland follow 10th 12th century adoption christianity tribe lit people fields greater poland gave rise tribal predecessor polish state early 10th century settling emerging strongholds accelerated rebuilding old tribal fortified settlements construction massive new ones territorial expansion took place process continued polish state developed tribal roots second half century according chronicler ruled dynasty existing sources ruler mentioned chronicle 10th century germany reported forces twice defeated tribes acting cooperation saxon exile younger rule tribal state accepted christianity polish state viability emerging state assured persistent territorial expansion early rulers beginning small area town existed expansion lasted 10th century resulting territory present day poland tribe conquered merged slavic tribes formed tribal federation later centralized state addition lesser poland country taken czech state later 10th century state reached mature form including main regions regarded polish lands totaled km2 area approximate population million initially pagan ruler tribal union known contemporary written sources detailed account aspects early reign given ibn jewish traveler according slavic kings established central southern europe allied duke time married duke daughter christian princess conversion christianity western latin rite followed april considered founding event polish state aftermath victory force led missionary bishop appointed action intended eastern expansion established time state complex political relationship german holy roman empire friend ally vassal paying tribute western lands fought wars saxon eastern march battle victories allowed extend possessions west vicinity river mouth death death supported henry imperial crown death married german von daughter northern march fighting helped holy roman empire year officially submitted country authority holy transformed poland strongest powers central eastern_europe church province conquests kingdom poland died contrary ruler poland intended minor sons lost power struggle oldest son sole ruler poland man high ambition strong personality embarked territorial expansion west region south east successful campaigns gains turned passing significance badly strained resources young nation lost economically crucial farther new region previously conquered great effort ruled began reign continuing father policy alliance holy roman empire received helped family connected czech bishop exile missionary killed mission prussia took advantage death gave poland patron saint resulted creation independent polish province church archbishop year young emperor iii came visit grave lent support congress subordinate established occasion polish ecclesiastical province effectively served essential anchor institution fall state helping survive troubled centuries ahead died relationship successor henry_ii turned difficult resulting series wars intervened militarily czech conflicts forces removed retained marriage son niece emperor iii future mother took place conflicts germany ended peace accord favorable terms context expedition took western red shortly death brave finally succeeded obtaining papal permission crown king poland collapse reign king tried continue politics father kingdom great power actions reinforced old resentment hostility poland neighbors brothers took advantage arranging german invasions defeated forced leave country later brothers killed partially recovered monarchy collapsed death deprived government poland ravaged anti feudal pagan rebellion forces country suffered territorial losses functioning disrupted restoration nation recovery son duke properly known returning exile rebuilt polish monarchy country territorial integrity military campaigns taken aided recent adversaries poland holy roman empire disliked chaos poland introduced mature form relieved burden financing large army units duke treasury settling warriors feudal estates faced widespread destruction greater poland czech expedition moved court replacing old capitals functioned nation capital centuries conflict bishop son bold known generous ruled developed polish military strength waged foreign campaigns active supporter papal feud german emperor crowned king blessing pope gregory vii anti conspiracy conflict involved bishop bishop executed subsequently forced polish throne pressure catholic_church pro imperial faction nobility second martyr patron saint poland exile country found unstable rule younger brother ruled strongly dependent sons finally forced remove hated protégé poland divided father death brothers iii power struggle iii ruled duke poland defeating half brother leave country received support emperor henry attacked poland able defend country military abilities determination alliances national social spectrum battle later returned eliminated major achievement conquest remaining eastern lost poland death task begun father completed subdued bloody takeover western directly incorporated southern ruled locally duke griffin dynasty time region initiated earnest effort crowned establishment diocese death realm died divided country limited sense sons complex arrangements intended prevent warfare preserve polish state formal unity death plan implementation failed reality long period nearly centuries clergy nobility control divided kingdom stability system supposedly assured institution senior high duke poland based assigned special province subdivided following concept divided country greater poland provinces given sons independent rulers fifth province province added senior princes grand duke representative poland principle broke generation iii sons exile iii old fought power territory poland particular throne external borders left iii death closely resembled borders left original early monarchy configuration survived period culture time baptism poland ruling elite foreign arriving culture early medieval poland developing european generations time conversion significant numbers native appeared establishment numerous monasteries 12th 13th centuries populace accomplished larger scale intellectual artistic activity concentrated institutions church courts kings emerged households rising hereditary elite written annals began generated late 10th century leaders like considered educated act important written document source period chronicle foreign court number pre stone churches built beginning 10th century accompanied ruler buildings proper followed earliest coins doors cathedral bronze low relief finest example sculpture pioneering western spreading church literacy prominent writings produced monasteries poland early monastic religious orders abbey founded 13th century state society german settlement 13th century brought fundamental changes structure polish society political system constant internal conflicts unable stabilize poland external borders early rulers western farther broke political ties poland second half 12th century extended possessions east taking areas independent polish mid 13th century bald granted land possible creation far reaching negative consequences integrity western border south east white unable preserve poland supremacy area territory changed hands number occasions social status increasingly based size feudal land possessions included lands controlled princes rivals great lay land owners church entities way class work force ranged hired free people attached land slaves purchased war prisoners upper layer feudal lords church able acquire economic legal immunity exempt significant degree court jurisdiction economical obligations including taxation previously imposed ruling civil strife foreign invasions invasions weakened small polish country progressively subdivided increasing demand labor developing economy caused massive immigration west european peasants german settlers poland early waves germany flanders german polish new rural settlements form feudal immunity german town laws utilized legal bases german immigrants important rise cities establishment polish city dwelling merchants class brought west european laws rights customs poles adopted time germans created early strong establishments led especially urban centers regions western poland increasingly influential minority poland acts passed signed law iii titular duke poland promised provide noble law according council bishops barons legal guarantees privileges included lower level land owners knights evolving lower middle nobility class known later period weakened rulers established permanent trend polish history rights role nobility expanded monarch expense knights invited knights help fight pagan baltic prussian people lived territory adjacent lands substantial border warfare taking place province suffering prussian invasions hand old time subjected increasingly forced including sponsored largely ineffective efforts order soon authority moved area granted land following decades conquered large areas baltic_sea coast established monastic state virtually western baltic converted prussian conquests completed knights confronted poland lithuania pagan state europe wars poland lithuania continued 14th 15th centuries state prussia populated german settlers beginning 13th century claimed protected holy roman emperors attempts national division increasingly apparent segments society begun making efforts aimed polish state important earlier attempts activities henry son henry_ii pious killed fighting battle henry greater poland duke crowned king poland ruled territory poland including assassinated soon coronation extensive unification polish lands accomplished foreign ruler dynasty married daughter king poland heavy handed policies soon caused lose support earlier reign died important factor unification process polish church remained single ecclesiastical province period archbishop ardent proponent poland performed ceremonies supported stages duke career culture culturally social impact church considerably broader 13th century networks parishes established cathedral type schools common leading monastic orders time interacted closely general population narrative annals characterized period written records laws documents clergy local origin expected know polish language author influential chronicle recognized representative intellectual sphere treatise monk finest achievements medieval science construction churches castles gothic architecture style 13th century native elements art forms increasingly important significant advances taking place agriculture manufacturing crafts 14th century reunited kingdom rulers elbow high son great rulers dynasty unified kingdom poland 14th century rule return polish state existed period loss internal territorial integrity regional princes remained strong economic cultural reasons poland neighbors kingdom lost highly developed economically important original polish lands designation case slavic western left half polish population outside kingdom borders western losses failure unification efforts undertaken german expansion processes included developing falling respect german political structures colonization gradual polish ruling circles lower controlled order fully incorporated polish state soon stabilized western northern borders tried regain lost territories partially compensated losses new eastern expansion placed kingdom regions east slavic non polish despite territorial 14th century poland experienced period accelerated economic development increasing prosperity included expansion modernization agricultural settlements development towns greater role growing trade mining great monetary reform implemented reign iii jewish settlement taking place poland early times duke pious greater poland granted statute privilege specified broad range freedoms religious practices movement trading rights jews creating legal precedent official protection local harassment exclusion act jews foundation future jewish prosperity polish kingdom later followed comparable legal following series jews western_europe jewish communities established