polish pronunciation coronation sword ceremonies polish monarchs currently display treasure vault royal castle preserved piece medieval polish crown sword characterized decorated magical christian symbols floral patterns narrow blade holds small shield coat arms poland derived polish word meaning gap notch chip rendered english sword sword blade straight smooth edges legend links king brave said sword hitting golden gate ukraine intervention succession crisis golden gate constructed sword actually dated late 12th 13th century coronation sword elbow high looted prussian troops changed hands times 19th century purchased museum saint_petersburg russia soviet_union returned poland world war evacuated canada return 20th century image sword adopted symbol polish nationalist far right movements description long ceremonial sword bearing rich gothic ornamentation dated century classified type sword type type according blade changed shape centuries intensive cleaning coronation consists round flat grip arched grip long thick wide rectangular cross section hard edges difficult handle impractical fighting indicative sword purely ceremonial usage diameter thick outer ring wide forms arch wide middle widens ends thick near grip measures length upper edge silver core grip brass chest blade probably 19th century replace original organic core time head diameter rests atop rectangular measuring parts covered golden plates engraved sharp rounded decorated black metallic contrasts golden background plate thick gold designs include inscriptions written late additions christian symbols floral patterns floral ornaments negative golden black background bears large stylized letter letter decorative element letter greek letters alpha little crosses letter cross placed cloud flower edge design runs circular latin inscription rings reads sign love kings princes wrath judges grip bears symbols lion saint mark saint luke lamb god bears following latin inscription carry names god danger harm reverse decorated vine bush surrounded vine leaves reverse grip eagle saint john angel saint matthew bears pattern vine leaves inscription corrupted hebrew latin script con faith names god opposite ends symbols saints john matthew decorated pattern upper similar triangular pattern narrow sides grip embellished inscribed silver plates lost 19th century lost inscriptions partly known graphical documentation king court painter plates broken time inscription preserved est sword duke inscription plate continued cum quo lord help enemies missing inscription known old replica belonged family historical inscription read est sword hereditary prince duke poland identity duke uncertain use wear analysis indicates plates artist plates grip added later reverse probably decorated workshop tools different plate pattern added 19th century replace lost plates preserved images points time indicate decorative plates times placed variable configurations current composition symbols matches known earliest preserved depiction drafted possible original placement golden plates different symbols saints john matthew grip displayed symbols blade blade long wide thick fuller long average wide analysis shown blade forged semi hard steel apart iron material contains weight percent carbon percent percent elements numerous found steel typical medieval iron technology blade hardened unlike blade fully functional weapon war surface blade covered deep length result intensive cleaning coronation probably sand brick powder inactive spots found entire surface fuller blade largest rectangular slot long wide opening known polish originally caused 19th century polished regular shape small shield colored oil paint slot roughly triangular shape sides measuring shield bearing white eagle poland originally attached gothic golden silver probably created lost shield preserved element left point view today aligned blade eagle red field shield white golden crown bands wings ring tail round holes apart upper slot diameter measures probably punched 19th century shield blade location owned royal castle national art collection inventory number capital city poland preserved polish medieval coronation insignia prominent museum treasury permanent exhibition sword suspended horizontally inside glass case middle vault located ground floor northeastern corner castle history brave historical accounts related early history polish coronation sword mixed legend earliest known use appeared chronicle greater poland turn 14th century according source sword given king brave reigned angel polish kings supposed carry battle triumph enemies invasion hit golden gate capturing city notch appeared edge blade gave sword account written centuries events describes customary reference sword supernatural origin compare intervention succession crisis took place years actual construction golden gate plausible chip sword striking earlier gate great grandson bold hit golden gate sword indicate customary gesture gaining control city possible sword preserved past victories brave successors according chronicle favorite sword called crane copied chronicle added word word swords uncertain according chronicle greater poland sword kept treasury cathedral ultimate fate original unknown taken prague royal insignia king coronation king poland happened insignia remains mystery brave sword preserved existence doubtful legend great impact polish historical memory treatment successor modern sword justice coronation sword sword currently known forged decorated style characteristic late 12th 13th centuries belonged great 11th early 12th centuries additionally purely ceremonial sword unlike original combat originally sword justice insignia sovereign judicial power local poland age silver plate lost sword grip bore inscription indicated duke original owner inscription replica lost provide additional hint duke identity duke poland duke titles existed historians variously identified duke question pious greater poland coronation sword specifically mentioned jan account king probably coronation ceremony king elbow high time reunited core territories poland previously belonged uncle father law pious inherited belonged ruled high poland simply found cathedral integral polish crown shared fate principal ceremonial sword polish kings stephen iii crown removed hill occasions period polish coronation king louis hungary took crown successor hungarian throne emperor rendered poland occasions early 18th centuries evacuated poland southern border protect invading swedish armies war polish succession supporters king concealed warsaw church years prevent iii coronation sent warsaw coronation time returned typical polish coronation ceremony times polish lithuanian commonwealth king elect received crowned poland archbishop picked sword altar handed kneeling king time recited formula asked monarch use sword rule defend church fight evil protect rebuild damaged maintain rebuilt avenge reinforce managed etc king handed sword crown sword bearer slid passed aided crown lithuanian sword king belt king stood facing withdrew times sign cross wiped left arm replacing king sword wielding abilities closely watched new subjects ritual iii betrayed poor fencing skills coronation nobles joked going peaceful lord bishop handed sovereign swords monarch reign constituent nations commonwealth period great polish crown commonly believed date times brave conviction helped maintain sense continuity polish provide legitimacy nation kings making polish monarch successor ancient glorious legacy king house accordingly coronation sword took legend original induced blade associated notch sword power tradition strong court painter detailed studies polish crown painted imaginary portrait brave chose depict appearance agreed legend reality images coronation crown sword overall accurate lacks edge instead foreign hands failed uprising led final partition poland year later prussian troops captured following year king frederick william orders treasure vault castle looted crown taken poland berlin finally russia melted including sale coronation sword acquired future russian minister justice prince probably hoped polish approached general speaker parliament congress kingdom poland prince disclose actual source sword claimed bought moscow armenian merchant found weapon belgrade ruse bulgaria recent russo turkish war known antique weapon collector suspected asked historian warsaw university opinion examined sword unsure actual consequence declined offer ultimately sold prince kept rest collection villa san near florence sword bought french alexander russian ambassador