roman empire roman empire latin classical latin medieval greek post roman republic period ancient roman civilization characterized government headed emperors large territorial holdings mediterranean_sea europe africa asia city rome largest city world constantinople new rome largest empire populace grew estimated million inhabitants roughly world population time year old republic preceded severely series civil wars political conflict appointed perpetual dictator assassinated civil wars executions continued culminating victory adopted son mark battle annexation egypt power roman senate formally granted overarching power new title effectively marking end roman republic imperial successor republic lasted approximately years centuries empire existence period unprecedented political stability prosperity known roman peace following victory size empire dramatically increased assassination senate briefly considered restoring republic guard proclaimed emperor instead empire invaded major expansion successor committed suicide empire suffered period brief civil wars concurrent major rebellion different generals proclaimed emperor emerged triumphant establishing dynasty succeeded son opened shortly eruption mount short reign followed long reign brother eventually assassinated senate appointed good emperors empire reached greatest extent second line period increasing trouble decline began reign assassination triggered year emperors emerged victorious assassination alexander led crisis century men declared emperor roman senate year period reign empire fully stabilized introduction saw emperors rule empire arrangement ultimately unsuccessful leading civil war finally ended constantine defeated rivals sole ruler empire constantine subsequently shifted capital byzantium renamed constantinople honour remained capital east demise constantine adopted christianity later official state religion empire eastern empire known later byzantine_empire remained leading powers world alongside arch rival empire inherited centuries old roman persian conflict predecessor following death emperor rule united roman empire dominion empire gradually eroded abuses power civil wars invasions military reforms economic depression sack rome accelerated western empire decay deposition emperor generally accepted mark end empire west recognized eastern colleague separate rule western empire ceased exist death eastern roman empire endured millennium eventually falling ottoman turks roman empire powerful economic cultural political military forces world time largest empire ancient history era largest world history height covered million square kilometers territory composed nations 21st century held sway estimated million people time world entire population longevity vast extent empire ensured lasting influence latin greek language culture religion architecture philosophy law forms government empire descendants european medieval period attempts establish successors roman empire including empire romania state holy roman empire means european following renaissance descendant states roman culture exported worldwide scale playing crucial role development modern world history rome begun expanding shortly founding republic 6th century expand outside italian peninsula 3rd century empire long emperor roman republic nation state modern sense network towns left rule varying degrees independence roman senate provinces administered military commanders ruled emperors annually elected roman conjunction senate reasons 1st century time political military ultimately led rule emperors military power rested roman legal concept literally means command typically military sense occasionally successful given honorary title commander origin word emperor empire title bestowed early emperors accession rome suffered long series internal conflicts civil wars late second century onwards greatly extending power italy period crisis roman republic end period briefly perpetual dictator assassinated faction assassins driven rome defeated battle army led mark adopted son division roman world forces defeated battle senate people rome citizen beginning roman imperial history usually dated gave old constitutional machinery remained place came republic stood contemporaries knew veil meaningful authority rome rule ended century civil wars began unprecedented period peace prosperity loved came hold power monarch facto years rule new constitutional order emerged design death new constitutional order operated accepted new emperor years began rule traditionally regarded roman peace period empire degree social stability economic prosperity rome experienced uprisings provinces swiftly occurred years jewish roman wars second half 1st century half 2nd century exceptional duration violence success establishing principles succession limited number talented potential heirs dynasty lasted emperors yielded strife torn year emperors emerged victor founder brief dynasty followed dynasty produced good emperors inclined marcus view greek historian contemporary observer accession emperor marked descent kingdom gold iron famous comment led historians notably edward reign beginning decline roman empire reign roman citizenship granted inhabitants empire despite gesture dynasty tumultuous emperor reign ended routinely murder execution following collapse roman empire crisis century period invasions civil strife economic disorder plague defining historical crisis viewed marking transition classical antiquity late antiquity reigned brought empire brink stabilized completed work fully restoring empire declined role emperor addressed regularly master lord marked end beginning dominate reign brought empire effort perceived threat christianity great persecution state absolute monarchy began endured fall eastern roman empire divided empire regions ruled separate emperor confident fixed disorders rome emperor soon collapsed order eventually restored constantine great emperor convert christianity established constantinople new capital eastern empire decades empire divided east west axis dual power centers constantinople rome reign julian attempted restore classical roman religion briefly interrupted succession christian emperors emperor rule east west died making christianity official religion empire western roman empire began early 5th century invasions overwhelmed capacity empire migrants fight invaders romans successful fighting invaders famously empire peoples dubious loyalty rome empire started place end western roman empire forced placing rule eastern emperor naming emperor chiefs past emperors ended western empire ending line western emperors empire east known byzantine_empire referred time roman empire names different fate survived millennium fall western counterpart stable christian realm middle ages 6th century northern africa italy years death byzantine possessions italy greatly reduced settled peninsula east partially resulting destructive plague romans threatened rise islam followers rapidly conquered territories syria armenia egypt byzantine arab wars soon presented direct threat constantinople following century arabs captured southern italy sicily slavic populations able penetrate deep balkans romans managed stop islamic expansion lands 8th century beginning 9th century reclaimed parts conquered lands eastern empire height bulgaria armenia culture trade flourished soon expansion abruptly stopped byzantine defeat battle aftermath important battle sent empire protracted period decline decades internal strife invasions ultimately paved way emperor send help western european kingdoms west responded eventually resulting sack constantinople participants fourth crusade conquest constantinople fragmented remained empire successor states ultimate victor recapture constantinople imperial forces empire little greek state confined coast roman empire finally collapsed conquered constantinople geography roman empire largest history territories europe north_africa middle_east latin phrase fine empire end expressed ideology time space limited empire epic poem empire said granted romans supreme deity claim universal dominion renewed empire came christian rule 4th century reality roman expansion accomplished republic parts northern europe conquered 1st century roman control europe africa asia strengthened reign global map known world displayed time public rome coinciding composition comprehensive work political geography survives antiquity geography greek writer died commemorative account achievements prominently featured geographical peoples places empire geography census meticulous keeping written records central concerns roman imperial administration empire reached largest reigned encompassing area million square kilometers divided different modern countries traditional population estimate million inhabitants accounted sixth fourth world total population largest population unified political entity west mid-19th century recent demographic studies argued population peak ranging million million largest cities empire rome alexandria twice size european city beginning 17th century historian christopher kelly described empire stretched wall soaked northern england sun baked banks syria great rhine danube river system fertile flat lands europe low countries black_sea rich plains north african coast valley egypt empire completely mediterranean referred mare sea successor adopted policy maintaining expanding empire borders fines marked patrolled heavily fortified borders unstable wall separated roman world perceived present threat primary surviving monument effort languages language romans latin emphasizes source roman unity tradition time alexander reigned birth certificates roman citizens written latin latin language law courts west military empire imposed officially peoples brought roman rule policy contrasts alexander great aimed impose greek empire official language consequence alexander conquests greek shared language eastern mediterranean asia minor linguistic frontier dividing latin west greek east passed balkan peninsula romans received elite education studied greek literary language men governing classes speak greek emperors encouraged high standards correct latin linguistic movement identified modern terms classical latin favoured latin conducting official business tried limit use greek occasion revoked citizenship lacked latin senate drew communicating greek speaking ambassadors quotes referring languages eastern empire laws official documents regularly translated greek latin everyday languages indicated bilingual inscriptions switch forth greek latin inhabitants empire universally great number roman citizens lacked latin expected acquire token knowledge latin remained marker reforms emperor reigned sought renew authority latin greek expression continuing status latin language power early 6th century emperor engaged effort status latin language law time latin longer held currency living language east local languages linguistic legacy references indicate continuing use local languages greek latin particularly egypt military settings rhine danube roman concern local languages assuring correct understanding application laws province africa inscriptions legends coins time 1st century inscriptions appear public buildings 2nd century bilingual latin syria soldiers dialect inscriptions striking exception rule