hungarian hungarian hungarian spans period history hungarian people started separation hungarian language languages ended hungarian conquest basin based earliest records byzantine western european hungarian chronicles scholars considered centuries descendants ancient tradition disappeared mainstream history realization similarities hungarian language languages late 18th century principal source study hungarians addition chronicles written 9th 15th centuries results archaeological research folklore provide information early history study fossils based words certain trees including daughter languages suggests speakers language lived wider region mountains inhabited scattered groups hunter 4th millennium spread vast territories caused development separate language end millennium linguistic studies archaeological research evidence spoke language lived pit houses decorated clay vessels expansion caused new scholarly consensus original homeland peoples exists lived region river river upper courses river lived settled communities cultivated wheat crops bred animals especially horses cattle pigs loan words connected animal iranian close contacts neighbors southernmost groups adopted nomadic way life northward expansion development hungarian language started withdrawal parallel southward migration nomadic groups history ancient thousand years uncertain lived location subject scholarly debates according theory initially lived east migrated west latest scholars original homeland moved region don river river hundreds loan words adopted type languages prove closely connected peoples byzantine muslim authors regarded people 9th 10th centuries alliance late historical event recorded certainty connection according byzantine emperor constantine vii lived vicinity early 9th century supported wars years organized tribes headed military leaders invasion group crossed mountains settled lands south mountains majority people fled north black_sea new homeland known controlled lands lower danube don river confederation seven tribes led supreme chiefs group rebellious subjects joined regularly invaded neighboring slavic tribes forcing pay tribute seizing prisoners sold byzantines taking advantage wars bulgaria east invaded central europe times new invasion compelled leave cross mountains settle basin 1830s played important role study archaeologists applied methods called linear method attempts determine route migrating original homeland basin retrospective method tries discover 10th century basin yielded finds similarities unearthed basin dating controversial published archaeological material sites contributed low number archaeological sites attributed hungarians according archaeologist says hungarians migration settlement basin caused development new material culture rendering identification pre conquest hungarians difficult archaeological research demonstrated material culture peoples settled basin hungarians experienced similarly significant change left settled new homeland belt mounts objects called horizon unearthed sites middle course similarities archaeological finds 10th century basin objects carbon dated late 9th century archaeological sites yielded vessels similar pottery neighboring slavic territories study hungarian language main sources research hungarian people language shows circumstances development contacts according scholarly theory oldest layers hungarian vocabulary features territory language emerged study loan words languages instrumental determining direct contacts ancient speakers hungarian language peoples loan words reflect changes way life written sources written sources prehistoric hungarians begin wrote people equestrian hunters lived based location homeland scholars identify hungarians view universally accepted 6th century byzantine historian john referred tribal leader called ruled historians connect hungarians report proves presence tribes region sea early 6th century identification rejected scholars continuation chronicle george written middle 10th century recorded historical event alliance late doubt connected byzantine emperor leo wise tactics book written contained detailed description military strategies way life emperor constantine governing empire completed preserves information early history minister ruler empire collected reports merchants traveled western regions work lost later muslim scholars ibn book preserving important facts late 9th century works contain later periods sources written western_europe longer version annals annals retribution provide contemporaneous near contemporaneous information 9th century references dwelling legends early slavic saints according historian information preserved russian primary chronicle completed treated extreme caution hungarian chronicles written late 11th early 12th centuries texts preserved manuscripts compiled 13th 15th centuries extant chronicles earliest works contained information history hungarians conversion christianity 11th century exception earliest extant hungarian chronicle principal subject pagan past reliability work written royal known suspect monograph medieval hungarian historians describes famous obscure misleading early hungarian texts hungarians mentioned ethnic names arabic byzantine slavic western european sources 9th 10th centuries arabic scholars referred turks byzantine authors mentioned turks slavic sources western european authors wrote turks according multiple especially reflect integrated tribal gaining independence ibn record variant hungarians self designation according scholarly theory composite word word said connected recorded hypothetical words including self designation reconstructed word man second developed reconstructed word man boy word similar meaning writes initially smaller group tribe developed powerful tribe people scholars agree hungarian variants derived form started spreading europe slavic legend hind historians agree legend hind preserved hungarians myth origins late 13th century chronicler simon record legend says brothers hungarians sons wife chasing hind reached far marches sea abducted wives sons daughters prince according historian derived hungarian word hind showing regarded animal ancestor says personal names mentioned legend peoples hungarians hunt beast ending arrival new homeland popular legend peoples including myth people descended brothers widespread consequently possible simon record genuine hungarian legend borrowed foreign sources confusion giant entered land called persia sons wife hungarians took origins born separately father tents happened day gone hunting marshes encountered hind wilderness went pursuit fled disappeared sight altogether find matter long searched wandering marshes saw land suited grazing cattle returned father obtaining permission took possessions went live marshes entered marshes remained years leaving sixth year went chance discovered wives children sons camped tents lonely place carried belongings fast marshes daughters prince happened children seized took marriage women owe origin historiography medieval theories according annals invaded east enemies hitherto unknown local population likewise wrote previous centuries named sources remarks late 9th century authors knowledge origins raids reminded western european byzantine scholars earlier historians descriptions gave rise identification peoples instance leo wise listed hungarians nations similarity latin strengthened identification peoples commonplace western_europe 11th century source clearly stated hungarians people earliest hungarian chronicles adopted idea hungarians closely related mention referred ruler line prince supreme head tribes descended simon explicitly identified hungarians started chronicle book history presenting hungarian conquest basin land inherited ancestors identification peoples basic theory origins hungarians centuries modern scholarship scholarly attempts early 18th century prove relationship led realization similarities finnish hungarian languages systematic comparative study hungarian languages published decades later demonstrated similarities larger group languages known languages majority hungarian scholars gradually adopted views 1830s wrote hungarian intermediate position finnish languages later accepted hungarian closely related languages played pre eminent role research dominant linguistic theory determined interpretation historical archaeological evidence consequently historian writes hungarian construct based folklore later written evidence certain records 9th century identification archaeological cultures peoples highly historian identifies history hungarian origins history community genetic composition cultural character changing spoken hungarian predecessor language according mainstream scholarly consensus hungarians population basin ancestors arrived series westward centuries departure original homeland located east details location original homeland ancient connections peoples lifestyle political organization background conquest basin subject scholarly debates regard connections tribes archaeologist alternative theory 1960s according theory double conquest large group people spoke language arrived basin speaking people conquered territory late 9th century theory widely accepted formation people separation hungarian language hungarian traditionally classified language family languages alternative views exist instance