western southern poland 13th century brest east 14th century king received jewish refugees germany helping accelerate jewish expansion poland continue world war german urban rural settlements long lasting ethnic feature elbow high ruled began obscure duke fought lifelong battle powerful adversaries persistence determination died king partially reunited poland left kingdom situation area king control limited unresolved issues remained saved poland existence state supported hungarian allies returned exile challenged death iii iii murder terminated dynasty involvement poland completed takeover lesser poland entering took lands north way conquered state recovery effort agreed ask help knights knights brutally took kept rebellion instigated city leadership seeking rule house event limiting impact emerging political power towns conquered greater poland king poland crowned cathedral coronation agreed pope john despite opposition john claimed polish crown john undertook expedition aimed compelled waged crusade lithuania alliance order order state war poland battle knights captured land helped alliances hungary daughter elizabeth married king charles robert lithuania pact state marriage son daughter lithuanian ruler peace agreement lasting achievement john poland greatest loss forcing ambivalent allegiance iii great death old monarch year old son king iii later known great ruled unlike father new king hardships military life contemporaries chance overcoming country mounting difficulties succeeding leader beginning acted purchasing john claims polish throne settled high level arbitration disputes order territorial compromise culminating treaty peace treaty concluded polish war land recovered time poland started expand east series military campaigns annexed area town attracted newcomers granted municipal rights begun career main polish center midst orthodox population supported hungary polish king promised hungarian ruling house polish throne event dies male heirs formally gave rights unsuccessfully tried recover region conducting military activities blocked attempted separation charles later death pursued polish claim legally pope successors continued efforts allied denmark western granted order eternal charity able impose western border poland district taken outright land connection state connecting poland farther great considerably solidified country position foreign domestic affairs domestically integrated centralized reunited polish state helped develop considered crown polish kingdom state actual past potential legal polish point view boundaries established strengthened kingdom wide institutions powerful state treasury independent regional class royal court related interests internationally polish king active cultivated close contacts european rulers staunch defender polish national interest sponsored congress number monarchs participated concerned promotion peaceful cooperation political balance central europe louis dynasty immediately death king nephew louis hungary dynasty assumed polish throne actual commitment succession problematic beginning polish king adopted grandson louis engaged succession negotiations polish knights nobility starting supported return guarantees privileges formal act negotiated coronation louis returned hungary left mother sister elizabeth poland regent death great period hereditary monarchy poland came end land owners nobles want strong monarchy constitutional monarchy established beginnings general dominant parliament future reign louis poland formed union hungary pact privilege polish nobility granted extensive concessions agreed extend succession louis daughters louis sons louis neglect polish affairs resulted loss territorial gains including recovered queen husband annexed central polish lands separating lesser poland greater poland previously granted king louis ally duke hungarian polish union lasted years ended war louis death ensuing power struggle polish nobility decided louis youngest daughter king poland arrived crowned age failure union poland hungary paved way union lithuania poland culture 14th century large scale brick building projects undertaken reign including construction gothic churches castles urban fortifications homes wealthy city residents notable architecture medieval period poland churches representing polish gothic style medieval sculpture painting ornamental best expressed churches items polish law codified statutes great statutes accordingly conflict resolution relied legal proceedings domestically negotiations treaties increasingly important international relations time network cathedral parish schools developed great based papal concession established university second oldest university central europe traveled southern western_europe university studies polish language predominant latin increasingly present written documents holy cross early 14th century constitute possibly oldest extant polish prose manuscript

History of Poland during the Piast dynasty


drew stone circles drew stone circles outside village drew english county somerset largest stone circle great circle metres diameter second largest stone circle britain considered largest monuments built date construction known thought bce places late early bronze age scheduled monument great circle surrounded ditch accompanied smaller stone circles north east south west group stones known cove garden local pub slightly great circle single stone known stones vertical majority longer present stone circles studied john visit excavations site 18th century late 20th early 21st centuries surveys confirmed size stone circles identified additional pits cove shown thousand years older stone circles variety myths legends stone circles recorded including dancers celebration turned stone monument famous feature great circle second largest stone circle britain stone circle metres diameter probably consisted stones survive today recorded john william great circle probably surrounded ditch approximately metres outer diameter filled north east circle metres diameter probably consisted stones survive today south west circle metres diameter stones surviving today avenue extends northeast great circle river second avenue meets north eastern stone circle standing stone called lies river north alignment centres great circle southern circle large stone close farm mid 17th century assumed originally upright described feet long half length suggesting fragments occasionally broken roads referred presence second stone west cove standing stones slab found garden arms public house different heights stone north east metres south western metres north eastern metres stones cove different nearby stone circles long burial chamber found stones cove thought erection stones approximately thousand years excavations site surveyed mapped john wood elder noted different stones suggested layout based system thought university stones fell mid 17th century human bones discovered accompanied object described round bell like large horse bell burial date purpose bell like object unknown survey work english_heritage revealed surrounding ditch concentric rings stone circle pits metre metres intervals stood rings site ditch metres diameter metres wide metres wide entrance visible north east surrounding bank identified site excavation work transformed traditional view drew surface monument great circle seen largest impressive monuments built analogous circles sites walls sanctuary thought pits held posts supported roof size concentric rings held posts metre diameter nearby north east smaller ring stones centre work identified pits ring stones measuring metres wide stands south west survey july investigated standing stones garden arms public house known cove showed stones date nearly thousand years stone circles conclusion study upright stones likely façade tomb survey carried bath archaeological society bath north east somerset archaeological officer involved high data density resistance profiles photographic surveys showed new entrance detail post holes myths drew stone circle site astronomical common theory explain positioning stones drew similarly evidenced theories relating lines theories suggest site dedicated ritual local traditional stories complex best known tells wedding party turned stone party held saturday man clothed black devil disguise came started play violin midnight continuing holy sunday morning dawn broke everybody turned stone demon stone circles dancers avenues cove bride groom drunken feet awaiting devil promised come someday play wade wade book somerset suggest place save time looked approaching village enter iron gate yards reaching search backwards bordering road large stone legend says sir church famous remains found near church yards entrance churchyard lane leading orchard stones observed field admission free field closed sundays remains consist circles considerable area marked large stones remain upright smaller circle stones lies circle found farther away orchard larger circles scattered stones thrown kind avenue standing apart circles curious group stones garden churchyard easily seen looking boundary wall mystic rings probably origin famous circle wiltshire compared proximity comparable hill ridiculous theory suggests erected trophy arthur victories arthur connected site site nearby village reputed location oral tradition stones reddish similar described legend connected sword seen stone near country story local wedding took place sunday guests insist winding dance penalty prompt transformation party stone local


prague spring prague spring czech period political czechoslovakia era domination soviet_union world war began january alexander elected secretary communist_party czechoslovakia continued august soviet_union members warsaw pact invaded country halt reforms prague spring reforms strong attempt grant additional rights citizens czechoslovakia act partial economy freedoms granted included restrictions media speech travel national discussion dividing country federation slovakia oversaw decision split czech_republic republic formal change survived end prague spring relative success resistance undoubtedly facilitated peaceful transition liberal democracy collapse soviet reforms especially administrative authority received soviets failed negotiations sent half million warsaw pact troops tanks occupy country large wave emigration swept nation spirited non violent resistance mounted country involving attempted painting turning street signs occasion entire invasion force poland routed country day wandering defiance etc soviet military predicted days subdue country resistance held months diplomatic sporadic acts violence self jan military resistance czechoslovakia remained controlled velvet revolution ended pro soviet rule peacefully undoubtedly drawing successes non violent resistance years earlier resistance iconic example civilian based defense unarmed civilian constitute ways occasionally applied directly military paramilitary threats invasion czechoslovakia entered period subsequent leaders attempted restore political economic values prevailed gained control replaced president reversed reforms prague spring inspired music literature work milan novel background process czechoslovakia begun late 1950s early 1960s progressed slowly states eastern following lead proclaimed completion socialism new constitution accordingly adopted socialist republic pace change sluggish rehabilitation era victims convicted trials considered early place early 1960s czechoslovakia underwent economic soviet model applied poorly czechoslovakia czechoslovakia world war soviet model mainly took account developed economies attempt restructuring economy new economic model spurred increased demand political reform writers congress strict regime eased rules union writers began air discontent union gazette members suggested literature independent party doctrine june small fraction czech writer union radical specifically milan jan months later party meeting decided administrative actions