latin language military archive suggestive example empire named jewish woman province dating employ local language written greek characters semitic latin influences petition roman governor written greek dominance latin elite obscure continuity spoken languages cultures roman empire predominantly oral west latin referred spoken form vulgar latin gradually replaced celtic languages related shared european origin vocabulary facilitated adoption latin political power late antiquity latin developed locally branches romance languages spanish portuguese french italian romanian large number minor languages today million people native speakers worldwide international language learning literature latin continued active medium expression diplomacy intellectual developments identified renaissance 17th century law roman_catholic_church present greek continued language byzantine_empire linguistic distribution east complex greek speaking majority lived greek peninsula islands western major cities coastal areas like greek latin language european origin extinct languages attested imperial era inscriptions seen descendant hypothesis challenged maintain derives formed languages primarily egypt syria replaced greek international use greek factor enabling spread christianity indicated example use greek paul society roman empire remarkably astonishing cohesive capacity create sense shared identity encompassing diverse peoples political system long span time roman attention creating public monuments communal spaces open forums helped foster sense roman society multiple overlapping social modern concepts class english represent accurately decades civil war rose sole power left traditional society rome state confusion effect immediate wealth social power perspective lower classes peak merely added social pyramid personal relationships patronage friendship family marriage continued influence workings politics government republic time unusual find slave richer citizen equestrian exercised greater power senator republic rigid led increased social mobility empire upward downward extent exceeded documented ancient societies women slaves opportunities profit exercise influence ways previously available social life empire particularly personal resources limited fostered voluntary associations formed purposes professional trade veterans groups religious drinking dining clubs performing arts burial societies recorded roman empire widespread legal status according essential distinction roman law persons human beings free slaves legal status free persons defined citizenship citizens held limited rights latin right entitled legal privileges enjoyed lacked citizenship free people considered citizens living roman world held status non romans means known emperor extended citizenship inhabitants empire legal required far reaching revision existing laws distinguished citizens non citizens women roman law roman women considered citizens republic empire vote hold political office serve military mother citizen status determined children indicated phrase children born roman citizens roman woman kept family life children took father imperial period mother theirs instead archaic form marriage woman subject husband authority largely abandoned imperial era married woman retained ownership property brought marriage technically remained father legal authority moved husband home father died legally arrangement factors degree independence roman women enjoyed relative ancient cultures modern period answer father legal matters free direct scrutiny daily life husband legal power point pride man woman married little stigma attached divorce loss husband death divorce girls equal inheritance rights boys father died leaving roman mother right property dispose saw fit including setting terms gave enormous influence sons adults programme restore traditional morality social order moral legislation attempted regulate conduct men women means promoting family values adultery private family matter republic defined broadly illicit sex act occurred male citizen married woman married woman man husband encouraged state woman given birth children granted symbolic honours greater legal freedom legal status citizens degree women property enter contracts engage business including shipping manufacturing lending money inscriptions empire honour women funding public works indication acquire dispose considerable fortunes instance arch funded female member family honoured largest building forum funded venus slaves law time percent people italy slaves making rome historical slave societies slaves constituted fifth population played major role economy slavery complex institution supported traditional roman social structures contributing economic utility urban settings slaves professionals teachers physicians addition majority slaves provided trained labour households agriculture industry mining relied exploitation slaves outside italy slaves average estimated percent population sparse roman egypt concentrated greek areas expanding roman ownership land industries affected practices slavery provinces institution slavery regarded 3rd 4th centuries remained integral roman society 5th century slavery ceased gradually 6th 7th centuries decline urban centres west complex imperial economy created demand laws pertaining slavery extremely intricate roman law slaves considered property legal subjected forms corporal punishment normally exercised citizens sexual exploitation torture summary execution slave matter law raped rape committed people free slave prosecuted owner property damage law slaves right form legal marriage called unions recognized freed marry following wars republic legislation successors shows driving concern controlling threat rebellions limiting size work groups hunting fugitive slaves technically slave property slave conducted business given access individual account fund use terms account varied depending degree trust operation owner slave slave business given considerable generate profit allowed managed slaves household household workplace hierarchy slaves exist slave effect acting master slaves time slaves gained increased legal protection including right file complaints masters bill sale contain clause slave employed prostitution prostitutes ancient rome slaves burgeoning trade slaves late 1st century prompted legislation prohibited slave lust gain roman slavery based race slaves drawn europe mediterranean including germany balkans greece generally slaves italy indigenous italians minority foreigners including slaves born outside italy estimated total capital peak number largest outside europe predominantly greek descent jewish ones fully roman society remaining identifiable minority slaves especially foreigners higher mortality rates lower birth rates natives subjected mass average recorded age death slaves city rome low seventeen half years males females period republican slavery war captives main source slaves range slaves extent reflected armies rome defeated war conquest greece brought number highly skilled educated slaves rome slaves traded markets sold pirates infant abandonment self poor sources contrast slaves born female slaves urban household country estate farm special legal status owner failed care faced social disapproval considered family household cases actually children free males family talented slaves business accumulate large justify freedom services rendered frequent law limited number slaves owner allowed free rome differed greek city states allowing freed slaves citizens slave belonged roman citizen enjoyed passive freedom ownership active political freedom including right vote slave acquired freed person feminine relation master patron parties continued customary legal obligations social class generally freed slaves later writers terms entitled hold public office highest state play role cult emperor marry woman family rank achieve legitimate rank early empire held key positions government bureaucracy limited participation law future children born free rights citizenship rise successful political influence imperial service wealth characteristic early imperial society prosperity high achieving group attested inscriptions empire ownership lavish houses house character wrote time individuals exceptional indicative upward social mobility possible empire census rank latin word refers social distinction translated variously english class order rank exact purpose roman census determine individual belonged highest rome equestrian outside rome known greek governing individual city senator elected office ancient rome individual gained admission senate elected served term executive magistrate senator meet minimum property requirement million determined census large gifts money number senators old families impoverished qualify men qualified chose senate seat required legal rome emperors filled member body appointment senator son belonged qualify merits admission senate senator removed violating moral standards prohibited instance marrying fighting arena time senators primarily rome parts italy peninsula southern france men greek speaking provinces east began added senator eastern province admitted marcus time dynasty italians half senate 3rd century rome impractical inscriptions senators active politics homeland senators prestige traditional governing class rose political career track empire possessed greater wealth political power membership equestrian order based property rome early days knights distinguished ability serve mounted warriors public horse cavalry service separate function empire census generations free birth qualified man equestrian census uncovered large numbers men qualified thousand registered rose military career track highly placed imperial administration rise provincial men equestrian orders aspect social mobility centuries empire roman aristocracy based competition unlike later european nobility roman family maintain position merely hereditary succession having title lands admission higher brought distinction privileges number responsibilities antiquity city depended leading citizens fund public works events services tax revenues primarily supported military maintaining rank required massive personal expenditures vital functioning cities later empire ranks town councils depleted risen senate encouraged central government seats return effort sustain civic life later empire worth esteem attended equestrian rank refined titles man greek designate certain senators immediate family including women grades equestrian status imperial service ranked pay grade title eminent greek reserved higher equestrian officials general distinguished greek lower merely outstanding greek unequal justice republican principle citizens equality law faded symbolic social privileges upper classes led informal division roman society acquired greater honours folk general members higher orders certain military officers granting universal citizenship increased competitive urge upper classes superiority citizens affirmed particularly justice system sentencing depended judgment presiding official relative worth defendant pay fine convicted crime receive execution legal penalty free men republic capital case quick relatively imperial citizen considered honorable deemed inferior suffer kinds torture prolonged death previously reserved slaves condemnation spectacle