charles allen thomas charles allen thomas february march noted american chemist businessman important figure manhattan_project held patents graduate college massachusetts institute technology thomas worked research chemist general motors team researching agents led development widely motor decades led prohibition founded thomas laboratories ohio thomas president company acquired thomas spend rest career rising president chairman board researched chemistry developed theory aluminium helped explain variety chemical reactions publishing book subject coordinated manhattan_project work production coordinated development techniques use atomic weapons manhattan_project project conducted estate wife family shortly war ended took management clinton laboratories oak ridge tennessee pulled oak ridge december operator mound laboratories secretary state dean appointed thomas serve panel international atomic inspection culminated report appointed consultant national security council served representative united_nations atomic energy commission early life charles allen thomas born farm scott county kentucky son disciples christ minister charles allen wife thomas father died months old mother went live grandmother lexington kentucky street college living farm home mother grandmother moving lexington attended hamilton college preparatory school high school entered college awarded bachelor_of_arts degree world war served student army training corps time rifle instructor camp perry entered massachusetts institute technology mit received master science degree chemistry help pay tuition worked professional singer time considered career vocalist singing voice described son high charles recruited thomas work research chemist general motors worked thomas team researching agents led development motor years banned parts world poison general motors thomas worked process sea water making synthetic rubber thomas left general motors job research chemist joint venture sell gasoline thomas married margaret sister september children charles allen thomas iii margaret tudor year founded thomas laboratories ohio thomas president company company carried research companies looking diverse subjects fire freeze buildings means speed aging whiskey work attracted attention chairman bought thomas laboratories million stock moved thomas louis missouri director central research remained work fiber thomas spend rest career member board directors vice president executive vice president president ultimately chairman board subsequently served chairman finance committee retired time annual sales grew million billion expenditure research million million researched chemistry studying chemical reactions particularly presence aluminium catalyst developed theory aluminium helped explain variety chemical reactions including cracking research culminated publication book aluminum organic chemistry manhattan_project december world war thomas joined national defense research committee deputy chief division responsible explosives like early travelled east richard member james president harvard_university chairman witness demonstration new underwater explosive took opportunity quietly investigate thomas background thomas invited meeting washington brigadier general director manhattan_project discovered got hoping harness industrial expertise benefit project offered post deputy robert los laboratory new_mexico wish family responsibilities instead accepted role coordinating production work carried los laboratory chicago radiation laboratory berkeley laboratory iowa central research department began conduct research behalf manhattan_project manhattan_project project conducted estate wife family initially concerns purity element little known thomas able report june techniques developed yield highly pure problem solved unfortunately experiments group los produced showed contained form far higher spontaneous rate making unsuitable use thin man gun type nuclear weapon design thomas attended series crisis meetings chicago arthur kenneth agreed separated high purity required thomas decided team los laboratory turned difficult task building type nuclear weapon working key component device april robert proposed instead relying spontaneous chain reaction inside bomb triggered best known sources later chosen day half life intense useful long lived thomas brought work development techniques use thomas established project grounds wife family estate wealthy residential section suburb promised city_council return building intact war unable promise building badly contaminated facility known unit use nuclear work mound laboratories opened ohio dismantled buried oak ridge tennessee thomas number scientists watched work come fruition july trinity nuclear test work project received medal merit president harry thomas agreed running clinton laboratories oak ridge tennessee july thomas brought new staff help run clinton laboratories persuaded eugene come chicago work new designs laboratories pioneering study disease swelling distortion bombardment produced thomas frustrated restrictions spending uncertainty future laboratory decided renew contract atomic energy commission operate clinton laboratories month month basis new operator found union took contract december given contract operate new mound laboratories early later life secretary state dean appointed thomas serve panel robert david chester harry international atomic inspection culminating report appointed thomas science advisory committee man committee prominent scientists advise defense planning president dwight appointed scientific consultant national security council representative united_nations atomic energy commission wake crisis thomas group persuaded secretary defense establish thomas served trustee corporation new_york universities research association curator college chairman board trustees washington university member corporation runs mit chairman board directors washington university medical center member board directors companies including corporation southwestern bell louis union trust national bank louis central institute deaf metropolitan life insurance corporation civic center redevelopment corporation louis involved organizations including boy scouts america radio free europe louis research council thomas elected national academy sciences age founding members national academy engineering fellow american academy arts sciences addition received patents industrial research institute medal american institute gold medal missouri award distinguished service engineering society chemical industry medal american chemical society medal medal american academy achievement gold plate award louis globe democrat man year award thomas concerned united_states spend money basic research end donated washington university louis chair charles allen thomas professor chemistry rejected notion large corporations driven solely mainly greed speech fellow businessmen remember businesses profits means end means making americans america stronger unified nation retirement thomas spent time managing plantation acre family farm near albany georgia employed staff grew corn timber wife died married margaret porter died farm march survived second wife children papers collected washington university


frank december september american physical chemist noted role development dating process contributions team developed process awarded nobel prize chemistry chemistry graduate university california berkeley received doctorate studied radioactive elements developed sensitive measure weak natural artificial world war worked manhattan_project substitute materials sam laboratories columbia_university developing process war accepted university_of_chicago institute nuclear studies developed technique dating organic compounds discovered similarly dating water wine member general advisory committee atomic energy commission appointed commissioner sole scientist sided edward pursuing crash program develop hydrogen bomb participated peace program defended administration atmospheric nuclear testing resigned professor chemistry university california los_angeles ucla position held retirement director university california statewide institute physics started environmental engineering program ucla member california air resources board worked develop improve california air pollution standards early life career frank born grand valley colorado december son farmers edward wife née rivers brothers sisters began education room colorado parents moved santa california attended high school near graduated grew feet inches tall played tackle high school football team entered university california berkeley received writing doctoral thesis ordinary elements especially method detection supervision mitchell independently work george max discovered natural long lived primarily decay alpha particles appointed instructor department chemistry university california assistant professor chemistry spent 1930s building sensitive measure weak natural artificial married physical education teacher twin daughters susan charlotte born joined berkeley chapter alpha year awarded fellowship elected work princeton_university manhattan_project december day japanese attack pearl harbor brought united_states world war volunteered services nobel prize arranged given leave university california join columbia_university work manhattan_project wartime project develop atomic bombs substitute materials sam laboratories time new_york_city area resident new_jersey years worked process atomic bomb required material percent natural sam laboratories find way separating kilograms abundant worked principle lighter gas barrier faster heavier rate proportional molecular weight known gas containing highly suitable barrier hard find team studied different barriers means protect promising type barrier developed edward manufacturing corporation edward city college new_york known barrier late addition developing suitable barrier sam laboratories assist design separation plant known helped engineers produce design pilot plant conducted series tests indicated barrier work remained confident effort remaining problems solved doubts remained construction work began scale production plant september gave way problems remained tests began machinery april barrier attention turned new process developed finally july barriers began installed commenced operation february cascade cascade came online quality product increased april attained partially enriched fed complete process construction upper stages plant cancelled directed instead design build stage feed unit known stages commenced operation august august starting producing feed enriched percent achieved potential early postwar period eclipsed production plants prototypes new generation plants enriched little boy bomb employed bombing hiroshima august brought home stack newspapers told wife dating war accepted offer university_of_chicago chemistry department new institute nuclear studies returned pre war studies discovered cosmic rays generated upper atmosphere interact air produce half life years realized plants animals die cease fresh giving organic compound built nuclear clock published theory expanded monograph dating developed sensitive radiation use technique tests known dates tree rings showed dating reliable accurate technique disciplines dealt ancient artefacts awarded nobel prize chemistry method use age determination geology branches science discovered similarly dating water wine atomic energy commission atomic energy commission chairman gordon dean appointed influential general advisory committee appointed commissioner president dwight recommendation dean successor lewis family moved chicago washington brought scientific equipment establish laboratory institution continue studies conservative politically scientists sided edward robert debate wise pursue crash program develop hydrogen bomb commissioner played important role promoting peace program united_states delegation geneva conferences peaceful uses atomic energy scientist commissioners fell defend administration stance atmospheric nuclear testing argued dangers radiation nuclear tests chest rays important risk having inadequate nuclear arsenal arguments failed convince scientific community public january publicly revealed existence project sunshine series research studies impact radioactive fallout world population initiated serving supporting limits atmospheric nuclear testing ucla resigned professor chemistry university california los_angeles ucla position held retirement taught honors freshman chemistry director university california statewide institute physics position held time director encompassed apollo space program lunar landings divorced married woods marshall distinguished nuclear physicist original builders chicago world nuclear joined ucla professor environmental engineering second marriage acquired children marriage started environmental engineering program ucla member california air resources board worked develop improve california air pollution standards established research program investigate idea reducing emissions motor vehicles complete fuel election richard_nixon president generated speculation appointed presidential science advisor storm protest scientists felt conservative offer retired professor emeritus remained professionally active member national academy sciences american academy arts sciences american philosophical society death addition nobel prize received numerous honours awards including columbia_university medal memorial lecture award lecture award city college new_york nuclear applications chemistry award franklin institute medal american chemical society award medal college albert medal geological society america arthur day medal gold medal american institute award new_york academy sciences elected member national academy sciences high school library mural city park nearby highway named honor died ucla medical center los_angeles september blood lung complicated pneumonia papers charles young research library ucla seven volumes papers edited published


