nazi_germany nazi_germany known german period german history country governed dictatorship control adolf_hitler nazi party hitler rule germany transformed fascist state controlled nearly aspects life official state german german empire german realm greater german nazi_germany ceased exist allied forces defeated germany ending world war europe hitler appointed chancellor germany president republic paul von january nazi party began eliminate political opposition consolidate power died august hitler dictator germany merging powers offices presidency national referendum held august confirmed hitler sole leader germany power hitler person word laws government coordinated operating body collection factions struggling power hitler favour midst great depression nazis restored economic stability ended mass unemployment heavy military spending mixed economy extensive public works undertaken including construction high speed highways return economic stability boosted regime popularity racism especially central feature regime peoples race considered nazis branch race viewed master race millions jews deemed undesirable murdered holocaust opposition hitler rule suppressed members liberal socialist communist opposition killed imprisoned exiled christian churches oppressed leaders imprisoned education focused racial biology population policy fitness military service career educational opportunities women curtailed recreation tourism organised strength joy program summer olympics showcased international stage propaganda minister joseph effective use film mass rallies hitler control public opinion government controlled artistic expression promoting specific art forms banning beginning late 1930s nazi_germany increasingly aggressive territorial demands threatening war met seized austria czechoslovakia hitler pact joseph invaded poland september launching world war europe alliance italy smaller axis powers germany conquered europe threatened great_britain took control conquered areas german administration established left poland jews deemed undesirable imprisoned murdered nazi concentration camps camps shot regime racial policies turned culminating mass murder jews minorities holocaust plan jews europe conference replacing previous policy forced emigration jews following german invasion soviet_union tide gradually turned nazis suffered major military defeats large scale aerial bombing germany escalated axis powers pushed eastern southern europe following allied invasion france germany conquered soviet_union east allied powers west year hitler refusal admit defeat led massive destruction german infrastructure additional war related deaths closing months war victorious allies initiated policy surviving nazi leadership trial war crimes trials official state german greater german usually translated english german empire german common english terms nazi_germany adopted nazi propaganda book arthur van den book counted holy roman empire german empire second nazis regime successor state seized power nazi propaganda referred republic interim history background german economy suffered severe setbacks end world war partly payments required treaty versailles government printed money payments repay country war debt resulting led inflated prices consumer goods economic chaos food riots government failed payments january french troops occupied german industrial areas widespread civil unrest followed national socialist german workers party nazi party renamed successor german workers party founded far right political parties active germany time party platform included removal republic rejection terms treaty versailles radical anti promised strong central government increased living space peoples formation national community based race racial active suppression jews stripped citizenship civil rights nazis proposed national cultural renewal based movement stock market united_states crashed october impact germany dire millions thrown work major banks collapsed hitler prepared advantage emergency gain support party promised strengthen economy provide jobs voters decided capable restoring order civil unrest improving germany international reputation federal election nazis largest party holding seats percent popular vote nazi seizure power nazis won greatest share popular vote general elections majority hitler led short lived coalition government formed german national people party pressure politicians business community president paul von appointed hitler chancellor germany january event known seizure power following months process termed rapidly bring aspects life control party civilian organisations including agricultural groups volunteer organisations sports clubs leadership replaced nazi party members june virtually organisations control army churches night february building set van der dutch communist found guilty starting blaze hitler proclaimed arson marked start communist uprising violent suppression communists undertaken country thousand members communist_party germany arrested fire decree imposed february rescinded german civil liberties including rights assembly freedom press decree allowed police people indefinitely charges court order legislation accompanied propaganda blitz led public support measure march enabling act amendment constitution passed vote amendment allowed hitler cabinet pass laws laws violated constitution consent president bill required thirds majority pass nazis provisions fire decree social democratic deputies attending communists banned government seized assets social democrats banned june remaining political parties dissolved july germany facto party state founding new parties illegal elections november entirely nazi controlled saw nazis small number elected regional state federal upper house abolished january nazi regime abolished symbols republic including black red gold flag adopted reworked imperial symbolism previous imperial black white red restored germany official flags second flag sole national flag anthem lied song second national anthem period germany dire economic situation millions unemployed balance trade deficit hitler knew reviving economy vital deficit spending public works projects undertaken total million germans work projects average wages hour week began rise demands political military power caused anxiety military industrial political leaders response hitler entire leadership night long knives took place june july hitler targeted leaders number hitler political adversaries chancellor kurt von rounded arrested shot august president von died previous day cabinet enacted law concerning highest state office stated death office president abolished powers merged chancellor hitler head state head government formally named und leader chancellor germany state hitler head head state hitler supreme commander armed forces new law altered traditional loyalty oath servicemen affirmed loyalty hitler personally office supreme commander state august merger presidency approved percent electorate germans relieved conflicts street fighting era ended propaganda orchestrated joseph promised peace plenty united free country constraints versailles treaty nazi concentration camp initially political prisoners opened hundreds camps varying size function created end war seizing power nazis took measures political opposition rapidly began comprehensive persons considered socially undesirable guise communist threat national secured immense power campaign jews living germany gained momentum beginning april scores measures defining status jews rights instituted regional national level initiatives legal jews reached culmination establishment laws stripping basic rights nazis jews wealth right non jews right occupy fields labour practising law medicine working eventually declared undesirable remain german citizens society time jews arguably actions germans extent resulted holocaust ethnic germans refused jews showed signs resistance nazi propaganda placed surveillance rights removed sent concentration camps monitored nazi_germany power nazis accomplished initial revolutionary activities improvisation manipulation legal mechanisms available use police powers nazi party allowed include exclude society chose finally expansion authority state federal institutions foreign policy early february hitler announced undertaken albeit violation versailles treaty year later told military leaders target date going war east pulled germany league nations claiming clauses unfair applied germany placed league nations supervision years end world war voted january germany march hitler announced increased men creating air_force britain agreed germans allowed build naval fleet signing anglo german naval agreement june italian invasion led mild protests british french governments march hitler ordered ground forces march troops zone violation versailles treaty additional troops standby territory germany british french governments feel attempting enforce treaty worth risk war party election held march received percent support hitler signed anti pact japan non aggression agreement fascist italy soon referring rome berlin axis hitler sent air armoured units assist general francisco franco nationalist forces spanish civil war broke july soviet_union sent smaller force assist republican government franco nationalists victorious informal ally nazi_germany austria czechoslovakia february hitler emphasised austrian chancellor kurt need germany secure scheduled austrian independence march hitler demanded cancelled march hitler sent ultimatum demanding hand power austrian face invasion entered austria day greeted enthusiasm populace republic czechoslovakia home substantial minority germans lived pressure groups german party government offered economic concessions region hitler decided incorporate czechoslovakia nazis undertook propaganda campaign try drum support invasion leaders armed forces favour plan germany ready war crisis led war preparations british france czechoslovakia ally attempting avoid war british prime minister chamberlain arranged series meetings result munich agreement signed september government forced accept annexation germany chamberlain greeted cheers landed london bringing said peace time agreement lasted months hitler seized rest czech territory march puppet state created slovakia austrian czech foreign exchange reserves soon seized nazis raw materials metals completed goods weaponry aircraft shipped germany industrial took control steel coal production facilities countries poland march hitler demanded return free city danzig polish corridor strip land separated east prussia rest germany british announced come aid poland attacked hitler believing british actually action ordered invasion plan target date september described generals overall plan seizing polish corridor greatly expanding german territory eastward expense poland expected time met force germans reaffirmed alliance italy signed non aggression denmark estonia trade links romania norway sweden hitler foreign minister von arranged negotiations soviet_union non aggression pact pact signed august treaty contained secret dividing poland baltic states german soviet spheres influence world war foreign policy germany foreign policy war involved creation allied governments direct indirect control berlin main goal obtaining soldiers senior allies italy hungary millions workers ample food supplies allies france fall divisions romania eastern italy hungary country longer germany assumed control france italy hungary japan official powerful ally relationship distant little operation example germany refused share formula synthetic oil coal late war outbreak war germany invaded poland september britain france declared war germany days later world war way poland fell quickly soviet_union attacked east september head ordered september jews rounded concentrated cities good rail links initially intention jews points east possibly madagascar lists prepared ahead time polish clergy teachers killed end attempt destroy poland identity nation soviet forces continued attack advancing finland winter war german forces involved action sea little activity occurred period known war start war british blockade shipments germany impact economy germans particularly dependent foreign supplies oil coal grain safeguard swedish iron ore shipments germany hitler ordered attack norway