writers openly expressed support reformation taken small union held beliefs remaining members relied discipline colleagues control publishing houses transferred ministry culture members party later major including endorsed moves rise power president losing support alexander secretary regional communist_party slovakia economist challenged meeting central committee invited soviet premier prague december seeking support surprised extent opposition supported removal czechoslovakia leader replaced secretary january march resigned presidency replaced later gave consent reforms early signs change communist_party czechoslovakia member interviewed article entitled lies ahead insisted appointment january goals socialism maintain working class nature communist_party right assumed power scholar chairman union writers editor chief previously hard line communist weekly filled party loyalists tested boundaries devotion freedom press appeared television interview new head union february entire nation openly criticized exposing previously policies explaining preventing progress czechoslovakia despite official government statement allowed freedom press trial reforms suffered repercussions instead began build sense trust media government citizens journal changed february writers union published copy censor free august circulation making published periodical europe socialism human face 20th anniversary czechoslovakia victorious february delivered speech explaining need change following triumph socialism emphasized need enforce leading role party effectively acknowledged despite better relations society party heavy handed trivial issues declared party mission build advanced socialist society sound economic foundations socialism corresponds historical democratic traditions czechoslovakia accordance experience communist parties april launched action programme included increasing freedom press freedom speech freedom movement economic emphasis consumer goods possibility government programme based view socialism mean liberation working people domination exploiting class relations provisions fuller life personality democracy limit power secret police provide equal nations programme covered foreign policy including maintenance good relations western countries cooperation soviet_union eastern nations spoke year transition democratic elections possible new form democratic socialism replace status quo drafted action programme careful criticize actions post war communist regime point policies felt instance immediate post war situation required directive administrative methods fight remnants antagonistic classes said defeated achievement socialism methods longer necessary reform needed economy join scientific technical revolution world relying era heavy industry labour power raw materials furthermore internal class conflict overcome workers duly rewarded qualifications technical skills programme suggested necessary ensure important positions filled capable educated socialist expert order compete capitalism stipulated reform proceed direction popular pressure mounted implement reforms immediately radical elements vocal anti soviet appeared press formal censorship june social democrats began form separate party new political clubs created party conservatives urged measures emphasized leadership communist_party czechoslovakia april announced political programme socialism human face announced fourteenth party congress early session september congress incorporate action programme party statutes draft law elect new central committee reforms guaranteed freedom press political commentary allowed time mainstream media time prague spring exports declining reforms planned solve troubles mixing planned market economies party varying opinions proceed certain wished mixed economy wanted economy remain socialist continued stress importance economic reform proceeding communist_party rule june leading author journalist published manifesto titled thousand words expressed concern conservative elements called foreign forces called people initiative implementing reform programme party national cabinet denounced manifesto publications media censorship brief period freedom speech press manifestation new policy production previously hard line communist weekly renamed freedom press opened door honest look czechoslovakia past czechoslovakia people investigations centered country history communism especially instance joseph period television appearance presented photographs communist leaders imprisoned executed erased communist history writer union formed committee april headed poet investigate persecution writers communist takeover february literary figures union libraries literary world discussions current state communism abstract ideas freedom identity common soon non party publications began appearing trade union daily labour helped journalists union march convinced central publication board government censor allow editors receive foreign papers allowing international dialogue news press radio television contributed discussions hosting meetings students young workers ask questions writers jan political victims television broadcast meetings political prisoners communist leaders secret police prisons held importantly new freedom press introduction television lives everyday citizens moved political dialogue intellectual popular sphere soviet reaction initial reaction communist mixed hungary highly supportive appointment january grew concerned reforms feared weaken position communist cold war march meeting dresden east germany leaders warsaw ussr hungary poland bulgaria east germany questioned delegation planned reforms suggesting talk critique policies concerned reforms growing criticisms media worried situation similar prologue hungarian language april action programme chosen assert counter revolution planned williams suggests surprised soviet suggestions soviet leadership tried stop limit changes series negotiations soviet_union agreed talks czechoslovakia july near soviet border meeting attendance soviet defended proposals wing commitment warsaw pact leadership divided vigorous supported conservatives adopted anti stance decided compromise delegates reaffirmed loyalty warsaw pact promised curb anti socialist tendencies prevent revival social democratic_party control press effectively soviets agreed withdraw armed forces czechoslovakia manoeuvres june permit september party congress august representatives warsaw czechoslovakia met signed declaration declaration affirmed fidelity declared struggle ideology anti socialist forces soviet_union expressed intention intervene warsaw pact country system system political parties representing different factions capitalist class established conference soviet army left territory remained borders invasion talks proved unsatisfactory soviets began consider military alternative soviet_union policy compelling socialist governments satellite states subordinate national interests eastern military force needed known doctrine night august eastern armies warsaw pact countries soviet_union bulgaria poland hungary invaded night troops tanks entered country occupied international airport air deployment troops arranged forces confined barracks surrounded threat counter attack morning august czechoslovakia occupied romania albania took invasion invasion warsaw pact armies killed slovakia severely wounded slightly injured alexander called people resist scattered resistance streets road signs towns removed painted indicating way moscow small villages renamed navigational equipment invaders confused night invasion declared warsaw pact troops crossed border knowledge government soviet press printed unsigned request allegedly party state leaders immediate assistance including assistance armed forces 14th party congress conducted secretly immediately following intervention emphasized member leadership invited intervention recent evidence suggests conservative members including send request intervention soviets invasion followed previously unseen wave emigration stopped shortly estimated fled immediately eventual total soviets attributed invasion doctrine stated right intervene country eastern appeared making shift capitalism uncertainty occurred warsaw pact armies invade days leading invasion calm period major events taking place czechoslovakia reactions invasion czechoslovakia especially week immediately following invasion popular opposition expressed numerous spontaneous acts resistance january student jan set fire prague square protest renewed suppression free speech civilians purposely gave wrong directions invading soldiers identified followed cars belonging secret police resistance caused soviet_union abandon original plan secretary arrested night august taken moscow negotiations leaders including highest ranked officials president prime minister chairman national assembly signed heavy psychological pressure soviet politicians moscow protocol agreed remain office programme moderate reform continue august citizens soviet_union approve invasion protested red square seven protesters opened banners anti invasion arrested later punished protest dubbed anti soviet pronounced effect took place romania prime secretary romanian staunch opponent soviet influences self declared supporter gave public speech day invasion depicting soviet policies harsh terms albania withdrew warsaw pact opposition calling invasion act social finland country soviet political influence occupation caused major scandal like italian french communist parties communist_party finland denounced occupation nonetheless finnish president western politician officially visit czechoslovakia august received highest honours hands president october portuguese communist secretary general political leaders western_europe supported invasion counter revolutionary party conservative factions greek party countries offered vocal criticism following invasion night invasion canada denmark france united_kingdom united_states requested meeting united_nations security council meeting ambassador jan denounced invasion soviet ambassador jacob insisted warsaw pact actions assistance forces day countries suggested resolution condemning intervention calling immediate withdrawal eventually vote taken members supporting motion algeria india pakistan ussr veto power hungary opposed canadian delegates immediately introduced motion asking representative travel prague work release imprisoned leaders august new representative requested issue removed security council agenda temple black visited prague august prepare ambassador free czechoslovakia august invasion embassy organized convoy vehicles evacuated citizens country august returned prague ambassador months velvet revolution ended years communist rule aftermath april replaced secretary period began expelled given job forestry official reversed reforms party liberal members dismissed public office professional intellectual openly expressed disagreement political transformation worked power police strengthen ties rest communist sought economy considerable freedom granted industries prague spring commentary politics forbidden mainstream media political statements considered political trust banned significant change survived country created czech socialist republic socialist republic soviet leader acknowledged policies owed great deal socialism human face asked difference prague spring reforms foreign ministry spokesman replied nineteen years lent support velvet revolution december collapse communist regime month chairman federal assembly administration later led social democratic_party slovakia spoke dissolution czechoslovakia prior death november censorship warsaw pact invasion included attacks media establishments radio prague television immediately initial tanks rolled prague august radio station television station managed hold time initial broadcasts invasion soviets attack force attacked party censorship reaction invasion august publishers agreed halt production newspapers day allow day