freeman charles freeman november german born australian chemist protein professor chemistry spent career university sydney best known contributions chemistry work explaining unusual structural properties blue copper proteins particularly introduced protein australia strong advocate programs ensure australian scientists good access big science facilities freeman received numerous honours including elected fellow australian academy science appointed member order australia australian government charismatic lecturer voluntarily continued teaching formal retirement students love science biography early years education charles freeman born germany son freeman following tip nazi party member decided relocate jewish family australia brought knowledge novelty australia time new homeland applying problem cleaning blood stained blankets wasted war founded freeman ltd soap manufacturing company spent weekends working factory gaining practical insight chemistry adapted new environment quickly mastering new language demonstrating outstanding ability primary school sydney boys high took bachelor degree university medal chemistry chemistry students class sydney boys high professors chemistry receiving supervision freeman attended foundation fellowship urging learned received phd work structure completed calculations crystal structure hand personal life freeman came australia parents sister following death father director freeman ltd continues operate today met married children philip career freeman appointed faculty university sydney lecturer working way inaugural professor chemistry freeman pioneered use computers australia working australian cousin university illinois machine australia second computer installation research group extended interests purely organic compounds metal complexes copper substances structurally determined went determine structures numerous metal complexes focus freeman research protein turned attention blue copper proteins particularly electron transport protein intensely blue colour unusual properties frustrated attempts small mimic group finally determined structure tree right protein crystal structure determined southern hemisphere subsequent work collaboration solomon work led understanding unusual geometry copper metal site left properties characteristic blue copper proteins later career freeman developed interest applications structure collaborating james keith working freeman groups determine new crystal structure protein multiple mad method career freeman concerned influence distance development australian science reason freeman alexander founded foundation chemistry university bring international scholars department deliver course graduate students faculty inaugural foundation scholar nobel foundation brought eminent research australia foundation functioned increase australian awareness state art international research increased international recognition australian research allowed graduate students interact leading based institutions far australia students gone post graduate post doctoral positions foundation scholar freeman provided advice australian government problem access big science facilities included making major contributions report small country big science work australian science technology council report emphasised need australian researchers access facilities ray high intensity sources led directly formation australian research programme fund access facilities freeman served board member functions newly commissioned australian australian expertise developed consequence supported research led australian built decade sooner case freeman retired chair succeeded continued working research emeritus professor chemistry emeritus professor molecular voluntarily continued teaching year level described charismatic teaching love privilege obligation legacy freeman principally responsible establishment structural biology discipline australia founded protein laboratory australia today active research groups carrying protein australia new_zealand members freeman research group moved join groups groups interact society australia new_zealand freeman foundation president society australia organisation instrumental forming working freeman major understanding blue copper proteins development mad method extension freeman work ensuring australian scientists access big science facilities continue assist researchers future teaching leaves legacy generations students love science honours awards freeman recognised professional achievements royal australian chemical institute royal society chemistry australian academy science freeman contributions recognised australian government centenary medal service australian society science chemistry appointment member order australia june service science scientific research field chemistry particularly establishment development discipline australia freeman received numerous awards long career freeman received award premier award chemistry division awarded memorial medal prestigious medal awarded recognition eminent services chemistry australia sense received australian academy science medal distinguished fellowship cited publications number indicated following papers web science data june ray crystal structure analysis resolution freeman structure resolution freeman crystal structure analyses reduced values freeman accuracy precision protein structure analysis restrained squares structure resolution freeman harvey crystal structure copper containing resolution structure


frank frank october december canadian american chemist renowned expert rare earth elements extraction metals minerals extraction process helped possible manhattan_project build atomic bombs graduate university_of_michigan university california berkeley assistant professor head department physical chemistry iowa state college efforts building school successful spend rest career professor chemistry professor physics professor ultimately professor emeritus founded institute atomic research laboratory atomic energy commission directed laboratory founding developed exchange method separating rare earth elements exchange later exchange separate individual elements including hundreds grams pure published peer reviewed papers held patents jointly students received degree supervision early life education born october hamilton ontario canada son howard mary ann elizabeth marshall soon born family moved michigan chicago citizen father family moved ann michigan father worked photographer entered university_of_michigan receiving bachelor science degree chemical engineering master science chemistry following year undergraduate took issue prevailing explanation friedrich august carbon hold proposed alternate explanation professor moses recognised incorrect model advanced albert suggestion applied university california berkeley study doctorate gilbert lewis wrote recommendation accepted given teaching fellowship lewis supervision earned doctor philosophy writing thesis line absorption low temperatures visible regions spectrum published year physical review early career graduation coincided onset great depression jobs hard find received national research fellowship enabling stay berkeley continue research hiking northern california met annie shared passion camping hiking mountain climbing born graduate university university toronto earned master degree history met teaching victoria high school victoria british_columbia married june daughter mary anne elizabeth born worked lewis chemistry instructor time interested chemistry rare expensive hard find generally available minute amounts won award outstanding young chemist award came cash prize borrowed money travel chicago collect approached man offering pounds retired chemistry professor university_of_chicago obtained supply elements light chemical company production weeks later received package mail containing metals awarded fellowship allowing study europe save money wife travelled europe heading westward pacific intention study germany james francis simon fled germany adolf_hitler came power march instead went laboratory university_of_cambridge england welcomed worked john jones attended lectures given max born paid visit copenhagen gave lecture returned united_states country grip great depression job market improved george fisher baker assistant professor university temporary position allow work point drove ohio_state university hoping find tenure track position position filled professor chemistry evans knew iowa state college iowa position wouldn normally chosen place later recalled desperate thought build physical chemistry jobs open school took position assistant professor head department physical chemistry iowa state college efforts building school successful spend rest career professor chemistry professor physics professor ultimately professor emeritus manhattan_project february united_states entered world war manhattan_project building university_of_chicago arthur established laboratory mission build nuclear create atomic bombs advice assembling laboratory chemistry division physicist turned considerable experience radioactive elements recommended expert rare earth elements similar series included asked head laboratory chemistry division lack space university_of_chicago proposed organise chemistry division iowa state college colleagues willing help agreed spend half week half chicago problem agenda find nuclear proposing build metal available commercially produced electric manufacturing company process produced size quarter sold edward head group responsible wanted metal sphere size orange experiments process cost taken year produce major problem purity act prevent nuclear working wanted experimental contained large amounts result references published typically listed melting point pure metal actually effective way laboratory advantage fact scaling process industrial production dangerous proposition explosive factory large quantities likely blow burn turned saint louis missouri experience went details chemical engineers henry john april months tons highly pure produced recruited chemistry professors group began looking ways create metal time produced form powder highly pressed stored cans useful needed melted cast team found cast container known react managed formed touched produce metal tried reducing hydrogen work investigated process known process originally developed university new_hampshire involved mixing calcium metal calcium lined steel pressure vessel known bomb heating able reproduce results august september project produced kilogram starting july union began producing process phased production early result laboratory moved chicago present university_of_chicago december witness controlled nuclear chain reaction chicago war laboratory held regular information sessions known addition work laboratory produced pounds extremely pure fears world supplies limited led experiments produce calcium reduction process developed pounds produced later life world war founded institute atomic research laboratory atomic energy commission directed laboratory founding initially established grounds iowa state college permanent buildings constructed opened subsequently named hall hall universally acknowledged world foremost experts identification separation rare developed exchange method separating rare earth elements exchange later exchange separate individual elements including hundreds grams pure career published peer reviewed papers held patents jointly students received degree supervision retirement authored books received william award american chemical society james douglas gold medal american institute mining petroleum engineers francis medal franklin institute nominated times nobel prize chemistry won award called frank award presented annual rare earth research conference suffered stroke november hospitalised sent home died suddenly december buried cemetery iowa state university survived wife daughter grandchildren papers housed special collections department iowa state university