france great art collector displayed world fair paris time lost sword presented origin seen polish visitors speculated polish coronation sword entire collection purchased emperor alexander iii russia museum saint_petersburg polish experts time expressed doubts authenticity held russia largest museum historical international museum congress held saint_petersburg pronounced sword 17th century replica result october revolution russia communist state aftermath world war poland independent country following year states fought polish soviet war concluded peace article peace treaty required soviet return culturally significant collections items removed poland partition special committee set carry cultural goods committee efforts resulted return poland national treasures years deposited castle evacuation world war september days germany invaded poland triggering second world war began evacuation precious national treasures including castle cargo transported barges wagons buses trucks romania shipped sea france later britain way ship carrying polish national treasures came fire luftwaffe oversaw evacuation decided remove chest sandwich wooden attach explanatory message bottle event ship sunk coronation sword salvaged german bombing britain began july transported aboard polish ocean liner canada finally deposited polish locations ottawa war national treasures remained loyal london based polish government exile reluctant return poland fallen communist rule soviet influence lengthy negotiations batch important objects including ultimately returned rest followed polish coronation sword permanent display treasure vault castle historical treasury inventory family castle includes detailed description sword decorated symbols inscriptions identical according inventory gift crown prince prince original source supposed replica given inventory treasure vault family castle ukraine mentions covered golden plates bearing images based record historian replica forged early awarded george national leader albania recognition victory ottoman forces battle king john iii defeated ottomans battle vienna presumably returned sword son possibly passed present doubts swords known years later fact sword castle plundered russian army subsequent fate replica unknown fact cast doubts authenticity held experts suspected sword possessed russian imperial museum fact replica original royal insignia historically notable replica produced probably dresden time original prussian hands modest handle carved bone imitated black paint designs handle patterned genuine crosses letters replaced coat arms polish lithuanian commonwealth blade initially shorter original actually typical purchased dresden art historian edward donated collection university university lost german occupation world war war replica found hands smuggled united_states time short blade replaced long blade 16th century german sword imitate cut blade small shields attached sides communist rule poland polish american community chicago treated replica symbol poland independence demonstrated senator robert kennedy meeting polish americans presidential campaign returned sword university modern symbolism interwar period simplified image wrapped times white red ribbon adopted symbol polish nationalist organizations led roman camp great poland national party polish youth members wore badge called little sword brave symbol left sleeve sand shirt camp great poland uniform politicians wore badge world war roman roman world war badge right wing anti nazi anti soviet military resistance groups national armed forces national military organization fall communism poland symbol new reactivated nationalist far right organizations including league polish families polish youth camp great poland additionally title periodical published minor radical nationalist party national revival poland polish football association attempt fight racism polish football fans prepared common racist fascist symbols banned polish football catalogue authored independent anti fascist organization listed extreme right symbols displayed polish catalogue listed racist fascist symbols like nazi celtic cross confederate flag protest league polish families additional held historians academic researchers experts result symbol listed catalogue extreme right symbols banned polish football banned euro symbolic use bone contention monument ukrainian army mountain southeastern poland authorities ukrainian city demanded removal image local polish military cemetery recalling legendary use original sword polish invasion argued polish nationalist anti ukrainian symbol


maria march wife emperor charles austria empress austria queen hungary queen born seventeenth child robert duke second wife maria portugal married charles austria charles heir emperor joseph austria assassination uncle ferdinand austria throne old emperor death end world war deposed new countries austria czechoslovakia hungary state serbs formed charles left exile switzerland later charles died husband death son served symbols unity exiled dynasty devout catholic raised large family widowed age remarried named honour early life princess born villa italian province unusual given popular italian saint lived 13th century daughter fifth child deposed robert duke second wife maria portugal daughter king portugal adelaide father lost throne result movement italian unification child fathered children marriage maria mentally died young duke robert years later married maria portugal mother second marriage produced children 17th child duke robert children robert moved large family villa large property located castle lower austria mainly residences spent formative years family spent year austria moving winter returning summer took special train sixteen coaches accommodate family belongings siblings raised speak italian french german spanish portuguese english recalled grew internationally father thought foremost spent weeks year elder children main property asked describe replied french princes reigned italy fact children including actually born italy age sent boarding school upper bavaria strict regime study religious instruction summoned home autumn death father maternal grandmother sent sister convent isle complete education brought devout catholics children regularly undertook good works poor family turned surplus cloth clothes personally distributed food clothing sisters time considered following path went patch poor health sent traditional cure european spa years marriage close vicinity castle villa residence maria austria maternal aunt died step grandmother charles austria time second line austrian throne daughters maria austria cousins charles half met children years pursued education regiment stationed der visited aunt visits charles charles pressure marry ferdinand uncle line married children excluded throne suitably royal later recalled course glad meet close friends feelings developed gradually years mind quickly keen autumn rumours spread got engaged distant spanish relative don duke madrid hearing came post regiment sought grandmother maria aunt natural matters asked rumor true told replied better hurry case engaged charles traveled villa asked hand june engagement announced austrian court later years recalled engagement expressed charles worries fate austrian empire challenges monarchy charles married castle october charles great uncle year old emperor joseph attended relieved heir suitable marriage good spirits leading wedding breakfast soon conceived son born november seven children follow decade wife heir austrian throne time charles twenties expect emperor time especially ferdinand remained good health changed june heir wife assassinated nationalists charles received news telegram day said husband beautiful day saw face white sun war followed charles promoted general austrian army taking command 20th corps offensive war personally difficult brothers fought opposing sides conflict prince prince joined austrian army prince prince lived france war enlisted belgian army country birth italy joined war austria rumours italian began late german ambassador vienna count write berlin saying empress descended italian house people entirely trust italian brood relatives joseph request children left residence moved suite rooms palace spent hours old emperor formal informal occasions joseph fears future emperor joseph died pneumonia age november remember dear figure prince going husband later recounted tears eyes making sign cross charles forehead said god majesty time heard imperial title empress queen charles crowned december following coronation