reflection editorial writers reporters agreed support limited censorship office long institution months finally september communist_party held new censorship law words moscow approved resolution press radio television instruments carrying life policies party state end media freedom prague spring beginning end november declared press negative remarks soviet invaders risk violating agreement come end august reporter responded harshly threat going far subtly criticize government banned reporter month suspended indefinitely prohibited political programs appearing radio television intellectuals stuck bypass recognized government increasing unsure trust measures temporary demand example believing promises reform milan published article czech destiny december wrote people today falling depression commenting guarantees end badly end censorship trials happen simply weak people live certainty march new soviet backed government instituted censorship effectively ending hopes lead freedoms enjoyed prague spring declaration presented condemning media conspirators soviet_union warsaw pact support measures finally april government adopted measures secure peace order censorship forcing people czechoslovakia wait eastern_europe return free media students prague including constantine czech refugees crisis able escape western countries continued advocate human rights religious liberty freedom speech political asylum czech political prisoners raised concerns soviet_union red army continued military occupation czechoslovakia 1970s 1980s prior fall berlin wall collapse communism moscow eastern_europe cultural impact prague spring deepened western soviet views contributed growth ideas western communist parties sought greater distance soviet_union eventually led dissolution groups decade later period chinese political known beijing spring partly influenced croatian spring yugoslavia czech survey surveyed personal memory linked prague spring familiar events form demonstrations regime changes taking place north_africa middle_east december frequently referred arab spring event referenced popular music including music requiem music prague israeli song prague written performed israel song festival fate city soviet invasion mentions jan self stop spring song irish journalist songwriter john waters represented ireland song contest waters described kind celtic celebration eastern european revolutions eventual outcome quoting alleged comment crush flowers stop spring prague spring featured works literature milan set novel prague spring follows repercussions increased soviet presence police control population film version released eyewitness description invasion czechoslovakia point view soviet tank commander rock roll play award winning czech born english playwright tom references prague spring velvet revolution ends memoir cruel star hand account prague spring subsequent invasion reflections events film adaptation movie director jan screenwriter depicts events prague spring ends invasion soviet_union allies czech musical film depicts events invasion subsequent wave emigration number iconic czechoslovakia hockey player grandfather died prison rebellion wears number importance year history publishing house based toronto publishers published books exiled czech authors took event


german meaning special treatment english existing treat specially refer sort treatment known primarily nazi mass murder came prominence action doctors killed mentally ill disabled patients number words nazis document mass murder genocide notable example term refer equipment crimes gas chambers true meaning widely known april concerned security secret report states disguised language communications issued jewish public intention issuing communications jews order minimize likelihood resistance addresses outside world significantly internal communications officials knew responsible linguistic stipulated language rules background summer action widespread public knowledge germany neutral countries germany enemies august hitler ordered joint chief operation halt public protest continued public eye greater intensity hitler want run risk order publicly embarrassing result explicit order carry holocaust given written instances order certainly destroyed nazis realised defeat inevitable nazis document murder number action doctors document mentally ill handicapped individuals actual plan jews europe called die der final solution jewish question words describe operations included evacuation expulsion removal inhabitants special having migrated directed worked manner accordance speeches october known documents high ranking member nazi government spoke explicitly holocaust war mentions evacuation jews uses point speech says elimination jews briefly middle elimination going middle saying elimination considered quick mental check acceptable use words given audience answer yes private compared incident self opposite way total war speech february begins des switches saying bearing mind speaking publicly resulting des likened elimination english usage term appeared september decree chief state police departments avoid note following distinction dealt usual way given special treatment case covers subjects nature ability serve tools propaganda enemy suitable elimination respect persons treatment execution usage directed germans jews relates principles internal state security war law allowed killing person regime wished memo dated days later meeting defines execution following report eastern dated october reads grave danger epidemic complete jews begun october number jews special treatment applied excerpt decree dated february written treatment foreign civilian workers advises particularly difficult cases application special treatment adding special treatment takes place hanging letter requests additional gas transport jews treated special way gas vehicles containing compartment victims locked exhaust gas pumped killing victims combined effects carbon poisoning equipment german meaning special form compound reference actions nazis refer actual equipment carry killing letter refers special documented references include special vehicle special van auxiliary equipment instances language reference equipment found documents concerning concentration camp letter dated august referred bunker bunker west converted gas chambers bathing installations special actions letter given quotes suggesting nature meant basement gas chambers iii simply marked basement basement rooms marked letter dated november chief architect referred special cellar letter concerning iii oven builders sons dated march refers room units prisoners forced gas chambers load bodies known special squads document dated august granted camp authorities send truck pick material special treatment places manufactured standard usage term killing applied letter dated october signed states construction new facilities necessary start immediately july situation caused special actions september jews transferred designation months months later march alive diary doctor describes seeing mass time september time outside attended special action comedy compared don camp days later described mass prisoners nicknamed muslims september morning attended special action women concentration camp muslims master sergeant troop doctor right said evening attended special action holland sic special rations fifth cigarettes bread men actions today tomorrow sunday work letter dated january refers basement literally cellar letter word document written clear policy architecture office words gas chamber second lieutenant informed slip citing unique letter robert jan van states special action special treatment place killing holocaust nazis attempted deny sensitivity increasingly concerned security documenting destruction jews april wrote secret letter successor chief concerning report considered report executed purposes camouflage potentially useful later times day passed message author report richard stating received report final solution european jewish question wishes special treatment jews mentioned page formulated follows guided camps general government camps employed sure knew special treatment meant ordered replaced vague guided document question secret camps question general government camps concentration camp camp camp nazi perspectives course investigations criminal proceedings nazi war crimes shown involved doubt meant term trial adolf stated everybody knew special treatment meant killing according senior war gave meaning killing certain high ranking officers knew don know ordinary man according terminology time understand special treatment mean killing


constitution roman republic constitution roman republic set guidelines principles roman republic governed constitution evolved time largely passed mainly precedent constitution shaped body written roman law creating government primarily democracy ancient athens aristocracy ancient monarchy roman state respects republic roman republic mixed constitution separate branches government democratic element took form legislative assemblies aristocratic element took form senate element took form term limited ultimate source sovereignty ancient republic modern people rome latin roman people gathered legislative assemblies pass laws elect executive senate managed day day affairs rome presided courts executive enforced law presided senate legislative assemblies complex set checks developed branches minimize risk corruption maximize likelihood good government separation powers branches government absolute magistrate term office extended year conflicted constitution constitutional crisis began result struggles aristocracy common people years later led collapse roman republic form government roman empire constitutional history republican constitution evolved gradually time largely shaped class struggle aristocratic common people main historical sources origins roman political system relied heavily roman supplemented little written history existed oral history lack evidence poses problems reliability traditional account republic origins according traditional account rome ruled succession kings romans believed era roman kingdom began ended overthrow monarchy establishment roman republic people rome began year according chosen according historian andrew scholars doubt traditional account argue instead overthrown monarchy evolved government led elected remnants monarchy reflected republican institutions office king sacred period time presided vacant temporary office dictator created control popular unrest year demanded right elect officials agreed ended called new officials gave assistants called senate effort satisfy tables law republic elected office censor created allowed stand opened censorship dictatorship effort influence offices new offices created offices called holder like right sit seat open generation open beginning year senators began grow closer senate began giving power began feel senate senators grew closer senators began routinely secure office members families period saw law transferred power appoint new senators law required appoint newly elected magistrate senate probably resulted significant increase number senators privileged status old elite eroded time aristocracy developed status theoretically based merit popular election birth ineligible run offices new aristocracy actually opportunities advancement counterparts time important giving rise new aristocracy termed hill end law passed end requirement senators consent bill brought council vote law require act council force law council acquired power new law robbed major political power law resolved great political question earlier era important political changes occurred years electoral legislative sovereignty assemblies confirmed remain constitution critical laws era enacted senate difficulty organizing popular assemblies simply passage ordinary legislation senate institution stronger represented noble senate senate predominant political institution roman republic senate authority derived custom