took place april country occupied german troops end april april germans invaded occupied denmark conquest europe judgement senior military officers hitler ordered attack france low countries began quickly conquered netherlands belgium france surrendered june unexpectedly swift defeat france resulted hitler popularity strong war fever spite provisions convention industrial firms netherlands france belgium work producing war occupying german military officials viewed option citizens deported forced labour nazis seized french thousands locomotives rolling stock weapons raw materials copper tin oil financial demands levied governments occupied countries payments occupation costs received france belgium norway barriers trade led black markets uncertainty future food supplies production dropped areas europe world war greece experienced famine year occupation netherlands year war hitler peace new british leader winston_churchill rejection ordered series aerial attacks royal_air_force radar stations german luftwaffe failed defeat royal_air_force known battle britain end october hitler realised necessary air superiority planned invasion britain achieved ordered nightly air raids british cities including london plymouth february german arrived libya aid italians north african campaign attempt contain commonwealth forces stationed egypt april germany launched invasion yugoslavia battle greece german efforts secure oil included negotiating supply new ally romania signed pact november june pact million axis troops attacked soviet_union addition hitler stated purpose acquiring large scale offensive operation intended destroy soviet_union seize natural resources subsequent aggression western powers reaction germans surprise concerned longer war drag suspected germany win war fought fronts invasion conquered huge area including baltic west ukraine successful battle hitler ordered army group centre halt advance moscow temporarily divert groups aid pause provided red army opportunity fresh reserves moscow offensive resumed october ended december december japan attacked pearl harbor hawaii days later germany declared war united_states food short supply conquered areas soviet_union poland rations inadequate meet needs retreating armies burned crops remainder sent germany food rations cut role year plan demanded increased shipments grain france fish norway harvest good food supplies remained adequate western_europe organisation set artwork cultural material jewish collections libraries museums europe railroad cars art treasures furniture looted items sent germany france addition soldiers looted purchased goods produce clothing items harder obtain germany shipment home turning point collapse germany europe totally dependent foreign oil imports attempt resolve persistent shortage germany launched fall case blue offensive june red army launched counter offensive november encircled axis forces trapped november assured hitler 6th army supplied air turned hitler refusal allow retreat led deaths german romanian soldiers men surrendered city january survivors returned germany war soviet forces continued push invaders westward failed german offensive battle end germans lost territorial gains east egypt field marshal defeated british forces field marshal bernard montgomery october allied forces landed sicily july italy september american british bomber fleets based britain began operations germany effort destroy german morale sorties intentionally given civilian targets soon german aircraft production pace losses air cover allied bombing campaign devastating targeting oil factories crippled german war effort late june american british canadian forces established western day landings normandy july hitler narrowly survived bomb attack ordered savage resulting arrests execution people failed offensive december january major german campaign war soviet forces entered germany january hitler refusal admit defeat repeated insistence war fought man led unnecessary death destruction closing months war justice minister ordered prepared fight court thousands people death areas people looked ways surrender approaching allies spite local leaders continue struggle hitler ordered intentional destruction transport bridges industries infrastructure earth decree armaments minister albert able order fully carried battle berlin april hitler staff lived underground red army approached april soviet troops blocks away hitler committed suicide general surrendered berlin soviet general hitler succeeded grand admiral president chancellor wife committed suicide day murdering children remaining german armed forces surrendered german instrument surrender signed marking end world war europe suicide rates germany increased war drew close particularly areas red army advancing thousand people population committed suicide army 2nd broke town committing mass executing civilians setting fire buildings high numbers took place locations including dead dead berlin people committed suicide german casualties estimates total german war dead range million persons study german historian puts number german military dead missing million including men outside germany borders austria east central europe estimated civilians killed british american bombing german cities additional died land campaign citizens died battle berlin civilian deaths include germans including jews victims nazi political racial religious persecution murdered nazi program political courts called sentenced members german resistance death civil courts sentenced additional germans mass german women took place end war europe million refugees economy collapsed percent industrial infrastructure destroyed fourteen million ethnic germans fled expelled east central europe germany cold war west german government estimated death toll million civilians flight expulsion germans forced labour soviet_union figure remained 1990s historians death toll confirmed deaths german government reaffirmed position million deaths occurred geography territorial changes result defeat world war resulting treaty versailles germany lost northern temporarily france condition residents later decide referendum country join poland separate nation given access sea creation polish corridor separated prussia rest germany danzig free city germany regained control referendum held annexed austria munich agreement gave germany control seized remainder czechoslovakia months later threat invasion sea lithuania surrendered district march german forces invaded poland france netherlands belgium soviet_union south ceded germany puppet districts set area operational zone adriatic operational zone alpine foothills occupied territories conquered territories immediately incorporated germany hitler long term goal creating greater areas placed authority adjacent regional district territories incorporated germany quasi colonial regimes established number occupied countries areas placed german administration included encompassing baltic states ukraine conquered areas belgium france placed control military administration belgium northern france belgian german annexed directly poland immediately incorporated general government established occupied central poland hitler intended eventually incorporate areas governments denmark norway netherlands placed civilian staffed largely natives post war changes issuance berlin declaration june later creation allied control council allied powers temporarily assumed governance germany conference august allies arranged allied occupation country germany split zones occupied allied powers drew zone industrial areas western zones soviet_union transferred additional allied control council prussia aid germany began arriving united_states marshall plan occupation lasted countries east germany west_germany created germany finalised border poland signing treaty warsaw germany remained divided allies renounced claims german territory treaty final settlement respect germany germany renounced claims territories lost world war politics ideology far right political party came social financial occurred onset great depression prison failed beer hall hitler wrote laid plan transforming german society based race ideology brought elements racial combined pan territorial goal obtaining people regime attempted obtain new territory attacking poland soviet_union intending kill jews living viewed inferior master race jewish conspiracy nazi regime believed germany defeat forces save humanity world domination international deemed life life nazis included mentally physically disabled people witnesses social influenced movement regime cultural supported development extensive military expense creativity art serve propaganda media party symbols blood flag rituals nazi party rallies foster unity bolster regime popularity government law january abolished existing constituent states germany replaced new administrative divisions nazi_germany headed leaders effectively governor region change fully implemented administrative divisions government departments education led bureaucratic overlapping jurisdictions responsibilities typical administrative style nazi regime jewish civil servants lost jobs seen military service world war members party supporters appointed place process local government law abolished local elections point forward appointed ministry interior hitler ruled germany asserting leader principle called absolute obedience subordinates viewed government structure pyramid leader apex rank party determined elections positions filled appointment higher rank party propaganda develop cult personality hitler historians emphasise psychological impact hitler skill writes overwhelmingly germans speak hitler hypnotic appeal roger gill states moving speeches captured minds hearts vast number german people virtually audiences officials reported hitler followed policies considerable autonomy officials expected work initiative promoting policies actions line wishes goals hitler having involved day day running country government coordinated operating body collection factions led members party elite struggled power gain favour hitler leadership style contradictory orders subordinates place positions duties responsibilities overlapped way fostered distrust competition subordinates consolidate power law august civil servants required swear oath obedience hitler similar oath required members military weeks prior law basis concept hitler word existing laws acts sanctioned hitler murder legal legislation proposed cabinet ministers approved office deputy veto civil service appointments judicial system legal codes republic remained use nazi era deal non political crimes courts issued carried far death sentences nazis took power people convicted offences petty ones deemed offenders jailed indefinitely people prostitutes judged inherently criminal threat racial community thousands arrested confined indefinitely trial regular courts handled political cases issued death sentences cases new type court people court established deal politically important matters court handed death sentences dissolution death penalty issued offences communist printing making jokes hitler party officials nazi_germany employed types capital punishment hanging death shooting charge investigative enforce national socialist ideology located confined political offenders jews deemed undesirable political offenders released prison immediately arrested confined concentration camp september laws enacted laws initially prohibited sexual relations marriages jews later extended include offspring law forbade employment german women age domestic servants jewish households citizenship law stated german related blood eligible citizenship time nazis propaganda concept race justify need restrictive law jews non stripped german citizenship wording law potentially allowed nazis deny citizenship supportive regime decree issued november defined jewish jewish grandparents grandparents jewish faith followed military paramilitary unified armed forces germany called included army kriegsmarine navy luftwaffe air_force august members armed forces required pledge oath obedience hitler personally contrast previous oath required allegiance constitution country establishments new oath required members military obey hitler ordered illegal hitler decreed army tolerate offer logistical support mobile death squads