chemical element symbol atomic number isolated named continent europe moderately hard metal readily air water typical member series usually assumes state state common compounds state slightly reducing significant biological role relatively non toxic compared heavy metals applications exploit compounds abundant elements universe matter universe characteristics physical properties metal similar lead body centered cubic properties strongly influenced half filled electron shell second lowest melting point lowest density cooled compressed metallic state converted state applied pressure state strong local magnetic moment induced eliminating local moment chemical properties rare earth element rapidly air bulk centimeter sized sample occurs days water comparable calcium reaction high samples solid rarely shiny appearance fresh metal coated protective layer mineral oil air form iii readily acid form pale pink solutions iii exist iii usually readily forms compounds behavior unusual exclusively form compounds state state electron configuration half filled shell gives stability state highly reducing terms size coordination number similar example highly water mild reducing agent air form iii compounds particularly conditions form sufficiently stable tends incorporated minerals calcium exchange process basis negative low content minerals relative abundance tends negative major source today development easy methods separate accessible present low concentration usually naturally occurring composed abundant natural abundance stable recently found unstable alpha decay half life years giving alpha decay minutes kilogram natural value reasonable agreement theoretical predictions natural artificial characterized stable half life years half life years half life years remaining radioactive half lives shorter years majority half lives shorter seconds element states stable hours hours minutes primary decay mode lighter electron capture primary mode heavier beta minus decay primary decay products primary products nuclear product produced nuclear product yields low near mass range products like especially odd mass numbers poor like high cross sections capture high beta decay product long decay half life short mean time absorption instead ends half life years half life years beta decay products non radioactive long lived shielded yield parts million larger produced activation significant portion non radioactive converted half life years yield parts million thermal non radioactive end fuel overall overshadowed radiation hazard poison occurrence found nature free element minerals contain important sources minerals relative rare earth elements known commonly included trace element studies understand processes form rocks rocks cooled lava nature found helps reconstruct relationships suite rocks small amounts bright blue samples mineral reduction induced energetic particles outstanding examples originated adjacent parts northern england found named later determined cause production associated rare earth elements mined separation rare earth elements step later processing rare earth elements found minerals quantities minerals denotes mixture contains handling decay products radioactive extraction ore isolation individual methods developed choice method based concentration composition ore distribution individual resulting concentrate ore subsequent acidic basic produce concentrate dominant converted iii precipitated separation exchange yields fraction enriched fraction reduced methods converting iii way similar earth metals precipitated precipitated metal available mixture cell serves product gas large deposits produce produced significant world production iron ore deposit contains significant amounts estimated million tonnes rare earth element largest known deposit mining operations deposit china largest supplier rare earth elements 1990s rare earth element content second large source rare earth elements closure late 1990s mountain pass rare earth mined especially rich light rare earth elements contains large source rare earth elements found peninsula contains rare earth elements largest source elements russia compounds compounds tend exist state conditions commonly compounds feature iii bound typically water compounds water polar organic complexes feature like metal route gives white iii yellow iii gray iii iii forms corresponding yellow green green forms stable compounds heavier stabilize lower state known iii mixed consisting iii main black prepared temperatures sufficiently high main iii history study present minerals containing rare elements difficulties separating elements late 1800s element isolated william observed rare elements observed lines later assigned found paul obtained basic lines accounted discovery generally credited french chemist suspected samples recently discovered element contaminated unknown element able named red discovered early 1960s understood cause revolution color television industry scramble limited supply hand typical content deposit mountain pass rare earth california unusually high content come line provide sufficient sustain industry prior color red weak colors muted maintain color balance brilliant red longer necessary mute colors brighter color picture result continued use industry computer monitors faces stiff competition china richer content frank celebrated development exchange technology rare earth industry mid-1950s related story rare 1930s elderly gentleman approached offer gift pounds quantity time man seriously package duly arrived mail containing pounds genuine elderly gentleman turned developed famous method involving chemistry applications relative elements commercial applications specialized invariably exploit state types glass devices widely red television sets lamps based color screens contain gives red depends host tends blue classes based red blue combined yellow green white light color temperature varied altering proportion specific composition individual system typically encountered light combining classes way systems computer screens manufacture glass common persistent glow copper interactions drug discovery screens anti euro application fallen use introduction affordable use complexes shift shift determine purity recent application quantum memory chips reliably store information days time allow sensitive quantum data stored hard disk like device shipped country precautions clear indications particularly toxic compared heavy metals tested shows acute acute oral shows slightly higher oral metal dust presents fire explosion hazard


chemical element symbol atomic number radioactive metal element position periodic table named planet led named neptune planet seven metal exposed air element occurs forms normally exhibits states ranging radioactive poisonous accumulate bones makes handling dangerous false claims discovery years element synthesized philip berkeley radiation laboratory produced nuclear vast majority generated product conventional nuclear power commercial uses present widely precursor formation thermal generators provide electricity spacecraft high energy stable product nuclear production found trace amounts capture reactions beta decay characteristics physical hard radioactive metal periodic table located right left hard metal having bulk comparable metal similar terms physical exposed air normal temperatures forms thin layer reaction proceeds rapidly temperature increases determined melt low melting point property metal shares neighboring element melting point formation directional bonds metal boiling point known usually given value pressure element accurate largest liquid range element passes melting boiling points found claims fourth far proven common crystal structures clear similar transition metals takes structure resembling highly distorted body centered cubic structure coordinated bond lengths fifth naturally occurring elements platinum properties strong bonding high electrical metallic physical properties closer true metals exhibit similar behaviour lesser degree different alpha phase expected different density density density takes distorted close packed structure unit cell bond lengths body centered cubic structure bond length form stable increased pressure melting point increases pressure liquid triple point occurs presence exhibit interesting magnetic behavior like range band like character characteristic transition metals local moment behavior typical stems metal fact extends example pure magnetic ordering investigations underway iron long lived waste shorter lived useful nuclear fuel based discovered formula occurrence compounds somewhat surprising exhibit strong usually destroys structure transition temperature chemical states ranging forming chemical compounds simultaneously observed solutions heaviest lose stable compound stable state solution preferred solid compounds metal prone formation coordination compounds atomic arranged configuration differs configuration expected principle electron instead expected similarity electron energies forming compounds lost leaving core inner electron configuration noble gas commonly lost electron configuration lost exactly analogous trend set electron configurations state potential measured based assumption recent measurements refined characterized stable half life million years half life years half life days remaining radioactive half lives days majority half lives minutes element states stable half life hours range atomic weight lighter stable decay primarily electron capture sizable number notably exhibit levels decay alpha beta stable mass number exclusively alpha known heavier decay exclusively beta lone exception exhibits rare decay transition addition beta eventually form unlike common heavy decay lead decay chain known series predicted shown critical mass commonly calculated values critical masses respectively value lower particular low cross section despite atomic bomb built lower critical masses difficult found quantity spent nuclear fuel nearly impossible separate significant quantities parent occurrence half lives times shorter age earth decayed million years concentration longest lived reduced original earth initially pure ignoring critical mass half lives passed formation solar system decayed present nature amounts produced intermediate decay products trace amounts found naturally decay products reactions particular common directly formed capture come spontaneous naturally induced cosmic ray light elements absorbing alpha particles half life short detection longer lived daughter nature definitively established natural occurrence identified isolated ore belgian minerals ratio equal finally short lived occurs intermediate decay chain encountered environment atmospheric nuclear explosions took place atomic bomb ratification partial nuclear test ban treaty total released explosions atmospheric tests carried estimated overwhelming majority composed long lived moderately long lived half life days decayed original concentration intervening decades additional small created natural nuclear cooling water released water discharged rivers lakes concentration approximately concentration environment generally fairly quickly usually state regardless state element exhibits greater mobility largely ability readily form solutions elements study comparing rates iii sandstone limestone penetrated times elements react efficiently levels greater present conditions observed readily bond observed bond including bond readily soil particles mildly acidic conditions fellow nearly order magnitude behavior enables migrate rapidly soil solution fixed place contributing mobility readily absorbed concrete element consideration addressed building nuclear waste storage facilities absorbed concrete reduced relatively short period time reduced acid present surface absorbed efficiently pronounced mildly acidic conditions exhibits strong tendency effect enhanced soil high clay content behavior provides additional aid element observed high mobility history background early claims periodic table elements published early 1870s showed place similar