tradition senate principal role advisory council matters foreign military policy exercised great deal influence decision making decree senate called formally advice senate magistrate usually conflicted law passed popular assembly law senate managed civil administration city example senate authorize appropriation public money treasury consul demanded addition senate try individuals accused political crimes treason addition senate laws passed popular assemblies violation proper procedures meetings place inside outside formal boundary city usually presided consul meetings religious ritual temples preferred meeting site auspices taken meeting commence presiding consul began meeting speech issue referred issue senators discussed matter order matters voted voice vote hands important votes resulted physical division house senators voting taking place chamber vote proposal negative meetings end nightfall senator talk proposal death debate going nightfall proposed motion vetoed vetoed turned final document presiding magistrate deposited building housed treasury legislative assemblies right repeal laws belonged roman people voting legislative meetings types formal legislative gatherings assembly roman citizens convened legal action laws trying judicial cases second type legislative meeting council latin gathering specific group citizens example council meetings type gathering convention latin unofficial forum communication citizens gathered hear public announcements arguments debated speeches witness examination execution criminals contrast formal assembly council legal decisions convention voters met conventions deliberate prior meeting assemblies councils vote assemblies councils operated according established procedures overseen convened citizens voted matters proposed presiding magistrate roman citizens organized types voting units centuries military purposes tribes civil purposes corresponding assemblies assembly assembly tribal assembly unit century tribe cast vote assembly majority individual votes century tribe decided unit voted assembly served symbolic purpose late republic point ceased actually meet instead represented assembly ratified powers newly elected passing laws known assembly divided later centuries century belonging classes officer class enlisted class unarmed citizens grouped centuries according property owned centuries received votes vote centuries voted time class assembly elect declare war institution results census assembly rarely passed kinds legislation heard capital trials tribal assemblies convened organization tribal assembly simpler assembly organization based thirty tribes tribes ethnic groups geographical divisions similar modern electoral districts legislation enacted tribal assembly addition assemblies elected military council identical tribal assembly key exception power vote members aristocratic class excluded assembly contrast classes entitled vote tribal assembly presidency council elected enacted laws called presided judicial cases involving executive elected officials roman republic magistrate degree power dictator highest level power dictator censor existed finally magistrate veto action taken equally lower ranked magistrate republic relied person unwanted actions person political action known person aid individual magistrate citizen called resistance considered capital offense significant constitutional power magistrate hold command held gave magistrate constitutional authority issue commands military election office resulted automatic membership senate life magistrate annual term office expired wait years serving office occasionally magistrate command powers extended effect allowed retain powers office consul highest ranking ordinary magistrate elected year supreme power civil military matters year consul superior rank consul ranking flipped month administered civil law presided courts commanded provincial armies conducted census time appoint people senate officers elected conduct domestic affairs rome powers markets public games shows usually assisted rome governors provinces financial tasks considered representatives people acted popular check senate veto powers civil liberties roman citizens times military emergency dictator appointed term months constitutional government dissolved dictator absolute master state dictator appointed master horse serve senior lieutenant dictator resigned office soon matter caused appointment resolved dictator term ended constitutional government restored ordinary dictator appointed extreme addressed passage decree ultimate decree senate suspended civil government declared martial law powers constitutional instability middle 2nd century economic position average declined significantly long military campaigns forced citizens leave farms fight return farms fallen disrepair landed aristocracy began buying farms discounted prices making impossible average farmer operate farm profit masses unemployed soon began flood rome ranks legislative assemblies economic status usually led vote candidate offered sponsored impressive games new culture emerging hostility rich poor growing elected attempted enact law distribute land rome citizens law vetoed named marcus attempt force tried turn mob blanket veto governmental functions effect shut entire city precipitated rioting land law enacted murdered stood reelection brother elected passing series laws intended weaken senate murdered agents aristocracy people finally realized weak senate aristocratic senator named elected consul soon left war east revoked command war brought army italy marched rome secured city left east returned rome captured city second time dictator status dictator pass series constitutional reforms intended strengthen senate resigned dictatorship dead thought firmly established aristocratic rule career illustrated fatal weakness constitution army senate dictated fortunes state generals great marcus elected consul quickly dismantled constitution returned rome battle east found senate refusing arrangements returned governorship spain found easy arrangement established private agreement known agreement arrangements ratified promised future promised governorship modern france immediately consul term consul ended took command provinces eventually renewed term governor extended years violence began sweeping city ended killed battle near end term governor demanded right stand election protection afforded army prosecuted crimes committed senate refused demand january senate resolved lay arms july year considered enemy republic response quickly crossed veteran army marched rome rapid advance forced senate abandon rome greece allowed enter city unopposed transition empire having defeated major enemies tried ensure control government undisputed increased authority decreased authority rome political institutions held office dictator alternated effect military governorship given powers person gave power veto senate allowed dominate legislative process given powers censor fill senate partisans raised membership senate robbed aristocracy prestige increasingly near end life began prepare war empire absence rome limit ability install passed law allowed appoint year year dictator representatives people assassinated mark formed alliance adopted son great nephew marcus formed alliance known second held powers nearly identical powers held constitution effect constitutional difference individual held title dictator individual held title conspirators assassinated defeated battle peace resulted temporary fought time defeated committed suicide returned rome master state enacted series constitutional reforms important republic reign history remembers roman emperor marked dividing line roman republic roman empire time process complete rome completed transformation city state network capital world empire


crusade crusade number attempted recapture holy lands called pope urban started widespread pilgrimage western ended military expedition roman catholic europe regain holy lands taken muslim conquests levant ultimately resulting recapture jerusalem launched november pope urban primary goal responding appeal byzantine emperor requested western volunteers come aid help repel invading turks additional goal soon principal objective christian sacred city jerusalem holy land freeing eastern christians muslim rule crusade knights peasants regions western_europe travelled land sea constantinople jerusalem arrived jerusalem launched assault city captured july city muslim jewish inhabitants established states kingdom jerusalem county tripoli county crusade followed second ninth major step reopening international trade west fall western roman empire crusade largely concerned jerusalem city christian dominion years army seizure lands refused honour promise seizure return gained lands control byzantine_empire status crusade defensive aggressive nature remains unanswered controversial majority view elements nature origin origin general particularly crusade widely debated historians confusion partially numerous armies crusade lack direct unity similar held armies similar goals connections rarely strong unity broke commonly linked political social situation 11th century europe rise reform movement political religious confrontation christianity islam europe middle_east christianity spread europe africa middle_east late antiquity early 8th century christian rule limited europe muslim conquests conquered syria egypt north_africa predominantly christian byzantine_empire kingdom north_africa empire eventually collapsed number smaller muslim kingdoms emerged attacked italy 9th century genoa began battle muslim kingdoms control mediterranean basin exemplified campaign battles essentially years byzantine greeks experienced crusade arrived constantinople separate waves early summer large group arrived outskirts constantinople wave reported ill equipped army noted people crusade group called peasants people crusade led peter walter knowledge respect wishes byzantine emperor second wave command emperor number armies commanders group wave numbered estimated second wave led hugh count brother king philip france second wave count army second wave later passed asia minor captured finally took jerusalem july wave composed contingents france bavaria arrived jerusalem early summer situation europe western edge europe islamic expansion peninsula underway 11th century intermittently ideological evidenced compiled increasingly 11th century foreign knights france visited assist christians efforts shortly crusade pope urban encouraged christians symbolism rhetoric later preach crusade people europe heart western_europe stabilized saxon viking hungarian peoples end 10th century breakdown empire gave rise entire class warriors little fight random violence class regularly condemned church response established peace truce god prohibit fighting certain days year time reform minded came conflict holy roman emperors resulting controversy gregory vii justified subsequent warfare emperor partisans theological terms acceptable pope utilize knights political enemies theoretically dynasty east east europe lay byzantine_empire composed christians long followed separate orthodox rite eastern orthodox roman catholic churches historians argued desire impose roman church authority east goals crusade urban launched crusade refers goal letters turks taken byzantine defeat battle conquests led semi independent sultan dramatic collapse empire position eve council brought byzantium brink disaster byzantine_empire largely confined balkan europe northwestern fringe faced norman enemies west turks east response defeat subsequent byzantine losses pope gregory vii called soldiers christ byzantium aid largely ignored opposed reason defeat shocking limited significance lead major difficulties byzantine_empire short term situation middle_east arrival byzantines continually fought turkish control syria orthodox muslims ruled great empire time crusade divided smaller states death succeeded syria brother died sons