arena early empire converted christianity lose standing especially declined fulfill religious aspects civic responsibilities subject created conditions government military major elements imperial roman state central government military provincial government military established control territory war city people brought treaty military mission turned protecting roman citizens inhabitants empire agricultural fields fed religious sites modern instruments mass communication mass destruction romans lacked sufficient manpower resources impose rule force cooperation local power necessary maintain order collect information extract revenue romans exploited internal political divisions supporting faction view factions cities led loss self governance communities demonstrated loyalty rome retained laws collect taxes locally exceptional cases exempt roman taxation legal privileges relative independence incentive remain good standing rome roman government limited efficient use resources available central government dominance emperor based consolidation certain powers republican offices including people authority manipulate hierarchy roman society emperor central religious authority centralized right declare war treaties negotiate foreign leaders functions clearly defined emperor powers time constitutional culminating dominate emperor ultimate authority decision making early expected accessible individuals walks life deal personally official business petitions bureaucracy formed gradually emperors relied informal body advisors included senators trusted slaves unofficial influence regarded suspicion emperor council subject official appointment sake greater transparency senate took lead policy discussions end dynasty played increasingly important role women emperor family intervened directly decisions exercised influence husband successor influence advertised having letters official matters published sign emperor reasonable exercise authority listened people access emperor gained daily reception development traditional homage client paid patron public hosted palace religious ceremonies common people lacked access manifest general approval displeasure group games held large venues 4th century urban centres decayed christian emperors remote issued general longer responding individual petitions senate little short assassination open rebellion emperor survived restoration turbulent year emperors retain symbolic political senate emperor rule emperor needed experience senators serve generals diplomats administrators successful career required administrator remaining favour emperor time multiple emperors practical source emperor power authority military paid imperial treasury swore annual military oath loyalty emperor death emperor led crucial period uncertainty crisis emperors indicated choice successor usually close family member adopted heir new emperor seek swift status authority stabilize political landscape emperor hope survive reign allegiance loyalty guard secure loyalty emperors paid monetary reward theory senate entitled choose new emperor army military soldiers imperial roman army professionals volunteered years active duty reserves transition professional military begun late republic profound shifts away army exercised responsibilities citizens defending homeland campaign specific threat imperial rome military time career primary mission roman military early empire preserve major divisions military garrison rome includes functioned police firefighters provincial army comprising roman provided provinces navy military garrisons empire major influence process cultural exchange known particularly regard politics economy religion knowledge roman military comes wide range sources greek roman literary texts coins military themes preserving military documents monuments column arches feature artistic depictions fighting men military machines military battle sites camps inscriptions including military military reforms included consolidating disbanding units questionable loyalty changed legion pattern army boots legion organized comprised centuries century squads exact size imperial legion likely determined logistics estimated range tribes wiped battle forest disastrous event reduced number total later increased years little army soldiers 1st century 2nd significantly smaller collective armed forces territories conquered percent adult males living empire served imperial army created guard ostensibly maintain public peace garrisoned italy better paid served sixteen years recruited non citizens organized smaller units roughly strength paid years service rewarded roman citizenship extended sons according roughly amounted men implying approximately auxiliary regiments roman cavalry earliest empire primarily celtic hispanic areas aspects training equipment saddle derived noted indicated roman navy latin fleet aided supply transport helped protection rivers rhine danube duties protection crucial maritime trade routes threat pirates patrolled mediterranean parts north_atlantic coasts black_sea army considered senior prestigious branch provincial government annexed territory province step process making register cities taking census population surveying land government included deaths real estate transactions taxes proceedings 1st 2nd centuries central government sent officials year govern outside italy officials roman governors called english elected rome roman people governed provinces governors usually equestrian rank held behalf emperor provinces excluded control notably roman egypt governor accessible people governed delegate duties staff minimal official including civil military usually equestrian rank friends ranging age experience accompanied unofficially officials appointed government finances separating fiscal responsibility justice administration reform imperial era republic provincial governors tax farmers exploit local populations personal gain freely equestrian authority originally extra judicial extra constitutional managed state owned property vast personal property emperor roman government officials number provincial needed help legal dispute criminal case seek roman perceived official capacity military officer including military police roman law roman courts held original jurisdiction cases involving roman citizens empire judicial impose roman law uniformly provinces parts eastern empire established law codes procedures general roman policy respect regional tradition law land regard local laws source legal precedent social stability compatibility roman local law thought reflect underlying law nations international law regarded common customary human communities provincial law conflicted roman law custom roman courts heard appeals emperor held final authority render decision west law administered highly localized tribal basis private property rights novelty roman era particularly celtic peoples roman law facilitated acquisition wealth pro roman elite found new privileges citizens extension universal citizenship free inhabitants empire required uniform application roman law replacing local law codes applied non citizens efforts stabilize empire crisis century included major compilations law years guide provincial administrators setting consistent legal standards exercise roman law western_europe led enormous influence western legal tradition reflected continued use latin legal terminology modern law taxation taxation empire amounted percent empire gross product typical tax rate paid individuals ranged percent tax code complicated system direct indirect taxes paid cash kind taxes specific province kinds properties fisheries salt ponds effect limited time tax collection justified need maintain military got army captured surplus booty kind taxes accepted areas particularly supply grain goods army camps primary source direct tax revenue individuals paid poll tax tax land tax produce productive capacity supplemental forms filed eligible certain example egyptian farmers register fields tax exempt depending flood patterns tax obligations determined census required head household appear presiding official provide head count household accounting property owned suitable agriculture major source indirect tax revenue customs tolls imports exports including provinces special taxes levied slave trade end reign instituted percent tax sale slaves shifted dealers responded raising prices owner slave paid freedom tax calculated percent value inheritance tax percent assessed roman citizens certain net worth left property members immediate family revenues estate tax percent sales tax went veterans pension fund low taxes helped roman aristocracy increase wealth exceeded revenues central government emperor treasury estates super rich later period resistance wealthy paying taxes factors contributing collapse empire economy moses chief proponent view roman economy characterized agriculture urban centres consumed produced terms trade industry low status slowly developing technology lack economic current views complex territorial conquests permitted large scale reorganization land use resulted agricultural surplus particularly north_africa cities known particular industries commercial activities scale building urban areas indicates significant construction industry preserve complex accounting methods suggest elements economic empire highly means communication transport limited antiquity transportation 1st 2nd centuries expanded greatly trade routes connected regional economies supply contracts army empire drew local suppliers near base province provincial borders empire best thought network regional economies based form political capitalism state monitored regulated commerce assure revenues economic growth comparable modern economies greater societies prior socially economic opened avenues social mobility roman empire social advancement dependent solely birth patronage good luck extraordinary ability aristocratic values traditional elite society strong tendency indicated wealth requirements census rank prestige obtained investing wealth ways advertised appropriately grand country estates luxury items public monuments family members religious corporations provided support individuals succeed networking sharing sound business practices willingness work currency banking early empire near universal extent sense money way express prices debts english basic unit value 4th century silver worth accounting beginning dynasty smallest coin commonly circulated bronze fourth counted money business buying property romans 1st 2nd centuries counted coins weighing indication coin valued face metal content tendency money led eventually roman consequences later empire money empire promoted trade market integration high metal circulation increased money supply trading saving rome central bank regulation banking system minimal banks classical antiquity typically kept reserves total customers deposits typical bank fairly limited capital principal bank assumes involved commerce needs access credit professional deposit banker later received held deposits fixed indefinite term lent money parties elite involved heavily private lending creditors making loans personal fortunes basis social connections holder debt use means payment transferring party cash changing hands thought ancient rome lacked paper documentary transactions system banks empire