places elements subsequent tables known elements including publication known radioactive place discovery final component atomic nucleus scientists seriously consider possibility elements heavier nuclear theory time explicitly prohibit existence little evidence suggest discovery induced late opened entirely new method researching elements inspired small group italian scientists led begin series experiments involving bombardment experiment involved bombarding sample alpha particles produce radioactive realized electrical charge likely produce better results positively charged alpha particles accordingly march began systematically known elements bombardment determine induced months work group tentatively determined lighter elements disperse energy captured alpha particle heavier elements generally accomplish gamma ray behavior later result beta decay moving resulting place periodic table team bombarded observed behavior strongly suggested resulting atomic number initially reluctant claim team observed unknown half lives bombardment products match known published paper entitled possible production elements atomic number higher june proposed atomic symbol element greek italy theoretical objections claims paper quickly raised particular exact process took place captured understood time accidental discovery months later nuclear reactions induced slow cast doubt minds scientists notably von experiment creating element von claim actually producing quickly tested proposal shattered smaller fragments simply ignored existing nuclear theory include way possible team maintained fact new element issue remained unresolved years different unknown radioactive half lives experiment results showed nuclear reactions occurring group prove element created scientists attempted accomplish including best world time supporters claim failed later determined main reason failure predictions element chemical properties based periodic table lacked series arrangement placed suggested element point referred similar group elements including dominant states respectively scientists thinking belonged series time viewed members dominant states hand weaker unstable state stable finding elements dominant states discovery block series firmly established question experiment produced element additional claims discovery element appeared unlike claimed observed nature claims czech engineer extracted small material wash water heated proposed element analyzed turned sample mixture claim romanian physicist french chemist claimed discovered new element minerals named element claim discounted prevailing theory time existed element exist naturally fact occur nature trace amounts demonstrated found ore possible fact observe scientists including reluctant accept actually produced new element awarded nobel prize physics november demonstrations existence new radioactive elements produced related discovery nuclear reactions brought slow month later totally unexpected discovery nuclear end possibility discovered element unknown half lives observed team rapidly identified products discovery research nuclear progressed early berkeley radiation laboratory university california berkeley decided run experiment bombarding powerful inch recently built university purpose separate products produced bombardment exploiting enormous force fragments gain mutual electrical discover note observe new beta decay half lives target meant producing violently repelled like normal products quickly realized half lives closely matched known minute decay period half life days unknown took results experiment chemist fellow berkeley professor attempt source scientists began work prevailing theory element similar chemistry rapidly determined sample similar instead reacted hydrogen strong agent present behaved like members rare elements comprise large percentage products decided half life simply product paper unsuccessful search elements information available possibility fragments nuclear present target remote scientists including philip attempted determine producing unknown half life early realized experiment failed test chemical reactions radioactive source sufficient new experiment tried unknown substance presence reducing agent reaction resulted sample action definitively ruled possibility unknown substance rare earth shortly received graduate degree university visited berkeley short vacation asked able chemist assist separation experiment results quickly observed producing day half life chemistry like known element actually similar rare earth discovery finally allowed source isolated later led classification series final step prepared larger sample bombarded prominent minute half life demonstrated unknown day half life increased strength concert decrease minute activity following reaction formula times half lives proved unknown radioactive source originated decay coupled previous observation source different known elements proved doubt new element discovered published results paper entitled radioactive element physical review propose element paper soon decided neptune planet solar system subsequent developments realized beta decay produce element called quantities involved original experiment small identify discovery wait end team identified unique radioactive characteristics allowed traced moved compounds chemical reactions method available prove chemistry different elements discovered short half life unable prepare sample large perform chemical analysis new element technology available discovery long lived arthur forming amounts realistic endeavor early research element somewhat limited nuclear united_states time focused massive effort research properties manhattan_project research element continue minor project bulk sample isolated research properties focused understanding portion nuclear waste long half lives particular concern context designing confinement facilities thousands years found limited uses radioactive precursor nuclear reactions produce useful produced reaction nuclear power stations considered waste product production synthesis vast majority currently exists earth produced artificial nuclear reactions commonly synthesized created capture half lifelong allow quantities easily isolated far common utilized chemical studies element captures converted excited state excited undergo remainder decay ground state gamma radiation capture creates half life days quickly beta decay beta decay excited electron atomic weak interaction converts creating formula produced reaction happens energetic product alpha decay produced heavier decay quickly lighter produced capture chemical separation cooled spent nuclear fuel gives nearly pure short lived heavier useful radioactive produced respectively longer lived lighter produced artificial metal usually isolated reaction liquid extracted spent nuclear fuel rods kilogram amounts product production weight great spent nuclear fuel fraction amounts tons year globally methods recovering spent nuclear fuel reuse major processes nuclear fuel cycle long half life million years alpha major minor separated spent nuclear fuel separation methods separate operating small large scales small scale operations goals preparing pure precursor metallic compounds samples analysis methods separate exploit differing chemical behaviour differing states solution methods extraction usually derivatives compounds compounds exchange possible include methods currently commercial plants use process involving extraction chemistry compounds solution chemistry solution exist possible states characteristic color stability state strongly dependent factors presence reducing agents solution presence coordination complex forming concentration solution acidic solutions iii vii exist basic solutions exist work characterize basic solutions easily reduced iii iii exists complexes acidic solutions dark blue purple analogous lighter pink rare earth presence oxygen quickly strong reducing agents present second easily water forming predominant solutions pale yellow green acidic solutions exists complexes unstable acidic solutions forming basic solutions tends form neutral green blue solution strong lewis acid stable common form solutions unlike neighboring spontaneously low high concentration basic solutions form shows light pink reddish color acidic solution yellow green strong lewis acid main encountered solutions stable acidic solutions easily reduced stable neighbours basic solutions form vii vii dark green strongly basic solution chemical formula basic solution frequently cited real structure probably closer species like vii prepared basic solution strongly acidic solution vii found water quickly reduces products closely related general levels stable periodic table stable phenomenon stability increases ratio atomic number radius increases higher periodic table readily undergo iii stable acidic solutions environments lack oxygen rapidly state presence air water exist mainly electrically neutral mild water affected solution suggests significant presence stable form high levels placed solution react significantly period months higher concentration result reacting solid immediately fairly stable acidic solutions form compound presence carbon dioxide pressures vii studied neutral reported probably exists reported studies stated exist suggesting claims actually result mistaken analysis extent reactions occur oxygen researched certain claims accurate produced high possible adjacent stable lower levels behavior illustrated fact produced simply burning air greenish brown stable large range pressures temperatures undergo phase transitions low temperatures phase transition face centered cubic returns original phase pressure released remains stable oxygen pressures temperatures black brown color size relatively unstable initially subject studies claimed produce mutually contradictory methods eventually prepared successfully heating hours heating layer water forms large number compounds wide variety elements formed metals earth metals far studied generally formed reacting element solution prepared reacting hours reacting hours tube flowing oxygen compounds created similar reaction compounds formed reacting vii compound metal additional compounds produced reacting water solid temperatures hours include considerable number formed reacting solid state earth environment flowing oxygen resulting compounds equivalent compound compounds characterized include obtained heating different combinations temperature heating cause compounds exhibit different obtained similar reactions large number additional compounds characterized production methods observed bond additional elements groups studied compounds nearly studied fairly large number successfully characterized extensively researched largely potential use separating element nuclear waste products compounds reported fairly stable prepared following reactions later obtained directly heating temperatures hydrogen pure gas difficult create known preparation methods involve reacting compounds compounds heated extremely volatile adjacent compounds attracted large interest compound attempt simple method spent nuclear power station fuel rods prepared reacting high temperatures bulk quantities obtained heating pure specially prepared apparatus additional methods successfully produced include reacting reacting different compounds hydrogen compounds reported extensively studied pinkish solid prepared reacting pure produced reacting hydrogen temperatures forms wide variety compounds elements characterized include characterized attempts create successful created reducing dioxide hydrogen carbon reacting compounds reported including created reacting aluminium identical procedure present prepared method compounds studied primarily research electronic magnetic properties interactions natural environment compounds attracted interest presence fuel advanced nuclear designs group nearly research wide variety compounds characterized including pure compounds prepared reacting hydrogen carbon studied forms known form exists form exist higher temperatures created reacting metal