banquet festivities ended emperor empress thought wrong prolonged celebrations time war beginning reign charles away vienna telephone line installed charles military headquarters located called times day separated influence husband attend audiences prime minister military special interest social policy military matters sole domain charles energetic strong accompanied husband provinces occupying charitable works hospital visits war wounded affair spring war dragging fourth year brother serving officer belgian army main plan austria-hungary separate peace france charles initiated contact contacts neutral switzerland wrote letter inviting vienna mother maria delivered letter person arrived conditions talks agreed french restoration france annexed germany franco prussian war restoration independence belgium independence kingdom serbia constantinople russia charles agreed principle points wrote letter dated march sent secret unofficial message president france use means personal influence attempt diplomacy eventually germany refused negotiate seeing russian collapse horizon war continued efforts meeting lloyd george london italy territorial demands austria treaty london prime minister persuade generals britain peace austria managed personal achievement time stopping german plans send bomb home king queen belgium days april german russian treaty brest austrian foreign minister count speech attacking incoming french prime minister main obstacle peace favouring central powers seeing emperor charles letter march published life appeared danger fears germany occupy austria persuaded charles send word honour austria allies saying authorised letter french government belgium mentioned lied mentioning actually contact german embassy crisis attempted persuade emperor step affair failing resigned foreign minister end empire time war closing emperor union czech deputies sworn oath new state independent empire april prestige german_army taken severe blow battle september king ferdinand bulgaria broke away allies central powers sued peace independently charles received telegram bulgaria collapse remembered urgent start peace talks western powers talk october emperor issued people manifesto proposing empire federal lines gaining state instead nation broke away empire effectively dissolved leaving children charles travelled palace time ministers appointed new state german austria november emperor prepared manifesto charles sign famous statement sovereign deposed right force fall killed charles gave permission document published family remnants court departed royal shooting lodge close borders hungary slovakia republic german austria pronounced day exile difficult months imperial family received aid unexpected source prince met king george appealed help george reportedly moved request months imperial relatives russia executed revolutionaries promised immediately necessary british_army officers sent help charles notably lieutenant colonel edward grandson lord student university march orders received war office emperor austria delay difficulty managed arrange train switzerland enabling emperor leave country dignity having charles children household left march escorted detachment british soldiers honourable artillery company command hungary exile family home exile castle switzerland property owned swiss authorities worried living near austrian border compelled western country month found moving villa near lake geneva resumed quiet family life abruptly ended march period instability hungary elected regent charles technically king charles sent advising hungary situation treaty ambition soon grew charles concerned requested help colonel hungary charles twice attempted regain control march october attempts failed despite staunch support insisted travelling final dramatic train journey charles temporarily resided castle home count suitable permanent exile found malta possibility declined lord french territory ruled possibility brothers intriguing charles behalf eventually portuguese island chosen october imperial couple taken rail baja royal_navy monitor glow worm waiting finally arrived november children looked castle switzerland charles step grandmother maria managed son robert needed operation children joined parents february death charles charles poor health time going shopping day buy toys struck attack rapidly worsened pneumonia helped inadequate medical care available children staff ill time months pregnant helped nurse charles weakened died april words wife love funeral witness said woman admired second lose greeted people sides spoke helped funeral charm wore mourning black charles memory seven years charles death austrian imperial family soon spain approached british foreign office ambassador london agreed allow seven soon children relocate spain duly sent warship took escorted palace madrid shortly arrival gave birth posthumous child offered exiled relatives use bay appealed want heavy burden state years settled got job raising children lived finances mainly living income private property austria income voluntary collections members exiled dynasty claimed money regular petitions help imperial officials belgium children approaching age attend university family sought educational climate spain september moved belgian village near brussels closer members family continued political lobbying behalf family sounding links italy possibility restoration austrian kurt crown prince visiting austria numerous times abruptly ended annexation austria nazi_germany family took lead resisting nazis austria opposition flight america nazi invasion belgium family war refugees narrowly missed killed direct hit castle german bombers fled prince french castle fled spanish border reaching moved portugal government granted family exit july journey arrived new_york july having family long_island newark new_jersey point children lived long term house guests park new_york austrian imperial refugees eventually settled quebec advantage french speaking younger children fluent english cut european funds finances stretched stage reduced making dishes leaves sons active war effort promoted dynasty role post war europe met regularly franklin roosevelt robert representative london joined united_states_army serving american raised relatives line smuggled austria final days war help organise resistance empress celebrated birthday day peace spend years touring united_states canada raise funds war ravaged austria hungary post war period rest recovery found regularly going europe weddings children decided continent time order look aging mother maria died age bishop proposed residence administered castle counts switzerland castle space visits large family nearby chapel necessity catholic accepted ease occupied final years family restrictions entering austria lifted applied born april meant attend funeral daughter painful involved efforts deceased husband peace emperor restrictions eased returned austria having absent decades years empress visits austrian homeland appearing austrian television series interviews tabloid newspaper expressed belief deaths crown prince austria mistress mary double suicide murder french austrian agents death memorable birthday surrounded vast family strong health began fail developed eyes big family gathering took place children grandchildren joined celebrating empress birthday visiting daughter summer developed pneumonia spent autumn winter finally called early march told dying rest family travelled took turns keeping company died early hours march years old funeral held vienna april government allowed place austrian soil providing cost borne body carried imperial church funeral coach walked funeral emperor joseph attended members families service attendees including leading politicians state officials international representatives including representative pope john paul following ancient custom empress asked heart placed stay monastery switzerland emperor heart rested decades assured death husband remain procession arrived gates imperial herald knocked door traditional admission ceremony introduced majesty empress queen cause december bishop france opened process habit spending months year diocese abbey sisters actor french association pour cause father alexander judge tribunal father promoter justice father titles styles honours arms titles styles october royal princess october november imperial royal princess austria princess hungary princess november november imperial royal majesty empress austria queen hungary november march imperial royal majesty empress austria queen hungary outside austria bar inscribed passport austria honours grand mistress following orders order cross order elizabeth order elizabeth grand mistress orders effective empress children charles emperor austria children thirty grandchildren ancestry