stanley smith stanley smith october august british historian science famous work manhattan_project responsible production metals graduate university birmingham massachusetts institute technology mit smith worked years research american brass company world war worked chemical division los laboratory cast shaped metal hitherto available amounts properties largely unknown war served atomic energy commission influential general advisory committee president science advisory committee smith founded institute study metals university_of_chicago academic organization devoted study metals united_states studied details faults grain boundaries metals developed theoretical models moved mit institute professor appointments departments applied techniques study production methods create artefacts swords early life smith born birmingham england october children joseph smith commercial traveller camp coffee wife née educated bishop grammar school read university birmingham having met requirements mathematics study choice physics awarded second class year smith entered massachusetts institute technology mit earned research associate mit left position research american brass company research mainly involved electrical thermal mechanical magnetic properties copper published numerous papers awarded patents married alice student english social history yale_university earned phd march marriage alice sister remarked didn oxford cambridge isn church_of_england doesn like sports marry american american citizen wife sparked interest history subject disliked school acquired old texts produced translation classic text world war world war called service war committee washington april went work manhattan_project joining chemical division los laboratory head group laboratory reorganized april associate division leader charge task recruiting great demand war effort arrange transport equipment los wartime conditions smith found ways producing bricks heat treating steel work frank developed large scale process producing pure metal laboratory fine producing tons feed nuclear enriched handled way form critical mass smith initially asked produce bomb found inefficient idea set aside duration work carried war july producing pure metal amounts newly devised process far biggest challenge smith group metal hitherto available amounts properties largely unknown initially assumed properties similar assumption turned invalid proved complicated metal known man found metal melting point turned degrees lower found expanded volume percent unusual delivered los form found mixture work carried safety reasons figured found heating allowed work phase found percent stabilize phase began arrive quantity site february ready production race clock produced spheres trinity nuclear test july smith awarded medal merit president harry activities university_of_chicago war smith founded institute study metals university_of_chicago academic organization devoted study metals united_states considered natural close association manhattan_project developed methods dimensional shapes structures metals dimensional microscope images grains metals studied propagation induced phase changes metals fascinated details faults grain boundaries metals developed theoretical models influential paper grain shapes applications explanation metallic awarded fellowship study history science technology december january smith served influential general advisory committee atomic energy commission chaired robert wartime director los laboratory general advisory committee provided policy technical advice commissioners smith papers commission recommended concentrate development fast high visit england discuss british scientists nearly escalated international incident senator secretary defense james feared atomic secrets away british smith thing commissioner pike faced severe criticism authorizing smith visit common members general advisory committee smith opposed development hydrogen bomb technical moral grounds served national academy sciences committee science engineering public policy president science advisory committee massachusetts institute technology smith moved mit institute professor appointments departments focus techniques study production methods create artefacts discovered archaeologists swords role teaching history science argued important advances result curiosity pursuit defined goals interested scientific aspects fine arts published works linking arts sciences institution gallery art arthur gallery washington smith received numerous awards including franklin institute francis medal history science society medal american society metals gold medal awarded society history technology medal institute metals platinum medal received american institute physics andrew award pioneering use solid state physics study ancient art artefacts reconstruct cultural historical technological significance member editorial board bulletin atomic scientists retirement mit smith professor emeritus history science technology professor emeritus institute professor emeritus unusual title reserved work boundaries traditional departments disciplines died cancer cambridge massachusetts home august survived wife years alice smith children anne smith chair department central washington university stuart smith marine institution sister mary smith papers library college park maryland collection antiquarian texts left library institute history science technology selected works smith grain shapes applications metal metal held thirty national metal congress exposition detroit october sponsored american society metals cleveland american society metals smith sources history science steel cambridge massachusetts society history technology smith art science cambridge massachusetts mit press isbn smith search structure selected essays science art history cambridge massachusetts mit press isbn smith history development ideas structure metals cambridge massachusetts mit press isbn italian dover isbn 20th century translation stanley smith martha teach


henry henry november november canadian born american chemist noted having awarded nobel prize chemistry work mechanisms electron transfer reactions especially metal complexes second canadian born chemist win nobel prize remains born nobel completed undergraduate masters degrees university university california berkeley finishing graduate school worked university university_of_chicago stanford_university addition nobel prize received major scientific awards including medal early career numerous honorary research focused reactions transition metals use labeled compounds follow reactions publications including book students career wife mary children son university california riverside education left hometown moved regina attend college completed high school graduating stayed college worked laboratory assistant paul allowing year university classes attended university receiving thesis advisor university john university studied awarded nobel prize chemistry moved university california berkeley completed studies mentor william graduate research focused dioxide hydrogen solution research academic career academic posts completing education remained united_states instructor chemistry berkeley initially wanted return canada work receive response applied jobs major canadian universities berkeley served instructor assistant professor university world war served national defense research committee spent time university_of_chicago assistant professor associate professor professor served chair chemistry department chicago enjoy administrative work leaving chicago worked professor stanford_university position allowed focus research teaching classes undergraduate graduate levels professor emeritus stanford continued perform research visited day death addition academic duties served consultant los national laboratory 1970s research interests initial research university focused areas studied graduate student agents containing oxygen reactions featuring species labeled radioactive study reactions recognized american chemical society studies interest coordination chemistry sparked chosen develop course advanced chemistry university_of_chicago unable find information textbooks available time realized work carbon organic reactions related complexes published key paper relating rates chemical reactions electronic structure chemical reviews research recognize rate electron configuration metal key discovery way molecules build type chemical bridge simply exchanging previously thought identifying intermediate step explained reactions similar metals occurred different rates paper chemical reviews developed late 1940s article science called paper true classics chemistry nobel prize announced researched elements high capacity bonding type electron donation key studying way transferred molecules chemical reaction looking research explained difficulty finding graduate students willing work electron transfer reactions preferred work exciting projects laboratory focusing effects felt primary flaw electron configuration described mainly terms bond theory crystal field theory field theory established published work awards honors nobel prize awarded nobel prize chemistry work mechanisms electron transfer reactions especially metal complexes received award december presentation speech delivered swedish royal academy sciences nobel lecture entitled electron transfer metal complexes retrospective nobel prize awarded canadian born chemist win chemist alfred breaking long string awards organic initial paper chemical reviews years old time nobel prize victory described rate electronic configuration transition metal coordination complexes predominant theory reaction chemistry compounds awarded nobel prize noticed benefit prestigious award students paid better attention class awards accepted member national academy sciences president jimmy carter presented president national medal science recognition contributions understanding reaction mechanisms chemistry received american chemical society highest honor medal awarded recognize distinguished services chemistry awarded honorary member college canadian society hungarian academy sciences awarded honorary fellowship royal society chemistry indian chemical society elected fellow royal society received honorary degrees institutions including university university_of_chicago institute new_york state university new_york brook university hall university university hungary northwestern university nobel plaza university campus honour dedicated legacy publications worked students published book electron transfer reactions complex solution current chemical concepts students faculty positions prestigious universities including