rejects existence language saying hungarian member genetic unit included languages research suggests speakers language lived territory trees silver fir spruce grew study fossils shows trees found sides mountains rivers 4th millennium land sparsely inhabited period material culture wider region spread vast territories west east regional variants emerged showing appearance groups people close contact basic words hungarian language including names seasons natural phenomena frequently languages suggesting temporary existence language climatic changes caused spread swamps sides forcing groups inhabitants leave linguistic unity disappeared new languages emerged groups speaking language hungarian emerged lived east west period debated historians climate changes occurring caused northward expansion kilometres compelling southernmost groups adopt nomadic lifestyle climate changed beginning period forcing nomadic groups start southward migration following movement separated northern groups gave rise development language modern hungarian emerged according historian concept sky high tree elements hungarian folklore inherited period unity melodies common hungarian funeral songs similarities tunes epic songs original homeland eagle popular motifs 10th century art close art peoples spoke iranian languages dominated period ethnic groups identical material cultures certain identification impossible consequently location original homeland subject scholarly debates says development hungarian started region rivers west archaeologist writes original homeland lay east says features erected 4th century including northward orientation heads deceased geometric motifs clay vessels graves similar older attributes peoples early westward julian went search legendary homeland reading group remained hungarian chronicle met hungarian speaking group great river land wider region present day eastern_europe original homeland ancestors settled migration europe western original homeland subject scholarly debates according scholarly theory original homeland homeland europe instead ancestors eastern julian met moved south according scholarly theory tribe connected group specific burial rites use death masks placing parts horses graves featuring 10th century cemetery confluence near present day evidenced lived basin 10th century specialists cemetery remained groups left territory moved regions inhabited original homeland situated western siberia instead identical ancestors moved western siberia eastern_europe happened major movements peoples period culture spread modern day westward migration forced groups people western siberia depart europe attack siberia set motion number migration europe compelled nomadic groups arrival ended dominance iranian peoples peoples controlled eastern_europe centuries described branch turks leo wise constantine called turks hungarian words borrowed languages oldest layer hungarian folk songs similarities songs facts closely connected turks stayed scholars write centuries lived river north mountains adopted terminology including wine names fruits according scholars hungarian words origin including lady originally noble royal lady borrowed region dominant power rivers archaeological finds controlled multi ethnic empire culture flourished region seven variants hungarian chronicles legend hind preserved memory close fusion ethnic groups large region emperor constantine wrote old dwelling place called adding river called ran territory identification rivers uncertain associated territory dominated modern historians agree described smaller region situated don river period settled uncertain happened said named staying says invented term historical credibility based victor historians associated late 6th century tribe wrote lived years fought alliance wars suggests according scholarly view hand historian says emperor words prove equal position instead emperor said lasted years modern historians tend propose longer period years according memorial stone erected bulgarian military commander named drowned military campaign says inscription clue created migration lands danube earliest certainly identifiable events history occurred hired fight byzantine prisoners rebelled tried return macedonia late byzantines routed banks lower danube according annals envoys visited constantinople return homeland empire route reached constantinople taken primitive tribes fierce savage identify tribes ibn wrote protected attack neighboring peoples ditch according scholarly theory ibn report shows fort built forts protecting according seven clans prince native foreign chiefs exact meaning term emperor exactly determined scholars traditionally considered clans tribes ethnic territorial units hungarian chronicles references seven leading persons seven captains denote existence seven tribes said tribes obey particular joint agreement fight zeal war breaks suggesting tribal chiefs military political leaders according emperor report shows tribal confederation solid political formation strong early 9th century referred seven chiefs seven similar including suggest preserved confederation tribes according named life distinct group tribal confederation expelled homeland invaded forced territory group fled mountains far persia masses departed west settled region called historians agree forced exodus occurred previously called nobility stirred war defeated forced quit land settle battle joined time called army defeated split parts went eastwards settled region persia day called ancient chief settled western regions places called constantine identified lands rivers run identification rivers debate traditional identification southern bug refuted wrote territory located rivers named according modern scholars refer don identified danube according lived refers don river suggests inhabited eastern regions according sent envoys shortly fled settled according invited meeting proposing supreme head confederation tribes exchange acceptance instead accepting offer suggested new rank offered son accepted proposal demand chiefs proclaimed head according report preserved memory creation central office federation tribes says story relates change dynasty fall family emergence dynasty contrast story says father elected supreme prince according muslim scholars supreme leaders ruler report implies granted title head federation tribes ibn recorded styled muslim scholar report implies adopted system dual supreme power divided sacred ruler military leader country country belongs lies chief rides head horsemen named actually rules called obey ruler wars offence defence territory vast extending black_sea rivers flow larger located rivers wrote group rebelled joined unspecified time suggesting got rid organized tribes single commanded wrote promoted tribe showed strongest tribes accordingly formed vanguard nomadic peoples placed associated tribes vulnerable position ibn wrote subjected neighboring slavic peoples imposing heavy tribute treating prisoners raids sold captured raids byzantines peninsula band warriors attacked future saint philosopher like wolves wishing kill near according saint legend convinced release entire peace inhabitants regions left bank russian primary chronicle identified fortified settlements second half 9th century connected presence raid east recorded military expedition central europe raid initiated war louis german according longer version annals said returned east region vienna source separately mentioned region year showing formed distinct group early king meeting archbishop returning constantinople according legend king hungary came lands danube wished assuming saying escape went king sovereign king received honor joy having men king dismissed embrace gifts kissing king said father remember holy prayers hungarian conquest returned central europe july invaded alliance king east years later stormed march according annals killed men old women outright carried young women like cattle satisfy source refer alliance historians agree ruler persuaded invade east raids basin opportunities collect information future homeland ibn launched expedition turks forcing invade lands rivers expelled homeland departed west search new meantime invaded bulgaria alliance byzantine emperor leo wise bulgaria sent envoys persuaded storm unexpected invasion destroyed dwelling places forcing leave seek refuge mountains occupied new homeland phases initially settling lands east danube invading march east died destroyed consolidated control basin victory army battle way life economy settlements situated banks rivers lakes proposed original homeland peoples houses excavated local inhabitants primarily tools stone especially southern bone wood baked clay vessels decorated broken lines found economy based fishing hunting gathering basic hungarian words connected activities net bow arrow egg inherited period drawings rocks depict scenes hunting hungarian words house dwelling door bed origin houses built presumed homeland wider region 3rd millennium regional differences valley river square pit houses dug deep ground river rectangular semi pit houses built local people hunter egg shaped baked clay vessels decorated forms buried dead shallow graves bodies red placed objects including tools pierced small form animal heads graves copper objects found graves manufactured mountains indicate inhabitants lands sides mountains trading