permitted exchange large sums physical transfer coins risks moving large amounts cash particularly sea credit shortage known occurred early empire credit crisis number senators risk central government rescued market loan million emperor banks generally available capital exceeded needed central government borrow money public debt fund cash reserves emperors overall currency particularly pressures meeting military sudden inflation reign damaged credit market supply contracted sharply conditions crisis century reductions long distance trade disruption mining operations physical transfer gold outside empire invading enemies greatly diminished money supply banking sector year roman long money currency general economic came head lost confidence coins legitimately issued central government despite introduction gold monetary reforms credit market empire recovered mining main mining regions empire peninsula gold silver copper tin lead gold silver iron britain mainly iron lead tin provinces gold iron macedonia gold silver asia minor gold silver iron tin intensive large scale mining deposits means open cast mining underground mining took place reign early 3rd century instability empire disrupted production gold mines instance longer available roman exploitation province surrendered mining resumed extent 4th century hydraulic mining referred ruin mountains allowed base precious metals extracted industrial scale total annual iron output estimated tonnes copper produced annual rate lead production levels industrial revolution percent share world lead production high lead output product extensive silver mining reached peak century roman silver stock estimated times larger combined silver mass medieval europe indication scale roman metal production lead pollution greenland ice sheet prehistoric levels imperial era dropped transportation communication roman empire completely encircled mediterranean called sea mare roman sailing vessels mediterranean major rivers empire including rhine transport water preferred possible moving land difficult vehicles wheels ships indicate existence great number skilled land transport utilized advanced system roman roads kind taxes paid communities included provision personnel animals vehicles state mail transport service established relay stations located roads seven roman miles tended grow village trading post privately run service station imperial bureaucracy support staff facility included military police distance determined far wagon travel day animal pulling travelling mph example pace communication took messenger minimum days travel rome province superior matter urgency addition offered accommodations food drink recorded stay showed charges wine bread feed services prostitute trade roman provinces traded trade extended outside regions far away china india main grain chinese trade conducted overland middle men silk road indian trade occurred sea egyptian ports red_sea traded olive oil fish sauce slaves ore manufactured metal objects timber pottery marble ivory provinces capable producing wine regional desirable wine central item trade shortages rare major suppliers city rome west_coast italy southern region crete alexandria second largest city imported wine syria retail level wine shops sold wine drink premises price ranges reflecting quality labour inscriptions record different city rome professional associations trade attested wide range including fishermen salt merchants olive oil dealers cattle dealers specialized rome strictly limited worked ivory citrus wood work performed slaves falls general categories domestic recording different household jobs imperial public service urban crafts services agriculture mining provided labour mines conditions brutal practice little division labour slave free workers special skills greatest number common labourers employed agriculture italian system industrial farming slaves empire slave farm labour probably important forms dependent labour people technically enslaved textile clothing production major source employment finished traded peoples empire products named particular town like fashion label better ready wear exported businessmen residents production centres finished sales agents travelled potential customers clothing dealers merchants egypt textile producers run prosperous small businesses employing free workers earning wages slaves workers guild workers specialized textile production recycling old clothes goods income distribution economic historians vary calculations gross domestic product roman economy sample years estimates capita range capita italy estimated percent higher rest empire tax transfers provinces concentration elite income economic model total annual income generated empire placed nearly billion percent extracted central local government households percent income distribution captured percent income percent went percent population characterized non elite middle remaining vast majority produced half total income lived near architecture engineering chief roman contributions architecture arch vault dome years roman structures stand sophisticated methods making concrete roman roads considered advanced roads built early 19th century system roadways facilitated military communications trade roads resistant floods environmental hazards collapse central government roads remained usable thousand years roman bridges large lasting bridges built stone arch basic structure utilized concrete largest roman bridge bridge lower danube constructed damascus remained millennium longest bridge built terms overall span length romans built dams water collection dams fed largest rome built dams peninsula known empire use dams known roman britain including preserved example romans constructed numerous surviving treatise served curator water commissioner reflects administrative importance placed ensuring water supply masonry channels carried water distant springs precise gradient gravity water passed collected tanks fed pipes public toilets industrial sites main city rome complex system built supply constantinople distant supply drawn away route roman built remarkably fine tolerance technological standard modern times romans use extensive mining operations empire sites las south wales double construction public elite housing cooler climates form central heating romans culture assemble essential components later steam engine hero built daily life city country ancient world city viewed place fostered civilization properly designed ordered adorned undertook vast building program rome supported public displays art expressed new imperial ideology reorganized city administered local level police services focus monumental architecture campus open area outside city center early times devoted equestrian sports physical training youth altar peace located imported egypt formed public gardens campus attractive places city visit city planning urban lifestyles influenced greeks early period eastern empire roman rule accelerated shaped local development cities strong character cities athens altered aspects city planning architecture conform imperial ideals expressing individual identity regional areas western empire inhabited celtic speaking peoples rome encouraged development urban centres stone temples forums monumental near sites walled settlements known roman africa expanded greek cities coast network cities empire greek terms primary cohesive force romans 1st 2nd centuries encouraged imperial propaganda habits peacetime noted cultural popularly associated imperial culture public cult games civic competitions artists speakers athletes funding great majority public buildings public display art financed private individuals expenditures regard helped justify economic power legal provincial privileges christian declared world late 2nd century orderly cultivated earlier times houses people commonwealth life decline cities civic life 4th century wealthy classes unable support public works sign empire imminent dissolution city rome people lived apartment buildings public facilities toilets running water located basins elaborate delivering fresh water large scale races combat aimed primarily common people lived similar facilities constructed cities empire best preserved roman structures spain southern france northern africa public served social cultural functions bathing focus daily late afternoon dinner roman distinguished series rooms offered communal bathing temperatures varying amenities include exercise weight training room spa skin body ball court outdoor swimming pool heating floors suspended hot air channels circulated warmth mixed nude bathing unusual early empire offered separate facilities hours men women public urban culture provinces late 4th century individual began replace communal bathing christians advised health pleasure avoid games religious festivals considered pagan says christians participated fully commerce society rich families rome usually houses luxury home villa outside city privately owned single family house furnished private bath place retreat public life rome higher concentration houses rich live segregated houses meant visible accessible served reception hall head household met clients morning wealthy friends poorer received charity center family religious rites containing shrine images family ancestors houses located busy public roads ground level spaces facing street rented shops addition kitchen garden substitute typically enclosed garden brought tract nature orderly walls villa contrast escape city literature represents lifestyle pursuit intellectual artistic interests appreciation nature agricultural cycle villa commanded view carefully framed architectural design located working estate resort town situated programme urban renewal growth rome population million people accompanied nostalgia rural life expressed arts poetry praised lives farmers interiors houses decorated painted gardens landscapes animals especially birds marine life rendered accurately modern scholars identify species poet gently urban rural values city mouse country mouse children story practical level central government took active interest supporting agriculture producing food priority land use larger farms achieved economy scale sustained urban life specialized division labour small farmers benefited development local markets towns trade centres agricultural techniques crop rotation selective breeding empire new crops introduced province britain maintaining affordable food supply city rome major political issue late republic state began provide grain citizens registered adult males rome received amounting month total tons wheat primarily sicily north_africa egypt cost percent state revenues improved living conditions family life lower classes rich allowing workers spend earnings wine olive oil produced estates class grain symbolic value affirmed emperor position universal right citizens share fruits conquest public facilities spectacular living conditions lower class romans kept social unrest check saw bread loss republican political liberty public long cast cares people bestowed commands things bread food dining apartments rome lacked rudimentary prepared food sold bars food stalls restaurant dining lower classes fine dining sought private dinner parties houses chef trained kitchen staff hosted social clubs people consumed percent daily form