responsible millions deaths eastern_europe possible members participated directly holocaust shooting civilians undertaking genocide guise anti partisan operations party line jews partisan struggle needed eliminated july announced jews regarded partisans gave order male jews ages shot spite efforts prepare country militarily economy sustain lengthy war attrition occurred world war strategy developed based tactic lightning war involved quick coordinated assaults avoided enemy strong points attacks began artillery bombardment followed bombing runs tanks attack finally infantry secure ground taken victories continued failure defeat britain major turning point war decision attack soviet_union decisive defeat led retreat german armies eventual loss war total number soldiers served million million died storm detachment founded paramilitary wing nazi party initial assignment protect nazi leaders rallies assemblies took street battles forces rival political parties violent actions jews leadership grown half million members million including reserves time regular army limited men versailles treaty hoped assume command army absorb ranks defence minister von threatened impose martial law activities curtailed hitler suspected plotting ordered deaths political enemies people killed june july event known night long knives purge longer major force initially force dozen men auspices grew largest powerful groups nazi_germany led quarter million members continued grow envisioned elite group guards hitler line defence military branch facto fourth branch organised intelligence service known security service deputy organisation tasked locating arresting communists political opponents hoped eventually totally replace existing police system established beginnings parallel economy auspices economy administration head office holding company owned housing corporations factories publishing houses forward heavily involved persecution jews rounded concentration camps outbreak world war units called followed army poland soviet_union killed million people including million jews death head units charge concentration camps camps millions killed economy economics pressing economic matter nazis initially faced percent national unemployment rate economist president minister economics created scheme deficit financing capital projects paid issuance notes called bills notes presented payment printed money national debt hitler economic team expected upcoming territorial expansion provide means debt administration achieved rapid decline unemployment rate largest country great depression october aviation pioneer hugo owner aircraft works arrested days company regime concert aircraft manufacturers direction aviation minister production immediately industry wide workforce people producing units year industry grew employ quarter million workers manufacturing technically advanced aircraft year years later elaborate bureaucracy created regulate german imports raw materials finished goods intention eliminating foreign competition german marketplace improving nation balance payments nazis encouraged development synthetic replacements materials oil market experiencing prices petroleum low nazi government profit sharing agreement percent return capital invested synthetic oil plant profits excess turned regretted making deal excess profits generated given government major public works projects financed deficit spending included construction network providing funding programmes initiated previous government housing agricultural improvements stimulate construction industry credit offered private businesses subsidies available home purchases repairs condition wife leave workforce loan accessed young couples descent intended marry reduced percent child born woman remain unemployed dropped shortage skilled labourers hitler envisioned widespread car ownership new germany arranged designer ferdinand draw plans strength joy car intended automobile german citizen afford prototype displayed international motor berlin february outbreak world war factory converted produce military vehicles production models sold war vehicle renamed people car million people unemployed nazis took power fewer million removal women workforce real wages dropped percent trade unions abolished seizure funds arrest leadership social democratic trade unions new organisation german labour created placed robert average german worked hours week increased hours week early focus shifted away funding work creation schemes military expenditures accounted percent government purchases goods services october hitler named year plan intended speed programme addition calling rapid construction steel mills synthetic rubber plants factories instituted wage price controls restricted issuance stock large expenditures spite growing introduction compulsory military service limited terms versailles treaty expanded active service start world war million reserve january unemployment dropped september wartime economy forced labour nazi war economy mixed economy combined free market central planning historian richard described command economy soviet_union capitalist system united_states death armaments minister hitler appointed albert replacement improved production streamlined organisation use single purpose machines operated workers production methods better different firms tens thousands components factories relocated away rail yards bombing targets war consuming percent germany gross domestic product compared percent soviet_union percent britain wartime economy relied heavily large scale employment forced labourers germany imported enslaved million people european countries work factories farms approximately percent eastern european casualties allied bombing received poor air raid protection poor living conditions led high rates sickness injury death sabotage criminal activity foreign workers brought germany different classifications guest workers military civilian workers eastern workers different regulations placed worker depending classification separate germans foreign workers nazis issued ban sexual relations germans foreign workers women played increasingly large role half million served german armed forces especially anti aircraft units luftwaffe half million worked civil aerial defence volunteer nurses replaced men wartime economy especially farms small family owned shops heavy strategic bombing allies targeted producing synthetic oil gasoline german transportation system especially rail yards canals armaments industry began break september november fuel coal longer reaching destinations production new armaments longer possible argues bombing strained german war economy forced divert fourth manpower industry anti aircraft resources likely shortened war racial policy racism basic nazi regime nazi_germany racial policy based belief existence superior master race nazis existence racial conflict master race inferior races particularly jews viewed mixed race society responsible exploitation repression race persecution jews discrimination jews began immediately seizure power following month long series attacks members jewish businesses members legal profession april hitler declared national boycott jewish businesses law restoration professional civil service passed april forced non civil servants retire legal profession civil service similar legislation soon deprived jewish members right april decree stated jewish parent considered non drive remove jewish influence cultural life members national socialist student league removed libraries books considered german nationwide book burning held violence economic pressure regime encourage jews voluntarily leave country jewish businesses denied access markets forbidden advertise newspapers deprived access government contracts citizens harassed subjected violent attacks towns posted signs forbidding entry jews november young jewish man requested interview german ambassador paris met secretary shot killed protest family treatment germany incident provided pretext jews november members damaged destroyed jewish property germany german jews killed later called night broken glass restrictions imposed jews coming months forbidden businesses work retail shops drive cars cinema visit library weapons jewish pupils removed schools jewish community fined billion marks pay damage caused told money received insurance claims confiscated germany jews emigrated united_states argentina great_britain palestine countries chose stay continental europe palestine allowed transfer property terms agreement moving countries leave virtually property seized government persecution groups like jews people subjected persecution early days regime non race forbidden marry people german extraction shipped concentration camps starting killed large numbers action programme systematic murder physically mentally handicapped patients psychiatric hospitals mainly took place continued end war initially victims shot addition gas chambers gas carbon early provisions law july nazi regime carried compulsory individuals labelled having hereditary defects half people considered mentally included people scored poorly intelligence tests expected standards behaviour sexual behaviour mentally physically ill people targeted majority victims came groups prostitutes poor homeless criminals groups persecuted killed included witnesses social members political religious opposition holocaust germany war east based hitler long standing view jews great enemy german people needed germany expansion hitler focused attention eastern_europe aiming defeat poland soviet_union remove kill resident jews process occupation poland jews living general government confined physically fit required perform compulsory labour hitler decided destroy polish nation completely planned years section poland german occupation cleared ethnic poles german colonists million poles remain slaves slave labour force million nazis intended create citizens conquered nations east general plan east called population occupied eastern_europe soviet_union siberia use slave labour murdered determine killed created system classification people deemed german blood ordered descent refused classified ethnic germans deported concentration camps children taken away assigned forced labour plan included kidnapping children deemed traits presumed german descent goal implement conquest soviet_union invasion failed hitler consider options suggestion mass forced jews poland palestine madagascar time failed offensive moscow december hitler resolved jews europe immediately plans total jewish population europe million people conference january worked death rest killed implementation die der final solution jewish question initially victims killed gas firing squads methods proved operation scale killing centres concentration camp nazi camps replaced primary method mass killing total number jews murdered war estimated million people including million children million people forced labour german citizens despite later denial access information happening soldiers returning occupied territories report seen evans states german citizens disapproved genocide polish citizens tried rescue hide remaining jews members polish underground got word government exile london happening addition eliminating jews nazis planned reduce population conquered territories million people starvation action called hunger plan food supplies diverted german_army german civilians cities razed land allowed return forest german colonists hunger plan led starvation million people soviet_union partially fulfilled plans resulted deaths estimated million civilians prisoners war oppression ethnic poles german occupation poland million ethnic poles killed axis powers polish civilians subject forced labour german industry wholesale way german colonists mass executions german authorities engaged systematic effort destroy polish culture national identity operation university professors members polish arrested executed transported concentration camps war poland lost estimated percent physicians percent lawyers percent teachers percent scientists university professors percent clergy percent poland educational research institutions percent museums destroyed soviet war june january axis powers killed estimated million soviet prisoners war death held open air soviet_union lost million people war million