east pagan king east angles actually existed ruled kingdom east 6th century time kingdom established migrants southern jutland peninsula early sources identify member dynasty established east_coast suffolk reign known according east tally son 9th century history lists named king east angles son successor dynasty named claimed version anglo saxon poem evidence finds discovered suggests connection swedish dynasty background thought earliest rulers east independent long lived anglo saxon kingdom established 6th century includes modern english counties norfolk suffolk according clarke migrants southern jutland dominated area southeast suffolk lost time conquering east clarke identified founder dynasty leaders new arrivals east angles tentatively identified old english poem evidence finds conclude originated sweden noting sword helmet shield found ship burial family brought sweden beginning 6th century believed artefacts england agreement scholars dynasty directly linked sweden extent kingdom east angles determined variety sources isolated north east north_sea mainly forests south swamps scattered islands western border main land route east time land corridor ran prehistoric way southern neighbours east angles east middle angles suggested devil near modern time formed kingdom western boundary construction dated 4th 10th centuries established early anglo saxon origin semi historical figure surviving evidence survived actually existed king east angles included ruling dynasty appears east tally important collection anglo saxon laws rochester cathedral registers survived form distinct books bound 13th century according list known collection son son son son son son son god son dynasty named listed according 9th century history man listed line rule king east angles history lists descendants ancestors king east angles according 19th century historian sir francis distortion historians concluded information father founder line despite long list ancestors stretch pagan gods power region established middle 6th century taken founder martin warns material exists draw detailed earliest kings descendants complete family tree linked shortened version father anglo saxon poem strengthening evidence connection dynasty swedish royal dynasty suggested regular form old english names beginning instance form possible according later west saxon notes father linked person named father listed found manuscript laws 7th century king occur bronze excavated cemetery isle possesses inscription reign succession known rule written records survived period east history unknown date succeeded ruling kingdom according chronicler roger date given roger


gilbert 8th earl gloucester gilbert 8th earl gloucester 7th earl 10th lord 5th lord june english nobleman military commander scottish wars contrast english time main focus lay pursuit war domestic political strife son gilbert 7th earl gloucester joan acre daughter edward older gilbert died son years old younger gilbert invested young age sixteen immediately involved defence northern border later drawn struggles edward barons lords ordered expulsion king favourite piers killed return gloucester helped negotiate settlement perpetrators king edward strongest supporters accompanied king campaign scotland nobles refused killed battle june somewhat unclear circumstances gloucester prominent casualties battle ended defeat england issue death marked end prominent family estates divided sisters married king new favourite hugh younger ruthless expansion wales led directly troubles edward later reign including rebellion welsh marches defeat earl lancaster battle eventually deposition king roger queen isabella family background early life gilbert son gilbert 7th earl gloucester known gilbert red married joan acre daughter edward condition marriage earl surrender lands king returned jointly wife lifetime grant condition lands pass couple joint heirs childless joan heirs later marriages younger gilbert born year securing inheritance family father died years later december boy minor joint joan kept custody family lands homage king january year joan secretly married knight late earl household enraged edward marriage plans joan king imprisoned later relented sanctioned marriage previous settlement joan titled new husband earl gloucester lasted life joan died months later gilbert granted inheritance march earl gloucester young age sixteen grant edward succeeded father edward july previously believed edward gilbert brought based confusion person gilbert closer king age fact earl cousin son thomas lord early service edward gilbert years earl predominantly concerned scottish wars personal interest region welsh marches landed interest lay largely time scotland presented good opportunity pursue military glory reward immediately trusted important military commands northern border served warden scotland captain scotland northern marches led expedition relieve castle december war effort pursued intensity edward father new king neglect scottish wars allowed robert bruce regain initiative war situation led frustration english nobility addition scottish issue discontent king treatment favourite piers promotion relative obscurity earl cornwall combined arrogant behaviour caused resentment established nobility gloucester initially hostile married gloucester sister margaret october share frustration edward lack initiative scotland gloucester demanded exile demand king forced meet reconciled king acted agreed return relations king nobility deteriorated return group called lords appointed draft set restrictions rule edward including renewed exile gloucester supporter king initially appointed march death earl lincoln national conflict spite participation reform movement gloucester maintained trust king earl accompany king scottish campaign march workings gloucester appointed guardian realm king scotland signs fallen thomas earl lancaster point leader opposition king feud respective returned exile gloucester sided opposition divided country different parts defence gloucester given charge south june captured guy earl working cooperation lancaster earl custody guaranteed safety king appealed gloucester assistance gloucester refused help killed act brought country brink civil war gloucester men trusted sides able role following months main working agreement king effort temporarily successful gloucester remained inner circle king months summer guardian realm king france february sent france diplomatic mission greatest problem reign remained unresolved conflict scotland resurgence robert bruce summer edward finally embarked major scottish campaign objective protect english garrison castle attack bruce campaign absence greater lancaster number great lords king company including earl gloucester men valuable king ability raise large numbers troops welsh marches june royal army passed miles signs strife gloucester gloucester given command english vanguard position earned loyalty king placed gloucester command believed command belonged capacity hereditary constable england death gloucester involved brief skirmish scots june day main battle king considered camp night engage scots immediately gloucester misunderstanding charged directly place called new park scots english immediately ran difficulties cousin henry killed king robert bruce subsequent retreat gloucester thrown horse managed escape unharmed day english entirely decided course action gloucester took certain experienced captains recommending edward avoid battle day younger men surrounding king labelled advised attack according edward grew angry accused gloucester treason earl replied prove loyalty field battle detailed account earl gloucester death battle chronicle account written moral tale earl heroism conduct companions reason historical accuracy taken caution according accounts gloucester rushed battle pursuit glory fell victim hand claimed earl vigorously trying fend scottish attacks knocked horse killed men failed come rescue likely gloucester precedence contributed chaotic situation according account gloucester rushed battle distinguishing coat arms exposing scottish soldiers eager secure valuable ransom gloucester killed english army soon fell disarray battle resulted victory scots withdrawal english widely agreed gloucester proud family history valuable estates prominent casualties day robert bruce death stood