prepared reacting heating mixture pure forms equivalent including equivalent created studied prepared vacuum sealing pure tube heating week compounds reported include obtained heating metal temperatures vacuum extended period time known exist relatively high temperatures compounds known formed similar methods replacing dioxide known compounds formed similar procedures equivalent compounds compounds reported prepared reacting gas tube later produced reacting different nitrogen hydrogen metal temperatures created reduction dioxide nitrogen gas pun melting point nitrogen pressure compounds reported face centered cubic structure prepared converting metal powder reacting gas created reacting metal red vacuum allowing extra away compound non water react acid produce solution compounds prepared created heating vacuum sealed tube week later metal vacuum tube separating membrane heating melting point slightly higher point prepared similar procedure transporting agent crystals brownish gold black compound created placing equal quantities elements vacuum tube heating melting point heating sixteen days procedure created trace amounts additional compound compound reported tentative reported characterized detail despite high importance utility advanced nuclear fuel non compound better labelled obtained reaction heating constituent elements electric arc excess carbon form pure formed heating hydrogen similar manner neighbor forming face centered cubic corresponding unlike parameters greater hydrogen content increases require extreme care handling vacuum form finely divided metal stable investigated potential use nuclear waste green solid produced reaction dioxide far remained elusive series compounds metal known characterized solid states observed additionally investigated achieve better understanding behavior geological environment come contact solutions form complexes compounds known characterized known compounds compounds derivatives compound obtained reacting simpler obtained reddish brown complex synthesized reacting potassium sensitive oxygen water compounds known general formula represents synthesized reacting behave compounds water bases sensitive air reacting quickly form slightly known derivatives include corresponding compound addition prepared complexes precursor compounds coordination complexes interest coordination chemistry states exhibit distinctive chemical behavior coordination chemistry heavily influenced greater expected decrease series analogous solid state iii coordination compounds known iii readily atmospheric oxygen solution reduce iii lower state forming iii coordination complexes coordination compounds reported analogous coordination compound coordination compounds known involving metals formed copper formed complex compounds known produced produced single crystals slow solution ambient temperature concentrated acid excess coordination chemistry extensively researched presence interactions solid state known known compounds include form green crystals compounds range simple unstable usually complicated compounds green extensive study performed compounds form represents vii discovered coordination compounds state prepared studied reported compound initially characterized suggested actually formula based fact vii occurs solution compound forms dark green crystals maximum edge length solution coordination complexes known solution involve element states studies iii vii coordination complexes obtained concentrated solutions respectively experiments discovered form complexes acidic solutions found higher stability great complexes states known involved organic known able coordination complexes include neighbours order terms complex formation ability relative order middle depends stability sequence complexes order follow strengths corresponding strongly ones form complex acid solution strength interaction follows order form complex applications precursor production important use precursor production create alpha thermal generators spacecraft military applications capture form beta decay half life days formula exists sizable quantities spent nuclear fuel separated electron beams provoking produces pure samples useful determine concentration environment weapons theoretically fuel fast nuclear weapon critical mass kilograms department energy statement nuclear explosive device believed actual weapon constructed world production commercial power critical masses year extract fuel elements major industrial undertaking september researchers los national laboratory briefly created known nuclear critical mass combination shells enriched discovering critical mass bare sphere ranges kilogram weights high fifties low showing good bomb material united_states federal government plans march america supply separated nuclear waste disposal site nevada physics devices detecting high energy role nuclear waste commercial household chamber smoke decay typically initially present source radiation half life years smoke includes years years mobile deep geological environment makes predecessors candidates interest destruction nuclear long half life major contributor total years unclear happens long time span extraction minimize contamination environment nuclear waste mobilized thousand years biological role precautions biological role short half life occurs small traces naturally animal tests showed absorbed digestive tract injected bones slowly released finely divided metal presents fire hazard small grains spontaneously air room temperature literature guide elements revised edition albert oxford_university press isbn norman jean chemistry elements isbn das element short introduction periodic table oxford_university press oxford isbn


chemical element symbol atomic number white metallic block element historically classified rare earth element discovered analysis minerals scandinavia present deposits rare earth compounds extracted mines worldwide low availability difficulties preparation metallic applications developed 1970s positive effects aluminium discovered 1970s use remains major application global trade tonnes year properties compounds intermediate aluminium diagonal relationship exists behavior aluminium chemical compounds elements group predominant state properties chemical characteristics element soft metal appearance develops slightly yellowish pinkish cast air susceptible slowly react mixture acid acid possibly formation passive layer air brilliant yellow flame form iii nature found exclusively nuclear spin thirteen characterized stable half life days days hours remaining radioactive half lives hours majority half lives minutes element states stable range primary decay mode masses lower stable electron capture primary mode masses beta primary decay products atomic weights calcium primary products higher atomic weights occurrence earth crust rare estimates vary comparable abundance 50th common element earth 35th abundant crust 23rd common element sun distributed sparsely occurs trace amounts minerals rare minerals scandinavia madagascar known concentrated sources element contain form iii stable form created process production world production order tonnes year form demand higher production demand increasing mines produced iron mines ukraine rare earth mines china mines peninsula russia countries built producing facilities case extraction elements sold produce metallic converted reduced metallic calcium madagascar region norway deposits minerals high content exploited absence reliable secure stable long term production limited commercial applications despite low level use offers significant benefits particularly promising strengthening aluminium little stabilized enjoys growing market demand use high efficiency solid fuel cells compounds chemistry completely dominated table indicate chemical properties common aluminium similarity classified like element forms aluminium counterparts solutions water acidic water coordinated lewis example solution containing excess form coordination number typical iii larger coordination numbers common iii lewis acid catalyst organic chemistry organic derivatives forms series compounds similar behavior example related derivatives uncommon states compounds feature state rare characterized blue black compound simplest material adopts sheet like structure exhibits extensive bonding centers understood appears observed elements observed high temperatures gas phase non typical neighboring elements lower states observed compounds history referred father periodic table predicted existence element atomic mass team detected element minerals prepared grams high purity named element latin meaning scandinavia apparently unaware prediction recognized correspondence notified metallic produced time mixture potassium pound pure metal produced production aluminium began following patent aluminium developed ussr laser crystals strategic defense applications developed strategic defense initiative 1980s 1990s applications addition aluminium limits grain growth heat zone aluminium components beneficial effects precipitated forms smaller crystals aluminium volume free zones grain boundaries age aluminium reduced effects increase similar strength cheaper widely strong light aluminium hard main application weight aluminium minor industry components contain russian military aircraft specifically items sports equipment rely high performance materials aluminium including baseball bats bicycle frames components sticks american manufacturing company smith produces frames cylinders carbon steel use cavity preparation based metal lamps patented general_electric initially north_america produced major countries approximately annually united_states high intensity discharge lamps type metal lamp similar mercury lamp lamp white light source high color rendering index sufficiently resembles sunlight allow good color reproduction cameras metal lamps light globally year radioactive oil tracing agent lewis acid organic chemistry health safety considered non toxic extensive animal testing compounds median lethal dose levels iii rats determined oral administration light results compounds handled compounds moderate


synthetic element symbol atomic number member series heaviest element formed bombardment lighter elements element prepared quantities pure metal prepared total known longest lived half life days discovered debris hydrogen bomb explosion named pioneers nuclear physics chemistry typical late state accessible state owing small amounts produced having relatively short half lives currently uses outside basic scientific research discovery discovered fallout ivy mike nuclear test november successful test hydrogen bomb initial examination debris explosion shown production new formed absorption nucleus followed time absorption heavy nucleus thought rare process identification raised possibility absorbed leading new elements element quickly discovered filter papers flown cloud explosion sampling technique discover identified december albert workers university california berkeley discovered half life days capture underwent seven successive beta formula capture likely discovery required material yield expected order magnitude lower element contaminated coral test taken place shipped university california radiation laboratory berkeley california processing analysis months test new component isolated high energy particles half life day short half life arise decay new element quickly identified hours discovery new elements new data capture initially kept secret orders military cold war tensions berkeley team able prepare elements civilian means bombardment published work studies carried elements ivy mike studies published berkeley team worried group discover lighter element bombardment techniques publish classified research proved case group nobel institute physics stockholm independently discovered element producing later confirmed minutes bombarding target published work priority berkeley team generally recognized new element honour recently deceased developer artificial self sustained nuclear listed atomic weights longest lived half