georgetown georgia tech graduate student carol namesake complex metal complex formula research contributions honored ways including annual american chemical society meeting annual series progress chemistry dedicated 30th volume entitled appreciation henry college regina offers annual scholarship entering science student honour science teacher paul series created honor work stanford gave inaugural lecture series colleagues remember dedicated scientist jim stanford said henry scientist scientist dominant figure field chemistry harry gray professor california institute technology said class role model leader admired loved student peter ford remembers chemistry challenging lot fun personal life born november youngest boys parents german ukraine immigrated ukraine growing language low german catherine great encouraged central european farmers settle russia rights afforded settlers catherine gradually diminished settlers headed north_america offering good farmland incentives immigrants reflected experiences growing noting certainly years taken context times wish changed advantages enjoyed include experience growing farm taught appreciation nature taught discipline necessary jobs completing graduate studies citizen united_states married wife mary children died cancer stopped active research projects continued available reviewer consultant main goal enjoying life away chemistry varied interests including classical music mainly opera nobel signed manifesto henry died home alto california november age publications jackson shifts caused solutions los scientific laboratory united_states department energy predecessor agency atomic energy commission reactions final report university_of_chicago united_states department energy predecessor agency atomic energy commission september discrimination liquid university_of_chicago stanford_university united_states department energy predecessor agency atomic energy commission final technical report research stanford_university united_states department energy predecessor agency atomic energy commission april


october april pakistani organic chemist versatile scholar leading scientist natural product chemistry credited pioneering isolation unique chemical compounds flora founder director research institute chemistry research domestic plants found south asia extract novel chemical substances medicinal importance addition scientific talents avid painter poet great western music paintings exhibited united_states germany india pakistan early life harris born district near october received early education persian languages soon developed interest literature poetry father muhammad graduated philosophy persian language anglo oriental college later muslim university proceeded university college london study medicine year pre medical studies moved frankfurt university study chemistry married german classmate received doctor philosophy supervision von return established research institute college delhi guidance khan appointed director soon death khan left post joined indian council scientific industrial research worked migrated pakistan request prime minister ali khan pioneering research breakthrough research came successfully isolated agent roots named newly discovered chemical compound mentor khan practitioners system medicine south asia later extracted included worldwide treatment mental disorders especially agents syndrome discoveries scientist bring constituents tree attention natural products extracted bitter compounds oil named respectively process involved water components petrol alcohol provisional naming free product melting point composition similar principle melting cream coloured containing melting identified main active ingredient highest yielding bitter component oil compounds stable found substantial quantities serve natural revolutionary discoveries awarded order british_empire later career continued discover numerous unique anti compounds parts leaves bark etc plants chemical compounds patented addition discovered result joint research colleagues students discoveries remain vital natural ingredients research leadership migrated pakistan years emergence pakistan offered appointed science advisor government prime minister ali khan appointed director pakistan department research pakistan council scientific industrial research aim support industrial infrastructure research development regional laboratories institution located east pakistan west pakistan founded pakistan academy sciences non political think tank distinguished scientists country government pakistan established pakistan atomic energy commission atomic research agency designated technical member recognition scientific leadership frankfurt university granted degree government pakistan awarded pakistan president pan indian_ocean science association year elected fellow royal society awarded distinguished merit fields science medicine remained director chairman time retirement year president pakistan awarded pride performance medal respectable completion service invited university set institute chemistry affiliation department chemistry designated institute founder director additional research staff provided institute offered generous donation foundation harris research institute chemistry time transformed institute distinguished centre international excellence field chemistry natural products march headed national commission indigenous efforts promotion science technology earned government pakistan played major role establishment world academy sciences founding fellow remained director research institute chemistry later continued research personal laboratory death legacy died april cardiac arrest brief illness buried university graveyard despite death academic research founded years research career contributing international level research natural products chemistry person multiple talents refined poet musician painter august held international exhibition paintings frankfurt later works art exhibited gallery frankfurt stay germany translated maria poetry published journal passion arts superseded enthusiasm scientific research continued arts culture forefront setting central institute arts crafts compiled selection poetry published portfolio collection drawings 1950s april pakistan post scientists pakistan series issued commemorative stamp honour contributions services year street leading laboratories complex named remembered students colleagues continued international research publications memory research article published journal authors dedicated break research memory mentor awards honours founder member indian pakistan sciences later founder member international body world academy sciences following honours received reverse chronological order gold medal soviet academy sciences president pakistan pride performance medal fellow royal society president pan indian_ocean science association pakistan frankfurt university foundation fellow pakistan academy sciences


alexander alexander june june american medicinal chemist author credited introducing late 1970s use discovery synthesis personal compounds psychedelic potential wife ann authored books standing known loved extensively described work personal experiences classes drugs performed seminal work descriptive synthesis compounds noteworthy discoveries include compounds family compounds family extensive work field psychedelic research rational drug design psychedelic drugs dubbed godfather life career born berkeley california stevens father born russia mother born illinois public school teachers county began studying organic chemistry harvard_university scholarship student age dropped school join navy serving uss pope navy world war given glass orange juice nurse prior surgery thumb infection drank juice assuming powder glass fell asleep rapidly waking learned powder sugar experience aware influence human mind serving navy returned berkeley california earned university california berkeley late 1950s completed post doctoral work fields university california san_francisco working laboratories research director brief period began work chemical company senior research chemist time series psychedelic experiences helped shape goals research brought explored late 50s learned great deal inside later reported personal revelations brought fraction white solid way whatsoever argued memories contained white solid understood entire universe contained mind spirit choose find access deny existence inside chemicals availability professional activities continued lean direction personal experiences period unable independent research opportunity research came development highly profitable product book limits days chemical sentence pages chemical company return valuable patent gave great freedom time created patented drugs asked published findings drugs journals nature journal organic chemistry eventually chemical requested longer use publications late left order pursue interests spent years studying university california san_francisco school medicine leaving work consulting project set home based lab property known farm private consultant taught classes local universities san_francisco general hospital friend bob head western laboratories formed relationship began holding agents supplying samples compounds occasionally serving expert witness court authored definitive law enforcement reference book controlled substances received awards independent research order work scheduled chemicals obtained schedule license laboratory allowed possess illicit drug set chemical synthesis laboratory small building house gave great deal career autonomy freedom test effects potentially drugs introduced student medicinal chemistry group advised san_francisco state university synthesized patented intermediate synthesis order block competitors explored right went develop new synthesis method introduced chemical leo psychologist oakland california substance practice small aid talk therapy introduced substance hundreds lay nation including ann born ann alexander met married fourth marriage children self experiments enlisted small group friends regularly tested creations starting developed systematic way ranking effects drugs known rating scale vocabulary describe visual physical personally tested hundreds drugs mainly family containing family family containing seemingly infinite number slight chemical variations produce variations effect pleasant unpleasant depending person substance situation recorded lab published objective reports books papers years publication raided lab agency requested turn license violating license terms fined possession anonymous samples sent quality testing years preceding publication announced scheduled reviews failed find irregularities richard spokesman san_francisco field division stated opinion books pretty illegal drugs agents tell clandestine raided found copies books prior health issues working series including declining health death spent later life farm california april age underwent surgery replace valve november suffered stroke largely recovered close skin surgery saved left foot time began showing early signs severe loss short term memory progression wife ann trying sell property raise money cover care costs april ann reported facebook husband developed liver cancer update facebook said appearing experiencing moments peace pain june died home bed surrounded family age societies member international frequently attended events california books manning paul index vol psychedelic related compounds berkeley transform press isbn perry simple plant berkeley transform press isbn ann new vocabulary robert future religion berkeley council spiritual practices isbn ann continuation berkeley transform press isbn ann chemical love story berkeley transform press isbn controlled substances chemical legal guide federal drug laws berkeley publishing isbn