considered food romans basic grain elaborated vegetables bits meat cheese herbs produce dishes similar urban populations military preferred consume grain form bread mills commercial usually combined complex reign state begun distribute daily bread baked state factories added olive oil wine pork importance good diet health recognized medical writers 2nd century included soup views nutrition influenced schools thought theory roman literature focuses dining habits upper classes evening meal important social functions guests entertained finely decorated dining room view garden leaning left elbow late republic earlier women drank wine men famous description roman meal probably dinner party fictional bears little resemblance reality wealthy poet martial describes serving plausible dinner beginning composed leaves mint eggs main course cuts kid beans chicken followed fresh fruit vintage wine latin expression course dinner egg equivalent english soup nuts book length collection roman recipes attributed figures antiquity synonymous roman wild game large fish especially prized luxury ingredients brought fleet far reaches empire frontier straits gibraltar refined cuisine sign progress decline early imperial historian contrasted roman table day simplicity diet fresh wild meat fruit cheese imported elaborate importance roman culture produce vegetables fruit considered form food meat mediterranean staples bread wine oil roman christianity meat consumption mark product animal sacrifice philosophers christians resisted demands body pleasures food adopted ideal food simpler general urban life west diminished trade routes disrupted rich retreated limited self country estates urban lifestyle came associated church formally discouraged hunting seen simple ways life recreation complained roman people exchanged political liberty bread referring state provided grain events held entertainment venue called circus latin largest venue rome circus setting horse races races equestrian game staged beast hunts athletic contests combat historical earliest times religious festivals featured games primarily horse races entertainment value tended ritual significance races remained archaic religious agriculture initiation cycle birth death public presented days year reign marcus number days expanded circus games preceded elaborate parade ended venue competitive events held smaller venues characteristic roman spectacle venue stadium greek style athletics included boxing wrestling aquatic displays mock sea battle form water ballet presented engineered pools state supported theatrical events took place temple steps grand stone theatres smaller enclosed theatre called largest structure regularly built roman world greeks architectural traditions similarly better known regular arena blood sports rome opened circus races continued held frequently circus seat spectators standing room roman theatres built cities outside italy visible ruins today local ruling elite responsible arena events enhanced status drained resources physical arrangement represented order roman society emperor presiding box senators watching seats reserved women seated remove action slaves given worst places everybody packed crowd outcome cheering emperor final quickly sites social political protest emperors deploy force crowd unrest riots year troops slaughtered thousands teams known colours wore blues popular fan loyalty fierce times erupted sports riots racing celebrated compensated athletes star sport present day portugal raced years career earnings million horses fans commemorated art inscriptions design roman developed assure team unfair advantage minimize collisions nonetheless frequent satisfying crowd races retained magical early association rituals circus images considered protective lucky curse found buried site suspected racing continued byzantine period imperial sponsorship decline cities 6th 7th centuries led eventual demise romans thought contests originated funeral games sacrifices select captive warriors forced fight deaths noble romans earliest styles fighting ethnic designations staged considered services offerings initially distinct festival games year reign presented shows total men fought staged beast hunts resulted deaths animals mark opening emperor presented days arena events competing single day roman fascination indicated widely depicted wall paintings lamps graffiti drawings trained combatants slaves free volunteers death necessary desirable outcome matches highly skilled fighters training represented costly time consuming investment contrast sentenced arena little training unarmed expectation survival physical suffering humiliation considered appropriate justice crimes committed executions staged myths equipped elaborate stage machinery create special effects considered deaths arena dressed form human sacrifice modern scholars found pleasure romans took theater life death difficult aspects civilization understand explain younger good people way inspire face honourable wounds death exhibiting love glory desire victory bodies slaves criminals romans critical brutal found virtue courage dignity defeated fighter victory attitude finds expression christians arena martyr literature offers detailed descriptions suffering popular genre times indistinguishable fiction personal training play refers large scale spectator games singular play game sport training wide range meanings word play theatrical performance board game primary school training school largest training camp rome activities children young people included rolling children playing games girls dolls typically tall limbs materials wood especially bone ivory ball games include required sport pets appear children memorials literature including birds dogs cats goats sheep rabbits physical training males military nature campus originally exercise field young men developed skills warfare hunting considered appropriate according conservative romans disapproved greek style athletics promoted fine body sake condemned efforts encourage games greek manner women trained dancers rare female famous bikini girls mosaic shows young women engaging apparatus routines compared rhythmic women general encouraged maintain health activities playing ball swimming walking reading aloud breathing exercise riding vehicles travel people ages played board games pitting players including raiders game strategy opponents coordinated movements capture multiple game pieces marks involving arranging pieces grid letters words game referred board emperor addicted similar cup playing form gambling disapproved popular december festival carnival norms overturned atmosphere clothing status conscious society like romans clothing personal gave immediate visual clues interacting wearing correct clothing supposed reflect society good order distinctive national roman male citizen heavy impractical worn mainly conducting political business religious rites going court contrary popular perception clothing romans wore dark colourful common male attire seen daily provinces regions trousers study romans dressed daily life complicated lack direct evidence subject clothing symbolic value surviving period rare basic romans regardless gender wealth simple length differed man reached mid soldier somewhat shorter woman fell feet child knees poor people slaves coarse wool natural dull shades length determined type work finer lightweight wool man belonged equestrian order wore purple stripes woven vertically fabric wider stripe higher status layered imperial vast semi circular white wool correctly assistance work describes detail public speaker ought gestures relation art shown long end feet deep curved fold intricate structured time cloth forming tight roll chest later periods purple red stripe representing worn children come age state priests emperor wear purple 2nd century emperors men status portrayed wearing originally greek mantle folded tightly body women portrayed considered appropriate christians contrast educated people associated philosophers 4th century replaced embodied social unity roman clothing styles changed time rapidly today dominate clothing worn soldiers government highly decorated woven stripes circular applied decorative elements consisted patterns plant motifs elaborate examples human animal figures use silk increased later empire wore elaborate silk robes roman society cultural life based urban ideals affected habits dress heavy military style belts worn soldiers abandoned arts people visiting living rome cities empire seen art range styles media daily basis public official art including sculpture monuments victory columns arches coins analysed historical significance expression imperial ideology imperial public person humble means view wall paintings statues interior decoration high quality private sphere objects religious commemoration domestic use commerce varying degrees aesthetic quality artistic skill wealthy person advertise appreciation culture painting sculpture decorative arts home efforts strike modern viewers ancient greek art profound influence roman tradition famous examples greek statues known roman imperial versions occasional description greek latin literary source despite high value placed works art famous artists low social status greeks romans regarded artists alike manual labourers time level skill required produce quality work recognized considered divine gift survives mainly medium sculpture form imperial art portraits period utilize youthful classical proportions evolving later mixture realism republican portraits characterized early 2nd century greek convention heroic nudity adopted portraying conquering generals imperial portrait sculptures model head mature atop nude body smooth youthful perfect portrait head added body created purpose clothed military body rank sphere activity characteristics individual women emperor family depicted dressed divine peace painting represented primarily portraits evoke egyptian roman traditions commemorating dead realistic painting techniques empire marble portrait sculpture painted traces paint rarely survived centuries portraits indicate ancient literary sources artistic representations sculpture examples roman sculpture survive damaged condition including statues marble bronze public buildings temples monuments column arch originally filled statues formal garden complete temples housed cult images deities famed romans encouraged production decorated small representations deities household shrine offerings pieces temples divine mythological figures given secular humorous depictions carved marble limestone characteristic 2nd 4th centuries examples surviving mythological scenes widely studied relief called richest single source roman depict deceased occupation life course military scenes subject matter workshops produced jewish christian imagery painting known roman painting based interior decoration private homes particularly preserved eruption addition decorative borders panels geometric motifs wall painting depicts scenes mythology theatre landscapes gardens recreation work