inherited damascus respectively dividing syria antagonistic egypt palestine controlled arab significantly smaller arrival warfare caused great disruption local christians western pilgrims nominal rule actually controlled lost jerusalem older accounts recaptured smaller turkish tribe associated arrival historiography impossible assess exactly crusade occurred possible causes suggested historians recently jay historiography reflects attempts different historians understand complex causes early theory called thesis developed german historian directly linked 11th century reform movements theory claimed violence east assistance struggling byzantine_empire primary goals conquest jerusalem secondary popular goal generally subsequent historians followed expansions thesis rejected historians emphasized influence rise islam generally impact recent onslaught specifically argued crusade motivated combination theological justification holy war general taste adventure especially younger sons french nobility opportunities implies immediate threat islamic world arguing middle 11th century lot christians palestine seldom pleasant makes argument reference palestine source generally positive view palestinian christians lot later 11th century unclear contemporary christian sources palestine writing period surviving christian sources directly palestine virtually non existent opposition argument basis contemporary jewish cairo documents later muslim accounts argues conquest occupation palestine period slaughter vandalism economic populations drawing earlier writers michael syrian recorded subjected syria palestinian coast cruel destruction thomas argues crusade pope urban attempt expand power church reunite churches rome constantinople provides little evidence urban writings bolster claim urban extant letters express motive according spread islam islam centuries relative fails note recent turkish conquests southern syria shattered tense relatively stable balance power somewhat revived byzantine_empire gradually developed earlier islamic powers course 10th early 11th century following defeat muslims taken half byzantine_empire territory strategically important cities fallen muslims decade council accounts turkish invasion conquest recorded eastern christian john michael matthew michael syrian summarized broad picture christian muslim worlds second half 11th century thomas represents view opposed crusade certainly linked church reform attempts assert papal authority argues importantly pious struggle liberate fellow christians claims suffered hands turks argument distinguishes relatively recent violence warfare followed conquests turks general advance islam significance dismissed christopher incorporates arguments thesis crusade developed church reform theories holy war response conflicts islamic world europe middle_east riley smith view poor pre existing movement frontier areas europe contributed crusade takes care commentators minority historians maintained chief motivation genuine peter argued crusade fundamentally distorted attention paid historians western latin sources greek armenian arabic hebrew material late 11th 12th centuries expedition jerusalem argues conceived pope emperor response dramatic deterioration byzantium position asia minor result state near anarchy imperial court plans murder open secret appeal pope urban desperate shore emperor empire goes showing crusade primary military targets asia minor required large numbers men experience siege warfare precisely sort recruited urban preaching france idea response islam dates far 12th century historian william tyre began chronicle fall jerusalem original islamic conquests taken place centuries crusade recent events fresh minds european christians time example church holy destroyed pope supposedly called military expedition response france jewish communities attacked retaliation despite church rebuilding death resuming including great german pilgrimage pilgrims continued suffer attacks local muslims addition recent turkish incursions northern syria certainly viewed devastating eastern christian plausible presented byzantines pope order aid european christians council causes deeply rooted social political situations 11th century europe event actually triggering crusade request assistance byzantine emperor worried advances reached far west far constantinople march sent envoys council ask pope urban aid turks urban responded favourably hoping heal great years earlier reunite church papal helping eastern churches time need urban previously close contact discussed openly prospect union christian church signs considerable operation rome constantinople years immediately crusade july urban turned homeland france recruit men expedition travels culminated council november according speeches attributed gave sermon large audience french nobles clergy detailing atrocities committed pilgrims eastern christians versions speech recorded people council robert monk went crusade anonymous author versions found later historians william william tyre versions written jerusalem captured difficult know actually said recreated aftermath successful crusade contemporary records letters written urban versions speech differ widely regard versions generally agree urban talked violence european society necessity maintaining peace god helping greeks asked assistance crimes committed christians east new kind war armed pilgrimage rewards heaven sins offered die undertaking specifically mention jerusalem ultimate goal argued urban subsequent preaching reveals expected expedition reach jerusalem according version speech enthusiastic crowd responded cries god versions speech include detail recruitment urban speech planned discussed crusade count instantly expedition support southern france important leaders present council cross rest urban spread message france urged bishops preach france germany italy clear response speech greater pope let expected tour france urban tried certain people including women monks sick joining crusade found nearly impossible end took knights peasants wealthy little way fighting skills new emotional personal easily ecclesiastical lay aristocracy typically preaching conclude volunteer taking complete pilgrimage church holy given cross usually clothes thomas wrote estimate number thousands responded ideal surviving evidence gain limited insight motivation intent previous generations scholars argued motivated greed hoping find better life away warfare occurring france notes image profoundly misleading argues greed unlikely major factor extremely high cost travelling far home eventually returned home completing pilgrimage trying possessions holy land difficult impossible assess motives thousands poor historical record important knights stories usually monks secular medieval world deeply spiritual world church likely personal major factor despite popular enthusiasm urban ensured army knights drawn french aristocracy aside leaders recruited included taranto southern italian ally reform nephew previously anti reform ally holy roman emperor brother baldwin hugh count brother philip france robert brother william england relatives stephen count robert count flanders represented northern southern france flanders germany southern italy divided separate armies cooperative held common ultimate goal motives nobility somewhat peasants greed apparently major factor commonly assumed example mentioned younger members family went crusade looking wealth adventure prospects advancement home riley smith shown case crusade led powerful nobles france left case entire families went crusade great expense example robert normandy loaned normandy brother william england sold property church according biographer worried nature warfare excited find holy outlet violence baldwin older brother iii count examples families riley smith argues enthusiasm crusade based family relations french distant relatives cases personal advancement played role motives instance motivated desire territory east previously campaigned byzantines try achieve crusade gave opportunity took siege taking possession city establishing people crusade great french nobles trained armies knights undertake journey jerusalem urban planned departure crusade august feast assumption months number unexpected armies peasants petty nobles set jerusalem led charismatic priest called peter peter successful urban message developed enthusiasm followers probably official preacher sanctioned urban century later legendary figure william tyre believed peter planted idea crusade urban mind taken fact historians 19th century commonly believed peter led massive group peasants idea jerusalem knights peasants including walter lieutenant peter led separate army lacking military discipline likely participants strange land eastern_europe peter fledgling army quickly found trouble despite fact christian territory army led walter fought hungarians food belgrade arrived constantinople unharmed army led peter marched separately walter army fought hungarians captured belgrade byzantine governor tried supply peter little control followers byzantine troops needed quell attacks peter arrived constantinople august army joined led walter arrived separate bands france germany italy army past hungary splitting mob began attack outside city search supplies food prompting ferry gathering week later crossing asia minor split began countryside wandering territory greater experience turks overwhelming group italian german defeated killed end august walter peter followers battle led knights fought battle turks october turkish destroyed army walter dead peter absent constantinople time later joined main army survivors attacks jews local level preaching crusade ignited violence jews historians deemed holocaust end beginning months departure official crusade august attacks jewish communities france germany incorrectly known attacked jews worms unofficial led french english flemish volunteers led william carpenter locals joined destruction jewish community end jewish woman killed children killed chief ben committed suicide anticipation killed company went cologne continued cities peter involved violence jews army led priest named attacked jews east army eventually continued hungary defeated army hungary followers dispersed eventually joined main armies went home attackers wanted force jews convert interested acquiring money physical violence jews church hierarchy official policy christian bishops especially archbishop cologne best protect jews decade bishop taken step providing jews city walled protect christian violence given chief control judicial matters quarter took money return protection attacks originated belief jews muslims equally enemies christ enemies fought converted christianity rumoured money jews cologne wondered travel thousands miles fight non believers non believers closer home attacks jews witnessed albert jewish communities main contemporary witnesses anonymous ben solomon bar princes crusade main armies left europe appointed time august took different paths constantinople gathered outside city walls november april hugh arrived followed time emperor prepared fewer incidents violence way size entire army difficult estimate numbers given equally estimates offered modern historians military historian david considers armies consisted including cavalry largest contingent infantry cavalry princes arrived constantinople little food expected provisions help suspicious experiences people crusade knights included old norman enemy invaded byzantine territory numerous occasions father robert attempted organize attack constantinople outside city expected leader interest joining mainly concerned transporting asia minor quickly possible return food supplies requested leaders swear promise return byzantine_empire land recovered turks oath leaders followed warfare broken city citizens eager supplies avoided swearing oath instead simply cause harm empire ensuring armies advised leaders best deal armies soon encounter siege armies