gloucester body local church later allowed transfer england earl buried abbey father right hand dispersal estates aftermath gloucester political importance end death disappearance political scene immediate consequences welsh uncertain situation caused death caused short lived rebellion ireland held large possessions power vacuum left facilitated invasion robert bruce brother edward greatest consequences resulted division estates gilbert married daughter richard earl couple left surviving issue death marked end great family family lands worth second earl lancaster nobility realm lands went royal possession matter inheritance settled lands inherited direct descendants seventh earl joan acre managed postpone proceedings claiming pregnant clear case late earl sisters eleanor margaret widowed death elizabeth married favourites edward hugh younger hugh roger respectively granted equal parts english possessions received entire wales politically important lands content relationship king lands lords caused resentment men roger rose rebellion rebellion crushed resistance continued lords ally thomas lancaster defeated battle executed victory temporarily secured edward position throne eventually deposed roger help king wife queen isabella title earl gloucester recreated edward son edward iii hugh ancestry

Gilbert de Clare, 8th Earl of Gloucester


arthur prince wales arthur tudor september april prince wales earl chester duke cornwall eldest son heir apparent henry vii england arthur viewed contemporaries great hope newly established house tudor mother elizabeth york daughter edward birth cemented union house tudor house york plans arthur marriage began birthday installed prince wales years later grew especially close siblings margaret henry duke york shared age arthur formally catherine daughter powerful catholic monarchs spain effort forge anglo spanish alliance france arthur educated contrary modern belief good health majority life soon marriage catherine couple took residence castle arthur died months later unknown catherine later firmly state marriage year arthur death henry vii renewed efforts sealing marital alliance spain arranging catherine marry arthur brother henry prince wales arthur death paved way henry accession henry_viii potential question arthur catherine marriage later completely different political context exploited henry_viii court cast doubt validity catherine union henry eventually leading separation church_of_england roman_catholic_church infancy henry tudor king england defeating richard iii battle effort strengthen tudor claim throne emphasise family welsh british ancestry henry royal trace lineage ancient british rulers decided naming son legendary king arthur occasion identified present day winchester wife elizabeth york sent saint today winchester cathedral order birth born saint september arthur henry elizabeth eldest child arthur birth anticipated french italian eager start golden age sir francis bacon wrote prince born month premature strong able young arthur viewed living symbol union house tudor house york end wars roses opinion contemporaries arthur great hope newly established house tudor arthur duke cornwall birth days birth baby baptised winchester cathedral bishop worcester john baptism immediately followed confirmation john 13th earl oxford thomas stanley 1st earl derby william 16th earl queen elizabeth york served carried prince ceremony initially arthur nursery headed elizabeth served chief nurse edward children including arthur mother arthur created prince wales awarded household structure behest father thirteen years henry vii elizabeth children margaret henry mary reach adulthood arthur especially close sister margaret brother henry shared nursery november knight bath arthur appointed prince wales earl chester invested palace westminster february ceremony progressed river_thames royal barge met lord mayor london john spanish ambassadors knight saint george chapel windsor palace time arthur began formal education john winchester college education subsequently taken bernard blind poet thomas henry vii physician arthur education covered grammar poetry rhetoric ethics focused history arthur skilled pupil wrote prince wales read selection homer good deal wide span historical works including arthur superb archer learned dance right pleasant childhood popular belief arthur lifetime stems victorian misunderstanding letter contrary reports arthur ill lifetime arthur grew unusually tall age considered handsome spanish court reddish hair small eyes high nose resembled brother henry said extremely handsome contemporaries described historians arthur gentle personality overall delicate arthur created warden marches scotland earl surrey appointed prince deputy arthur named peace commissions october father travelled france named keeper england king lieutenant following example edward henry vii set council wales marches arthur wales order enforce royal authority council set headed tudor duke arthur dispatched wales age march arthur granted power appoint justices franchises strengthening council authority november year prince received extensive land grant wales including county march arthur served sons english irish welsh nobility 9th earl brought english court consequence involvement father 8th earl ireland henry vii reign servants anthony son robert 1st baron broke robert heir 9th baron john favourite nephew arthur grandmother lady margaret brought thomas son powerful welsh nobleman thomas grew close arthur buried worcester cathedral death alongside prince tomb marriage henry vii planned marry arthur daughter catholic monarchs isabella ferdinand order forge anglo spanish alliance france suggested choice marrying arthur ferdinand isabella youngest daughter catherine appropriate treaty del march provided arthur catherine married soon reached canonical age settled catherine crowns equivalent million arthur age consent papal allowing marriage issued february pair august years later marriage took place arthur manor near worcester arthur said acted catherine contract marriage deep sincere love princess letter october arthur referring catherine written tell earnest desire feel coming let love conceived wished proper fruit young couple exchanged letters latin september arthur having attained age deemed old married catherine landed england weeks later october plymouth month november couple met time hampshire arthur wrote catherine parents true loving husband couple soon discovered mastered different latin unable communicate days later november catherine arrived london november marriage ceremony finally took place saint paul cathedral arthur catherine wore white ceremony conducted henry archbishop_of_canterbury assisted william bishop london following ceremony arthur catherine left cathedral headed castle entertained best voiced children king chapel sang right harmony followed ceremony laid arthur grandmother lady margaret bed holy water catherine led away wedding feast ladies waiting laid bed arthur shirt gown cast escorted gentlemen played bishop london blessed bed prayed marriage couple left public royal couple recorded britain 16th century death residing manor month arthur catherine headed marches wales established household castle arthur growing weaker wedding catherine reluctant follow ordered henry vii join husband arthur found easy govern wales border quiet centuries warfare march arthur catherine afflicted unknown illness proceeded air catherine recovered arthur died april months short sixteenth birthday news arthur death reached henry vii court late april king sleep quoted job asking henry receive good things hands god endure evil things told king son departed god henry burst tears grief stricken emotional wife brought chambers painful news elizabeth reminded henry god helped king preserved adding left fair prince fair god young soon leaving henry elizabeth collapsed began cry ladies sent king came relieved april general procession took place salvation arthur soul night sung paul cathedral parish church london april arthur body previously holy water sheltered canopy carried castle parish church gentlemen april arthur body taken worcester cathedral river special wagon black drawn horses black customary catherine attend funeral earl surrey acted chief end ceremony sir william sir richard arthur household broke office threw prince grave funeral arthur arms shown alongside years later erected arthur grave legacy shortly arthur death idea widowed catherine new heir henry arisen king isabella keen moving forward pope granted end originally rejecting idea henry