life days half life days hours remaining ones half lives ranging minutes capture product undergoes spontaneous half life unstable respect spontaneous respectively means capture create mass number greater carried nuclear explosion decaying undergo beta minus decay produce element element prepared capture process production produced bombardment lighter nuclear heaviest obtained capture produced quantities major source high oak ridge national laboratory tennessee usa dedicated production elements typical processing campaign oak ridge tens grams produce quantities quantities quantities quantities prepared specific experiments quantities produced explosions believed order mixed huge quantity debris recovered kilograms debris test july production separated products usually achieved exchange standard process solution smaller form stable complexes column rapid method described stable half life days studies conducted hours easily isolated required decay product days synthesis nuclear explosions analysis debris ivy mike nuclear test long term project goals studying efficiency production elements high power nuclear explosions motivation experiments follows synthesis elements requires multiple capture probability events increases nuclear explosions powerful sources providing order cm2 cm2 comparison cm2 dedicated laboratory set right preliminary analysis debris decayed time debris samples reached laboratory receiving samples analysis soon possible equipped paper filters flew tests hoped discover new chemical elements heavier found series explosions conducted atmospheric results supplemented underground test data accumulated 1960s nevada test site hoped powerful explosions conducted confined space result improved yields heavier apart traditional charges combinations tried mixed charge successful terms yield attributed stronger losses heavy enhanced rates heavy element charges isolation products found problematic explosions spreading debris melting rocks great depth meters drilling depth order extract products slow inefficient terms collected volumes underground tests carried par vulcan powerful highest yield elements dependence atomic mass number yield showed saw tooth behavior lower values odd higher rates major practical problem entire proposal collecting radioactive debris dispersed powerful blast aircraft filters total collection tons increased fraction orders magnitude extraction kilograms underground rocks days explosion recovered total charge elements batch times higher rock picked days test observation demonstrated highly dependence elements yield retrieved radioactive rock order accelerate sample collection explosion shafts site test explosion expel radioactive material shafts collecting volumes near surface method tried tests instantly provided hundreds kilograms material concentration times lower samples obtained drilling method efficient scientific studies short lived improve overall collection efficiency produced new elements apart detected nuclear test debris total yields elements low tests provide significantly higher amounts rare heavy previously available laboratories recovered studies thermal induced discovery new rare synthesized large quantities difficult produce nuclear half life minutes short months long long explosion natural occurrence short half life present earth formation decayed synthesis naturally occurring earth crust requires multiple capture extremely unlikely event produced earth scientific laboratories high power nuclear nuclear weapons tests present months time synthesis elements occur naturally natural nuclear longer chemistry chemistry studied solution techniques solid compounds prepared normal conditions exists solution number acid constant forms complexes wide variety organic hard donor oxygen complexes usually stable preceding forms complexes complexes appear stable formed believed bonding complexes later character expected smaller preceding higher effective nuclear charge expected form shorter stronger metal bonds iii fairly easily reduced example potential estimated similar iii couple respect standard hydrogen value agrees theoretical calculations couple potential based measurements people come contact international commission protection set annual exposure limits stable limit set equivalent decay second limit respectively


radioactive chemical element symbol atomic number member series located periodic table element analogy named americas produced group berkeley california laboratory university_of_chicago element series discovered fourth heavier discovery kept secret released public november produced bombarded nuclear spent nuclear fuel contains grams widely commercial chamber smoke sources industrial unusual applications nuclear batteries fuel space ships nuclear propulsion proposed hindered high price nuclear relatively soft radioactive metal appearance common chemical compounds usually assumes state especially solutions states known range identified characteristic optical absorption crystal solid compounds contain small defects induced self alpha particles time cause drift material properties time noticeable older samples history likely produced previous nuclear experiments intentionally synthesized isolated identified late autumn university california berkeley morgan james albert inch university california berkeley element identified laboratory national laboratory university_of_chicago following lighter heavier fourth element discovered time periodic table present layout containing row led located right twin element analogy named americas americas symbol suggested element basis position sixth member rare earth series analogous series new element isolated complex multi step process solution coated platinum foil cm2 area solution converted dioxide coating dissolved acid precipitated concentrated solution dissolved acid separation carried exchange yielding certain separation elements initially called berkeley group greek demons hell latin madness initial experiments yielded directly obtained absorption particle half life decay determined years corrected years formula times half lives second produced bombardment created rapid decay converts discovered previously half life decay initially determined hours close presently accepted value formula discovery closely related manhattan_project results confidential leaked synthesis elements radio children kids days official presentation american chemical society meeting november listeners asked new element discovered war discovery production compounds patented listing inventor initial samples weighed barely visible identified substantial amounts metallic weighing prepared reduction iii metal high vacuum occurrence longest lived common half lives years respectively present earth formation decayed existing concentrated areas atmospheric nuclear weapons tests conducted sites nuclear incidents disaster example analysis debris testing site hydrogen bomb ivy mike november revealed high concentrations including military secrecy result published later left desert floor near new_mexico based trinity nuclear bomb test july contains traces elevated levels detected crash site boeing bomber aircraft carried hydrogen bombs greenland regions average surface soil atmospheric compounds poorly common adhere soil particles soil analysis revealed times higher concentration inside sandy soil particles water present soil pores higher ratio measured soils produced artificially small quantities research purposes spent nuclear fuel contains grams prolonged undesirable disposal long lived associated procedure involve steps separated converted bombardment special short lived procedure known nuclear developed elements occurred naturally natural nuclear longer synthesis extraction produced small quantities nuclear decades kilograms accumulated offered sale price usd remains unchanged owing complex separation procedure heavier produced smaller amounts difficult separate resulting higher cost order usd synthesized directly common material needs produced according following nuclear process formula capture called reaction followed decay results formula present spent nuclear fuel contains spontaneously converts extracted generate process slow half original years reaches maximum years obtained generating heavier capture inside nuclear light water converts nuclear formula formula half life hours makes conversion extremely inefficient produced instead process captures high formula metal generation synthesis routines yield mixture different forms separated typical procedure spent fuel fuel dissolved acid bulk removed type extraction extraction remaining separated based extraction stripping mixture compounds extracted multi step techniques appropriate reagent large work extraction example funded project studied compounds potential extraction agents complex proposed reagent highly selective separation highly similar achieved treating elevated temperatures present solutions state remains unchanged complexes washed away metallic obtained reduction compounds iii purpose reaction conducted reducing agent oxygen free environment inside apparatus formula alternative reduction dioxide metallic formula physical properties periodic table located right left shares similarities physical chemical properties highly radioactive element prepared white metallic slowly air density dense higher density higher atomic mass relatively soft easily significantly lower bulk melting point significantly higher lower ambient conditions present stable form crystal symmetry space group parameters unit cell crystal consists double close packing layer sequence crystal structure changes pressure temperature compressed room temperature transforms modification face centered cubic symmetry space group constant structure equivalent closest packing sequence abc compression transforms structure similar transitions observed appearance phase pressures consistency status phase literature lists phases iii transition accompanied decrease crystal volume theory significant volume change transition observed pressure transition decreases increasing temperature heated ambient pressure changes phase different converts body centered cubic structure pressure temperature phase similar self damage crystal alpha particle especially noticeable low temperatures mobility produced defects relatively low ray peaks effect makes somewhat uncertain temperature properties electrical increases time hours hours effect pronounced room temperature radiation defects heating room temperature sample kept hours low temperatures fresh samples gradually increases temperature liquid room temperature behavior similar different rapid rise followed room temperature value lower higher wide temperature range liquid room temperature behavior markedly different neighbor exhibits transition thermal expansion slightly amounts shorter axis longer axis dissolution metal acid standard conditions standard change formation standard potential chemical properties readily oxygen common state compounds stable reduction sense similar forms states observed widest range elements color solutions varies follows yellow reddish yellow reddish yellow brown dark green states characteristic optical absorption sharp peaks visible mid infrared regions position intensity peaks converted concentrations corresponding states example iii sharp peaks compounds state higher strong agents comparable strength acidic solutions unstable solutions readily convert state occurs dioxide compounds complex high states prepared iii acid silver acid solutions state observed present solution form acidic unstable subject rapid reactions formula formula chemical compounds oxygen compounds known states prepared minute amounts characterized details iii red brown solid melting point main form solid nearly applications black solid cubic crystal structure iii vacuum dried room temperature chemical formula heating vacuum loses water starts completes initial acid maximum known states stable especially solutions reduction iii compounds yields black sensitive oxygen water releasing hydrogen converting iii