joseph kennedy joseph william kennedy american chemist arthur world war head chemistry division manhattan_project los laboratory oversaw research chemistry war recruited professor washington university louis credited transforming university primarily concerned undergraduate teaching boasts strong graduate research programs died cancer stomach age early life joseph william kennedy born texas son joseph kennedy attended stephen austin state teachers college received bachelor_of_arts degree university kansas awarded master arts degree entered university california berkeley earned doctor philosophy phd degree writing thesis studies nuclear element supervision george gibson february produced bombardment experiments bombarding observed creation element underwent beta decay form new element kennedy built series verify presence razor thin produce window count alpha particle emissions chamber magnetic field separate beta particles alpha particles march physicist kennedy able demonstrate presence important distinction crucial decisions directing manhattan_project research arthur began exploring chemistry newly discovered element room hall campus berkeley work declared national historic landmark manhattan_project kennedy early recruits manhattan_project los national laboratory arriving march acting head chemistry division concern project leadership kennedy years old time approach charles thomas thomas agreed chemistry efforts different manhattan_project laboratories wish new_mexico despite youth kennedy officially division leader april division responsible materials bomb including core chemistry fairly known yield surprises completely unknown element discovered short time existed amounts educated chemistry tended wrong research progressed found unusual properties including rivalry kennedy group los competing chicago produce best process metal competition ended abruptly group los discovered high levels hitherto produced meant type nuclear weapon required high degree purity unnecessary kennedy able reduce metal efficiency worked cast press required shapes worked figure cast solid sphere group found phase services awarded medal merit president harry post war kennedy recruited professor washington university louis installed chairman department chemistry role continued death kennedy brought david samuel served faculty washington university time washington university primarily concerned undergraduate teaching kennedy credited transforming university boasts strong graduate research programs kennedy received dollars atomic energy commission compensation scientific work died age battle cancer stomach kennedy lecture series named honor given year washington university


friedrich friedrich christian frederick march june german chemist important achievements included advances field gas lighting efforts processed foods free dangerous promotion interest science chemistry general populace lived london following opened commercial laboratory enterprise business manufactured sold variety chemicals laboratory equipment gave fee based public lectures practical chemistry collaborated research efforts numerous science intrigued work frederick introduction gas lighting london fascinated innovation request gas light company carried experiments novel field inquiry time close working association company member board directors company charged founding london supply gas lighting private public areas instrumental conception design extremely successful majority publications written english executed style accessible common man scientific contributions brought forth writings influential chemistry era published treatise food denounced use chemical food ground breaking work marked beginning awareness need food safety oversight person tackle subject reach wide audience activities book controversial time found wide audience sold threatened established practices food processing industry earning enemies london food manufacturers left england lawsuit brought lived rest life teacher industrial institution berlin life work youth education born west father infantry regiment service count von father converted judaism protestant christianity soon father married berth daughter hat maker resided french community berlin granddaughter refugee suffered france time conversion baptism senior changed christian addition choosing christian means follower christ father chose emphasize newly embraced religion adopting surname derives hebrew word meaning jewish known initiative pressure family marriage christian opened soap making shop law personal residence years marriage received legal citizenship city father christian died age mere years birth son friedrich attended gymnasium additionally received private subjects french english following conclusion studies finished family family friends conducted business london king england george iii leading centers scientific research industry close 18th century london attracted best minds europe friedrich felt pull relocated found work assistant located arlington street year london gaining experience assistant pursued scientific medical studies school anatomy great street london acquainted surgeon anthony london chemist william circulating journal journal published article married mary ann simpson march march london intervening period frederick frederick mary total children survived past childhood fall year translation ground breaking work production sugar appeared journal time sugar cane grown overseas plant sugar derived information possible creation domestic sugar industry greeted great interest short time article publication samples sugar sent berlin presented william time sugar derived present england following careful analysis types sugar published detailed report january edition journal stating difference taste laboratory worker merchant private tutor family changed residence london old street live years family home served school experimental laboratory chemicals scientific instruments business cards time described activities patrons chemistry continues private courses lectures operative philosophical chemistry practical art analysis resident pupils house keeps constantly sale pure state possible agents articles research use experimental chemistry complete collection chemical apparatus instruments calculated suit different customers london compiled distributed catalog merchandise sale catalog sent request years establishment significant institution england provided lectures theory chemistry training laboratory practice welcome perform simple experiments site enhance knowledge teachings attracted prominent students included known london politician later prime minister lord duke duke northumberland additionally laboratory europe visited students scientists united_states benjamin william later professor chemistry yale college precursor yale_university new haven ordered laboratory equipment london biographer charles albert stated work older american colleges sales receipts london business development new laboratory apparatus positioned middle market range respect cost developed portable laboratory kits intended farmers analysis soils stones affordable prices ranging eighty pounds sterling truly portable laboratories teacher researcher march frederick offered position royal institution street research institute founded years earlier count accepting position began laboratory assistant hired time director laboratory later president royal society employment royal came end september biographer cole speculates change connected simultaneous departure count employment paris driving force securing position published series articles journal discussed number subjects investigating methods determine purity determining existence extract observing significant publications completed cole biographer states book system theoretical practical chemistry text book general chemistry written english language based new principles outstanding written popular style subject matter graduated modern text book held lecture chemistry small room house old street audience grew rapidly soon rent medical theatre street resigning royal institution taking new position surrey institution continued popular lectures advertisement times january indicates offered course chemical analysis metals wednesday evening increasing interest time apparent titles books authored volume work appeared entitled practical essay analysis minerals reissued manual published analysis course lectures beginning surrey institution published series articles chemical properties composition mineral water alexander philosophical journal manufacturer bernard time ash discovery greeted great interest experts england undertake experiments articles published philosophical journal january february described content different kinds gave detailed account process production role history artificial lighting sort largely absent industrial development late 18th early 19th centuries candles oil lamps textile factory costly economically advent industrial means production new textile halls physically larger lit brightly longer periods time driven great demand possible theoretical work role oxygen end 18th century saw continuous series improvements lighting technology production gases coal noted henry shared observation robert letter written 17th century letter published philosophical transactions royal society wrote got coal pits nearest open fire came black oil likewise spirit arose forced broke glasses forced coming close order try repair observed spirit issued caught fire flame continued burning violence issued stream blew alternately times findings practical application end 18th century gas produced coal allowed escape unused william began promote coal gas experiments limited depth george jean estate abbey true prototypes later constructed george lee cotton mill close manchester innovative new technology met great skepticism critics late asked committee house_of_commons mean tell possible light second decade 19th century spread industrial mills urban street lighting domestic lighting played crucial role revolution involved production gas lighting purposes efforts friedrich albert german longstanding publicity campaign asked appear parliamentary committee considering granting charter company promoting unsuccessful attempt bill passed company incorporated gas light company newly incorporated company met conditions laid bill began operating member board directors oversaw construction gas plant curtain road plant history time longer limited industrial mills introduced urban life westminster bridge gas lamps year later streets westminster followed published description process manufacturing coal gas introduction compared newly formed gas utility water companies operating london early 18th century gas possible light rooms presently case water book translated german berlin explanatory note added water utilities existed private homes england provided pipes walls rooms needs water open london single gas companies total combined volume million delivery routes gas short possible gas plants set city districts gas consumed arrival types chemical plants inhabited parts city provoked public criticism new technology directed poisonous generated plant operations harsh critiques especially fierce accidental explosions occurred plants point leading proponent addition work chemist strongly refuted criticisms writings careful analysis showed accidents caused plant problems technology early conception concerned coal gas production included tar compounds typically buried dumped nearby waterways compounds especially damaging environment began demanding legal measures prevent discharge sewage systems rivers criticisms met positive reactions gas explosions drew far attention environmental impact long term release poisonous death pot began public struggle harmful food book entitled treatise food derived plants alter tastes appearance use time beginning 19th century saw rapid increase industrial preparation packaging foods drastic increase processes health concern production distribution food instead local farmers townspeople increasingly centralized process large factories newly discovered chemicals absence laws use possible merchants use boost profits cost public health publicly hazards practice reach wide audience concerns alludes moral food claims man fellow shillings high way sentenced death slow poison community escapes punishment thousand copies treatise food sold month publication second run printed year german translation printed leipzig years later book cover shows capable dramatic imagery try draw attention scientific knowledge featured rectangular frame supporting spider web surrounded snakes spider middle web prey