announced succession april marry catherine wedding took place june catherine bore henry children sons died reaching months age daughter lived week couple surviving child mary eighteen years marriage henry started pursue affections anne sister mistress mary time troubled known king great matter finding appropriate solution lack male descendants found possible options attempted illegitimate son henry easy require pope intervention married daughter mary hoped grandson seen real option mary child unlikely conceive henry death finally reject catherine marry bride likely bear children probably seeing possibility marrying anne ultimately viable option henry soon king wish dissolve marriage henry believed marriage cursed found confirmation bible morning following wedding arthur claimed midst spain night having wife good claims generally dismissed modern historians mere boasts boy want know failure catherine maintained claim married henry virgin day died henry constant support claim catherine marriage issued april king married anne january anne beheaded high treason henry proceeded marry times time death henry living children son edward succeeded died years later successors henry daughters catherine anne mary elizabeth elizabeth death male line house tudor came end following initiative canon arthur funeral requiem mass worcester cathedral occasion death despite role english history arthur remained largely forgotten death popular culture arthur featured historical fiction novels king pleasure virgin widow jean constant princess gregory catherine promises arthur marry brother fulfilling destiny queen england couple plans future kingdom alteration alternate history novel centred war english succession henry_viii attempts throne nephew stephen arthur catherine son historical drama wives henry_viii broadcast martin prince arthur aired historical miniseries titled shadow tower lord arthur prince wales played jason ancestors


known translation commander title denoting commander leader tribes syria successive muslim states middle ages title early 11th century formally turned state institution strengthened successors office preserved early ottomans 16th 17th centuries importance faded jurisdiction generally limited central northern syria held syrian formed created opt rebellious tribes syria enlist support auxiliary troops principal duties guarding desert frontier iraq ensuring loyalty state gathering intelligence enemy forces protecting infrastructure villages travelers raids providing horses sultan return given annual salary official titles honorary robes numerous arab held post given time endowed onset rule syria hereditary office consolidated members dynasty direct descendants clan office remained household ibn occasional early ottoman era descendants took leadership tribe ottomans role appeared centered providing state guarding return annual payments administration founded formal state institution nature political system appointed unable maintain authority generally viewed equal superior appointed sultan egypt considered state official grants given diploma delivered sultan picked visiting sultan court cairo provinces damascus capital cairo department called dealt managing affairs receiving classified men sword military hierarchy rank equal mounted troops commander thousand head army province damascus governor early ottomans preserved arab 16th century title referred rights role arab status ottoman administration ottoman syria defined contemporary sources according historian muhammad provincial records damascus province damascus jurisdiction extended syria century mention function asserts unclear sultan ratification required tribes provincial government recognize arab incorporation system incorporated system received customary payments successors paid closer attention tribes syria considered region important frontier wars coastal areas iraq relied auxiliary troops wary unstable needed loyalty state referred reliance status officially military service required indicating special relationship state according historian practice syria called participate auxiliary troops military expeditions emergency situations small compared slave soldier number granted particularly generous distribution tribes persuade towns villages countryside normally induce cooperate state frequent rebellion tribes motivated incorporate system confiscated cases rebellion sultan general consistently served continuing early ottoman era supplanted ottomans granted grants plain south damascus duties return annual customary payments honorary titles robes expected command horsemen wars allies rebellious expectation lower ranking tribal intelligence gathering enemy movements near frontier official duties syrian tribes defense boundaries maintenance oversight roads bridges mountain passes desert entailed protection merchant travelers annual traversed territory reach muslim holy cities served desert guides army state officials responsible collecting livestock tribes sultan reign postal route created egypt syria enabled sultan remain constantly notified developments provinces served major factor state postal station required transport horses tribes provided according tribes supply horses maintenance noble horses young provided royal stables annual basis early ottomans required provision sultan stables young young horses collective annual value formed sultan revenue damascus history origins syrian desert extended inhabited arab tribes pre islamic times century years muslim conquest syria brought authority early period tribes participated struggles revolution rebellious movements isolated revolts following decline state authority syrian desert significantly leaving local tribes fill void dynasty tribe represented new found strength according 14th century historian ibn commanded tribes syrian desert upper tribal emerged region included late 10th century mid 11th century dominated southern northern syria respectively association nominal partners ruled syria result invasion half 11th century branch remained influential force syrian desert end century information authorities management syrian desert early 11th centuries likewise origins title unclear number medieval muslim referred ibn founder translates arabic commander syria ibn ally referred medieval sources according historian value title known indicates high position holder asserts known holder title existed previously origin obscure created tribes syria islam existed rise islam carried syria islamic conquest 7th century known speculates revival continuation pre islamic century political tradition syria byzantine_empire served supreme arab tribal giving formal authority tribes syria early muslim chronicles references master desert master tribes believes possible starting points course time developed title arab period syria accorded paid taxes called livestock performed military duties era regulating affairs syria laid founder entrusted governor damascus ibn arabs responsible making customary payments collecting customary according historian brother successor sultan founded formal institution appointed ibn grandson ibn clan members clan direct descendants era governor palestine ibn ibn late 12th century sub clans sub clans ancestral tribe dominated desert regions west eastern banks river southward central despite influence historian maintains member clan appointed diploma sultan appointment leaders continued hold title conquest result jurisdiction initially extend region northern syria half reign brought authority stripped title according medieval arab historian ibn status downgraded growing power clans asserts numerically superior weakened divided leadership following extension jurisdiction traditional territory migrated north remained allies clan following death death years later divided sultan sons ali founded independent ali branch ibn clan position bolstered cooperation military campaigns keeping check dismissed ali leaving sole died succeeded son agreement damascus respectively input sultan egypt period information available known replaced ibn regent support opponents years later title bestowed ali son era annexed syria maintained syria replaced ali ibn granted half ibn ibn ali contested appointment demanding seeking replace accord ibn share gave syria opened rebellion called support consequently troops imprisoned cairo soon released challenge came powerful ibn eventually confronting gave virtual independence southern syrian desert ibn referred king sources numerous tribes came authority relations state generally cooperative exceptions participated nearly military