combat deaths population killed wounded society education legislation passed led removal jewish teachers professors officials education system teachers required belong national socialist teachers league university professors required join national socialist german teachers oath loyalty obedience hitler failed sufficient party ideals reported students fellow teachers dismissed lack funding salaries led teachers leaving profession average class size increased resulting teacher shortage frequent contradictory issued minister interior ministry education agencies content lessons acceptable textbooks use primary secondary schools books deemed unacceptable regime removed school libraries national socialist thought compulsory january students selected future members party elite age adolf_hitler schools primary education national political education secondary education detailed national socialist future holders elite military rank undertaken order castles primary secondary education focused racial biology population policy culture geography especially physical fitness curriculum subjects including biology geography altered change focus race military education central component physical education education physics oriented subjects military applications students required watch films prepared school division ministry public enlightenment propaganda universities appointments posts subject power struggles education ministry university boards national socialist german students league spite pressure league government university professors changes lectures nazi period especially true universities located catholic regions german universities declined students medical schools rose sharply jewish doctors forced leave profession medical graduates good job prospects university students required attend frequent time consuming military training sessions run year students serve months labour camp national labour service additional weeks service required second year students oppression churches percent population germany protestant nazis seized power process hitler attempted create unified protestant church germany existing protestant churches ultimate goal churches germany pro nazi installed bishop german christians pro nazi pressure group gained control new church objected old testament jewish origins demanded converted jews barred church pastor martin responded formation church opposed nazi regime church protested nazi policy religion arrested resigned hitler appointed minister church affairs continue efforts control church envoy protested hitler religious human rights abuses hundreds arrested church continued resist early hitler abandoned hope uniting protestant churches church banned july arrested confined concentration camp theological universities closed arrested persecution catholic_church germany followed nazi takeover hitler moved quickly eliminate political catholicism rounding catholic aligned people party catholic centre party non nazi political parties ceased exist july treaty vatican signed amid continuing harassment church germany treaty required regime honour independence catholic institutions prohibited clergy involvement politics hitler routinely disregarded closing catholic institutions functions strictly religious clergy lay leaders targeted thousands arrests ensuing years charges currency smuggling high profile catholic lay leaders targeted night long knives catholic youth groups refused dissolve hitler youth leader von encouraged members attack catholic boys streets propaganda campaigns claimed church corrupt restrictions placed public meetings catholic publications faced censorship catholic schools required reduce religious instruction removed state buildings pope mit burning concern smuggled germany passion sunday read pulpit denounced systematic hostility regime church response renewed regime crackdown propaganda catholics schools dropped sharply schools disbanded converted public facilities later catholic protests included march pastoral letter german bishops struggle christianity church percent catholic priests disciplined police nazi era vast security network activities clergy priests frequently denounced arrested sent concentration camps dedicated clergy barracks areas poland annexed nazis instigated brutal suppression systematic catholic_church health nazi_germany strong anti tobacco movement pioneering research demonstrated link tobacco smoking lung cancer health office took measures try limit smoking including producing lectures pamphlets smoking banned trains duty members military government agencies worked control substances general public health campaign water supplies cleaned lead mercury removed consumer products women urged undergo regular screenings breast cancer government run health care insurance plans available jews denied coverage starting year jewish doctors forbidden treat government patients jewish doctors forbidden treat non jewish patients right practice medicine removed entirely medical experiments performed concentration camp inmates beginning notorious doctor perform medical experiments camp doctor victims died intentionally killed concentration camp inmates available purchase companies drug testing experiments role women family women cornerstone nazi social policy nazis opposed feminist movement claiming creation jewish intellectuals instead advocated society german woman recognise world husband family children home soon seizure power feminist groups shut incorporated national socialist women league organisation coordinated groups country promote household activities courses offered cooking league published approved women magazine nazi_germany despite propaganda aspects predominantly ordinary woman magazine women encouraged leave workforce creation large families racially suitable women promoted propaganda campaign women received bronze award known der cross honour german mother giving birth children silver gold large families received subsidies help utilities school fees household expenses measures led increases birth rate number families having children declined percent removing women workforce intended effect freeing jobs men women employed domestic servants food drink industries jobs interest men nazi philosophy prevented large numbers women hired work munitions factories build war foreign labourers brought war started slave labourers extensively january hitler signed decree requiring women age report work assignments help war effort women agricultural industrial jobs september million women working munitions production nazi regime discouraged women seeking higher education nazi leaders held conservative views women endorsed idea rational theoretical work alien woman nature considered inherently emotional engaging academics divert number women allowed universities dropped drastically law passed april limited number females admitted university percent number male attendees female secondary schools dropped number women enrolled post secondary schools dropped requirement men enlisted armed forces war women comprised half post secondary system women expected strong healthy vital peasant woman worked land bore strong children considered ideal athletic women praised working outdoors organisations created nazi values march membership hitler youth compulsory children age young girls league section hitler youth girls age league german girls young women age activities focused physical education activities running long jumping walking marching swimming nazi regime promoted liberal code conduct sexual matters sympathetic women bore children increased war progressed unmarried soldiers involved women simultaneously case married women soldiers civilians slave labourers sex obtain example better work foreign pamphlets german women avoid sexual relations foreign workers danger blood hitler approval intended new society nazi regime illegitimate particularly children fathered members racial purity hope family children fountain life association founded created series homes single mothers accommodated parents examined racial acceptance resulting children adopted families homes available wives members quickly filled half available spots existing laws banning abortion medical reasons strictly enforced nazi regime number declined year start 1930s fewer year end decade law passed allowing reasons nazi society elements supportive animal rights people fond wildlife government took measures ensure protection animals environment nazis enacted stringent animal protection law impact allowed medical research law loosely enforced spite ban ministry interior readily handed permits experiments animals forestry office enforced regulations required plant wide variety trees ensure suitable habitat wildlife new animal protection act law regime enacted nature protection act protect natural landscape excessive economic development act allowed privately owned land create nature preserves aided long range planning efforts curb air pollution little enforcement existing legislation undertaken war began culture regime promoted concept national german ethnic community goal build society based racial purity perceived need prepare warfare conquest struggle german labour founded strength joy organisation addition taking control tens thousands previously privately run recreational clubs offered highly holidays entertainment experiences cruises vacation destinations concerts chamber culture organised control propaganda ministry september sub chambers set control aspects cultural life films radio newspapers fine arts music theatre literature members required join respective organisation jews people considered politically unreliable prevented working arts emigrated books scripts approved propaganda ministry prior publication standards deteriorated regime sought use cultural outlets exclusively propaganda media radio popular germany 1930s percent households owning receiver country radio station deemed undesirable july propaganda speeches typical radio fare immediately seizure power time went insisted music played people turn foreign broadcasters entertainment media newspapers controlled state press chamber shutting buying newspapers publishing houses thirds newspapers magazines directly owned propaganda ministry daily newspaper ethnic observer edited alfred author myth twentieth century book racial theories superiority controlled wire services insisted newspapers germany publish content favourable regime propaganda ministry issued dozen week exactly news published angles use typical newspaper followed closely newspaper readership partly decreased quality content partly surge popularity radio authors books left country wrote material highly critical regime exile recommended remaining authors concentrate books themed myths concept blood soil end thousand books jewish authors featuring jewish characters banned nazi regime hitler took personal interest architecture worked closely state architects paul albert create public buildings style based roman architecture constructed imposing structures nazi party rally grounds new building berlin hitler plans rebuilding berlin included gigantic dome based rome arch double height arc paris structures built hitler felt abstract modern art opinion basis policy art museum directors lost posts replaced party members modern works art removed museums replaced works chosen nazi jury exhibitions rejected pieces titles art launched sixteen different cities art exhibition organised ran munich july november exhibition proved wildly popular attracting million visitors composer richard appointed president music chamber founding november case art forms nazis musicians deemed racially acceptable approve music modern jazz music singled especially inappropriate foreign musicians genre left country expelled hitler favoured music richard wagner especially pieces based myths heroic stories attended festival year movies popular germany 1930s 1940s billion people german regulations restricting currency exports impossible american film makers profits america major film studios closed german branches exports german films heavily content impossible countries largest film companies film purchased propaganda ministry producing german films productions overtly generally political followed party lines themes content scripts pre censored triumph documenting rally covering summer olympics