western mexico shaft tomb tradition western mexico shaft tomb tradition shaft tomb culture refers set cultural traits found western mexican states lesser extent south roughly dating period bce wide agreement end date nearly artifacts associated shaft tomb tradition discovered making dating problematic major shaft tomb associated tradition discovered originally regarded origin contemporary apparent middle 20th century result research artifacts tombs instead years older recently looted artifacts known people culture cultures created shaft tombs little known fact major exhibition highlighting artifacts subtitled art unknown past thought shaft tombs widely area region unified cultural area archaeologists struggle identifying naming ancient western mexico cultures period description shaft tomb tradition thought developed bce shaft tombs tradition years example shaft tomb dated bce linked central western mexico like concerning tradition origins understood valleys include archaeological sites constitute undisputed core tradition lasted wide agreement end date western mexico shaft tombs characterized vertical nearly vertical shaft dug metres underlying volcanic base shaft opens occasionally horizontal chambers metres varying considerably low ceiling shaft tombs associated building multiple found chamber evidence indicates tombs families time labor involved creation shaft tombs number quality grave goods indicate tombs exclusively society demonstrate shaft tomb cultures highly early date sites feature shaft tombs associated culture grave goods tombs include hollow figures shell jewelry semi precious stones pottery contained food household photo reconstruction unusual items include shell covered unlike cultures maya shaft tomb artifacts carry little seemingly symbolic religious meaning plentiful attracted attention dramatic interesting produced fact apparently primary outlet artistic expression shaft tomb cultures little record associated monumental architecture public art vast majority analysis largely focused styles subjects styles major stylistic groups include del rio abstract flat bodies highly stylized faces complete nose rings multiple seated thin rope like limbs standing short limbs styles described noted stated reaches limits absurd brutal caricature peculiar aesthetic concept creation haunting art historian george finds square bodies mouths staring eyes convey disturbing expression resolved animation plastic energy forms named art dealers supposed chinese like appearance early type identified major identified considerable overlap type called classic rendered prominent curator michael finds calm subtle exterior suggests demonstrates emotion type figures similar suggested production single school types abstract characterized like eyes blended face broad rectangular triangular heads figures shown seated shortened legs quickly tapering point style associated characterized elongated face high forehead capped like nose elongated large eyes wide staring pronounced created adding separate strips clay eyes wide mouth closed slightly opened large hands carefully nails early sheep faced style eroded melted continuous passages modelling unite divide parts body later style animated articulated identified smooth round forms warm brown red slip particularly known wide range animal especially dog human subjects style shaft tomb styles include san general agreement style names characteristics unanimous styles overlap degree subject matter common subjects shaft tomb tradition showing dozen people engaged seemingly typical activities concentrated highland adjoining present rich insight practices architecture importantly architecture religious thought late formative period photographic detail associated architecture ruins field dogs widely known looted tombs dogs generally believed cultures represent soul guides dead dog wear human masks nonetheless noted dogs major source animal protein ancient ancestor marriage pairs female male common shaft tomb tradition grave goods representing ancestors joined separate executed del style shaft tomb spanning western mexico styles locations wear horn set high forehead theories advanced horns figure abstract shells uncommon shaft tomb emblem symbol theories mutually exclusive uses obviously recovered grave goods question specifically created rite prior burial deceased signs wear unclear exception rule context western mexico cultures considerable effort connecting shaft tomb tradition tradition complex society occupies geography shaft tomb tradition unlike typical rectangular central tradition marked central circular unique conical circular architectural style seemingly mirrored circular shaft tomb scenes known primarily architecture tradition rises roughly time shaft tomb tradition bce lasts centuries end shaft tomb tradition tradition appears shaft tomb tradition cultures western mexico periphery long considered outside mainstream cultures time appear particularly mainstream influences example influenced artifacts recovered shaft tombs writing systems evidence cultural markers particularly present despite inhabitants area lived like counterparts usual trio beans supplemented grains animal protein domestic dogs ducks hunting lived roof houses grew cotton tobacco conducted long distance trade goods shaft tombs encountered nearest counterparts come northwestern south_america south american shaft tombs shaft tombs appear northwestern south_america somewhat later western mexico northern peru later areas professor ancient technology mit physical similarities northern south american west mexican tomb types art historian george finds western mexican chambers resemble tombs upper river colombia disagree similarity form demonstrates cultural karen states sort contact mainly eye synthesizer western mexico northwestern south_america proposed particular development pre history scholarly research major work discuss artifacts associated shaft tomb tradition work unknown mexico illustrations grave goods norwegian explorer described looted shaft tomb visited visited described ruins seat empire miles east incorrectly use term describe shaft tomb artifacts 1930s artist diego rivera began accumulating western mexico artifacts private collection personal interest sparked wider public interest west mexican grave goods late 1930s prominent western mexico archaeologists kelly began investigations period kelly eventually publish dozen scholarly papers work region existence shaft tomb arc geographic distribution shaft tomb sites western mexico map challenged shaft tomb artifacts challenge echoed firmly declared culture appeared 10th century views later upheld dating plundered shaft tombs organic remains salvaged 1960s diego peter result excavations investigations modern day indigenous peoples proposed artifacts mere representations ancient peoples contained deeper significance model houses example showed living dwelling context dead miniature warriors discussed battling mystical forces von winning published classification western mexico shaft tomb artifacts including example types mentioned classification largely use today discovery shaft tomb latest major milestone providing detailed information date customs associated shaft tomb tradition


spelled study people past understood phenomena sky phenomena role sky played cultures argues misleading consider study ancient astronomy modern astronomy scientific discipline considers symbolically rich cultural interpretations phenomena sky cultures study contemporary societies closely associated historical astronomy use historical records heavenly events answer astronomical problems history astronomy uses written records evaluate past astronomical practice uses variety methods uncover evidence past practices including astronomy statistics probability history methods diverse use data different sources integrating coherent argument long term difficulty fills landscape material evidence connection sky reveal wider landscape integrated beliefs cycles nature astronomy relationship agriculture examples brought ideas landscape include studies cosmic order embedded roads settlements applied cultures time periods meanings sky vary culture culture scientific methods applied cultures examining ancient beliefs need balance social scientific aspects led describe field academic work high quality end speculation bordering history short history john argued status research ancient astronomy improved past centuries going interesting notion finally gates nearly decades later ask question waiting gates gotten inside gates years wrote professional archaeologists works considered interpreted astronomical orientation ruins english countryside william john henry sought similar astronomical principles underlying orientation churches late nineteenth century richard charles investigated astronomical term elizabeth suggestion topic study older depending defined says working mid nineteenth century arguably says norman working late 19th early 20th centuries called father place origin later stating genesis modern flowering surely lie work alexander britain 1930s 1970s 1960s work engineer alexander proposed computer inspired new interest astronomical features ancient sites claims largely dismissed case alexander work survey results sites widespread practice accurate astronomy british isles recognizing theories needed tested excavated standing stone site check prediction observation platform hill slope stone correct artificial platform apparent long alignment hypothesis diagnosed accurate winter site led check theories stone circle positive result broadly accepted conclusions published new britain contrast evaluation argued claims high accuracy astronomy fully supported evidence legacy remains strong krupp wrote established standards astronomical interpretation amazing results stirred controversy decades influence practice statistical testing data remains methods approach new world began consider fully role astronomy markedly different access sources europe lacks historical records early following pioneering example anthony allowed new world claims motives old world mere speculation concentration historical data led claims high accuracy comparatively weak compared led investigations europe came head meeting sponsored international astronomical union oxford research questions participants considered different conference proceedings published volumes conference considered success bringing researchers oxford conferences continued years locations world subsequent conferences resulted approaches researchers aiming combine archaeological research broadly describes state today merely establishing existence ancient seek explain people interest night sky relations disciplines endearing characteristics capacity set academics different disciplines long seen field uses written evidence study cultures seen connecting disciplinary approaches investigating ancient astronomy obsolete term studies draw astronomical information ancient architecture landscapes history astronomy deals primarily written evidence draws record contemporary studies reflecting development subject research field conducted investigators trained wide range disciplines authors recent doctoral described work concerned fields cultural fields history including history specific regions periods history science history religion relation astronomy art literature religion rarely describe work astronomical secondary category practicing observers discipline approach different perspectives george view informed cultural aimed understanding group conception relation heavens word argued study human behavior past present paul