campaigns end reign received oasis town additional sultan son ibn succeeded following death brother ibn served sultan muhammad afterward firmly camp muhammad particularly gifts honors extent criticized policy process weakening muslim army remained hands household particularly direct descendants remainder rule brief ali held post numbered held according manipulation sic long time result ability serve interests state clan prestige able maintain peace order tribes important secure safety trade routes egypt provincial governors sing damascus tried control use possible way bring authority revolted remaining outside authority lead continuous threats state interests outcome attacking looting trade disruption considerable damage countryside succeeded son din remained loyal muhammad father muhammad granted substantial return loyalty supply noble arabian horses muhammad particularly fond muhammad lavish treatment family significantly empowered created ties obligation ignored muhammad successors provoking mutiny according historian especially central government control syria increasingly diminished power vacuum following muhammad death rivalry descendants intensified period ibn transferred responded assaulting offspring traveling roads northern syria included raid bound baghdad looted merchandise replaced brother son defeated battle seized ibn imprisoned succeeded years later died shortly appointment replaced brother thirty years rebelled reconciled times rebellion replaced brother cousin ibn ruled jointly son appointed dismissed times sultan authority supporting rebel governors syria reign ended execution son sided father backed sultan appointed place killed rebel power largely diminished nonetheless members clan line continued fill post ibn succeeding mentions histories confused according historian grandson ibn ali killed cousin succeeded brother ibn ali killed died clear appointed grandson ibn ali killed cousin ibn killed ibn following year revenge son recorded ottoman era driven syria ottoman turks battle appointed ibn direct descendant kept position ottoman sultan met aftermath acted law unto fought ottoman governor damascus remained death succeeded son killed later challenged unsuccessful commanded loyalty tribes died succeeded son killed son gain replaced held post death afterward son appointed recognized challenged sought support din powerful semi autonomous force syria ultimately ottoman governor continued serving length time list ottoman


exploration exploration conducted close observations automated spacecraft began arrival pioneer system continued spacecraft missions missions undertaken national space administration nasa detailed observations probe landing entering orbit visited solar system outer planets missions outer solar system reduce fuel requirements travel time 5th july spacecraft arrived entered planet orbit second craft sending craft technical difficulties especially large fuel requirements effects planet harsh radiation environment spacecraft visit pioneer followed year later pioneer aside taking close pictures planet discovered largely fluid interior voyager voyager visited planet studied ring system discovering volcanic activity presence water ice surface studied probe approached planet took detailed images atmosphere new spacecraft passed improved measurements satellites parameters spacecraft entered orbit arriving studying planet period gathered large information system making close approaches large finding evidence thin possibility liquid water beneath surfaces discovered magnetic field approached witnessed impact levy december sent atmospheric probe atmosphere far craft july spacecraft launched completed maneuver successfully orbit preparing science programme european space agency selected class juice mission cosmic vision programme explore possible provided juice proposed launched technical requirements flights earth planets solar system high energy cost requires energy spacecraft reach earth orbit lift orbit place energy expenditure defined net change spacecraft velocity delta energy needed reach earth orbit requires delta compared reach low earth orbit ground gravity assists earth venus reduce energetic requirement fuel launch cost significantly longer flight duration reach target compared direct trajectory capable delta kilometers dawn spacecraft delta fly mission solar orbit radius earth gravity assist major problem sending space planet solid surface land smooth transition planet atmosphere fluid interior descending atmosphere eventually crushed immense pressures major issue radiation space probe subjected harsh charged particle environment detailed explanation example pioneer closest approach planet level radiation times powerful pioneer designers predicted leading fears survive minor probe managed pass radiation belts lost images moon radiation caused pioneer imaging photo receive false commands subsequent far advanced voyager spacecraft redesigned cope radiation levels years spacecraft planet probe radiation dose far exceeded design specifications systems failed occasions spacecraft exhibited increased errors electrical arcs occurred rotating non rotating parts causing enter safe mode led total loss data 16th 18th 33rd radiation caused phase shifts ultra stable missions pioneer program spacecraft explore pioneer flew past planet december followed pioneer months later pioneer obtained close images spacecraft studied planet atmosphere detected magnetic field observed radiation belts determined mainly fluid pioneer closest approach cloud tops december obtained dramatic images great red spot observation immense polar regions determined mass moon information gathered spacecraft helped engineers improve design future cope effectively environment giant planet voyager program voyager began january closest approach march distance center close approach allowed greater image resolution short duration meant observations rings magnetic field radiation environment hour period approach voyager continued planet april soon followed voyager closest approach july away planet cloud tops probe discovered ring observed intricate atmosphere observed active process analogous plate numerous voyager missions vastly improved understanding discovered rings took close images planet atmosphere revealing great red spot complex storm moving counter clockwise direction smaller storms found banded clouds animation right new small satellites discovered outside ring making identified spacecraft new satellite discovered discovery volcanic activity moon greatest unexpected finding mission time active volcano observed body earth recorded eruption evidence occurring voyager encounters displayed large number intersecting linear features low resolution photos voyager scientists believed features deep cracks caused processes high resolution photos voyager taken closer left scientists features photos entirely lacking relief led suggest cracks similar ice earth liquid water interior internally active tidal heating level tenth result moon thought thin crust kilometers thick water ice possibly floating kilometers deep mile ocean february solar probe flew past north pole distance swing maneuver required attain high orbit sun increasing degrees giant planet gravity bent spacecraft downward away plane placing final orbit sun north south poles size shape probe orbit adjusted smaller degree remained approximately distance sun lay somewhat earth distance sun encounter probe measurements planet probe cameras images taken february probe arrived vicinity time distance planet greater million observations probe route saturn flew provided highest resolution images taken planet closest approach december scientific measurements images taken months long produced detailed global color portrait smallest visible features approximately major finding announced march atmospheric circulation dark belts alternate light zones atmosphere zones pale clouds previously considered scientists areas air partly earth clouds tend formed rising air analysis imagery showed dark belts contain individual storm cells bright white clouds small earth anthony del nasa institute space studies said belts areas net rising atmospheric motion net motion zones sinking atmospheric observations included dark oval high atmospheric size great red spot near north pole infrared imagery revealed aspects circulation near poles bands globe winds adjacent bands moving opposite directions announcement discussed nature rings light scattering particles rings showed particles irregularly shaped spherical likely originated impacts probably december