contacts territories words period horse saddle wagon spoke language rode horses animal spread sides bones domestic animals cattle goats sheep pigs horses comprised animal bones excavated settlements loan words iranian suggest speaking populations adopted animal neighboring peoples instance hungarian words cow milk iranian origin archaeological finds including seeds wheat tools including handles prove local population cultivated lands ancestors gave settled way life northward expansion centuries 2nd millennium studies modern nomadic populations suggest year year movement winter summer camps featured way life cultivated lands winter camps historians agree mixed nomadic semi nomadic economy characterized raising cattle cultivation lands hungarian language adopted practices animal agriculture peoples 5th 9th centuries instance hungarian words pig garden refuse grain land origin borrowed type language place time uncertain connections people culture contributed development agriculture according according ibn late 9th century tents place place search winters settled nearest river lived fishing said land abundant showing lands unclear lands cultivated prisoners taxes collected neighboring peoples slave trade raids wealthy people wrote handsome people good appearance clothes silk weapons silver proving growing wealth 9th century byzantine muslim coins rarely found archaeological finds basin provide evidence crafts practiced 10th century warriors graves yielding arrow heads spear heads bits iron pre eminent role society engraved plates decorated precious stones golden silver pectoral evidence high levels skills basin yielded canvas positioning metal buttons graves shows wore clothes opened neck ear rings accessories worn belt warriors jewelry upper bodies hindered firing arrows contrast women wore head jewelry decorated leaf like ear rings decorated pectoral rings man seeking bride expected pay bride price father marriage took place according description late 9th century hungarian word purchasing expression bride sale confirm reliability muslim author report decree stephen hungary prohibiting abduction girl parents consent implies pretended abduction bride future husband integral ancient ceremonies military military tactics similar nomadic peoples according emperor leo wise main components warfare long distance arrow fire surprise attack retreat contemporaneous said knew taking besieged cities archaeological research confirms leo wise report use bows arrows contrast emperor report spears rarely found warriors tombs important weapons bone reinforced bows shoot specific target metres battle line byzantines divisions units irregular size linking divisions close separated short distances impression battle line apart battle line maintain additional force send ambush adversaries theirs hold reserve support hard pressed section frequently tie extra horses rear battle line protection depth files rows battle line irregular consider important line thick deep dense prefer battles fought long range adversaries simulated scattered formations religion modern scholarly theories pagan religious beliefs practices primarily based reports biased medieval authors enacted reigns christian kings christian muslim sources forces nature gave offering trees stones sacrifices wells evidenced prohibition practices reign hungary late 11th century accordance custom peoples pagan swore dogs warn potential fate simon wrote sacrifice horses according seven chiefs confirmed treaty pagan manner blood single vessel scholars studying religion account folklore linguistic evidence archaeological research artifacts depicting bird prey tree life imply symbols important elements religion real symbolic wounding widely practiced 10th century writes real opening skull closing wound sheet silver actually surgical operations similarly practiced arab physicians symbolic marking skull circle aimed disposal protective head according hungarian word brain reflect ancient practices buried dead laying deceased backs arms resting bodies deceased warrior tomb contained material connected horse frequently skin skull lower legs master grave occasionally harness buried warrior horse skin stuffed hay rolled corpses placed silver plates eyes mouth scholarly theories note similarities hungarian folklore existence ancient proven elements hungarian religious vocabulary including witch charm ancient hungarian word holy origin adopted christian vocabulary sin confess god devil according hungarian children verse refers drum reed violin preserves memory pagan ritual harmful spirits raising great noise refrain children verse mentions days week reverse order preserved ancient belief existence world upside little leg bleed turkish child cut child cure drum reed violin


fortress fortress serbian hungarian bulgarian romanian turkish medieval fortified town south danube river downstream modern day town serbia fortress likely built 14th century split compounds built stages towers started square received sided reinforcements advent firearms fortress tumultuous history prior construction site roman settlement middle ages object battles especially ottoman_empire kingdom hungary changed hands repeatedly passing turks hungarians serbs austrians turned serbian iii popular tourist attraction region point danube boat tours location district north eastern serbia modern day border romania marks entrance national park strategically located embankment danube river narrows form iron gate gorge allowing regulation taxation traffic river middle ages aid strong chain connected rock far river history early history uncertain inscriptions evidence older defensive structures area presence roman settlement named long creation area belonged bulgarian empire byzantium second bulgarian empire area remained bulgarian hands ottoman conquest 15th century control region changing times hungarians serbs unclear medieval fortress built serbs hungarians towers originally orthodox chapel built tower shows built local noble uncertainty construction started generally agreed majority fortress built early 14th century known record hungarian sources occupied hungarian military serbian toured region serbia visited command death house gained influence later winning independence according serbian evicted feudal lord presented outlying villages monasteries time battle held serbia unclear changed hands source puts later battle fortress lost sultan marking possession ottoman_empire switched hands twice hungarian comes won shortly lost turks later returned kingdom hungary extended serbian possession began king hungary ceded personal hungarian vassal issue successor came met discuss contract written stating accept successor condition belgrade returned hungary died death clauses contract fulfilled belgrade handed problem commander demanded compensation refused pay handed turks turned residence despite gaining sultan pleased increased hungarian influence serbia sent army attack squad came targeted nearby serbian hungarian settlements region response personally travelled promising forgiveness urging return fortress means possible refused attacked escort attempted enter walls followed battle april amassed army infantry led prince dan italian artillery number polish cavalry far danube attacked turks ships attacking river commanded wife comes rushed help besieged turks arriving late wish fight bigger army finalised treaty early june hungarian army withdrawn far river turkish commander attacked rear capturing killing remained polish knight nearly caught rest army intervention solely responsible rescue fights resulting death southern eastern serbia including monastery near suffered heavily fighting referred emperor memoir monk contrast turkish pagan emperor ottoman_empire retained control occupation serbian years fighting resulted hungarian army ottomans serbia peace restored late summer included territory discussion fortress turks conquered death hungary regained fortress lost year years led fighting hungarians turks fall held ottoman_empire comes undertook expedition turks area november turned army men south danube pushing thousand turkish cavalry killed taken prisoner ships sunk ottoman held leader turkish army beheaded gate men turks forced retreat leave fortress foray raid shortly returned turks suffered heavily lose land retook quickly improved fortifications held monarchy rebels controlled serbian uprising fell ottoman control towns serbia given serbia recent years late 19th century early mid-20th century flies referred area particularly dangerous livestock years killing entire cattle world war road constructed went fort road shortest link serbia eastern parts balkan peninsula hydroelectric dam built iron gate gorge significantly river water level result lower edge slope corresponding parts fortress flooded beginning 21st century fort making sections higher hill inaccessible spring public project restore fort started plants removed certain parts like fountain moat raised honour knight repaired walls towers stone stairs good condition wooden floors steps making upper floors impassable gained popularity tourist attraction key reasons major road passes proximity making architecture consists main compounds guarded towers connected fortress walls metres thick fortress forward wall doubled outer wall moat connected danube likely filled water settlement common people situated wall case