described area researchers relate history science relates culture observations nature conceptual framework devised impose order observations relates political motives drove particular historical actors deploy certain astronomical concepts techniques art historian richard took flexible approach maintaining astronomical rock art north american southwest read employing traditions western art history art criticism raise different questions seeking provide students identifiable discipline especially concerned important question confirm specific sites intentionally astronomical reactions professional archaeologists decidedly mixed expressed hostility varying rejection archaeological mainstream saw fringe cultural focus archaeologists focus early archaeologists increasingly come incorporate insights textbooks mentioned students wrote topics disagree widely characterization discipline dispute major international scholarly associations relate study culture term astronomy culture translation michael sees important discipline fact collecting proposed label aspect discipline proposed cultural astronomy term methods studying folk argued astronomy inaccurate term studied people object use suggested adopting spanish debates techniques methods referred colour code based colours volumes oxford conference approaches distinguished green old world rely heavily statistics accused missing cultural context social practice brown new world contrast abundant historical evidence described matters measurement statistical analysis finding way integrate approaches subject discussion early 1990s long time believed diversity requires invention embracing theory think thinking thing possible way divisions tend physical scientists social scientists instead tends depend location kind data available researcher old world little data sites new world sites supplemented historic data effects isolated development different places seen research today research methods classified falling approaches recent projects use techniques categories green green named cover book old world based primarily statistics particularly prehistoric sites social evidence relatively compared historic period basic methods developed alexander extensive surveys british sites wished examine prehistoric peoples high accuracy astronomy believed horizon astronomy observers estimates dates year specific day observation required finding place specific date sun set notch horizon common theme mountain blocked sun right day allow fraction emerge double sunset animation shows hypothetical site day summer summer double sunset test idea surveyed hundreds stone rows circles individual alignment indicate direction chance planned distribution non random showing astronomical intent orientation results indicated existence sixteen thirty approximately equal divisions year cross quarter days days half way associated medieval celtic calendar conclusions accepted enduring influence especially europe supported analysis added archaeological context comparing britain civilization argue society period test ideas conducted couple excavations proposed prehistoric scotland site notable meter high standing stone proposed point distant horizon argued notch horizon double sunset occur ground level sunset obscured ridge landscape viewer need raised meters observation platform needed identified gorge platform formed small stones lack artifacts caused concern archaeologists analysis inconclusive research howe bush led conclude term science broadly correct subject high accuracy contrast argued problems selection data surveys noted accuracy horizon astronomy limited variations near horizon deeper criticism green answer likely interest astronomy past times lack social element means struggles answer people interested makes limited use people asking questions society past keith wrote cases doesn matter progress particular claim right wrong information doesn inform current questions nonetheless study remains staple research especially europe brown contrast largely alignment oriented led methods green brown identified closer history astronomy cultural history draws historical records understanding early relations ritual records native customs beliefs spanish means brown associated studies astronomy americas famous site historical records interpret sites site seeing targets appear popular instead examined records features sky important sought archaeological example overlooked historical records interest planet venus interest attested dresden contains tables information venus appearances sky cycles ritual significance venus associated associations architectural features settings venus found temple warriors bears depicting associated means building alignment place horizon venus appears evening sky rainy season meaningful claims building associated planet venus form rainy season building circular tower doors facing cardinal directions base faces northerly setting venus additionally pillars building upper platform painted black red colours associated venus evening morning star windows tower little slots making poor letting light providing suitable place view states strengths brown explore invisible statistical analysis offers astronomy example empire divided radial routes capital directions suggest little astronomical significance records directions astronomical significance points landscape significant different times year eastern asia developed history astronomy searching material historical record rich historical record astronomical phenomena china stretches han dynasty second century criticism method weak particular questioned robust claimed wide variety evidence include artefacts sites way practice despite accepted discipline sits isolation field investigated sense studies likely considered sound use theoretical tools found like analogy demonstrate understanding accuracy precision found astronomy source materials ways people interacted sky diverse range sources giving information astronomical practices common source data study based assumption axis alignment archaeological site oriented astronomical target brown justify assumption reading historical sources green tend prove unlikely selected chance usually demonstrating common patterns alignment multiple sites alignment calculated measuring angle north structure altitude horizon faces usually measured compass compass easier use earth magnetic field true north known magnetic taken account unreliable areas prone magnetic interference sites supported additionally compass measure precision half degree considerably accurate correctly considerably difficult use correctly inherent way align north scale astronomical observation usually position sun position bodies changes time day earth rotation time observations accurately known systematic error measurements horizon altitudes measured artifacts artifacts sky disc alleged bronze age depicting analysis similar typical post excavation analysis sub disciplines examined attempts draw historical records peoples parallels found likely explanation accepted archaeologists mundane example presence symbols found shoes roman empire use shoes known carol van murray proposed symbols gave spiritual medicinal meanings supported citation known uses symbols connection medical practice historical records time known astronomical use mechanism case analysis reference description similar devices described indicate plausible use device argument bolstered presence symbols mechanism allowing disc read art inscriptions art inscriptions confined artefacts appear painted inscribed archaeological site inscriptions helpful instructions site use example greek inscription translated patron set winter wish know little pig sun turns come folding books processed tree bark script dresden contains information venus cycle confirming importance problematic cases movement sun different times seasons causes light shadow interactions widely known example sun dagger sunlight passes spiral location dagger light varies year summer dagger seen heart spiral winter appear proposed created mark events recent studies identified similar sites southwest northwestern mexico argued number markers sites provides statistical evidence intended mark sun dagger site canyon new_mexico stands explicit light markings record key events solar lunar cycles summer winter major minor lunar moon year cycle addition sites light markings recording summer winter solar noon numerous buildings great houses canyon outlying areas oriented solar lunar directions marked sun dagger site historical data found support assertion acceptance idea relies sites north_america occur chance helpful associated existing peoples allows question meaning symbols materials left peoples reports encountered historical records rich source information pre americans provide material peoples uses importance passages example importance peoples living tropics cancer days year noon sun passes directly overhead casts shadow parts considered significant day herald arrival rains play cycle agriculture knowledge considered important indians living central_america today records suggested day important ancient shafts known tubes subterranean rooms sun passes overhead found places like speculate timing illumination considered important society sunrise sunset day passage claimed exist sites shown related phenomena likely different explanations caution interpretation sites site canyon found star crescent hand argued record recent related raises questions sites general evidence suggests people claim strong ancestral affiliation marked sun watching station crescent star hand similar found site important field outside americas example work australians producing information indigenous interaction modern world ancient sky different ways science different scientific results arise different cultures provides little support use differences question sciences ability provide reliable statements world live researcher data test necessary attempt recreate ancient sky conditions place data historical environment astronomical features structure faced coordinate system needed stars provide system outside clear night observe stars spinning pole point watching north pole observing southern pole concentric circles stars trace lines latitude known arc connecting points horizon east west horizon flat points midway poles equator visible vary depending globe observer north pole earth unable stars southern hemisphere night found point horizon building faces possible specific body seen direction solar positioning stars fixed sun rising point sun varies year swings limits marked bit like slowing reaches extremes passing rapidly horizon height site built view need wait june confirm site face summer information history solar observation lunar positioning moon appearance considerably complex motion like sun limits known travel considerably faster takes month complete cycle year long trek sun complicated marking limits moon movement year cycle slightly years extreme limits moon outside range sunrise remaining half cycle moon exceeds limits range sunrise lunar observation concerned phase moon cycle new moon runs entirely different cycle month examining sites lunar significance data appear sparse extremely variable nature moon moon details stellar positioning finally need correct apparent movement stars human stars largely maintained position