pioneered techniques camera movement editing influenced later films new techniques lenses cameras mounted tracks employed films remain controversial aesthetic merit national socialist ideals legacy allied powers organised war crimes trials beginning trials held november october nazi officials charged counts conspiracy commit crimes crimes peace war crimes crimes humanity violation international laws governing warfare defendants found guilty sentenced death victorious allies outlawed subsidiary organisations display use nazi symbolism flags illegal germany austria restrictions mainly public display apply countries post details nazi ideology actions taken regime universally regarded immoral hitler holocaust symbols evil modern world interest nazi_germany continues media academic world historian sir richard evans remarks era universal appeal racism stands warning humanity nazi era continues inform germans view country virtually family suffered losses war story tell years germans kept quiet experiences felt sense communal guilt directly involved war crimes study nazi_germany introduced school curriculum starting 1970s people began researching experiences family members study era willingness critically examine mistakes led development strong democracy today germany lingering neo nazi thought historiography memory art david politics nazi past germany austria new_york london cambridge_university press holocaust origins implementation aftermath new_york max forgotten land journeys ghosts east prussia new_york unification german past london allen evans richard history memory excerpt text search evans richard hitler recent historiography historical journal evans richard german history unification new_york fisher wall germany germans history new_york simon germany nazi past politics amnesty integration new_york columbia_university press haunted city nazi past new haven yale_university press role nazi nazi party activity propaganda regional study leo institute divided memory nazi past cambridge harvard_university press john john explaining hitler germany historians academic educational ltd years historians journal contemporary history removing nazi stain quarrel german historians german studies review hitler germans new_york oxford_university press johnson knew terror mass murder everyday life nazi_germany new_york basic books nazi dictatorship problems perspectives interpretation new_york london academic victor language new_york london thomas german generation new haven london yale_university press search germany refugee historians nazi_germany contested historical legacy resistance hitler central european history christian essential readings hart german generals talk new_york low alfred holocaust german historiography mid-1980s east european brutal history allied occupation new_york basic books daniel projecting hitler representations adolf_hitler english language film thesis university online charles past history holocaust german national identity cambridge harvard_university press michael holocaust history new_york bill facing nazi past united germany legacy john gray zones ambiguity compromise holocaust aftermath new_york oxford books potter historiography music central european history today view second world war german discourse historical journal companion nazi_germany stern known new_york taylor frederick hitler occupation germany new_york berlin press simon making sense interpretations manchester university press


polish prussian alliance polish lithuanian prussian alliance mutual defense alliance signed march warsaw representatives polish lithuanian commonwealth kingdom prussia signed brief period prussia seeking ally austria russia commonwealth seeking guarantees able carry significant governmental reforms foreign intervention beginning alliance valuable commonwealth prussia soon treaty signed international situation changes commonwealth treaty valuable prussian commonwealth embarked series major internal reforms seeing alliance guarantee backing powerful neighbor process fact prussia felt reforms best interest felt threatened russia invaded commonwealth prussia refused request honor alliance intervene arguing consulted regard 3rd constitution alliance months later prussia aided russia suppression uprising background polish lithuanian commonwealth known republic poland major european power formation late 16th century largest states european continent 18th century time state machinery increasingly dysfunctional early 17th century poland lithuania controlled state managed ensure reforms carried weaken privileged status called golden freedoms tentative reforms began late 18th century idea reforming commonwealth viewed suspicion neighboring countries content state commonwealth affairs thought democratic power borders commonwealth army numbering easy neighbors intervene directly imperial russian army numbered prussian army imperial austrian army powers annexed commonwealth territory population square kilometers million people partition poland events world appeared play hands poland neighbors occupied wars intervene forcibly poland russia austria engaged hostilities ottoman_empire russo turkish war austro turkish war russians found fighting sweden russo swedish war context austrian empire war ottoman_empire similar russian_empire war polish king august attempted draw poland austro russian alliance seeing war ottomans opportunity strengthen commonwealth internal russian politics plan implemented russia poland turned potential ally triple alliance represented polish diplomatic scene primarily kingdom prussia line reasoning gained support polish politicians adam triple alliance prussia hoping territorial gains baltic region war russia diplomacy commonwealth combination regard balkans triple alliance aimed russian_empire ally austrian empire expectations war alliance russia possibly austria negotiations prussia tried opportunity russian_empire wars ottoman_empire sweden weak commonwealth sphere influence factions commonwealth deemed opportunity shake free decades russian control said prussia expect alliance pass treaty proposed great prussian ambassador october expected cause long fruitless debate outcome ensure weakening russian lesser degree austrian position poland overall prussia alliance poland potential options polish politicians new increasingly available strategy reception prussian proposal exceeded expectations significantly strengthened patriotic party year decided delay taking clear action keeping options open allowing things far prussian diplomat sent warsaw aid prussian playing time requests patriotic party treaty signed need reforms commonwealth government october changing international situation primarily military defeats ottoman_empire suddenly temporarily increased value alliance poland prussia meantime previously anti royalist patriotic party begun drifting closer king february march concrete proposals exchanged warsaw berlin difficulties centered prussian demands threat polish austrian alliance recently brought forward austria caused prussia withdraw demands polish finding difficult accept treaty treaty finally signed march ratified april defensive treaty country promised aid case invaded factors soon reduced value treaty prussia treaty july meant prussia longer considering war austria polish prussian alliance anti russian angle september great despite opposition declared commonwealth territories divided prussia expecting receive commonwealth compensation subsequent treaty commonwealth compensated territorial gains neighbor declaration meant territory traded state commonwealth valuable party prussian long term goals fall winter prussian diplomacy begun negotiations russians abandoning poland attempted offer deal prussia support prince louis charles prussia polish throne frederick william prussia advised friedrich von refused offer profitable prussia interested territorial gains potentially strengthened commonwealth ask return territories lost partition passing constitution officially applauded frederick sent note warsaw caused worry prussia prussian statesman von expressed fears european conservatives poles given coup prussian monarchy voting constitution strong commonwealth likely demand return lands prussia acquired partition finally prussian russian relations stabilized end triple alliance cemented british netherlands prussian russian treaty july triple alliance facto russian demands meantime similar negotiations polish swedish alliance realized fell aftermath treaty january ended russian war ottomans april year coalition wars began forcing prussia bulk forces west deal revolutionary france russia angered poland attempt influence invaded poland time prussian policy set poland discussing aid ministers discussing convince austria prussia new partition prussia aid commonwealth june year mission berlin received confirmation motivated grounds constitution changed polish state prussia consider obligations binding prussian foreign minister friedrich von clearly rare told prussia support constitution initially allow polish russian reconciliation help prussian interest state commonwealth strengthened threaten prussia future january prussian corps entered greater poland commonwealth ally instead guarantee prussia share second partition poland prussian forces acting support prussian russian treaty partition month subsequently prussian forces assisted russians key battles uprising defeat forces battle commonwealth cease exist prussia acquiring territories desired prussian partition historiography issue polish prussian alliance subject comprehensive study early 1890s polish historian published work subject focusing diplomatic international aspects argued alliance fell polish diplomacy prussian agenda view supported majority historians noted admits time declaring sharing minority viewpoint question degree alliance realistic degree represented prussian diplomatic commonwealth politicians debated modern historians similarly noted advantages alliance debated historians century


scotland modern era scotland modern era end beginnings 18th century present day played major economic military political history united_kingdom british_empire europe recurring issues status scotland status identity dominated political debate scotland major contribution intellectual life europe particularly enlightenment producing major figures including economist adam smith philosophers francis david scientists william joseph black james 19th century major figures included james james clerk lord sir walter scott scotland economic contribution empire industrial revolution included banking system development cotton coal mining extensive railway network changes agriculture society led largely rural highlands migration towns mass immigration scots major contribution development countries including canada australia new_zealand 20th century scotland played major role british allied effort world wars began suffer sharp industrial decline going periods considerable political instability decline particularly acute second half 20th century compensated degree development extensive oil industry technological manufacturing growing service sector period increasing debates place scotland united_kingdom rise scottish national party referendum establishment scottish parliament edinburgh late 18th century 19th century advent union england demise thousands scots mainly took positions power politics civil service army navy trade economics colonial enterprises areas nascent british_empire historian notes entirely new level participation scots political life particularly outside scotland states far peripheral british economy scotland precisely lay core politics scottish politics late 18th century 19th century dominated successors liberal party scottish reform act increased number scottish mps significantly widened franchise include middle classes end century managed gain majority westminster parliamentary seats scotland outnumbered larger number english welsh conservatives english educated scottish peer lord led coalition government general scots held office government mid century increasing calls home rule scotland conservative lord salisbury prime minister responded pressure attention paid scottish issues reviving post secretary state scotland appointed duke richmond wealthy landowner chancellor university lord lieutenant end