skull crowns entire collection beneath taken kings death pot chapters book alternate harmless mixing dried grounds coffee dangerous contamination truly poisonous substances explained readers high lead content spanish olive oil caused lead containers clear oil recommended oil countries france italy practiced warned bright green sold merchants streets london colour produced high copper content explained readers frequently mixed acid order increase paid particular attention beer introducing subject comment especially port preferred drink inhabitants london large cities items frequently course supply claimed english beer occasionally mixed honey pepper shocking customs pointed practice adding family port evident french revolutionary wars practice getting hand attributed power drink addition plant matter sources claims evidence claims import statistics complemented observations price price lists materials merchants increased looked historic price trends treatise food notable characteristics like earlier writings written descriptions simple techniques chemistry employed making accessible readers wanted test simplest possible way non expert wrote foreword edition stating experimental proceedings necessary detection object expose confined task pointing operations performed persons chemical science purpose express necessary rules instructions language terms science place work intended general second characteristic limit campaign simply exposing problems end chapter included names merchants years prior caught way tried business effect london economy reaction treatise food aware publication book mentioning specific names london business world provoke resistance possibly severe reaction foreword edition called publication names office painful duty undertook statements stated carefully avoided citing parliamentary documents records save opponents time second edition appeared mentioned foreword received threats time stop putting guard men added wished hidden enemies report crimes base associates found guilty public justice having basic poisonous scandal lawsuit process ultimately led departure england return germany began months publication book poisoning long time contradictory accounts given exact circumstances exile finally cole minutes royal institution proved presentation events adopted article dictionary national biography later according embroiled charges librarian royal institution escaped germany correspond facts cole completely reprinted minutes extraordinary meeting royal institution december events initiated observation librarian royal institution named reported superiors november number pages removed books reading room institution books read instructions superiors cut small hole wall reading room watch adjoining room evening december recorded minutes tear walk paper concerning ingredients uses chocolate paper issue journal premises old street searched order magistrate city london torn pages discovered matched books belonging royal institution magistrate hearing case observed valuable books leaves found house taken leaves separated waste paper weighed pound committed value pound waste paper case discharged royal institution committee met december satisfied judgment decided legal action january open letter directed earl president institution appeared times defending letter signed cole supposed author surgeon anthony friends years stay london support little minutes royal institution april report commencement lawsuit theft paper valued friends included indictment publisher architect john appeared court paid altogether pounds sterling appearance court session fled england returned germany return germany years return germany published number books dealing nutrition chemistry published works beer production treatise art wine treatise art making wine following year appeared chemistry provided practical information scientific basis cooking published book bread treatise art making good bread returned germany works continued reprinted translated french italian german reaching wide readership europe reprinted immediately arrival germany went town industrialist acquired estates found industrial settlement german pioneer field sugar production established factory production town probably extensive library chemical laboratory drew remained short time soon got berlin teaching areas physics chemistry collected volume work und der und published berlin work published originally german years settling berlin house built later death years suffered bad case ultimately led death illness took turn worse june rapidly deteriorated june approximately years return germany died age berlin buried publications system theoretical practical chemistry london vol vol second edition reprint philadelphia vol vol second edition vol vol practical essay analysis minerals london reprint philadelphia new edition expanded volumes title manual analysis course lectures london expanded edition title manual course lectures experimental chemistry descriptive catalogue apparatus instruments employed experimental operative chemistry chemistry pursuits recent discoveries electro chemical science london elements london practical treatise gas light london went english editions rewritten title description process manufacturing coal gas lighting streets houses public buildings elevations sections plans improved sorts apparatus employed gas works london london second edition german translation august entitled die des und der berlin second edition french edition par contained forward expanded friedrich albert paris italian gas con milan practical essay chemical agents tests illustrated series experiments london expanded second edition title practical treatise use application chemical tests directions analyzing metallic metals soils mineral waters edition reprint philadelphia french sur usage mode application des paris italian translation second english edition milan chemical amusement series curious experiments chemistry easily performed danger london second edition edition fourth reprint german und der entitled second american edition based english edition additions thomas cooper philadelphia french translation manual suite experiences execution danger grand second edition later reprinted final sixth paris volume italian translation milan second expanded edition con milan dictionary apparatus instruments employed operative experimental chemistry london reprinted author explanatory dictionary apparatus instruments employed operations philosophical experimental chemistry practical chemist london treatise food exhibiting fraudulent bread beer wine tea coffee cream pepper cheese olive oil articles employed domestic economy methods detecting london second edition edition fourth edition reprint philadelphia german translation von der der und von den leipzig second edition treatise art exhibiting london practice porter brown stout table beer kinds london second edition german translation niece die porter stout french translation manual paris later reprinted guide spring london treatise art making wine london followed edition french des fruits later translation des fruits des des paris treatise art making good bread london chemistry exhibiting scientific principles instructions preparing good fruit observations chemical constitution qualities different kinds food london und der und volumes berlin


september september american physicist nobel credited produce element shared nobel prize chemistry graduate california institute technology earned doctorate princeton_university joined berkeley radiation laboratory discovered world war worked microwave radar mit radiation laboratory navy radio sound laboratory joined manhattan_project wartime effort create atomic bombs helped establish project los laboratory bombs designed led teams working gun type nuclear weapon design participated development type nuclear weapon invented returned radiation laboratory war built appointed associate director radiation laboratory promoted deputy director death lawrence year director stayed position retirement early life born beach california september son wife anna marie née younger sister catherine helen father physician father twin brother mother brothers october family moved california attended elementary school grant school high school graduated california institute technology mile home attended public lectures entered research project undergraduate received bachelor science degree master science degree writing unpublished thesis improved method determination content rocks took doctor philosophy princeton_university writing thesis beam molecules non electric field supervision edward lawrence berkeley laboratory awarded national research council fellowship allowing attend university choice study phd complete formally accepted january accepted offer lawrence university california berkeley join berkeley radiation laboratory lawrence founded year initial work involved attempting measure magnetic moment stern able carry measurements main focus radiation laboratory time development appointed faculty berkeley instructor soon involved effort skill instrumentation came fore contributed improvements particular helped develop process adjusting produce magnetic field working stanley discovered oxygen produce bombarded nitrogen gas mixed hydrogen oxygen produce water collected calcium found concentrated proving oxygen followed investigation absorption gamma rays produced bombarding lawrence robert carried experiments beams produced series unexpected results fused target target heavier experiments indicated nuclear interaction lower energies expected simple calculation barrier target nucleus berkeley theoretical physicist robert graduate student phillips developed phillips process explain phenomenon assistant professor associate professor samuel discovered interesting difficult long half life million years discovery following discovery nuclear began experimenting bombarded produced radiation laboratory inch bombarding addition nuclear products reported detected unusual radioactive half life days minutes identified short lived reported suspected new element atomic number time believed element similar chemistry began working expert element discovery scientists began work prevailing theory rapidly determined sample similar instead reacted hydrogen strong agent present behaved like members rare earth elements comprise large percentage products decided half life simply product paper unsuccessful search elements realized work failed test chemical reactions radioactive source sufficient new experiment tried unknown substance presence reducing agent reaction resulted sample action definitively ruled possibility unknown substance rare earth philip institute washington independently attempted separate day half life visited berkeley short vacation began collaborate observed day half life chemistry like known element similar rare earth allowed source isolated later led classification series final step prepared larger sample bombarded prominent minute half life demonstrated unknown day half life increased strength concert decrease minute activity following reaction formula proved unknown radioactive source originated decay coupled previous observation source different known elements proved doubt new element discovered published results paper entitled radioactive element physical review propose element paper soon decided named planet neptune planet solar system suddenly departed point leaving pursue line research led second element shared nobel prize chemistry discoveries chemistry elements world war abrupt departure caused outbreak world war europe november began working mit radiation laboratory cambridge massachusetts participated development testing airborne microwave radar world war conducted tests april radar operating old douglas medium bomber flying naval submarine base new london walter air chief marshal hugh showed radar able detect conning tower partly submerged submarine married new haven connecticut june father george dean emeritus yale medical school sister mary lawrence wife children ann david stephen walker joined navy radio sound laboratory near san_diego august worked device called idea came lawrence use build visual image surrounding water proved far difficult radar objects water