state specific prepared reacting metallic appropriate mercury formula iii poorly reaction weak acidic solutions formula obtained reacting solid iii molecular formula known form solid observed phase purpose black dissolved concentration resulting reddish solution characteristic optical absorption spectrum similar differed states heating solution result reduction slow reduction observed iii assigned self alpha particles iii form crystals slight variation color exact structure reddish structure iii space group melting point space group space group exception type structure space group crystals prepared dioxide acid liquid crystals yellow reddish color crystal structure form obtained reacting corresponding oxygen produced phase formula known include type known elements rock salt nominally obtained reduction iii elementary vacuum black solid crystal symmetry bright crystal space group include obtained heating vacuum atmosphere compounds analogous forms compound chemical formula makes complex rings surrounding formation complexes type stands solutions containing confirmed type complexes interact useful selective separation biological aspects artificial element recent origin biological requirement harmful life proposed use bacteria removal heavy metals rivers streams genus solutions binding metal complex cell walls studies reported bacteria fungi half life years largest cross sections absorption thermal results small critical mass sustained nuclear chain reaction critical mass bare sphere uncertainty results insufficient knowledge material properties lowered metal smaller water small critical mass favorable portable nuclear weapons based known probably high price critical masses readily available relatively high high price hinder application nuclear fuel nuclear proposals compact high little grams low power relatively safe use sources radiation therapy hospitals nuclear known long lived alpha half lives years respectively nuclear long half life years half lives range hours odd number relatively high rate nuclear low critical mass alpha particles different energies resulting states gamma rays energies short lived half life converts decay electron capture transform nearly decay chain nearly internal conversion remaining decay breaks transforms converts decay changes particle applications type smoke synthetic element found way household common type smoke uses form dioxide source radiation preferred times alpha particles relatively little harmful gamma radiation element collector gray mentions book elements visual exploration known universe think synthetic radioactive element follows significantly shorter half life kind material available scientists secret laboratories mad scientist studying want simply walk neighborhood hardware store supermarket buy questions asked adds reason fundamentally dangerous elements fact commonly available significantly radioactive weapons grade toxic difference simply useful application requires tiny company prepared effort required regulatory exception typical new smoke declines slowly different element longer half life million years half life years smoke includes years years radiation passes chamber air filled space permits small constant current smoke enters chamber alpha particles reduces affects current triggering alarm compared alternative optical smoke smoke cheaper detect particles small produce significant light scattering prone false roughly similar half life years years proposed active element generators example spacecraft produces heat electricity power yield radiation poses threat humans owing european space agency considering space proposed space related application fuel space ships nuclear propulsion relies high rate nuclear maintained thick foil small thickness avoids problem self absorption emitted radiation problem rods surface layers provide alpha particles products directly propel spaceship heat gas transfer energy fluid generate electricity generator proposal utilizes high nuclear rate nuclear battery design relies energy emitted alpha particles charge acts self sustaining single charge battery provide power period days potential benefits current applications hindered high price nuclear source pressed efficient source acts alpha source produces owing large cross section nuclear reaction formula formula widespread use sources probe device measure quantity water present soil moisture density quality control highway construction sources logging applications investigations production elements starting material production elements example nuclear converted capture transforms decay formula yields respectively furthermore element intentionally produced identified bombarding alpha particles berkeley group inch similarly produced joint institute nuclear research russia reactions included synthesis reactions discovered scientists berkeley included bombardment portable source gamma rays alpha particles number medical industrial uses gamma ray emissions sources indirect analysis materials ray quality control fixed nuclear density nuclear example element employed gauge glass thickness help create flat glass suitable gamma ray low energy range spectrum consists nearly single peak orders magnitude lower intensity gamma rays provide passive diagnosis function medical application obsolete health concerns highly radioactive element compounds handled appropriate laboratory special arrangements predominantly alpha particles blocked thin layers common materials daughter products gamma rays long penetration depth consumed days absorbed blood roughly goes liver bones remaining liver depends individual increases age bones deposited surfaces slowly bone time biological half life years bones years liver remains permanently organs promotes formation cancer cells result enters discarded smoke rules associated disposal smoke relaxed jurisdictions year old david extracted smoke attempt build nuclear cases exposure worst case chemical operations technician age exposed times standard result explosion lab died age unrelated pre existing disease


carbon carbon latin coal chemical element symbol atomic number periodic table row elements column group common composition outer electron shell making available form chemical bonds occur naturally stable radioactive decaying half life years carbon elements known antiquity carbon 15th abundant element earth crust fourth abundant element universe mass hydrogen oxygen carbon abundance unique diversity organic compounds unusual ability form temperatures commonly encountered earth enables element serve common element known life second abundant element human body mass oxygen carbon different ways termed carbon best known diamond carbon physical properties carbon vary widely form example black diamond highly transparent soft form streak paper greek means write diamond hardest naturally occurring material known good electrical conductor diamond low electrical normal conditions diamond carbon highest thermal known materials carbon normal conditions stable form resistant require high temperature react oxygen common state carbon compounds found carbon transition metal complexes largest sources carbon carbon dioxide significant quantities occur organic deposits coal oil carbon forms vast number compounds element million compounds described date number fraction number theoretically possible compounds standard conditions characteristics carbon includes known substances diamond hardest naturally occurring substance bonds readily small including carbon capable forming multiple stable bonds carbon known form million different compounds large majority chemical compounds carbon highest point elements atmospheric pressure melting point triple point carbon carbon arc temperature form carbon remains solid higher temperatures highest melting point metals prone carbon effectively elements iron copper weaker reducing agents room temperature carbon compounds form basis known life earth carbon nitrogen cycle provides energy produced sun stars forms extraordinary variety compounds forms carbon comparatively normal conditions standard temperature pressure strongest react acid acid elevated temperatures carbon oxygen form carbon rob oxygen metal leave metal reaction iron steel industry iron control carbon content steel form carbon steam coal gas reaction carbon combines metals high temperatures form metallic iron steel widely making hard tips cutting tools appears strongest material tested process separating require technological development economical industrial processes system carbon spans range extremes atomic carbon short lived species carbon stabilized multi atomic structures different molecular configurations called relatively known carbon carbon diamond considered exotic commonly synthesized research include carbon carbon exotic discovered questionable carbon carbon linear carbon form assortment carbon non irregular state essentially held present powder main constituent substances activated carbon normal pressures carbon takes form plane composed fused rings like resulting network dimensional resulting flat sheets stacked loosely weak van der forces gives properties sheets slip easily past outer form cloud conducts electricity plane sheet results lower bulk electrical carbon metals accounts energetic stability diamond room temperature high pressures carbon forms compact diamond having nearly twice density forming dimensional network rings diamond cubic structure strength carbon carbon bonds hardest naturally occurring substance measured resistance contrary popular belief diamonds forever unstable normal conditions transform high activation energy barrier transition slow normal temperature conditions carbon crystal properties similar diamond synthetic formation like structure place formed carbon missing additional warp sheets spheres cylinders properties split fully analyzed represent intense area research names given richard fuller resemble structure fairly large molecules formed completely carbon forming best known simplest shaped carbon structurally similar curved sheet forms hollow cylinder reported hybrid tube materials outer wall combine properties single structure discovered carbon discovered consists low density cluster assembly carbon loose dimensional web seven rings known density similarly carbon contains high proportion closed contrary normal layers stacked like pages book random arrangement linear carbon chemical structure carbon modification linear alternating single triple bonds considerable interest young times hardest known material diamond team north_carolina state university announced development dubbed carbon created high energy low duration laser pulse carbon dust carbon reported exhibit superior diamonds occurrence carbon fourth abundant chemical element universe mass hydrogen oxygen carbon abundant sun stars planets contain microscopic diamonds formed solar system disk microscopic diamonds formed intense pressure high temperature sites impacts nasa announced greatly upgraded database tracking universe carbon universe associated complex compounds carbon hydrogen oxygen compounds figure world hypothesis role formation life formed couple billion years big bang widespread universe associated new stars estimated solid earth contains carbon core combined mantle crust mass earth imply million carbon carbon oceans atmosphere combination oxygen carbon dioxide carbon found earth atmosphere approximately carbon dissolved water bodies approximately carbon carbon present coal petroleum natural gas contain carbon coal reserves resources resources oil reserves proven sources natural gas cubic metres containing carbon studies estimate cubic metres unconventional deposits gas representing carbon carbon found polar regions seas estimates carbon past quantities greater according source period carbon released carbon dioxide atmosphere burning fossil source puts added atmosphere period total going atmosphere sea land carbon constituent mass large masses rock limestone marble coal rich carbon contains largest commercial source mineral carbon accounting fossil fuel individual carbon