century scottish liberal prime minister earl like product english education system later 19th century issue irish home rule led split liberals minority breaking away form liberal growing importance working classes marked success mid election leading foundation scottish labour_party absorbed independent labour_party leader main unit local government parish church elders imposed public humiliation locals considered immoral behaviour including wife beating breaking main focus poor gentry servants subject parish discipline system weakened disappeared places 1850s enlightenment 18th century scottish enlightenment brought country intellectual achievement europe country western_europe scotland economic benefits free trade british_empire intellectual benefits highly developed university system twin scottish began questioning assumptions previously taken granted scotland traditional connections france enlightenment scots began developing uniquely practical branch extent said look scotland ideas civilization major philosopher scottish enlightenment francis held chair philosophy university glasgow moral philosopher produced alternatives ideas thomas major contributions world thought principle virtue provides words greatest happiness greatest numbers incorporated scientific method nature knowledge evidence experience modern attitudes relationship science religion developed david adam smith major figure philosophical traditions philosophy scottish enlightenment developed called science man expressed historically works authors including james adam john william merged scientific study humans behave ancient primitive cultures strong awareness determining forces modern largely originated movement adam smith developed published wealth nations work modern economics immediate impact british economic policy frames 21st century discussions focus scottish enlightenment ranged intellectual economic matters specifically scientific work william physician chemist james anderson joseph black physicist chemist james modern scottish enlightenment traditionally considered concluded end 18th century large scottish contributions british science letters continued years thanks figures james james william james clerk lord sir walter scott religion late 18th 19th centuries saw church scotland created reformation prompted issues government patronage reflected wider division moderate party fears acceptance enlightenment ideas legal right lay patrons present choice local ecclesiastical led minor church known led creation series churches second lead foundation independent relief church gaining strength evangelical revival later 18th century prolonged years struggle gained control general_assembly passed veto act allowed congregations reject unwanted presentations patrons following years conflict legal political ended defeat non civil courts result church non led thomas known great disruption roughly clergy mainly north highlands formed separate free church scotland late 19th century major debates theological liberals rejected literal interpretation bible resulted split free church rigid broke away form free presbyterian church moves reunion beginning unification churches united church united relief church form united presbyterian church turn joined free church removal legislation lay patronage allowed majority free church rejoin church scotland left small denominations including free remnant free church century catholicism reduced fringes country particularly speaking areas highlands islands conditions grew worse catholics catholicism reduced little poorly run mission catholic emancipation influx large numbers irish immigrants particularly famine years late 1840s principally growing lowland centres like glasgow led transformation fortunes despite opposition roman catholic ecclesiastical hierarchy restored country catholicism significant scotland important retained supporters civil wars changes regime 17th century given support early 18th century suffered decline fortunes revived 19th issue succession established episcopal church scotland autonomous organisation communion church_of_england baptist methodist churches appeared scotland 18th century begin significant growth 19th century partly radical evangelical traditions existed church scotland free churches joined evangelical salvation army attempted major growing urban centres industrial revolution industrial revolution scotland commercial industrial centres british_empire england abolished potential trade scottish merchants considerable especially colonial america economic benefits union slow appear primarily scotland poor exploit opportunities greatly expanded free market scotland poor rural agricultural society population million progress visible sales cattle england cash flows military service tobacco trade dominated glasgow belonging glasgow tobacco lords fastest ships route virginia merchants american trade began investing leather iron coal sugar rope setting foundations city emergence leading industrial centre tobacco trade collapsed american revolution sources cut british blockade american ports trade west_indies began loss tobacco business reflecting extensive growth cotton industry british demand sugar demand west_indies herring goods glasgow merchants specialised sugar cotton west_indies interests purchasing west indian plantations scottish estates cotton mills self hazards trade incident bankruptcy changing complexity glasgow economy scotland premier industry 18th century formed basis later cotton industries scottish industrial policy board trustees fisheries scotland sought build economy competitive england england meant encouraged board trustees compete german products merchant dominant stages manufacturing built market share scottish especially american colonial market british company established largest firm scottish industry 18th century england america joint stock company right raise funds issue notes bonds bonds functioning bank notes company gradually moved business lending manufacturers early banking main activity renamed british bank scotland premier banks bought bank scotland joined established scottish banks bank scotland edinburgh royal bank scotland edinburgh glasgow soon follow scotland financial system end century branches amounting office people double level england banks lightly regulated england historians emphasise flexibility scottish banking system contributed significantly rapid development economy 19th century important industry west scotland especially spinning weaving cotton flourished american_civil_war cut supplies raw cotton industry recovered time scotland developed heavy industries based coal iron resources invention hot blast iron scottish iron industry result scotland centre engineering production locomotives end 19th century steel production largely replaced iron production coal mining major industry continued grow 20th century producing fuel heat homes factories drive steam engines locomotives coal miners scotland stereotype emerged early scottish non religious socially isolated life style resembled coal miners strong emphasis group solidarity support radical labour movements britain world leader construction railways use expand trade coal supplies successful locomotive powered line scotland opened good passenger service established late 1840s excellent network freight lines reduce cost shipping coal products manufactured scotland competitive britain example railways opened london market scottish beef milk enabled angus cattle breed worldwide reputation scotland societies europe industrial belt ran country southwest northeast counties contained cent population glasgow river clyde major centre glasgow largest cities world known second city empire london river clyde glasgow points began small yards opened scott family shipyard shipyards specialised iron steel rapidly replaced wooden sailing vessels merchant fleets battle fleets world world pre eminent centre industry quality river shipyards given contracts warships prestigious liners reached peak years output ships completed world war industrial developments brought work wealth rapid housing town planning provision public health pace time living conditions towns cities bad high infant mortality growing rates tuberculosis companies attracted rural workers immigrants catholic ireland inexpensive company housing dramatic upward inner city policy led owners support government sponsored housing programs self help projects respectable working class highlands modern historians suggest economic social change clan system highlands declining time failed rising aftermath british government enacted series laws attempted speed process including ban bearing arms wearing limitations activities church legislation repealed end 18th century threat subsided soon process rehabilitation highland culture adopted highland regiments british_army poor joined large numbers end napoleonic wars 19th century largely abandoned ordinary people 1820s romantic revival adopted members social elite scotland europe international highlands set cycle published scottish poet james sir walter scott novels helped scottish life history staging royal visit king george scotland king wearing resulted massive demand met scottish industry designation individual clan largely defined period major symbol scottish identity fashion things scottish maintained queen_victoria help secure identity scotland tourist resort popularity fashion highland enthusiasm led design patterns victoria named castle major royal residence despite changes highlands remained poor traditional connections scottish enlightenment little role industrial revolution handful powerful families owned best lands controlled local political legal economic affairs late families owned nearly half land scotland particularly end boom created revolutionary napoleonic wars needed cash maintain position london society need soldiers turned money displaced farmers raise sheep traditional relationship historically sustained clans exacerbated repeal corn laws mid century britain adopted free trade policy grain imports america undermined crop production result changes highland population highlands suffered forced displacement lands enclosed principally sheep farming followed patterns agricultural change particularly notorious result late timing lack legal protection year year tenants scots law change traditional clan system brutality result continuous exodus land cities england canada america australia remained poor families living small rented farms indefinite tenure raise crops animals fishing spinning military service important sources revenue traditional landed interests held politically face rapidly growing urban middle classes electoral reforms mid century far reaching scotland england unequal concentration land ownership remained emotional subject eventually cornerstone liberal politically powerless poor embraced popularly oriented evangelical presbyterian revival free church evangelical movement led lay came lower strata preaching critical established order religious change separated helped prepare successful violent challenge 1880s highland land league violence began isle highland cleared lands sheep deer parks government stepped passing holdings scotland act reduce guarantee tenure break large estates provide homeless independent candidates elected parliament listened pleas results included explicit security scottish legal right descendants creating commission political movement faded away liberal party gained votes emigration population scotland grew steadily 19th century census growth industry insufficient good jobs result period million scots emigrated north_america australia scots relocated england 21st century people scottish canadians scottish americans million remaining scotland scots born migrants played leading role foundation principles united_states john john paul jones andrew canada john james murray tommy douglas australia thomas brisbane andrew fisher new_zealand james peter education legacy reformation scotland aim having school parish act scottish parliament reinforced rural communities obliged local landowners provide pay ministers local oversaw quality education scottish towns schools operated local councils effects extensive network schools growth democratic myth 19th century created widespread belief able rise system high office literacy widespread