crossed asia minor half joined peter remainder little army addition sent generals assist objective campaign previously city byzantine rule capital away campaigning central time left treasury family strength new subsequently arrival city subjected lengthy siege word rushed attacked army driven unexpectedly large force heavy losses suffered sides ensuing battle siege continued little success found blockade lake city situated break city sent ships rolled land logs sight turkish garrison finally surrendered june city handed byzantine troops depicted source conflict empire byzantine standards flew walls forbidden looting city entering small escorted bands policy accordance previous emperor ensured paid efforts thomas writes fall product successful policy close operation byzantium handing custody byzantines resumed march jerusalem stephen letter wife wrote believed journey weeks reality took years battle end june marched accompanied byzantine troops hope send byzantine army divided army easily managed groups contingent led french groups intended meet july marched ahead french attacked gathered larger army previously defeat surrounded fast moving mounted deployed tight defensive formation surrounding equipment non combatants followed journey sent help group french arrived broke turkish lines turks rear turks expected destroy quick arrival french fled face combined army march unopposed journey unpleasant burned destroyed left army flight middle summer little food water men horses died fellow christians gave gifts food money simply looted opportunity presented individual leaders continued dispute overall leadership powerful command recognized spiritual leader passing gates baldwin set armenian lands wife claim european lands wealth died battle giving baldwin incentive return europe resolved seize holy land early adopted heir ruler disliked armenian subjects greek orthodox religion later killed uprising baldwin instigated march baldwin new ruler creating county states siege army marched lay halfway constantinople jerusalem described stephen city great belief strong idea taking city assault hoping force capitulation find traitor inside city tactic previously seen change control byzantines turks army set siege october months siege forced defeat large relief armies leadership large troops fully surround result able stay partially supplied march relief arrived form fleet saxon crusade bringing needed supplies west approached relieve siege armenian guard named surrender tower june entered city killed inhabitants days later muslims arrived laying siege according point monk named peter claimed discovered holy lance city skeptical seen sign victorious june defeated pitched battle outside city victory caused inability organize different factions army marching muslims section army deserted turkish contingent feared powerful able defeat according christian army christian saints came aid battle crippled army stephen crusade leader learned situation like situation hopeless left middle_east warning army way france looked like massive betrayal leaders notably argued deserted crusade asserted claim agreed notably crusade delayed rest year nobles argued discussing period common viewpoint advanced scholars northern france southern france southern italy considered separate nations creating turmoil tried increase individual status argue disputes personal ambition leaders easily blamed plague broke killing army including died august fewer horses worse muslim peasants area refused supply food december arab town captured following siege history describes occurrence wrote troops boiled pagan adults cooking children time minor knights soldiers increasingly restless threatened continue jerusalem leaders finally beginning march restarted leaving prince continued march jerusalem proceeding mediterranean coast encountered little resistance local rulers preferred peace supplies fight notable exception abandoned siege june reached jerusalem recaptured year seeing city long reach siege jerusalem arrival jerusalem revealed arid countryside lacking water food supplies prospect relief feared imminent attack local rulers hope trying blockade city insufficient troops supplies time resolved city assault left little choice time army reached jerusalem estimated men including cavalry remained contingents composed men differing origins varying approaching low camp north city south addition contingent initial assault june assault speculative determined scaling outer wall repulsed inner failure initial assault meeting leaders organized agreed attack required future june party arrived provided skilled engineers critically supplies timber ships build siege engines morale raised priest peter claimed divine vision bishop instructing fast march procession city walls city fall following biblical story siege days fast july performed procession instructed ending mount peter preached shortly afterward factions arrived public news arrived shortly relief army set egypt giving strong incentive assault city final assault jerusalem began july troops attacked south gate contingents attacked northern wall initially southern gate little contingents northern wall fared better slow steady attrition defence july final push launched ends city eventually inner northern wall captured ensuing panic defenders abandoned walls city ends allowing finally enter massacre massacre followed capture jerusalem attained particular notoriety extreme violence faith eyewitness accounts leave little doubt great slaughter aftermath siege historians propose scale massacre exaggerated later medieval sources successful assault northern wall defenders fled temple mount pursued men arriving defenders secure area men assaulted defenders remainder taking refuge mosque called halt slaughter offering mosque protection defenders southern wall heard fall northern wall fled citadel allowing enter city commander garrison struck deal surrendering citadel return granted safe passage slaughter continued rest day muslims killed jews taken refuge died burnt following day prisoners mosque slaughtered clear muslims jews city survived massacre escaping taken prisoner eastern christian population city expelled siege governor escaped massacre establishment kingdom jerusalem july council held church holy establish king newly created kingdom jerusalem refused king attempting probably hoping nobles insist election popular actions siege damage accepting position secular leader development took army countryside exact nature meaning title somewhat controversial widely claimed took title advocate defender holy title letter written instead ambiguous term simply retained title lower according william tyre writing later 12th century legendary hero jerusalem refused wear crown gold christ worn crown robert monk contemporary chronicler crusade report took title king battle attempted negotiate march jerusalem avail captured jerusalem learned army attack august led remaining troops jerusalem day march away estimated troops sources estimate entering battle troops consisted turks arabs led opposing numbers estimated knights infantry august scouts discovered location camp immediately marched according muslim accounts caught unaware somewhat ill prepared army battle fairly short took time resolve according albert army retreated heavily guarded fortified city day learned retreated egypt boat plundered remained camp returning jerusalem returned homes europe crusade having captured jerusalem church holy fulfilled gone home reaching jerusalem left europe success crusade known people mocked families threatened pope remained crusade way jerusalem went home according knights left newfound kingdom ruled year dying july succeeded brother baldwin person title king jerusalem crusade stephen count hugh returned home reaching jerusalem crusade annihilated asia minor survivors helped reinforce kingdom arrival jerusalem following years assistance provided italian merchants established syrian ports religious military orders knights knights created baldwin reign aftermath crusade succeeded establishing states jerusalem tripoli palestine syria allies route armenian kingdom home western_europe survived reach jerusalem treated heroes robert flanders nicknamed thanks exploits life legendary years death cases political situation home greatly affected instance robert away crusade throne england passed brother henry england instead resultant conflict led battle establishment states east helped ease pressure byzantine_empire regained territory help experienced period relative peace prosperity 12th century effect muslim east gradual important wake death political instability division great empire prevented coherent defence latin states cooperation remained difficult decades egypt syria baghdad calls expulsion culminating recapture jerusalem later century united surrounding areas inspiration future success crusade inspired literary imagination poets france 12th century began compose celebrating exploits semi historical completely describing battles dragon connecting ancestors legend knight swan known crusade cycle crusade inspiration artists later centuries wrote jerusalem delivered largely fictionalized epic poem capture jerusalem george composed music based poem opera 19th century poet wrote epic poem basis opera


agreement agreement document signed group english concerning government edward death edward discontent soon developed new king partly lingering problems previous reign related issues edward particularly abandonment scottish wars patronage unpopular piers caused discontent drawn sur king document asserted signatories duty guard rights crown months later agreement basis document opposition king document called declaration notable use doctrine capacities distinction person king institution crown document today exists 17th century antiquarian william agreement largely unknown modern historians 1960s considered significant documented expression conflict king nobility dominate reign edward historians agree document importance disagreement interpretation particularly signatories seen loyal king background edward succeeded king england july death father edward expectations new king high initially enjoyed good relationship leading realm issues contention remaining reign father edward wars great fiscal burden country style led conflict leading lay ecclesiastical lords culminated drafting called set complaints royal government edward death issued resolved interest leading men country sure new king act way father ignored opinions certain personal issues new king caused concern shortly death edward exiled prince edward favourite possible lover piers king believed influence prince deathbed supposedly closest followers henry earl lincoln guy earl earl robert watch son particularly sure return edward actions king recall exile gave title earl cornwall title normally reserved members royal family favourite source discontent edward abandoning scottish wars pursued father left way open robert bruce regain land english conquered english january edward left england france leaving regent treaty agreed edward marry isabella daughter france accompanying king great nobles including lincoln john earl surrey earl january edward isabella married sur january edward performed homage english king held french king day nobles mentioned gathered sign document known history agreement document interpretation document signed dated january list signatories bishop durham patriarch jerusalem followed lincoln surrey men families henry gray john john document today exists library oxford 17th century antiquarian william believed based older document probably lost cotton library fire text document vague signatories concerned guarding king honour rights crown son les promise address correct things honour rights past present oppression people les avant honour les people said specifically things assumed target given authority broke terms agreement vague language document scholarly debate interpreted john saw wording hostile warning new king avoid mistakes father face consequences phillips hand took signatories positively inclined edward opposition king primarily earl purpose document phillips view present king warning hopefully protect antagonistic members nobility aftermath transmission agreement little immediate impact notable influence later document presented parliament april year february king crowned coronation king forced include additional clause coronation oath king obliged law exact meaning promise ambiguous clause referred laws people shall chosen left unclear included future coronation ceremony followed acted arrogance leading document april parliament today referred declaration contained articles presented earl lincoln article invoked called doctrine capacities subjects realm owed allegiance institution crown person king king abused position subject duty correct pledge agreement protect rights crown second article attack mentioned demanding renewed exile article referred additional clause coronation oath taken mean king obliged decisions subjects past present future king initially held opposition received support offended edward apparent preference isabella edward agreed send exile agreement reference england document absent history writing centuries mentioned certain historians document source young quoted lines history phillips printed complete agreement book earl