variations water temperature caused variations speed sound proved impractical abandoned developed training device received patent recruited join manhattan_project wartime effort create atomic bombs september initially forth san_diego family berkeley november accompanied trip new_mexico los ranch school selected site project weapons research laboratory los laboratory john drew specifications new laboratory technical buildings recruited personnel laboratory including richard robert wilson established test area known anchor ranch country technical equipment machine tools laboratory took shape deputy head gun type nuclear weapon effort navy captain william parsons ordnance expert gun thin man needed muzzle velocity feet second hoped achieve modified navy inch gun alternative build type nuclear weapon took early interest watching tests concept conducted results encouraging simple explosions resulted distorted shapes john von looked program september proposed radical solution involving explosive lenses require expertise explosives urged bring george joined laboratory february parsons explosives division divided deputy gun deputy heard disturbing news april drove canyon group tested samples bred manhattan_project nuclear found contained quantities caused spontaneous making thin man impractical july reorganised laboratory effort remained charge gun type weapon case thin man replaced new scaled design called little boy involved head group division responsible obtaining measurements served laboratory liaison project aerial test program carried july present trinity nuclear test bomb successfully detonated later life june thoughts began return time gotten larger larger inch construction radiation laboratory realised efficient use energy accelerate particles varying magnetic field particles stable higher energies achieved energy input dubbed phase stability principle new design unknown principle invented published proposal aware paper october began corresponding eventually friends shared peace award invention phase stability principle tested old inch berkeley returned radiation laboratory september found work inch similarly modified professor appointed associate director radiation laboratory promoted deputy director death lawrence year director stayed position retirement laboratory renamed lawrence radiation laboratory split lawrence berkeley laboratory lawrence laboratory director elected national academy sciences serving chairman served influential general advisory committee atomic energy commission commission high energy physics international union pure applied physics retirement faculty berkeley spent worked minus experiment measure magnetic moment awarded national medal science suffered series strokes died home california complications diabetes september survived wife children gold nobel prize medal national museum american history division washington publications focusing linear university california radiation laboratory lawrence berkeley national laboratory united_states department energy predecessor agency atomic energy commission august thick target university california radiation laboratory lawrence berkeley national laboratory united_states department energy predecessor agency atomic energy commission september elements early history nobel lecture university california radiation laboratory lawrence berkeley national laboratory united_states department energy predecessor agency atomic energy commission december notes focusing university california radiation laboratory lawrence berkeley national laboratory united_states department energy predecessor agency atomic energy commission february thoughts stability periodic focusing systems university california radiation laboratory lawrence berkeley national laboratory united_states department energy predecessor agency atomic energy commission september thoughts stability periodic focusing systems university california radiation laboratory lawrence berkeley national laboratory united_states department energy predecessor agency atomic energy commission march


julian julian april april african american research chemist pioneer chemical synthesis medicinal drugs plants natural product pioneer industrial large scale chemical synthesis human plant work laid foundation drug industry production birth control pills later started company wild mexican work helped greatly reduce cost large multinational companies helping significantly expand use important drugs julian received chemical patents african americans receive doctorate chemistry african american chemist inducted national academy sciences second african american scientist inducted david field early life education julian born montgomery alabama child born james julian elizabeth julian née adams parents graduates alabama state university father james father slave employed clerk railway service united_states post office mother elizabeth worked julian grew time racist jim crow culture legal regime southern united_states childhood memories finding man hanged tree walking woods near home time access education eighth grade extremely rare african americans julian parents steered children higher education julian attended university indiana college accepted african american students segregated nature town forced social julian allowed live college stayed campus boarding home refused serve meals took days julian found establishment eat later found work firing waiting tables odd jobs fraternity house return allowed sleep attic eat house julian graduated beta julian father entire family children attend college worked railroad postal clerk graduating julian wanted obtain doctorate chemistry learned difficult african american instead obtained position chemistry instructor university received austin fellowship chemistry allowed attend harvard_university obtain worried euro american students taught african american harvard withdrew julian teaching making impossible complete harvard instructor howard university julian received foundation fellowship continue graduate work university vienna earned studied considered impressive student europe found freedom racial states freely participated intellectual social gatherings went opera found greater acceptance peers julian african americans receive chemistry edward returning vienna julian taught year howard university howard position department head julian caught university politics setting embarrassing chain events university president johnson request white professor chemistry jacob harvard resigning late releasing local african american newspaper letters julian written vienna letters described variety subjects wine pretty women music dances chemical experiments plans new chemical building letters spoke familiarity specific members howard university faculty known dean ass time julian conflict laboratory assistant robert thompson julian recommended thompson dismissal march thompson sued julian affections wife anna thompson stating seen sexual julian counter sued libel thompson fired gave paper intimate personal letters julian written vienna julian letters revealed howard president accepting plans chemistry building good friend appointing professor julian liking summer baltimore american published julian letters eventually scandal accompanying pressure forced julian resign lost position worked happiness julian come scandal december married anna university pennsylvania children julian august february noted civil rights lawyer madison wisconsin faith julian resides oak park home makes inspirational speeches father contributions science lowest point julian career mentor william threw needed offered julian position teach organic chemistry university julian helped fellow student university vienna come united_states work julian completed total synthesis confirmed structural formula assigned robert robinson oxford_university publish synthesis julian noticed melting point robinson end product wrong indicating created julian completed synthesis melting point matched correct natural julian extracted took west african hoped serve raw material synthesis human time germany shown isolated oil converted synthetic organic chemistry private sector work julian denied racial reasons offered job fellow chemist declined hire julian despite qualifications organic chemist unaware negro julian applied job institute paper chemistry wisconsin town forbidding african americans staying overnight stating directly negro bed boarded overnight julian written company supplier oil products request sample oil use starting point synthesis human sex wife suffering receiving request brien vice president telephone julian offering position director research products division chicago likely offered job brien fluent german purchased modern continuous extraction plant germany extraction vegetable oil uses julian supervised assembly plant arrived designed supervised construction world plant production industrial grade isolated protein oil free meal isolated protein replace expensive milk industrial applications coating paper making douglas fir manufacture water based start world war sent sample julian isolated protein national foam system inc today unit fire fighting develop foam navy beloved fire fighting soup exactly julian meticulous care preparation protein fire fighting foam possible isolated protein fed water stream mixture converted foam means protein foam oil gasoline fires aboard ships particularly useful aircraft carriers saved lives thousands sailors airmen citing achievement awarded julian medal highest honor julian research changed direction began work plant isolated oil foam technique invented patented time discovering uses newly discovered minute quantities extracted hundreds pounds spinal animals julian able produce mixed daily value today sex julian soon pounds daily mixed easily converted commercial quantities female pound valued today shipped buyer armored car production sex soon followed work possible production larger industrial scale potential reducing cost treating deficiencies julian workers obtained patents key processes preparation plant product patents held european companies prevented significant reduction wholesale retail prices clinical use 1940s saved lives discovery april philip clinic announced dramatic effectiveness treating produced great expense complex step synthesis developed chemist lewis starting acid cattle september julian announced improvement process producing eliminated need use rare expensive chemical begin producing closely related compounds partial activity julian announced synthesis starting cheap readily available synthesized oil known substance differed single missing oxygen possibly hoped effective treating unfortunately april murray published report process single step common order process produce compound respectively chemical steps converted years abandoned production concentrate substance julian developed process conversion available abundance oil producing oil shut production began mexico arrangement small mexican company founded russell marker leaving cost production relatively high decided use available large quantity low cost produce decided leave business relatively years despite julian innovative work december julian left years giving salary nearly year equivalent found company julian laboratories inc taking small concrete block building suburban chemical company franklin park illinois december acquired exclusive licenses patents synthesis substance developed process single step convert substance directly undertaking large scale production low cost oak park julian laboratories circa julian moved family chicago suburb oak park african american family reside residents welcomed community opposition moved thanksgiving day home fire bombed later moved house attacked dynamite june attacks community community group formed support julian son later recounted times father kept watch family property sitting tree shotgun julian founded research firm julian laboratories inc brought best including african americans women company julian won contract provide million worth equivalent million today compete use mexican mexican trade starting material julian money borrowed friends build processing plant mexico permit government harvest jewish university vienna classmate julian helped