fortresses structure modified time years towers later added towers built squares sign fortress age showing battles fought cold steel firearms came use turks fortified western towers cannon ports cylindrical reinforcements metres thick hungarian raid added final tower complete cannon galleries upper compound upper compound oldest fortress includes citadel tower serbian orthodox chapel tower remains uncertain chapel led believe section built serbian noble later serbian hungarian rule fortress expanded include rear forward compounds rear compound rear compound separated upper compound wall connecting towers steep rock metres high tower building vii probably military barracks ammunition storage forward compound forward compound split lower upper parts wall linking towers entrance lower guarded towers tower turn fortified cannon port opposing entrance second led rear compound path ditch metres wide metres deep steep decline outer end lower connected 9th tower low wall tower turks added act lower artillery tower controlled passage danube guarded entrance harbour probably situated towers remains connected tower probably formed larger lower contain buildings wall separated upper lower parts gate led upper upper buildings remains stairs gate metres ground right tower towers towers metres high towers floors stairs inside wood external stairs stone half towers sides completely stone half lack facing interior fort tower nicknamed hat tower oldest towers doubles citadel dungeon tower sided base circular rising square interior tower west tower completely circular shape tower square base open facing dungeon tower north floor terrace danube entrance iron gate gorge slope tower tower square base ground floor serbian orthodox chapel built tower added later tower wall tower tower remain completely square tower wall forward compound tower square base reinforced sided foundation working west square base tower reinforced circular foundation tower upper irregular generally square base shortest towers guarding tower square base reinforced sided foundation tower cannon tower floor shortest towers built sided base cannon ports help control traffic danube tower identical artillery towers added fortress reconstruction plan government republic serbia applied reconstruction project fortress funds european_union framework international project cultural route fortresses danube funds provided funds million preliminary reconstruction project fortress architect marina professional project archaeologist years significance considering age location fortress large preserved placement head iron gate gorge allowed easy control river traffic military outpost stretch danube river caused frequently final line defense hungary ottoman_empire especially periods serbia ottoman held importance fortress indicated attention received fighting locals commanders nearby cities fortress declared monument culture exceptional importance protected republic serbia


christmas truce christmas truce german french series widespread unofficial western christmas week leading holiday german british soldiers crossed trenches exchange seasonal talk areas men sides ventured man land christmas eve christmas day exchange food joint burial ceremonies prisoner meetings ended carol singing men played games football giving memorable images truce peaceful behaviour fighting continued sectors sides settled little arrangements recover bodies following year units arranged nearly widespread strongly orders high commands sides prohibiting soldiers longer truce war increasingly bitter devastating human losses suffered battles incorporation poison gas unique christmas period reflected growing mood live let live infantry close stop overtly aggressive behaviour engage small scale engaging conversation cigarettes sectors occasional allow soldiers lines recover wounded dead comrades agreement shoot men rested exercised worked view enemy christmas particularly significant number men involved level participation peaceful sectors dozens men openly daylight remarkable seen symbolic moment peace humanity amidst violent events human history background months world war seen initial german attack belgium france repulsed outside paris french british troops battle early september germans fell valley prepared defensive positions subsequent battle allied forces unable push german line fighting quickly degenerated stalemate willing ground started develop fortified systems trenches north right german_army defined line sides quickly began try use gap ensuing race sea sides repeatedly clashed trying push forward threaten end line months fighting british forces withdrawn sent north flanders northern flank developed similar stalemate november continuous line running north_sea swiss frontier occupied sides armies prepared defensive positions lead christmas peace initiatives open christmas letter public message peace addressed women germany austria signed group british women end christmas world war approached pope december official truce governments asked guns fall silent night angels sang attempt officially rebuffed peaceful friendly interactions opposing forces regular feature quiet line sectors western areas manifested simply passive inactivity sides refrain overtly aggressive threatening behaviour cases extended regular conversation visits trench british german units dated early november time opposing armies begun static trench warfare time sides rations brought line dusk soldiers sides noted period peace collected food december british soldier record friendly visit german sergeant morning getting relations french german units generally tense phenomenon began emerge early december german surgeon recorded regular half hourly truce evening recover dead soldiers burial french german soldiers exchanged newspapers behaviour challenged junior senior officers young charles wrote december desire french leave enemy peace commander 10th army victor wrote unfortunate consequences men familiar neighbours opposite enforced sides weather conditions especially trench lines flooded low lying areas lasted weather cleared proximity trench lines easy soldiers shout common method arranging informal men frequently exchange news helped common language german soldiers lived england particularly london familiar language culture british soldiers recorded instances germans asking news football leagues conversations discussions weather messages sweetheart unusual phenomenon grew intensity music peaceful sectors uncommon units sing evenings deliberately eye entertaining gently opposite numbers shaded gently activity early december sir edward scots guards wrote planning organise concert party christmas day enemy form song harmony response frequent choruses christmas roughly british german troops involved unofficial hostility western truce started christmas eve german troops decorated area trenches region belgium particularly saint called saint bruce described truce germans placed candles trenches christmas trees continued celebration singing christmas british responded singing sides continued shouting christmas soon man land small gifts exchanged food tobacco alcohol buttons hats artillery region fell silent truce allowed breathing spell recently killed soldiers brought lines burial parties joint services held sectors truce lasted christmas night continuing new year day day brigadier general walter commanding infantry brigade stationed near wrote letter recalling germans initiated calling truce day brigade men lifted head sides walked man land officers men shook hands exchanged cigarettes captains smoked cigar best shot german_army years old admitted reluctant personally witness scene truce fear prime target german bruce served war wrote wouldn missed unique weird christmas day spotted german officer sort lieutenant think bit collector taken fancy buttons brought wire removed couple buttons pocket gave exchange saw machine gunners bit amateur civil life cutting long hair kneeling ground whilst automatic neck future nature writer henry nineteen year old private london rifle brigade wrote mother boxing day dear mother writing trenches clock morning fire opposite dug wet straw ground sloppy actual trench frozen mouth pipe presented princess mary pipe tobacco course wait pipe german tobacco prisoner found captured trench dear german soldier yes live german soldier trench yesterday british germans met shook hands ground trenches exchanged shook hands yes day day write isn captain sir edward reported interpreter met german lines suffolk left girlfriend motorcycle went describe sing song ended english scots irish etc joined absolutely seen film sworn faked captain robert patrick miles king light infantry attached royal irish rifles recalled edited letter published daily_mail wellington journal news january following death action december friday christmas day having extraordinary christmas day sort unauthorized perfectly understood observed truce exists friends funny thing exist battle line right left hear firing away thing started night bitter cold night white frost soon dusk germans started shouting merry christmas course shouted presently large numbers sides left trenches unarmed met shot man land lines agreement came fire midnight tonight men middle naturally allow close line swapped cigarettes lies good fellowship shot fired night germans wrote distinctly bored war fact wanted know