scotland neighbouring states particularly england historians accept boys able pursue route social advancement literacy noticeably higher comparable nations education parish schools basic short attendance compulsory disruption undermined tradition parish schools state began fund buildings grants funding schools direct sponsorship scotland moved system like england state sponsored largely free schools run local school boards overall administration hands later scottish education department london education compulsory thirteen new board schools built larger urban school boards established higher grade secondary schools cheaper alternative schools scottish education department introduced leaving certificate examination set national standards secondary education school fees abolished creating state funded national system free basic education common examinations scottish universities oriented clerical legal training religious political 17th century recovered lecture based curriculum able embrace economics science offering high quality liberal education sons nobility gentry helped universities major centres medical education scotland forefront enlightenment thinking mid 19th century historic university glasgow leader british higher education providing educational needs youth urban commercial classes upper class prepared students non commercial careers government law medicine education ministry smaller group careers science engineering scottish universities admit women literature scotland increasingly adopted english language wider cultural norms literature developed distinct national identity began enjoy international reputation laid foundations interest older scottish literature leading trend pastoral poetry helping develop stanza poetic form james scottish poet gain international reputation claiming found poetry written published translations acquired international popularity proclaimed celtic equivalent classical written translated european languages deep appreciation natural beauty melancholy treatment ancient legend single work bring romantic movement european especially german literature influencing eventually clear poems direct translations adaptations suit aesthetic expectations audience robert burns walter scott highly influenced cycle burns poet lyricist widely regarded national poet scotland major figure romantic movement making original compositions burns collected folk songs scotland adapting poem song sung day year scots served long time unofficial national anthem country scott began poet collected published scottish ballads prose work called historical novel launched highly successful career probably helped define scottish cultural identity late 19th century number scottish born authors achieved international robert louis work included urban gothic strange case played major developing historical adventure books like kidnapped treasure island arthur conan holmes stories helped found tradition detective fiction tradition end century brought elements fantasy folklore fashion seen work figures like famous creation peter pan george works including played major creation fantasy genre art architecture scotland era produced significant british artists architects influence italy particularly significant scottish artists architects known travelled period painters early eighteenth century remained largely like members family james sons painted houses scottish landscapes italian dutch landscapes painters hamilton brothers john alexander jacob david began tradition artists european significance spending considerable portions careers outside scotland varying degree influenced forms shift attitudes romantic view highlands end 18th century major impact scottish art romantic depictions seen work 18th century artists including jacob alexander generation artists including portraits henry landscapes alexander john royal scottish academy art created allowing professional painters easily exhibit sell works andrew david successful portrait painters tradition highland landscape painting continued figures joseph william born william emerged significant figures art education united_kingdom glasgow school developed late 19th century flourished early 20th century produced distinctive blend influences including celtic revival arts crafts movement found favour modern art world continental europe helped define art style prominent members loose collective acclaimed architect charles wife painter glass artist margaret sister artist husband artist teacher scotland produced significant british architects 18th century including campbell james james john robert adam william chambers created work degree looked classical models edinburgh new town focus classical building boom scotland mid eighteenth century laid according plan rectangular blocks open squares drawn james reputation major centre enlightenment resulted city nicknamed athens north government administration including king works london meant number scottish architects spent careers england major impact georgian architecture early 20th century 20th century scotland major contribution british participation world wars suffered relative economic decline began offset exploitation north_sea oil gas 1970s development new technologies service industries mirrored growing sense cultural political end century culminated establishment separate scottish parliament confines united_kingdom world war election nationalist concern boer war meant conservatives liberal allies gained majority scottish seats time liberals regained election organisations including independent labour_party joined british labour_party chairman conservatives merged usually known conservatives england wales adopted party scotland years world war golden age fisheries landings reached new heights scottish catches dominated europe herring trade accounting british catch high productivity came thanks transition productive steam powered boats rest europe fishing fleets slower powered sails general scottish economy leading growing unemployment political industrial workers world war scotland played major role british effort world war especially provided manpower ships machinery food particularly fish money population million scotland sent men war died combat disease seriously wounded scots cent british population cent national armed forces eventually accounted cent dead concern families standard living men enlist voluntary rates went government guaranteed weekly life survivors men killed disabled shipyards engineering shops west central scotland significant centre arms production empire particularly glasgow poor working living conditions led industrial political unrest end war june german fleet interned scapa_flow scuttled crews avoid ships taken victorious allies inter war period world war liberal party began liberals labour emerged party progressive politics scotland gaining solid following working classes urban result able gain votes middle classes feared revolution setting social geographical electoral pattern scotland late 20th century main parties committed union new nationalist independent political began emerge including national party scotland scottish party joined form scottish national party goal creating independent scotland enjoyed little electoral success westminster system interwar years marked economic rural urban areas high unemployment thoughtful scots main social poor health bad housing long term mass unemployment pointed terminal social economic best downward spiral heavy dependence heavy industry mining central problem offered solutions despair reflected describes widespread sense prepared local business political leaders accept new government economic planning arrived second world war industry expanded war expected continued prosperity instead drastically depression hit economy fully recover skilled especially hard hit alternative uses specialised skills yards went long period decline interrupted second world war temporary expansion war seen emergence radical movement led militant trades john key political figure known red january british government fearful revolutionary uprising deployed tanks soldiers central glasgow liberal stronghold industrial districts switched labour base irish catholic working class districts women especially active building neighbourhood solidarity housing rent issues reds operated labour_party little influence parliament face heavy unemployment workers mood changed passive despair late 1920s emigration young people continued scots cent population estimated left country economic factor push factors included travel adventure pull factors better job opportunities abroad personal networks link basic cultural similarity united_states canada australia government subsidies travel relocation facilitated decision personal networks family friends gone ahead wrote sent money prompted follow scottish renaissance early 20th century new surge activity scottish literature art influenced nationalism known scottish renaissance leading figure movement hugh pseudonym christopher murray attempted revive scots language medium literature poetic works including drunk man looks developing form synthetic scots combined different regional archaic terms writers emerged period treated movement include poets william george blake shepherd lewis playwright james born year period described members single school pursued exploration identity rejecting nostalgia engaging social political issues art significant group emerge 20th century scottish 1920s john duncan francis samuel hunter influenced described scottish modern artists major mechanism post reached scotland inter war period elements scottish renaissance incorporated art figures including stanley influenced william work marked played developing concept scottish renaissance poet hugh attempted introduce elements scottish cultural life bring line contemporary art james patrick edward influenced elements second world war second world war brought renewed prosperity despite extensive bombing cities luftwaffe saw invention radar robert watson battle britain leadership raf fighter command air chief marshal hugh world war scapa_flow served important royal_navy base attacks scapa_flow gave raf fighters successes downing bombers forth east shipyards heavy engineering factories glasgow played key war effort suffered attacks luftwaffe enduring great destruction loss life involved negotiating north west britain scotland played key battle north_atlantic relative proximity occupied norway resulted bus fishing boats helped fled nazis expeditions north_sea assist resistance scotland unusual wartime episode occurred flew possibly intending broker peace deal duke hamilton scottish industry came depression slump dramatic expansion industrial activity absorbing unemployed men women shipyards centre activity smaller industries produced machinery needed british bombers tanks warships agriculture prospered sectors coal mining operating mines near exhaustion real wages adjusted inflation rose cent unemployment temporarily vanished increased income equal distribution food obtained tight system dramatically improved health nutrition average height year olds glasgow increased inches prime minister winston_churchill appointed labour politician tom secretary state scotland february controlled scottish affairs war ended concludes johnson giant figure scottish politics revered day greatest scottish secretary century essence johnson promised powers dictator launched numerous initiatives promote scotland opposed excessive concentration industry english attracted businesses new jobs new scottish council industry set committees deal number social economic problems ranging juvenile sheep farming regulated set prototype national health service new hospitals set expectation large numbers casualties german bombing successful venture setting system electricity water power highlands long standing supporter home rule movement persuaded churchill need counter nationalist threat north border created scottish council state council industry institutions power away postwar present postwar politics period labour_party usually won scottish parliamentary seats losing dominance briefly 1950s support scotland critical labour overall electoral fortunes scottish mps gained electoral victories 20th century number scottish seats represented known conservatives onwards went steady