escape nazi european holocaust led search find new source guatemala company july julian executives american companies trying enter mexican market appeared senate testified influence access mexican hearings resulted signing consent decree justice department admit trade promised future years large american multinational companies acquired producers mexico mexican owned reduced cost fold years competition general mills substantial improvements production forced price mexican price continued fall purchased acquired julian laboratories general mills acquired despite continually falling bulk prices large american multinational companies kept wholesale prices drugs fixed unchanged 1960s fixed concentrated improving production cattle produced world julian laboratories found way quadruple yield product barely breaking julian reduced price product sold company million equivalent million today mexico facilities purchased smith julian chemical plant guatemala purchased julian founded julian associates julian research institute managed rest life national academy sciences elected national academy sciences recognition scientific achievements second african american inducted david legacy honors chicago_sun-times named julian year national organization professional advancement black chemical engineers presented julian award pure applied research science engineering julian high school opened south chicago illinois chicago public high school science mathematics building university campus julian mathematics science center indiana located street named julian school oak park illinois renamed julian middle school illinois state university julian served board trustees named hall structure state university named julian science building inducted national hall_of_fame julian honored stamp issued united_states postal service american chemical society recognized julian synthesis national historic chemical landmark scholar listed julian list greatest african americans qualifying exam preparation committee albert college medicine named julian google honored nova documentary hudson portrayed julian public broadcasting service nova documentary life called forgotten genius presented pbs network february initial sponsorship henry foundation funding national approximately julian family members friends work associates interviewed production biopic began university campus included video julian bust display university julian science mathematics center completion broadcasting documentary program delayed order nova commission publish matching book julian life according university illinois historian james anderson film story story great accomplishment heroic efforts overcoming tremendous odds story stand challenges challenges archive julian family papers archived university patents patent october recovery patent july product method making patent june preparation patent september derivatives patent september method preparing alpha obtained patent september process manufacture arnold publications studies series synthesis alpha julian studies series complete synthesis julian


april january american physical chemist pioneering work earned nobel prize chemistry discovery played significant role development bomb prominent contribution theories development organic life non living matter born indiana studied gilbert lewis university california received phd awarded fellowship american scandinavian foundation study institute copenhagen research associate university associate professor chemistry columbia_university began work separation resulted discovery world war turned knowledge separation problem headed group located columbia_university developed separation method successfully developed sole method early post war period war professor chemistry institute nuclear studies later professor chemistry university_of_chicago speculated early terrestrial atmosphere probably composed hydrogen chicago graduate students stanley miller showed miller experiment mixture exposed electric sparks water interact produce commonly considered building blocks life work oxygen led pioneering new field research accepted post professor large new university california san_diego helped create science faculty founding members school chemistry created increasingly interested space science apollo returned moon rock samples moon examined lunar receiving laboratory early life born april indiana son samuel school teacher minister church wife née younger brother younger sister martha family moved california moved indiana live widowed mother samuel seriously ill tuberculosis died years old educated grade school graduated age attended high school indiana graduating obtained teacher certificate college taught small school house indiana later moved montana mother living continued teach entered university montana autumn earned bachelor science degree united_states entry world war year took wartime job chemical company philadelphia making tnt war ended returned university montana instructor chemistry academic career required doctorate enrolled phd program university california berkeley studied gilbert lewis initial attempt thesis ran difficulties indian physicist published better paper subject wrote thesis states ideal gas subsequently published journal received phd awarded fellowship american scandinavian foundation study institute copenhagen met von john conclusion stay traveled germany met albert james returning united_states received offer national research council fellowship harvard_university received offer research associate university chose taking job traveled seattle washington visit mother way stopped washington knew woman called kate kate introduced sister soon engaged married father house lawrence kansas couple children born born mary alice born john born arthur wrote molecules english texts quantum mechanics applications atomic molecular systems associate professor chemistry columbia_university colleagues included david taylor time william university california discovered stable oxygen understood time james discover systems use classifying based chemical physical properties determined mass known atomic weight oxygen exactly times heavy hydrogen hydrogen based difference results methods predicted hydrogen heavy set find george murphy calculated series heavy lines metres access foot sensitive device recently installed columbia capable resolving series resolution millimetre machine difference millimetre heavy line faint decided delay publishing results conclusive evidence heavy hydrogen murphy calculated model heavy slightly higher boiling point light carefully warming liquid hydrogen litres liquid hydrogen enriched heavy times obtain litres liquid hydrogen traveled laboratory national bureau standards washington obtained help ferdinand known sample sent pressure standard atmosphere kpa surprise showed evidence prepared second sample pressure kpa sample lines heavy hydrogen seven times intense paper announcing discovery jointly published murphy awarded nobel prize chemistry discovery heavy hydrogen declined attend ceremony stockholm present birth daughter mary alice working edward bureau standards subsequently discovered reason sample hydrogen separated water resulting depleted sample francis william reported calculated value atomic weight hydrogen wrong original reasoning discovery stood attempted use create pure heavy water technique sound beaten lewis resources university california disposal born david calculated properties gases containing hydrogen extended compounds carbon nitrogen oxygen resulting new way examining chemical reactions founded journal chemical physics editor serving capacity contributed science article scientific monthly invented atomic hydrogen utilizing volts electricity won nobel prize chemistry work surface chemistry columbia chaired university federation democracy intellectual freedom supported proposal federal union world major republican cause spanish civil war early opponent german assisted refugee scientists including helping find work united_states adjust life new country manhattan_project time world war broke europe recognized world expert separation far separation involved light elements published papers separation heavier proposed separation assumed great importance speculation considered doubtful chain reaction established separating rest began intensive studies achieved apart separation george suggested possible method possibility thermal coordinated separation research efforts including effort produce heavy water nuclear appointed executive committee oversaw project office scientific research development george led diplomatic mission england establish operation development atomic bomb british optimistic clear methods faced formidable technical obstacles manhattan_project gained momentum head wartime substitute materials sam laboratory columbia responsible heavy water processes lawrence electromagnetic process early reports method indicated efficient predicted suggested efficient technically complicated system instead previous flow method november technical obstacles formidable process abandoned developed war today favored method countries process remained encouraging technical obstacles overcome end people working process involved hundreds barriers progressively enriched stage major problem finding proper seals pumps far greatest difficulty lay constructing appropriate barrier construction huge plant way suitable barrier available quantity backup championed thermal worn effort left project february handing responsibilities plant commenced operation march bugs worked plant operated remarkable efficiency economy time fed liquid thermal plant finally electromagnetic separation plant soon war ended thermal electromagnetic separation plants closed separation performed twin constructed principal separation plant early post war period work manhattan_project awarded medal merit project director major general post war years war professor chemistry institute nuclear studies professor chemistry university_of_chicago continue pre war research applying knowledge gained hydrogen oxygen realized water decrease factor ratio determine average temperatures assuming measurement equipment sufficiently sensitive team included colleague examination million year old indicated summer winter temperatures lived period years pioneering research awarded arthur day medal geological society america medal society actively campaigned johnson bill feared lead military control nuclear energy supported fought mcmahon bill replaced ultimately created atomic energy commission commitment ideal world government dated war possibility nuclear war urgent mind went lecture tours war involved congressional debates nuclear issues argued publicly behalf called house american activities committee miller experiment later life helped develop field credited term work led develop theories abundance chemical elements earth abundance evolution stars summarized work planets origin development speculated early terrestrial atmosphere probably composed hydrogen chicago graduate students stanley miller showed miller experiment mixture exposed electric sparks water interact produce commonly considered building blocks life spent year visiting professor oxford_university england reached university_of_chicago retirement age accepted post professor large new university california san_diego moved california subsequently professor emeritus helped build science faculty founding members school chemistry created stanley miller jim arnold late 1950s early 1960s space science field research wake launch helped persuade nasa moon priority apollo returned moon rock samples moon examined lunar receiving laboratory samples supported contention moon earth shared common origin published scientific papers lunar topics asked continued work hard joked know tenure anymore death legacy enjoyed raising died california buried cemetery county indiana apart nobel prize won franklin medal lawrence smith medal gold medal royal astronomical society medal american chemical society received national medal science fellow royal society named lunar impact crater prize awarded achievement sciences american astronomical society middle school indiana named hall chemistry building college established chair holder jim arnold