shooting february mass shooting occurred restaurant town czech_republic people killed including year old committed suicide police lasted nearly hours addition person injured kilometers miles east southeast czech capital prague shooting deadliest mass murders country peacetime history alongside committed circumstances shooting led examination gun politics czech_republic police rules engagement active shooters czech media speculated triggered apparent attempt authorities review mental state background similarities perpetrators murders compared czech media experts mass murder took place years pod town lying northwards attack year old man attempted blow block flats having ordered vacate flat creditors blocked exits building removed opened main gas supply building corridor interrupted set gas fire gas spread building explosion subsequent fire large demolish building killing people immediately wounding died february murders family worried mental state point contacted authorities connection possession gun license days murders received police request present new health clearance threat license entering restaurant visited venues fewer customers left immediately entering murders entered building restaurant busiest daylight time people small restaurant time entered restaurant situated floor rushing bathroom got ahead stairs leading upper floor armed semi automatic pistol manufactured town revolver opened fire warning immediately entering restaurant shooting victims directly head died immediately soon female victim shot twice chest managed leave restaurant remained hidden restaurant bathroom people escaped building door customer took cover table moment threw chair hitting neck gave opportunity run door people authorities received distress person escaped restaurant police car reached building policemen armed standard equipment czech police officers pistols variants body armor select fire rifle stored car officers arrive immediately entered building body armor guns drawn taking cover bar opposite door opened fire officers soon entered police noted people lying ground sitting chairs shooter knowing status civilians police decided return fire covered exits waited arrival tactical unit time police units ambulance car arrived taking away wounded female victim escaped called station crime news reporter claiming harassed multiple people hostages threatened kill journalist spoke called police sending available units location police contacted phone negotiations claimed hostages people remaining inside likely dead apart hiding bathroom unbeknownst hostage claim delayed police entry building stopped communicating attempts contact failed tactical team breached building team entry immediately shot dead apart grenades policemen fire single shot securing restaurant police let large number medical personnel person alive remained inside building hiding bathroom entire duration incident victims february years old time death lived wife house far scene murders neighbours described couple possibly mentally ill known verbal abuse neighbours son worker local firearms factory largest small arms manufacturer country unemployed years held gun license legally owned guns victims total people excluding died included seven men aged woman aged woman aged survived despite shot twice chest aftermath information notoriety neighbors surfaced focus investigation shifted circumstances gained retained gun license firearms order granted gun license czech_republic person pass qualification exam receive health clearance general require examination specialist psychological psychiatric evaluation pass background check according section czech firearms act granted license committed public order previous years similarly law makes gun license people mental illnesses license renewed years years licenses issued july renewal requires presentation new health clearance police conduct new background check license renewed january registry applied gun license renewal accordance law according brother law neighbors local policeman repeated contacts wife committed public order municipality deals register apparently clean history turn satisfied requirements license renewed renewal license fact central registry crimes traffic registry exists czech_republic case non traffic solved spot policeman record investigated person police refuse deal spot administrative proceeding municipal committee initiated convicted record municipality czech government decision introduce central registry october planning system working years police obliged gun license committed public order period years central registry allowed police effectively license long murders health clearance time police order new health clearance inspection reasonable concern person healthy continue holding license according mayor family members tried prevent having license renewed pleading general grant necessary health clearance felt threatened considered mentally unstable received clearance general presented license renewal application january license january police contacted unspecified person reported mental state police subsequently contacted general psychiatrist february ordered health received letter february days murders law obliged present new health clearance month lose license czech media speculated apparent attempt authorities review mental state triggered days murders ministry interior announced making gun license registry accessible order ability report police possible changes mental state patients having impact eligibility possess firearms rejected psychiatric associations argued main goal cure patients potential patients likely avoid psychiatric treatment fear losing gun license police response main topics debate way police dealt especially responding officers circumstances supposed immediately engage decision wait arrival tactical unit sound debate vocal cook managed escape claimed heard slow series single shots coming restaurant police retreated witness escaped unharmed refuted version events saying shots fired initial minutes leading point police entry shots heard police said decided engage saw civilians lying sitting line fire didn know status taken cover bar head hand holding pistol visible according chief regional police department district units present manpower equipment including select fire rifles engage decided withdraw claim having hostages stated intent negotiate release apart local units special ordnance unit called regional headquarters arrived minutes later tactical teams covering fourteen czech regions tactical team called team members reached restaurant cars minutes opting use helicopter capacity furthermore paramilitary anti terrorist police unit called prague helicopters didn arrive end according headquarters directly changed timing manner police engaged region politicians announced establishment local tactical team minister interior commented police process hiring new officers total manpower reversing cuts enacted previous governments experts pointed necessity provide training policemen small municipalities rural areas type training point largely aimed directed police officers large towns march weekly newspaper published details police engagement chance emergency police unit usually serve immediate reinforcement police officers field conducting exercises far unit arrived minutes emergency heavily armed trained officer charge gave order immediately engage minute local police station chief arrived ordered stand began securing perimeter gathering information preparing engagement plan called emergency line mentioned unharmed hostages demanding presence officer charge ordered policemen stand enter building order start negotiating time aware status victims inside minutes later region police chief arrived total command operation passed people initial minutes fact police rules allow passing command engagement condemned week earlier member parliament pointed czech rules according person charge place engagement remains charge general happens come join operation noted passing command requires briefing leads loss time subsequent mistakes direct outcome inquiry police response shooting lowering wage dispatch officer advised policemen spot radio engage worse happens june members security committee czech parliament visited talked multiple witnesses mps issued report condemning handling situation police issues mps criticized policemen parked cars bullet proof shooting range attacker initially failed information witnesses later intervention attempted contact didn cover exit potentially allowed object people police let helicopter land shooting range attacker according mps police left desired regards communication importantly decided believe claim having hostage witnesses readily confirmed inside likely dead policemen didn seal vicinity attack civilian phones communication superior officers instead phones radio minister interior commented mps failed interview policemen didn relevant information gun politics reactions day murders knowing possessed guns legally minister interior milan stated debate society wants gun license holders support comments largely members parliament elected communist_party accused tragedy political benefit members parliament chairman senate constitutional committee commented licensing process thorough pointed considers carrying concealed necessity variety reasons especially recent time rising threat terrorist attacks roman chairman parliamentary security committee member social democratic_party refused argument members parliament went opposite direction claiming armed people czech population single armed civilian stopped assault sentiment shared example martin ambassador iraq said armed attacker stopped armed force pointed past known czech case attack charlie shooting stating ended differently victims armed pointed despite steady rise ownership country abolition restrictive communist legislation velvet revolution number intentional homicide victims steadily falling peak press conference february introduced areas connection attack communication national police municipal authorities possible changes crisis plans operational range tactical teams enhanced training policemen didn repeat sentiment number gun license holders instead specified issues analyzed issuing licenses existing legislation reactions czech minister interior milan said twitter shooting terrorist incident actions individual czech prime minister trip south_korea time said statement shocked tragic attack happened today like express deepest sorrow families relatives victims mayor said shaken core incident dreamed like happen restaurant familiar day murders hundreds people gathered restaurant lit candles honor victims