decline onwards fell zero scottish national party gained seat westminster party national prominence 1970s achieving mps referendum unsuccessful achieve support cent electorate despite small majority voted supporting proposal went electoral decline 1980s introduction led conservative government community charge widely known poll tax year rest united_kingdom contributed growing movement return direct scottish control domestic affairs september anniversary battle bridge blair led labour government held referendum issue positive outcome led establishment scottish parliament new scottish parliament building adjacent house edinburgh opened reaching 1970s peak westminster elections success scottish parliamentary elections system mixed member proportional representation official opposition minority government majority government second minority government economics world war scotland economic situation progressively worse overseas competition inefficient industry industrial disputes began change 1970s partly discovery development north_sea oil gas partly scotland moved service based economy discovery giant october signalled scotland major oil producing nation view confirmed shell discovered giant northern north_sea east oil production started field june followed november year took place rapidly 1970s 1980s traditional industries drastically completely closed new service oriented economy emerged replace traditional heavy industries included financial services industry electronics manufacturing twentieth century religion 20th century existing christian denominations joined organisations including churches denominations world war steady overall decline church attendance resulting church denominations census scottish population identified christian declining church scotland largest religious grouping scotland population roman_catholic_church accounted population especially important west central scotland highlands recent years religions established presence scotland mainly immigration higher birth rates ethnic minorities small number converts adherents census islam mainly immigrants south asia buddhism minority include faith small groups organisations actively promote included indicated religion state religion census twentieth century education scottish education system underwent radical change expansion 20th century roman catholic schools brought system retained distinct religious character access schools priests requirement school staff acceptable church school leaving age raised plans raise 1940s ratified increasing numbers stayed elementary education eventually raised result secondary education major area growth inter war period particularly girls stayed time education increasing numbers century new qualifications developed cope changing aspirations economics leaving certificate replaced scottish certificate education ordinary grade grade higher grade higher qualifications basic entry qualification university study centre education system focused scotland ministry education partly moving north finally having headquarters relocated edinburgh new scottish executive set education department enterprise transport lifelong learning department took functions major practice england possible abolition student tuition fees instead retaining system means tested student grants new literature writers emerged second world war followed writing scots including robert sydney smith demonstrated greater interest english language poetry norman george bruce george brown smith lewis wrote poetry prose fiction shaped distinctive island backgrounds poet morgan known translations works wide range european languages scots official national poet appointed inaugural scottish government major scottish post war spark james alexander robin spent lives outside scotland dealt scottish themes spark edinburgh set prime miss jean script film tunes glory successful mass market works included action novels historical fiction younger generation emerged 1960s 1970s included work william 1980s scottish literature enjoyed major revival particularly associated group glasgow writers focused meetings house critic poet teacher philip important movement peter editor books members group come prominence writers included james gray liz tom 1990s major prize winning scottish novels emerged movement included welsh warner gray poor things late late works linked overtly political reaction explored marginal areas experience vivid vernacular language including scots dialect scottish crime fiction major area growth success including christopher particularly success edinburgh inspector novels period saw emergence new generation scottish poets leading figures stage including don robert carol ann glasgow born carol ann named poet woman openly gay poet post modern art important post war artists included anne famous dimensional depictions everyday objects influenced jazz buddhism moved abstract sculptor artist pioneer pop art varied career produced works examined fantasy modern world john mainly focusing coastal communities birth alexander concentrated grouped description scottish realism leading scottish intellectuals 1960s artists associated glasgow school art known new glasgow boys glasgow pups include campbell peter adrian work comic book like quality puts emphasis social commentary 1990s commercially successful artist jack work usually consists figure composition famous painting singing butler cited best selling print britain received little acclaim critics contemporary artists emerging glasgow include douglas gordon working medium installation art susan works sound installations richard wright noted intricate wall paintings painting sexually explicit


kingdom east kingdom east angles old english latin today known kingdom east small independent kingdom angles comprising english counties norfolk suffolk eastern kingdom formed 6th century wake anglo saxon settlement britain ruled 7th 8th centuries fell conquered forming conquered edward elder incorporated kingdom england history kingdom east organized second quarter 6th century listed king east angles followed kings east named semi historical early seventh century east powerful anglo saxon kingdom east kings baptised christian considered experts person buried commemorated ship burial near decades followed death east increasingly dominated powerful kingdom successors killed battle killed circa rule guidance bishop christianity firmly established east killed east ceased independent kingdom briefly independence survived defeated east battle king martyr killed settled permanently east exiled induced east wage disastrous war cousin edward elder succession danish defeats east submitted edward incorporated kingdom england settlement east settled anglo early earlier regions emerged settlement political consolidation angles approximate area territory roman centre close according east angles middle angles descended natives modern germany reference east angles life gregory east angles formed seven kingdoms known post historians scheme henry twelfth century modern historians questioned seven independent kingdoms existed claim political situation complicated pagan rule east angles initially ruled pagan dynasty apparently named early king invention explain means descendants wolf main source information early history kingdom rulers ecclesiastical history provided facts relating chronology east kings length reigns known earliest kings east kingdom organised possible indication original centre royal power concentration ship eastern suffolk north folk south folk existed arrival east kings powerful kings son father according ecclesiastical history brief period early seventh century whilst ruled east powerful kingdoms anglo saxon england described overlord kingdoms south strong defeat kill king battle river idle probably individual honoured ship burial suggested blair strength parallels objects found mound discovered sweden descendants eastern swedish royal family items previously thought come sweden believed england likely swedish origin seventh century anglo saxon christianity successfully established extent displaced east exemplified lack east settlements named old gods east king baptised maintained christian altar time continued worship pagan gods pagan monarchs briefly returned kent essex death east anglo saxon kingdom reigning baptised king death succeeded son soon converted result influence new religion evidently opposed east met death hands pagan years christianity prevailed accession brother step brother baptised exile oversaw establishment east probably later favour brother retired monastery aggression achieved east long dynasty fell victim rising power successors mid seventh early ninth centuries power grew vast region river_thames including east south east zone early defeated killed later saint successor anna anna son killed battle near having eliminated anna challenge rising power subjected east overlord ship east joined campaign ended disastrous defeat battle ally killed king died late 7th 8th centuries east continued overshadowed east king executed took control kingdom brief revival east independence death soon suppressed new king independence east restored successful rebellion led attempt restore control east resulted defeat death successor met end east angles appealed protection acknowledged overlord whilst took control south eastern kingdoms absorbed eighth century east maintain independence viking attacks eventual settlement east invaded danish great army occupied winter quarters secured horses departing returned east attacked forces east defeated killed identified variously near final resting place bury norfolk documented suffolk essex point onwards east effectively ceased independent kingdom having defeated east angles installed puppet kings govern behalf resumed campaigns portion great army remain active defeated alfred great withdrew making peace treaty returned east leadership according historian swiftly adapted territorial including coins addition traditional territory east parts kingdom probably included essex portion come danish control peace treaty alfred absorption kingdom england early tenth century east came increasing pressure edward elder king edward cousin driven exile unsuccessful bid throne arrived essex stay apparently accepted king england induced east wage war edward ended disaster death east battle edward expanded control rest england south establishing essex designed control use river danish position area suddenly collapsed rapid succession defeats culminated loss territories remainder essex danish king probably east killed despite reinforcement overseas danish counter attacks crushed following english subjects edward army advanced east cambridge territory east absorbed kingdom england norfolk suffolk new east tall earl east great restoration ecclesiastical structure region saw east replaced single based north old east dialect east angles spoke old english language historically important settlers arrive britain fifth century according east seriously claim place world english spoken evidence old english comes study texts place names personal names coins smith recognise existence separate old east dialect addition previously recognised saxon acknowledged proposal dialect tentative acknowledging linguistic boundaries original enjoyed prolonged stability east manuscripts old english inscriptions literary records charters survived modern times little evidence support existence old east dialect according study von 1930s recording place names book ultimately based evidence local spoken form anglo saxon places people partly preserved way evidence book later sources suggest dialect boundary existed corresponding line separates neighbours english counties including sparsely inhabited norfolk suffolk geography kingdom east angles bordered north_sea north east river historically dividing east south north_sea provided thriving maritime link scandinavia northern reaches germany according historian richard kingdom western boundary varied rivers westwards far greatest extent kingdom comprised modern day counties norfolk suffolk parts eastern erosion eastern border deposition north coast altered shape east coastline roman anglo saxon times continues today saxon times sea inundated naturally low lying sea levels fell deposited near major river great estuary near castle slowed closed large spit