earth fighting truce sector continued boxing day commented germans simply disregard warnings things shoot cold blood return business christmas eve christmas day december alfred anderson unit 1st 5th battalion black watch farmhouse away line later interview anderson known surviving scottish veteran war recalled christmas day said remember silence eerie sound silence guards duty went outside farm buildings stood listening course thinking people home heard months trenches cracking bullets flight fire distant german voices dead silence morning right land far shouted merry christmas felt merry silence ended early afternoon killing started short peace terrible war observations confined british french wrote grabbed looking saw incredible sight soldiers exchanging cigarettes chocolate enemy general sir smith commander british corps issued orders forbidding friendly communication opposing german troops adolf_hitler young corporal 16th reserve infantry opponent truce sector early german french soldiers december short truce french soldiers similar sectors german french companies opposed wrote parents white flag shouted didn came unarmed led officer clean telling don speak mention soldiers wrote christmas day sign showing wished speak said didn want shoot tired making war married like didn differences french english sections german belgian troops faced december instance truce achieved request belgian soldiers wished send letters families german occupied parts country richard german regiment holding position mountains wrote account events december christmas bells sounded villages lines occurred german french troops spontaneously peace ceased hostilities visited disused trench tunnels exchanged wine cigarettes black bread suited remained good friends christmas separated french troops narrow man land described landscape shattered trees ground wilderness earth tree roots uniforms military discipline soon restored incident thoughtful young people countries provided suitable meeting places know went found german youth association football matches accounts truce involve football matches played man land mentioned earliest reports letter written doctor attached rifle brigade published times january reported football match played trench wide range similar stories told years naming specific units precise score accounts game bring elements fiction robert graves british poet writer reconstructed encounter story published graves version score germans truth accounts disputed historians brown concluded probably attempts play organised matches failed state ground contemporary reports refer kick matches bully beef tin chris baker chairman western association author truce day war stopped skeptical says little hard evidence likely place organised match taken place near village references game played british germans somebody day found letter german soldier area credible fact german reference kurt germany infantry regiment said english brought soccer ball trenches pretty soon lively game ensued wonderful strange mike dash concluded plenty evidence football played christmas day men places troops opposing armies wide variety units reported contemporary accounts taken games dash listed royal saxon regiment pitched scottish troops unidentified germans scots reported won royal field artillery near lancashire based near specific detail bully beef tin ball recent writer identified separate reports football substantive details eastern separate manifestation christmas truce december occurred eastern originated austrian commanders uncertain level military hierarchy russians responded positively soldiers eventually met man land public awareness events truce reported week unofficial press eventually broken new_york_times published neutral united_states december british papers quickly followed printing numerous hand accounts soldiers field taken letters home families editorials greatest surprises surprising war january pictures way press mirror sketch printed page photographs british german troops singing lines tone reporting strongly positive times endorsing lack felt sides mirror tragedy begin coverage germany muted newspapers strongly criticising taken pictures published france greater level press censorship ensured word spread truce came soldiers hand accounts told wounded men hospitals press eventually forced respond growing rumours government notice enemy constituted treason early january official statement truce published claiming happened restricted sectors british amounted little exchange songs quickly degenerated shooting later christmas sporadic attempts seasonal german unit attempted leave trenches flag truce easter sunday warned british opposite later year november saxon unit briefly liverpool battalion december explicit orders allied commanders repeat previous christmas truce individual units encouraged mount raids harass enemy line whilst communicating enemy discouraged artillery line day prohibition completely effective small number brief occurred eyewitness account truce recorded night exchanging dawn christmas day saw rush men sides exchange men quickly called officers offers hold day play football match came brigade commander threatened repercussions lack discipline insisted resumption firing afternoon member battalion later recalled man produced football resulting free ordered adjacent sector short truce bury dead lines led official repercussions company commander sir scots guards court standing orders contrary found guilty punishment general remained position official related prime minister german british recorded success french sectors singing exchange thrown gifts occasionally recorded simply reflected seasonal extension live let live approach common trenches easter recorded instances orthodox troops opposing sides eastern bulgarian writer serving officer near greek border river witnessed truce inspired short story holy night translated english legacy historical significance popular tendency december christmas unique romantic political significance interpreted widespread non cooperation war spirit conduct serving soldiers book trench warfare historian tony describes calls live let live system complicated local agreements fire developed men war began agreement attack tea meal washing times places developed sections casualties extended periods time system argues gave soldiers control conditions existence december christmas seen unique dramatic example non cooperation war spirit included refusal fight unofficial strikes peace protests play das makes peace german sacrifice written nazi writer world war veteran german german soldier accompanied christmas sung comrades illuminated christmas tree trenches shot dead enemy later fellow soldiers find body notice horror enemy shot single christmas light tree song christmas royal based christmas truce real life red baron germany ace pilot war hero truce fictitious film lovely war includes scene christmas truce british german soldiers sharing jokes alcohol songs video song pipes peace paul_mccartney depicts fictionalized version christmas truce final episode bbc television series goes forth references christmas truce main character having played football match seen annoyed having goal song liverpool band farm took inspiration christmas day truce song recorded peace collective release december mark centenary event truce french film english merry christmas depicted eyes french british german soldiers film written directed christian screened competition cannes film festival truce depicted stage theater minneapolis radio musical drama calm christmas truce created directed peter produced theater vocal ensemble minneapolis based organizations continued play theater december premiere ahead centenary truce december english composer chris singer scott produced song carol christmas benefit british armed forces charities december reached itunes christmas chart newcastle universities martin king peace committee produced resources enable schools churches mark december christmas included lesson plans hand outs slide shows plans assemblies carol services christmas productions authors explained purpose enable help children learn remarkable events december use theme christmas provide government world war heroic peace committee argues spontaneous acts goodwill directly contradicted orders high command offered evocative hopeful albeit brief recognition shared humanity argue traditional christmas message earth peace good men grocery chain produced short film christmas season advertisement events christmas truce primarily following young english soldier trenches monuments christmas truce memorial unveiled france november day spot christmas day regimental ancestors came trenches play football men 1st battalion royal played football match german battalion germans won december memorial unveiled national memorial england prince william duke cambridge england national football team manager roy football remembers memorial designed year old turner wide competition annual midway village illinois hosted christmas truce