found large quantities united_states new_york texas russia mexico greenland india natural diamonds occur rock found ancient volcanic pipes diamond deposits africa notably south_africa republic sierra diamond deposits found arkansas canada russian arctic brazil northern western_australia diamonds recovered ocean floor cape good hope diamonds found naturally industrial diamonds manufactured formed upper layers altitudes reaction precipitated cosmic rays thermal produced forming carbon rich relatively outer parts belt solar system directly sampled scientists hypothetical space based carbon mining possible future currently impossible carbon atomic contain plus number varying carbon stable naturally occurring forms carbon earth forms remaining concentration increased biological materials reactions international union pure applied chemistry adopted basis atomic weights identification carbon nuclear magnetic resonance experiments naturally occurring created upper atmosphere lower upper interaction nitrogen cosmic rays found trace amounts earth confined atmosphere superficial deposits particularly organic materials relatively short half life years virtually absent ancient rocks atmosphere living organisms constant decreases bodies death principle dating invented extensively determine age materials ages years known carbon shortest lived alpha decay half life exotic exhibits nuclear halo means radius larger expected nucleus sphere constant density formation stars formation carbon atomic nucleus requires nearly simultaneous triple collision alpha particles core giant star known triple alpha process products nuclear fusion reactions hydrogen nucleus produce respectively highly unstable decay instantly smaller happens conditions temperatures concentration rapid expansion cooling early universe prohibited significant carbon created big bang according current physical theory carbon formed interiors stars horizontal branch collision transformation stars die carbon scattered space dust dust component material formation second generation star systems planets solar system star system abundance carbon enabling existence life know cycle additional fusion mechanisms powers stars carbon operates catalyst transitions forms carbon example range study newly forming stars molecular clouds carbon cycle terrestrial conditions conversion element rare carbon earth effectively constant processes use carbon obtain dispose paths carbon environment form carbon cycle example plants draw carbon dioxide atmosphere build cycle process carbon eaten animals carbon animals carbon dioxide carbon cycle considerably complicated short loop example carbon dioxide dissolved oceans bacteria consume dead plant animal matter petroleum coal releases carbon burned compounds organic compounds carbon form long chains bonds property called carbon carbon bonds strong stable carbon forms countless number compounds tally unique compounds shows contain carbon similar claim hydrogen organic compounds contain hydrogen simplest form organic large family organic molecules composed hydrogen chain carbon chain length chains functional groups affect properties organic molecules carbon occurs known organic life basis organic chemistry united hydrogen forms important industry chemical manufacture fossil combined oxygen hydrogen carbon form groups important biological compounds including nitrogen forms addition forms rubber products addition elements forms dna chemical code carriers life important energy transfer living cells compounds commonly carbon containing compounds associated minerals contain hydrogen treated separately classical organic compounds definition rigid reference articles simple carbon prominent carbon dioxide principal constituent minor component earth atmosphere today dissolved water forms acid compounds multiple single single carbon unstable intermediate resonance stabilized produced important minerals notably carbon similar common carbon formed incomplete gas molecules contain triple bond fairly polar resulting tendency permanently molecules displacing oxygen lower binding affinity similar structure like example form similar uncommon carbon unstable carbon metals carbon forms form high melting points associated weak carbon prefers form bonds like sic resembles diamond compounds compounds definition contain carbon metal bond wide range compounds exist major classes include simple metal compounds example compounds example salt compounds example containing example transition metal complexes metal exist example workers consider carbon purely carbon understood exclusively form bonds interesting compound containing carbon reported compound phenomenon attributed gold history etymology english carbon comes latin coal comes french meaning german dutch danish names carbon respectively literally meaning coal substance carbon discovered known forms earliest human diamonds known probably early bce china carbon form roman times chemistry today heating wood pyramid covered clay exclude air demonstrated iron transformed steel absorption substance known carbon showed diamonds form carbon burned samples diamond found produced water released carbon dioxide showed thought form lead instead identical small iron gave aerial acid carbon dioxide acid french scientists louis confirmed carbon oxygen way diamond iron left french scientists thought necessary structure publication proposed latin element given gas burning listed carbon element textbook new carbon discovered includes forms robert richard received nobel prize chemistry resulting renewed interest new forms lead discovery exotic including carbon realization carbon strictly production commercially viable natural deposits occur parts world important sources economically china india brazil north_korea deposits origin found association limestone lenses veins metre thickness deposits cumberland england sufficient size purity 19th century simply blocks natural strips strips wood today smaller deposits obtained crushing parent rock floating lighter water types natural vein lowest quality abundant contrary science industry refers small crystal size complete lack crystal structure lower value products lowest priced large deposits found china europe mexico united_states common higher quality occurs separate plates rock times price good quality processed uses flame foremost deposits found austria brazil canada china germany madagascar vein valuable highest quality type natural occurs veins contacts solid commercially mined sri_lanka according world production natural million tonnes china contributed india brazil north_korea canada natural reported mined united_states synthetic estimated value million produced diamond diamond supply chain controlled limited number powerful businesses highly concentrated small number locations world figure small fraction diamond ore consists actual diamonds ore crushed care taken order prevent larger diamonds destroyed process subsequently particles density today diamonds located diamond rich density fraction help ray final steps hand use rays commonplace separation belts diamonds stronger tendency stick minerals ore historically diamonds known found deposits southern india india led world diamond production time discovery approximately 9th century bce century commercial potential sources exhausted late 18th century time india eclipsed brazil non indian diamonds found diamond production primary deposits started 1870s discovery diamond fields south_africa production increased time accumulated total billion mined date mined years years new mines started production waiting opened soon mines located canada russia united_states diamonds found arkansas colorado montana startling discovery microscopic diamond united_states led january bulk sampling pipes remote montana today commercially viable diamond deposits russia australia democratic republic russia produced fifth global diamond output reports british geological survey australia richest pipe production reaching peak levels metric tons long tons short tons year 1990s commercial deposits actively mined northwest territories canada siberia territory example pipe pipe brazil northern western_australia applications carbon essential known living systems life know exist alternative major economic use carbon food wood form notably fossil fuel gas crude oil petroleum crude oil industry produce gasoline products natural carbon containing produced plants form wood cotton primarily maintaining structure plants commercially valuable carbon animal origin include wool silk synthetic carbon oxygen nitrogen included regular intervals main chain raw materials synthetic substances come crude oil uses carbon compounds extremely varied form iron common carbon steel combined form lead writing drawing pigment material glass manufacture dry batteries electric motors nuclear drawing material artwork iron applications wood coal oil fuel production energy heating gem quality diamond jewelry industrial diamonds drilling cutting tools metals stone fossil carbon fiber synthetic fibers reinforce form advanced lightweight composite materials carbon fiber stretched pan organic substances structure mechanical properties fiber depend type starting material subsequent processing carbon fibers pan structure resembling narrow thermal processing order structure continuous rolled sheet result fibers higher specific strength steel carbon black black pigment printing ink artist oil paint water colours carbon paper automotive finishes india ink laser printer carbon black filler rubber products tyres plastic compounds activated filter material applications diverse gas masks water kitchen medicine absorb gases digestive system carbon chemical reduction high temperatures reduce iron ore iron case steel achieved heating finished steel components carbon powder hardest known materials cutting grinding tools carbon compounds materials clothing natural synthetic leather interior surfaces built environment glass stone metal diamonds diamond industry falls categories dealing gem grade diamonds industrial grade diamonds large trade types diamonds exists markets act dramatically different ways unlike precious metals gold platinum gem diamonds trade substantial mark sale diamonds active market diamonds industrial diamonds valued heat qualities clarity color irrelevant mined diamonds equal million tonnes annually unsuitable use relegated industrial use known synthetic diamonds invented 1950s found immediate industrial applications billion tonnes synthetic diamond produced annually dominant industrial use diamond cutting drilling grinding applications require large diamonds fact diamonds gem quality small size diamonds embedded drill tips saw blades ground powder use grinding applications specialized applications include use laboratories high pressure experiments diamond cell high performance limited use specialized windows continuing advances production synthetic diamonds new applications feasible garnering excitement possible use diamond suitable exceptional heat property heat sink electronics precautions pure carbon extremely low humans handled safely form resistant dissolution chemical attack acidic contents digestive tract consequently enters body tissues likely remain indefinitely carbon black probably found carbon survived life years death coal dust carbon black large quantities dangerous irritating lung tissues causing lung disease diamond dust harmful carbon produced diesel engine exhaust accumulate lungs examples harm result organic chemicals heavy metals carbon carbon generally low life earth carbon deadly carbon burn vigorously brightly presence air high temperatures large coal remained hundreds millions years absence oxygen spontaneously exposed air coal waste tips ship cargo holds coal storage nuclear applications accumulation energy followed sudden spontaneous release occur release energy safely fire procedure went wrong causing materials great variety carbon compounds include lethal seeds oil plant carbon life protein bonding carbon