relative night appear rotate poles earth rotation axis earth spins like spinning earth rotate earth axis takes years complete effect stars rise horizon past places today stars rotate case egyptian shown aligned faint star effect substantial relatively short lengths time historically speaking instance person born december roman times born sun modern period person born date sun phenomena additionally phenomena events happen annual cycle predictable events like case solar date events past solar eclipse mentioned enables date battle following eclipse failed happen easily calculated events remains visible positions magnitude accurately calculated predictable famously class object remain unpredictable appear time extremely lengthy periods means past appearances returns predicted passed solar system inherently unpredictable showers predictable debris require calculations currently impossible complete events noted include sun dogs impossible predict ancient weather considered important phenomena major topics research astronomy brought lives cultural groups history answers varied use common justification need astronomy need develop accurate calendar agricultural reasons ancient texts like works days ancient farming manual appear instead astronomical observations combination ecological signs bird determine seasons work shows astronomy continued recent times parts world appear universal phenomenon societies provide tools regulation communal activities example non agricultural calendar calendar maya civilization pre cycle days count based earlier calendar found formed comprehensive system maya combined series astronomical observations ritual cycles peculiar include ancient greek nominally lunar starting new moon reality calendar pause skip days confused citizens dates civic calendar ton moon lack universal calendar ancient greece suggests coordination events games rituals difficult astronomical symbolism politically neutral form orientation measurements greek temples byzantine churches associated deity day festivities special events myth motive studying sky understand explain universe cultures myth tool achieving explanations reflecting standards modern science arranged empire demonstrate capital centre empire connected means straight lines centre connected centre empire regions defined direction notion common conducted villagers connected appearance way night sky season sky perpendicular fashion importance observing factors seen world forbidden city beijing laid follow cosmic order observing directions chinese system composed directions north south east west centre forbidden city occupied centre ancient beijing approaches emperor south placing stars creates situation heavens revolving person emperor chinese better known export information universe thought work stored mythology amazon plan annual cycle based observation stars jaguar roughly equivalent modern falls prepare catch forest fall trees provide food season foods scarce known source myth texts greeks romans origin remains matter vigorous occasionally debate loss sisters greek myths reflect astronomical event stars disappeared view naked eye professor history science school massachusetts institute technology von believed old mythological stories handed antiquity random fictitious tales accurate depictions clothed tales aid oral transmission chaos monsters violence ancient myths representative forces shape age believed ancient myths remains astronomy lost rise roman civilization von book hamlet mill essay myth frame time clearly state ancient myths historical factual basis astronomical phenomena especially von approach widely accepted displays power including motifs clothing possible claims power earth drawn said shield described homer catalogue north_america shields depicted appear include venus symbolism seen displays power viewed ceremonial plaza island sun mythical origin place sun lake sun seen rise june towers nearby ridge sacred island separated remainder stone wall records indicate access sacred space restricted members ruling elite ordinary pilgrims stood platform outside ceremonial area sun rise towers egypt temple subject study evaluation site taking account change time great temple aligned rising sun length corridor sunlight travel limited illumination times year later period alexandria said contained solar alignment specific sunrise shaft light pass lips statue sun god major sites interest recently edited book heritage sites astronomy provides list main sites world england france egypt face earth found mysterious ruins ancient monuments monuments astronomical significance mark kind commitment transported moon spacecraft surface mars passage tomb republic ireland dating days winter light shines central heart tomb makes notable light shines main entrance instead enters hollow box main doorway discovered michael kelly strongly indicates tomb built astronomical aspect mind notes people archaeologists doubted powerful astronomical symbolism deliberately incorporated monument demonstrating connection astronomy ritual merits investigation egypt modern measurements precise cardinal astronomical methods proposed original establishment recently proposed observing positions stars big known thigh thought vertical alignment stars checked bob north lay true north model reflect accepted dates construction argued laid map stars belt theory criticized site instead probably governed spectacular occurs summer sun viewed terrace forms giant symbol great pyramid south east corners align temple discovered mark astronomical ceiling tomb contains depicting form discs disc divided sections suggesting hour time period portrayed sacred deities egypt observation lunar cycles evident known pyramid step pyramid built centre center mexico architectural features suggested astronomical elements built sides pyramid steps extra platform totals steps possibly day year number lunar visually striking effect seen march september unusual shadow occurs shadow appears descend west northern visual effect descending head base light additionally western face points sunset traditionally date transition dry rainy season astronomical claimed complex earthworks salisbury plain england famous alignment sun rises heel stone interpretation challenged archaeologists argue alignment viewer outside sees sun setting significant alignment alignment coincidence local topography solar proposed lunar station stones mark short sides point sunrise sunset long sides viewed south east face southerly rising moon notes lunar gained acceptance solar received heel stone seventh matching latitude summer sunrise longer equal construction era direction outstanding tomb mainland scotland probably dating early 3rd millennium setting sun shines entrance passage central chamber 1990s investigations carried discover accurate approximate solar alignment new aspects site discovered place entrance passage faces hills island miles away secondly consists straight lengths angled degrees outer aligned sunset position level horizon left ward hill inner points directly standing stone away right end summit ward hill notch right indicated line points sunset solar year according winter notch base right slope hill similar double sunset phenomenon seen right end date eighth year winter beginning november february respectively old celtic festivals alignment indicated artificial structure gains indicated lines extremely sophisticated calendar site positioned carefully order use horizon ways described city hills yucatán_peninsula mexico governor palace important combine alignment data palace aligned pyramid alignment corresponds approximately southernmost rising greater precision northernmost setting venus phenomena occur years sufficient argue meaningful connection events palace aligned direction rising venus important rising sun moon planets answer given palace point significant points venus covered stand venus great northerly extremes venus occur late april early coinciding onset rainy season venus placed maya rain god likely referring phenomena support west working orientation scheme canyon canyon center ancient culture american southwest numerous solar lunar light markings architectural road documented findings date discovery sun dagger site anna large stone leaning cliff channel light shadow markings spiral cliff wall marking lunar year cycle moon subsequent research project demonstrated numerous building great houses canyon oriented solar lunar cardinal directions addition research shows great north road thirty mile engineered road constructed purposes connect ceremonial center canyon direction north cave recent years new research suggested cave paintings france incorporate prehistoric star charts michael university munich argues non dot clusters dots images grouping known summer triangle based study astronomical significance bronze age des extensive survey prehistoric cave painting sites region appear selected interiors illuminated setting sun day winter french researcher proposed gallery images great hall represents extensive star map key points major figures group correspond stars main appeared myths cosmic hunt suggested version story following animal especially human pursues hunt sky animal alive transformed forms big story represented famous shaft scene fringe archaeological facts flat rest owes poor reputation scholars occasional advance range pseudo historical accounts 1930s compiled study entitled astronomical ancient monuments claimed followers place ancient peoples ahead ancient near east field astronomy demonstrating intellectual superiority europeans 19th century numerous scholars sought use calculations demonstrate antiquity ancient indian culture computing dates astronomical observations described ancient poetry early bce david historian indian astronomy condemned scholars wild theories prehistoric science recently fell interpreted inscriptions west_virginia description celtic alphabet supposed winter marker site controversial translation supposedly problematic indication winter sun inscription sun site subsequent analyses criticized cultural linguistic claims describe example cult related fringe discipline followers attempt find underlying mathematical orders beneath proportions size placement sites pyramid organisations publications currently academic organisations scholars international society astronomy culture founded sponsors oxford conferences journal astronomy culture pour culture slightly older created holds annual conferences europe publishes conference proceedings annual basis primarily latin american organisation founded new organisations focused regional founded asia australian society indigenous astronomy australia smart society astronomy research traditions new_zealand additionally journal history astronomy publishes papers seven volumes published annual supplement journal astronomical history heritage national astronomical research institute thailand culture university wales mediterranean university greece publish papers national projects undertaken program institute fundamental research named astronomy indian context interesting findings field societies international society astronomy culture pour culture site english society history astronomy journals news supplement journal history astronomy journal astronomy culture culture journal history astronomy ancient technologies open access