economy scotland middle ages economy scotland middle ages covers forms economic activity modern boundaries scotland departure romans northern britain fifth century advent renaissance early sixteenth century including agriculture crafts trade having fifth sixth good pastoral land roughly coastline england wales marginal pastoral agriculture fishing important aspects medieval scottish economy poor communications early middle ages settlements needed achieve degree self agriculture farms operated family unit infield outfield system farming grew high middle ages agriculture entered period relative boom thirteenth century late fifteenth century unlike england scotland towns dating roman occupation twelfth century records chartered towns major centre crafts trade scottish coins english probably remained significant trade end period probably common form exchange craft industry remained relatively undeveloped end middle ages extensive trading networks based scotland scots exported largely raw materials imported increasing quantities luxury goods resulting shortage helping create financial crisis fifteenth century background scotland roughly half size england wales approximately coastline fifth sixth good pastoral land metres sea level located south east marginal pastoral farming fishing key factors pre modern economy north_atlantic position means heavy rainfall encouraged spread blanket combined high level wind salt spray western islands existence hills mountains marshes internal communication conquest extremely difficult departure romans northern britain fifth century major circles influence emerged scotland east kingdoms eventually stretched river forth west people royal fortress close links island ireland brought scots south british kingdom descendants peoples roman influenced kingdoms old north finally angles overrun southern britain held kingdom later northern south east situation transformed eighth century ferocious viking raids began western isles eventually fell threats long term process kingdoms adopted language customs probably facilitated merger crowns culminated rise mac kenneth brought power house leaders combined kingdom known kingdom later scotland sixth century scotland experienced process traditionally seen carried irish scots missionaries including lesser extent rome england gilbert highlights fact figures church founders usually active areas christianity established probably gradual invisible historical record included trade conquest written sources construct medieval scotland estimates early period population inhabitants probably largest region formation kingdom tenth century black death reached country estimates based land suggest population grown half million million reliable documentation impact plague pattern followed england population fallen low half million end fifteenth century agriculture early middle ages poor transport forced self small settlements lacking urban centres created romans rest britain economy scotland early middle ages overwhelmingly agricultural lack significant transport links wider markets farms produce self sufficient diet meat dairy products supplemented hunter gathering limited archaeological evidence indicates northern britain farming single small cluster homes probably contained nuclear family relationships likely common neighbouring houses settlements reflecting partition land inheritance system adopted distinguished infield settlement crops grown year outfield away crops grown left different years predominant system eighteenth century nature agricultural production determined land climate cold wet climate meant grown corn evidence bones indicates cattle far important animal followed pigs sheep goats rare bone evidence indicates significant growth fish trade increased marine exploitation highlands islands result arrival scandinavian settlers period early middle ages period climatic deterioration drop temperature increase rainfall resulting land climate change major impact agriculture period terms emerged describe different quantities land period warm dry summers severe winters allowed cultivation greater heights sea level land productive farming grew significantly common low lying areas high lying areas highlands southern main unit land measurement scotland known measured acres km2 divided average land scotland acres farming based lowland highland settlements handful families jointly farmed area suitable teams allocated run tenant farmers usually ran downhill included wet dry land helping offset problems extreme weather conditions heavy wooden iron pulled effective heavy soils cheaper feed horses obligations local lord usually included supplying lord land annual basis resented obligation grind corn lord mill late middle ages average temperatures began reduce cooler conditions limiting extent agriculture particularly highlands introduction new monastic orders period brought innovations agriculture monasteries major particularly borders sheep farmers producers wool markets flanders late middle ages abbey earl douglas sheep apiece making largest sheep farmers europe new farming methods began transform agriculture parts country monastic agriculture organised farms run lay brothers order theoretically miles mother monastery working return services sundays feast days variety purposes including pastoral industrial production manage distant assets abbey super oversee lesser rural economy appears thirteenth century immediate aftermath black death reached scotland carried population severe falling seen clerical half compared beginning era followed slow recovery fifteenth century records small towns granted legal privileges crown found eleventh century term derived word fortress developed rapidly reign david point identifiable towns scotland granted charters reign probably existed settlements charters copied england early citizens called usually english flemish able impose tolls fines traders region outside settlements early east_coast largest wealthiest including perth edinburgh growth facilitated trade european continent south west glasgow aided profitable sea trade ireland lesser extent france spain unique economic functions typically surrounded possessed castle usually marketplace widened high street junction marked cross market cross houses inhabitants foundations traced reign david evidence addition major royal late middle ages saw ecclesiastical created smaller royal counterparts excluded international trade mainly acted local markets centres general probably carried far local trading nationally internationally relying food raw materials manufacture trade acted centres basic crafts included manufacture shoes clothes dishes bread normally sold inhabitants visitors market days relatively developed manufacturing industries scotland period late fifteenth century beginnings native iron casting industry led production cannon silver country later known result important exports raw materials including wool hides salt fish animals coal scotland remained frequently short wood iron years bad grain imported large quantities particularly baltic ports limited sources indicate early middle ages indicate trade luxury goods continental europe period detailed custom accounts exist england provide understanding foreign trade records scotland dating early middle ages rise christianity meant wine precious metals imported use religious rites occasional references trips foreign countries incident recorded went port await ships bearing news presumably items italy imported goods found archaeological sites period include glass sites indicate iron precious metal working high middle ages scottish economy dominated agriculture short distance local trade increasing foreign trade coins replacing goods scottish coins struck reign david established edinburgh perth end period exchange use metal currency english coins probably outnumbered scottish ones disruption caused outbreak wars independence early fourteenth century naval trade probably coastal foreign trade england wars closed english markets raised levels piracy disruption naval trade sides led increase continental trade isolated references indicate scottish ships active norway danzig earliest records indicate trade hands scottish merchants wool hides major exports late middle ages earliest period figures survive annual average sacks wool leather hides disruption wars independence limited trade damaged valuable agricultural land borders meant fell period sacks wool hides trade recovered reach peak annual average sacks international recession saw reduction annual average sacks introduction sheep blow wool trade early fifteenth century despite low countries drop exports markets collapsed early sixteenth century unlike england prompt scots turn large scale cloth production poor quality rough significant exports hides particularly salmon scots held decisive advantage quality rivals appear held better wool despite general economic europe aftermath black death exports hides averaged year fell average years end century late middle ages growing desire court lords upper clergy merchants luxury goods largely imported including fine cloth flanders italy led chronic shortage perennial problems royal finance led silver penny cut fifth late fourteenth century late fifteenth century heavily black money introduced withdrawn years later helped fuel financial political crisis