chemical element symbol atomic number rare earth element metallic silver found nature free element found minerals naturally occurring composed seven abundant identified paul isolated pure form development exchange techniques 1950s high thermal absorption cross section making control rods nuclear high magnetic data storage applications component material mildly toxic considered non toxic characteristics physical properties rare earth element metallic bright silver soft cut knife sparking avoided physical characteristics greatly affected small amounts highest magnetic strengths elements especially low temperatures simple ordering temperatures turns state atomic moments particular basal plane layer parallel oriented fixed angle moments adjacent layers unusual transforms state chemical properties metal slowly air burns readily form iii slowly cold water quickly hot water form metal vigorously green white white green readily acid form solutions containing yellow iii exist complex resulting compound iii noticeably compounds tend yellow color known white powder highly magnetic iron combines non metals high temperatures form compounds varying composition states result similar reactions compounds water water abundant known form poorly ordered precursor phase formula precursor consists highly spherical diameter exceptionally stable dry treatment ambient high temperatures naturally occurring composed seven considered stable alpha decay half life years naturally occurring abundant followed abundant synthesized ranging atomic mass stable half life approximately years followed half life days stable half life general rule lighter stable tend decay primarily decay heavier tend decay decay primarily alpha decay decay primarily electron capture ranging atomic mass stable half life minutes second half life history found contain french chemist paul working separated paris procedure involved acid adding able attempts procedure succeeding named element greek meaning hard element isolated relatively pure form development exchange techniques frank iowa state university early 1950s albert stanley thompson bombarded produced atomic number closely resembled neighboring named city elements discovered new element named city synthesized research team synthesized element think good analogy instead named element honor state synthesized california research team went point recognition fact named basis greek word meaning difficult element century ago found difficult california occurrence encountered free element found minerals including rare earth elements currently obtained clay southern china future sources include halls creek region western_australia high version happens abundant heavy comprising concentrate compared concentration earth crust sea water production obtained primarily sand mixture metal obtained product commercial extraction unwanted metals removed process separated rare earth metals exchange displacement process resulting react form compounds reduced calcium metals following reactions components placed fired atmosphere reaction progresses resulting compounds separate differences density mixture cut away tonnes produced worldwide year total produced china prices climbed nearly pound pound late price increased fell largely illegal production china government restrictions according united_states department energy wide range current projected uses lack immediately suitable replacement makes single critical element emerging clean energy technologies conservative projections predict late nascent rare earth including extraction industry australia applications applications unique gray wrote book elements visual exploration known universe look fourth page results finding isn periodic table website entry usually element page sort page conjunction elements making laser materials commercial lighting high thermal absorption cross section absorbing control rods nuclear sources infrared radiation useful studying chemical reactions compounds highly susceptible employed data storage applications hard increasingly demand permanent electric car motors wind turbine generators iron substituted raise demanding applications drive motors electric vehicles generators wind turbines require grams electric car produced based toyota projected million units year use applications quickly exhaust available supply useful applications improves resistance components iron highest room temperature known material employed wide band mechanical high precision liquid fuel measuring radiation crystals calcium calcium crystals exposed radiation excited measured determine degree exposure subjected compounds high strength large surface area reinforce materials act catalyst fibers produced heating solution bar hours material remarkably robust surviving hours solutions temperatures exceeding high intensity metal lamps compounds near hot center lamp releasing isolated light green red spectrum effectively producing bright light crystal aluminum iron precautions like powder present explosion hazard mixed air source present thin substance ignited sparks static electricity fires water react water produce hydrogen gas fires extinguished water non strong agent readily contact organic substances mildly toxic based mice estimated grams fatal human non toxic


copper copper chemical element symbol latin atomic number soft metal high thermal electrical exposed surface pure copper reddish orange color conductor heat electricity building material constituent metal sterling silver jewelry marine hardware coins strain temperature measurement copper found pure metal nature source metal humans metal ore metal cast shape mold metal metal tin create bronze roman era copper principally mined cyprus origin metal metal cyprus later corrupted words copper english french dutch german derived commonly encountered compounds copper blue green colors minerals widely historically architectural structures built copper usually elements green decorative art prominently features copper metal compounds copper compounds agents wood copper essential living organisms trace mineral key constituent respiratory complex copper constituent blood pigment replaced iron fish humans copper found mainly liver muscle bone adult body contains copper kilogram body weight healthy human weighing kilogram contains approximately copper small essential overall human characteristics physical copper silver gold group periodic table share certain attributes electron filled electron shell characterized high electrical thermal filled shells elements contribute little interactions dominated metallic bonds unlike metals incomplete shells metallic bonds copper lacking character relatively weak observation explains low high single crystals copper scale introduction extended defects crystal grain boundaries flow material applied stress increasing reason copper usually supplied fine form greater strength forms copper partly explains high electrical high thermal second highest second silver pure metals room temperature electron transport metals room temperature originates primarily scattering thermal vibrations relatively weak soft metal maximum current density copper open air approximately cross area begins heat excessively copper metallic elements natural color gray silver yellow gold yellow bluish pure copper orange red reddish exposed air characteristic color copper results electronic transitions filled half atomic shells energy difference shells corresponds orange light mechanism causes yellow color gold metals copper contact metal occur chemical copper react water slowly react atmospheric oxygen form layer brown black copper unlike forms iron moist air protects underlying metal green layer copper seen old copper structures older buildings statue liberty copper exposed compounds form copper copper stable comprising approximately naturally occurring copper spin radioactive stable half life hours seven characterized longest lived half life minutes mass number decay mass number decay half life hours ways significant applications radioactive occurrence copper produced massive stars present earth crust proportion parts million occurs native copper copper copper copper mineral largest mass copper discovered weighed tonnes found peninsula michigan native copper largest single crystal described measuring production copper mined extracted copper large open pit mines copper deposits contain copper sites include chile canyon utah united_states new_mexico united_states according british geological survey chile producer copper world share followed united_states indonesia peru copper recovered process sites state arizona considered prime candidates method copper use increasing quantity available barely sufficient allow countries reach developed world levels usage reserves copper use years copper mined extracted half extracted years natural resources total copper earth vast tons kilometer earth crust million years worth current rate extraction tiny fraction reserves economically viable present day prices technologies estimates copper reserves available mining vary years years depending core assumptions growth rate recycling major source copper modern world factors future copper production supply subject debate including concept peak copper analogous peak oil price copper historically unstable year low june pound dropped february rebounded april february weakening global demand steep fall prices previous year highs left copper prices methods concentration copper averages commercial especially lesser extent minerals concentrated crushed level copper heating material flash removes iron process exploits greater ease converting iron turn react form heated mass resulting copper consisting convert converted copper heating process converted half remove rest refined mud exploited platinum gold contained step exploits relatively easy reduction copper copper metal natural gas blown remove remaining oxygen performed resulting material produce pure copper recycling like aluminium copper loss quality raw state manufactured products volume copper recycled metal iron aluminium estimated copper mined use today according international resource panel metal stocks society report global capita stock copper use society developed countries capita developed countries capita process recycling copper roughly extract copper requires fewer steps high purity scrap copper melted reduced cast lower purity scrap refined bath acid numerous copper formulated important uses brass copper bronze usually refers copper tin refer copper aluminium bronze copper important constituents silver gold jewelry industry modifying color melting point resulting lead free consist tin small proportion copper metals copper called low coins outer cent coin currently called consists copper composition copper remarkable resistance objects exposed vulnerable found copper aluminium pleasant golden color decorations japanese decorative copper containing low percentage gold typically dark blue black colour compounds copper forms rich variety compounds usually states called respectively compounds elements simplest compounds copper compounds containing elements principal examples known numerous copper important examples include copper copper known attempts prepare copper yield coordination chemistry copper forms coordination complexes solution copper exists complex exhibits fastest water exchange rate speed water transition metal complex adding causes precipitation light blue solid copper simplified equation results adding excess forming form complexes include copper copper copper copper forms blue familiar copper compound laboratory called mixture compounds containing alcohol functional group generally interact example copper test reducing specifically reagent solution presence sugar signaled color change blue reddish copper reagent related complexes dissolve form stable complexes copper wet chemical tests copper exist involving potassium gives brown copper chemistry compounds contain carbon copper bond known compounds oxygen form copper uses chemistry synthesized treating copper compounds terminal particular reaction described produces reagent undergo form products