belgium world war despite neutral start world war belgium colonial possessions found war country invaded german forces days fighting belgian forces pushed small pocket north east country belgian military surrendered germans beginning occupation endure surrender ordered king iii consultation government sparked political crisis war despite capitulation managed escape united_kingdom formed government army exile allied belgian remained loyal belgian government london contributed significant material human resources allied cause involved armed passive resistance german forces chose collaborate german forces support right wing political factions sections belgian population allowed german_army recruit divisions belgium facilitated nazi persecution belgian jews nearly killed country liberated allies september october areas far_east country remained occupied early total approximately died conflict figure representing percent country pre war population percent country destroyed background 1930s belgium recovering destruction world war economically belgium experiencing high unemployment aftermath great depression unemployment stood percent new deal style plan man reduced percent 1930s saw growth authoritarian fascist political parties wallonia flanders elections french speaking party gained percent national vote parties lost seats previously gained new elections political stability returning neutrality belgium suffered damage world war little appetite country involve potential european conflict october king iii announced belgium remain neutral event war europe termed independent policy end belgian government tried steer path away alliances leaving treaty defence pact france signed receiving guarantee neutrality nazi_germany german government considers integrity belgium common interests western powers confirms determination circumstances integrity times respect belgian territory period belgian military reorganized exclusively defensive force began construction modernization fortifications country particularly near german border declaration war united_kingdom france germany september belgian government launched crash armament program national defenses creating line linking national antwerp south river main fortified position days campaign german invasion poland september following policy neutrality belgian government began general army numbered men nearly percent male population belgium making approximately times larger british expeditionary force twice large dutch army time invasion belgium nazi_germany started fall case yellow wider invasion france netherlands belgian albert canal fortifications modern defensive networks europe proved useless fort held taken germans deployed borne opening border style warfare air_force modern hurricane fighters destroyed luftwaffe ground airfield german breakthrough thought impassable meant defenders line withdraw german invasion triggered panic belgian civilians path advancing german_army roads leading westwards away fighting blocked refugees eastward advance french british forces estimated million civilians fled homes campaign government policy neutrality left belgium outdated ill equipped army air_force army possessed battle tanks cavalry divisions political reasons considered aggressive army neutral power air_force reorganised taken surprise field aircraft total military held german forces days overwhelming odds forced small pocket river failed attempts broker 27th belgian king military surrendered belgian casualties campaign numbered killed wounded french belgian troops escaped majority belgian survivors prisoners war released end war surrender belgian army government led fled paris formed government exile fall france government transferred square london surrender iii iii king commander chief belgian army surrendered personally german forces contrary advice government having personally decided allied cause lost decision fiercely criticized french prime minister paul radio broadcast june declared decision event precedent history king remained belgium war german prisoner government went exile continued military action allied cause unlike netherlands monarchy joined government exile iii remained prominent occupied territory coins stamps produced occupation continued carry face remained focus resistance position explained slogan belgium captive long live belgium king captive long live king imprisoned sent letter adolf_hitler credited saving estimated belgian women children forced munitions factories germany november visited hitler asked belgian prisoners war freed war allegations surrender act collaboration provoked political crisis known royal question return throne ultimately ended german occupation life occupied belgium belgium run german military government general alexander von july liberation german government levied costs military occupation taxes demanding external occupation costs anti charge support operations total belgium forced pay nearly thirds national income charges figure billion occupied countries europe food fuel clothing strictly german authorities stringent food materials civilians officially entitled available significant black market existed country supplying food illegally high prices afford information press strictly controlled german government news greatly restricted sales newspapers like newspapers pro political parties like pays remained high large number underground newspapers published distributed underground paper achieved circulation occupied belgium targeted allied bombers british raf american policy led high civilian casualties bombs missed intended targets fell civilian areas raid motor works belgian town near antwerp april bombs dropped 8th air_force fell intended target remaining tons bombs fell civilian areas town killing injuring minutes allied policy condemned leading figures belgium including cardinal van served labour programs germany war working manual jobs industry agriculture german war effort nearly signed conscription began date worked forced labour belgian military prisoners war captured transported germany forced labour paid nominal sum mainly flemish prisoners returned belgium late remained captivity end war kept poor conditions died collaboration period nazi occupation collaborated pro nazi political organizations flemish communities war significant flanders catholic movement wallonia movements subtly different paramilitary forces printed newspapers organisations instrumental encouraging enlist german_army unlike german style national socialist agenda appealed directly flemish agenda message main source popularity groups particularly considerable belgian administrative system instrument collaboration report belgian research institute panel historians concluded belgium offered maximum administrative collaboration german occupation forces report commented apparently higher levels collaboration flanders attempted integration german flemish new order towns brussels report added remained generally patriotic belgian decisively hostile germany report found belgian authorities active jews separate units flemish legion legion recruited belgium occupation founder party served commander legion fought soviet_union eastern_europe total divisions greater brigade strength fought eastern legion nearly annihilated pocket war total investigated collaboration prosecuted majority received prison sentences executed resistance resistance german occupation came levels regions belgium quarters political spectrum highly fragmented government exile dealt sympathetic resistance groups like umbrella organisations different political groups left wing like communist partisans right wing resistance movements like national fascist created members pre war movement groups like obvious political affiliation resistance chiefly came form helping allied airmen escape numerous lines set organise effort instance line evacuated estimated allied servicemen gibraltar line series safe houses belgium allied airmen given civilian clothes frequently moved house house staying belgian families supported resistance resistance aid airmen giving false papers guiding neutral allied occupied territory sabotage employed enemy military economic assets railway lines bridges common targets activities small student resistance cell based brussels estimated cost nazis million man hours labour repair damages direct attacks german troops military installations estimate puts number german soldiers killed belgian resistance higher france resistance instrumental saving jews death camps instance attack twentieth convoy hid jews political occupation estimate putting number people hidden war significant low level resistance instance june city_council brussels refused distribute stars david certain high profile members belgian establishment including queen elizabeth cardinal van archbishop spoke german treatment jews far awarded distinction nations state israel lives save jews persecution occupation belgian civilians subject retaliation german forces resistance activity august civilians killed single attack politician massacre holocaust nearly jews living belgium population roughly million fled belgium escape recent persecution germany meaning minority belgian citizens jewish population focused communities towns brussels antwerp anti jewish legislation lines german laws french laws status jews enacted october months german occupation took place notably antwerp economic assets belonging jews seized wearing yellow star david badge compulsory jews belgium june final solution jews living belgium ordered report transit camp voluntarily rounded police august july total railway convoys deported jews belgium eastern_europe sent death camp went camps bergen deported killed fewer alive time allied forces liberated camps belgian army fort near nazis interrogation jews political prisoners captured members resistance people incarcerated died people killed camp dying torture belgian government army exile defeat significant numbers belgian soldiers civilians escaped britain belgian pre war britain canada formed belgian forces exile belgian government including ministers catholic socialist liberal parties evacuated london alongside governments occupied countries including netherlands remained liberation belgium government exile claimed authority speak belgium leading minister foreign affairs paul comment remains legal free belgium entitled speak london belgian politician victor credited inspiring allied victory propaganda campaign broadcast french radio called creation army exile continue fight youthful courage responded government reunited elements belgian military france great_britain new army levied organized line alongside allies forces service cause important assure immediately way solidarity continues unite powers given support free belgian forces united_kingdom numbered men belgian soldiers formed 1st belgian infantry brigade included artillery battery soldiers known brigade commanding officer jean brigade involved normandy invasion battles france netherlands liberation served british special forces units war forming troop inter allied commando involved italian campaign landings 5th special air service entirely allied unit enter belgium september belgian pilots served royal_air_force belgian fighter units nos squadrons served european theatre squadron claimed kills formation november end war total served raf mainly british free dutch squadrons group operated battle atlantic serving sailors vessels belgian despite belgium occupation belgian remained loyal government exile disposal allies making significant contribution allied war effort soldiers force involved fighting italian forces east african campaign instrumental forcing italian forces suffering casualties troops served british command nigeria detachments soldiers served middle_east burma total force comprised approximately men racially segregated meaning blacks officers war commanded white officers twice major strikes took place towns country extra pressure workers colonial authorities force garrison military force violently important economic asset allied powers gold contributed million allied war effort exports rubber provided vital sources raw materials american manhattan_project including nuclear weapons dropped japanese towns hiroshima nagasaki supplied belgian firm union province belgian liberation belgium liberated late allied forces including british canadian american armies included brigade september welsh guards liberated brussels liberation inhabitants district held mock funeral hitler port antwerp important strategic objective allied supply lines heavily stretched needed deep sea port near lines british second army liberated antwerp september help local resistance despite taking control city port accessible surrounding waters safe cargo ships germans successfully denied access port battle completed november iii brother charles count flanders appointed regent pending decision king able regain position throne february van replaced prime minister resistance disarmed members remained country occupation regular belgian army battalions battalions served battles western fighting allied armies day general army liberated region south brussels early september corps army concentrated viii corps occupied long stretch area south length deployment meant corps line lightly defended leaving vulnerable following months relative calm belgium december germans launched offensive quarter million soldiers antwerp ultimate objective german offensive german advance stalled river near pushed furious fighting period weeks cold weather american british belgian troops belgian towns civilians suffered offensive homes reduced ruins instances german troops shooting civilians town destroyed fighting february country reported free german troops months following allied liberation belgian towns widely targeted german bombs total rockets advanced type fell mile radius antwerp post war report estimated bombs responsible killing people injuring cities antwerp period liberation saw wave suspected collaboration war investigated collaboration prosecuted nearly executed despite sentenced death managed escape spain remained death legacy aftermath experience world war belgium abandoned neutral stance international politics favour military political economic integration belgium joined north_atlantic treaty organization deployed troops fight alongside united_nations forces korean war belgium key player unsuccessful negotiations creation european defence community 1950s belgium assigned sector british zone west_germany city cologne occupied belgian soldiers remained germany final withdrawal economically belgium joined economic union founding member european coal steel community creation belgium experienced period rapid economic recovery dubbed belgian miracle partially result marshall plan political crisis surrounding iii role occupation return throne belgian public opinion years following war catholics notably flanders broadly supported return wallonia brussels strongly opposed general strike referendum king resigned favour son commemoration decades following war large numbers public memorials erected country memory belgian soldiers died fighting allied cause conflict numerous monuments streets dedicated allied politicians generals including franklin roosevelt bernard montgomery brussels large numbers british american memorials particularly region associated battle meant legacy war visible common countries numerous veterans associations known french belgian towns particularly frequently visited veterans countries numerous war museums country including royal museum army military history brussels aim inform public war holocaust commemorated belgium memorials museums prison fort preserved museum open public passing holocaust denial law illegal deny holocaust participation soldiers belgian largely forgotten following independence decades subsequent war recent years profile veterans raised exhibitions creating greater public awareness


issued october designed reconcile rebels barons war royal government england victory battle simon took control royal government battle year killed king henry iii restored power group rebels held stronghold castle resistance proved hard crush siege castle started papal intervention king henry later entered path commission appointed draw arrangement acceptable sides resulting offered rebels right buy estates prices depending level involvement rebellion initial resistance terms eventually accepted summer country spirit reconciliation later incorporated statute background battle rebellious barons led simon defeated royal army taken king henry iii captive year government hands support soon began august faced army led prince edward later king edward powerful earl gloucester recently defected royalist battle battle resulted complete royal victory killed king henry iii restored power rebellious forces held stronghold virtually castle summer siege castle initiated effort proved futile rumours son simon planning invasion england normandy hope rebels hung situation papal exerted influence king pursue policy august king summoned parliament siege ongoing commissioned number barons bishops draft treaty reconciliation commission created parliament appointing bishops barons selected bishop barons final committee consisted bishops exeter bath wells worcester david gloucester barons committee given saints day november come provisions settlement result known public october primary point establishment royal authority provisions oxford forced king clear appointment ministers entirely royal king henry turn charter forest measures taken renounce increasing fallen simon starting consider martyr possible saint rebels previously completely land taken king hands instead extended pardon restored land previous owners contingent payment certain penalties proportional level involvement rebellion traditional value land times annual yield rebels subsequently fined half times annual yield lands robert earl derby singled particular central involvement rebellion multiple seven case henry hastings commander castle taken fighting rise king fined year value compelled fight played minor pay year value land proceedings fines awarded royal supporters awarded parts rebels land aftermath hostilities end publication garrison refused accept terms given held december forced surrender april earl gloucester central royal victory drafting turned king occupied city london set champion negotiations involving edward gloucester relented june settlement reached gloucester forced change conditions allowed recover lands paid fines arrangement easier summer year prince edward moved isle rebels held forced submission terms favourable rebels november parliament met important provision issued known history statute statute incorporated clauses dealt restoration royal power reconciliation loyalists rebels statute basis royal government relationship king subjects lived english constitutional history spirit peace reconciliation established lasted remainder henry iii reign prince edward left country crusade holy land father died edward felt safe position wait returning home claim throne