important field organic synthesis copper highly shock sensitive intermediate reactions addition achieved compounds copper forms variety weak complexes carbon especially presence copper iii copper copper iii found simple example potassium blue black solid extensively studied copper iii compounds copper consists iii centres like highly basic known stabilize metal high states copper iii copper known respectively copper proteins form complexes feature copper iii purple colored copper iii complexes stabilized complexes copper iii found reactions compounds history copper age copper occurs naturally native metallic copper known oldest record history copper use years old estimated begun middle_east copper found northern iraq dates evidence suggests gold iron iron metals humans copper history copper thought follow sequence cold working native copper lost wax casting southeastern techniques appear simultaneously beginning agriculture independently invented parts world copper independently invented different places probably discovered china central_america west_africa 9th 10th century investment casting invented southeast_asia carbon dating established mining edge male dated found axe copper head pure high levels hair suggest involvement copper experience copper assisted development metals particular copper led discovery iron production old copper complex michigan wisconsin dated natural bronze type copper rich rarely tin came general use balkans bronze age copper tin bronze practiced years discovery copper years natural bronze come general use bronze artifacts culture date egyptian artifacts copper bronze date bronze age began southeastern europe northwestern europe ended beginning iron age near east northern europe transition period bronze age termed period copper stone copper tools stone tools term gradually fallen favor parts world ends brass copper recent origin known greeks significant supplement bronze roman empire antiquity middle ages greece copper known important resource romans greeks ancient peoples roman times known generic latin term copper cyprus copper mined phrase simplified english copper venus rome represented copper mythology beauty ancient use producing mirrors cyprus sacred goddess seven heavenly bodies known associated seven metals known antiquity venus assigned copper britain brass 3rd 2nd century north_america copper mining began marginal workings native americans native copper known extracted sites isle primitive stone tools copper south_america particularly peru copper burial 15th century uncovered metal commercial production start early 20th century cultural role copper important particularly currency romans 6th 3rd centuries copper money copper valued gradually shape look copper important coins brass coins estimated annual output roman copper mining activities reached scale time industrial revolution provinces intensely mined cyprus central europe gates temple jerusalem bronze treated process prevalent alexandria thought begun ancient india copper medical science surgical instruments medical equipment ancient copper wounds drinking water later treat burns modern period great copper mountain sweden operated 10th century satisfied thirds europe copper consumption 17th century helped fund sweden wars time referred nation treasury sweden copper backed currency copper currency renaissance sculpture photographic technology known statue liberty structures copper plating copper widely hulls ships ships christopher columbus earliest hamburg modern plant starting production german scientist invented powder determining metal atomic mass discovered type element tin copper affect bell tones flash developed finland applied energy efficient process accounts world primary copper production council copper countries formed chile peru operated copper market oil achieved influence particularly second largest producer united_states member dissolved applications major applications copper electrical wire industrial machinery copper pure metal greater required brass bronze total use centuries copper paint boat hulls control growth plants small copper supply agriculture copper possible preferred good creating intricate parts wire cable despite competition materials copper remains preferred electrical conductor nearly categories electrical overhead electric power transmission aluminium preferred copper wire power generation power transmission power distribution telecommunications electronics countless types electrical equipment electrical important market copper industry includes structural power power distribution cable wire communications cable automotive wire cable wire roughly half copper mined electrical wire cable electrical devices rely copper multitude inherent beneficial properties high electrical strength resistance resistance low thermal expansion high thermal ease ease installation short period late 1960s late 1970s copper replaced aluminum housing construction projects america aluminum wire main article new implicated number house fires industry returned copper electronics related devices integrated circuits printed circuit boards increasingly feature copper place aluminium superior electrical copper main article heat heat use copper superior heat dissipation properties vacuum tubes ray tubes microwave use copper wave guides microwave radiation electric motors copper superior efficiency electrical motors important motors motor driven systems account global electricity consumption electricity industry increasing mass cross section copper increases efficiency motor copper motor new technology designed motor applications energy savings prime design objectives enabling general purpose induction motors meet exceed national electrical manufacturers association premium efficiency standards architecture copper ancient times resistant architectural material roofs rain doors copper hundreds thousands years copper architectural use expanded modern times include interior exterior wall building expansion joints radio frequency decorative indoor products attractive bathroom fixtures counter tops copper important benefits architectural material include low thermal movement light weight lightning protection metal distinctive natural green long architects designers final particularly layer highly resistant atmospheric protecting underlying metal mixture compounds amounts depending environmental conditions containing acid rain architectural copper finished embark particular look feel color finishes include mechanical surface treatments chemical coloring copper excellent properties best results obtained gas metal arc applications copper meaning bacteria forms life grow reason long line parts ships protect originally pure superseded metal copper based paint similarly discussed copper copper important materials industry prevent extreme conditions strong structural resistant properties marine environments applications copper touch surfaces natural properties destroy wide range resistant virus fungi copper proven kill disease causing bacteria hours cleaned regularly united_states environmental protection agency approved copper materials public health benefits approval allows manufacturers legal claims public health benefits products registered addition approved long list copper products bed tables door toilet hardware computer keyboards health club equipment shopping cart handles comprehensive list copper touch surfaces approved products copper hospitals reduce transfer disease disease suppressed copper systems copper products installed healthcare facilities ireland japan korea france denmark brazil subway transit system chile copper installed stations folk medicine copper commonly jewelry according folklore copper relieve symptoms studies difference found treated copper magnetic medical science demonstrated benefits copper jewelry medical condition human copper condition rare copper present common foods including beans grains nuts evidence shows copper absorbed skin lead copper poisoning compression clothing recently compression clothing inter woven copper marketed folk medicine claims compression clothing valid treatment clothing appear work added copper benefit effect uses solutions copper compounds wood particularly treating original portion structures restoration dry damage copper wires installed non materials discourage growth moss textile fibers blended copper create protective copper musical instruments particularly body brass instruments bodies brass percussion bells drums metallic reed organs tuning heads guitars string instruments string string instruments frame elements copper commonly base metals copper metals lead silver museum materials testing procedure called test detect compounds copper printing plate forms copper add color stain glass works blue green brown colors degradation solid copper compound mycorrhizal fungi associated grow soils containing copper fungus protects young pine trees copper sample fungus found growing gold mining solution found contain complexes metals gold silver copper iron fungus plays role heavy metal biological role copper proteins diverse roles biological electron transport oxygen transportation processes exploit easy biological role copper commenced appearance oxygen earth atmosphere copper essential found protein protein copper iron protein transfers reduce molecules water copper found proteins converting oxygen hydrogen protein oxygen carrier crab blue organisms blue blood red blood iron based structurally related instead binding oxygen proteins illustrated role formation copper proteins blue copper proteins interact directly proteins relay process called electron transfer unique copper center found needs copper essential trace element plants animals human body contains copper level body mass copper absorbed gut transported liver bound processing liver copper distributed tissues second phase involves protein carrying majority copper blood carries copper milk particularly absorbed copper source copper body normally undergoes circulation day day absorbed diet body body able excess copper needed carries copper liver reference intake food nutrition board institute medicine updated estimated average requirements ears recommended copper current ear copper people ages day day higher ears identify amounts cover people higher average requirements pregnancy equals day equals day months day children ages years increases age day safety food nutrition board sets upper intake levels known minerals evidence sufficient case copper set day collectively ears referred reference european food safety authority reviewed safety question set day food supplement labeling purposes serving expressed percent daily value copper labeling purposes daily value revised food supplement companies july comply change table pre change adult daily values provided reference daily intake united_states copper common federal survey food consumption determined women men age average consumption foods day respectively women consumed ear men copper based disorders role iron copper produce like symptoms bone impaired growth increased conversely wilson disease causes accumulation copper body tissues severe found testing low copper levels low low red blood cell levels sensitive marginal copper status activity stated factor results confirmed quantities copper taken suicide attempts produced acute copper humans possibly cycling generation oxygen species damage dna corresponding amounts copper toxic animals minimum value healthy growth rabbits reported diet higher concentrations copper diet rabbits favorably influence feed conversion efficiency growth rates dressing chronic copper normally occur humans transport systems regulate absorption copper transport proteins disable systems leading wilson disease copper accumulation liver persons inherited genes elevated copper levels linked symptoms disease exposure safety health administration designated exposure limit copper dust workplace time weighted average national institute safety health set recommended exposure limit time weighted average immediately dangerous life health value