spacecraft captured low resolution image moon distant surface details new new probe route flew gravity assist probe launched directly long range reconnaissance took photographs september spacecraft began study system december closest approach february close new instruments refined measurements inner particularly probe cameras measured studied detail long distance studies outer craft studied little red spot planet ring system march command data handling computer experienced memory error causing spacecraft safe mode craft fully recovered days data loss data loss events associated encounter immense size system relative system earth comparison earth new send data earth encounter encounter missions spacecraft orbit went orbit december planet seven years making destroyed controlled impact september period gathered large information system information great intended deployment high gain radio antenna failed major events year study included multiple probe witnessed impact levy approached sending atmospheric probe atmosphere december cameras spacecraft observed fragments levy july collided southern hemisphere speed approximately kilometres second direct observation extraterrestrial collision solar system objects impacts took place hidden earth distance planet able impacts occurred instruments detected reached peak temperature compared typical temperature reaching height atmospheric probe released spacecraft july entering planet atmosphere december high descent atmosphere probe discarded remains heat shield atmosphere collecting data minutes crushed pressure temperature subjected times earth normal temperature melted possibly experienced rapid version fate deliberately steered planet september speed order avoid possibility crashing major scientific results mission include observation clouds planet atmosphere atmosphere creates ice particles material coming lower depths confirmation extensive volcanic activity times greater found earth heat frequency reminiscent early earth observation complex interactions atmosphere create immense electrical currents couple atmosphere providing evidence supporting theory liquid oceans exist surface detection substantial magnetic field satellite magnetic data evidence suggesting liquid layer visible surface evidence thin atmospheric layer known surface bound understanding formation rings dust kicked smash planet small inner observation outer rings possibility separate ring orbit identification global structure dynamics giant planet december nasa reported based results mission detection clay like minerals specifically associated organic materials crust moon presence minerals result collision according scientists nasa launched august study detail polar orbit arrives spacecraft placed polar orbit study planet composition gravity field magnetic field polar search clues formed including planet rocky core water present deep atmosphere mass distributed planet study deep winds reach speeds started night 4th july moon explorer moon explorer juice selected cosmic vision science program expected launch series inner solar system arrive european space agency selected moon explorer juice large mission replacing contribution partnership system mission ended nasa continue contribute european mission hardware instrument proposed missions mission proposed nasa focus studying moon march funds authorized pre activities mission meets science goals outlined mission recent survey proposed mission set launch early reach year cruise spacecraft fly moon times minimize radiation damage canceled missions possibility liquid oceans great interest studying detail funding difficulties delayed progress planned nasa mission canceled main objectives included determining presence absence ocean identifying candidate sites future missions nasa canceled european mission studied superseded system mission system mission joint nasa proposal exploration february announced space agencies given mission priority ahead saturn system mission proposal included launch date consists nasa led led contribution encountered funding competition projects nasa contribution considered survey expensive survey supported cheaper alternative human exploration scientists require evidence determine extent rocky core provide potential opportunity future human exploration particular targets potential life relatively low radiation dose nasa proposed program called human outer planets exploration hope involved sending explore nasa projected possible attempt time vision space exploration policy announced january nasa discussed missions mars mentioning human research presence desirable mission cancelled nasa administrator sean stated human explorers follow potential colonization nasa speculated feasibility mining outer planets particularly rare earth high value unit mass fuel factories stationed orbit gas deliver visiting craft system general poses particular colonization severe radiation conditions prevailing planet particularly deep deliver day colonists day colonists decisive aspect fact exposure period days cause radiation poisoning days fatal solar system largest moon solar system known moon shield cosmic radiation noteworthy degree overshadowed magnetic field receives radiation day farther strong radiation belt subject day comparison average radiation taken earth living organism year highest natural radiation levels earth recorded hot springs year main targets chosen hope study possibility building surface base proposed low radiation levels distance geological stability satellite human exploration feasible levels radiation hostile human life adequate protective measures devised possible build surface base produce fuel exploration solar system project designed plan according plan explorers drill ice crust entering ocean inhabit artificial air pockets


moon thee bee greek known fourth distance planet discovered stephen images voyager space probe taken march making officially named mythological second largest inner satellites outer edge ring formed dust ejected surface irregularly shaped reddish colour thought like consist water ice unknown amounts materials surface features include large high mountains comparable size moon photographed voyager spacecraft later detail 1990s discovery observations discovered stephen images voyager space probe taken march initially given provisional designation officially named mythological lover greek equivalent discovery voyager photographed voyager space probe spacecraft arrived knowledge extremely limited surface helped clarify composition orbit inner distance orbit relative equator values unusually high inner satellite explained past influence satellite past mean motion passed orbit gradually excited orbit orbit lies near outer edge ring composed dust ejected satellite dust direction planet action drag forming ring inward moon physical characteristics irregularly shaped closest surface area probably km2 bulk density mass known assuming mean density like mass estimated roughly similarly inner satellites motion keeping face looking planet orientation long axis points surface points closest surface thought near edge lobe gravity slightly larger force result escape velocity points small allowing dust escape easily impacts ring crater largest diameter crater named surface feature moon bright spots rim crater located far facing away discovered spacecraft named husband greek mythology surface dark appears reddish color substantial leading trailing leading hemisphere times brighter trailing probably caused higher velocity frequency impacts leading hemisphere bright material probably ice interior moon surface heavily appears impact large roughly comparable size


minor planet designation minor planet center catalogue system belt discovered september german 11th largest largest type estimated contain total mass belt history discovery discovered found initially considered planet reclassified minor planet 1850s named mythological highest roman goddess form exceptions international subject local variation italian french russian etc symbol older symbol occasionally seen characteristics larger tenth size containing approximately mass entire belt second massive type mass period years type unusually reflective indicative distinct surface properties high explains relatively high apparent magnitude small object near inner edge belt reach favourable opposition brighter neptune reason discovered larger reaches magnitude visible smaller inch required resolve main body family originally considered planet estimated large diameter reclassified additional discovered small size irregular shape designated dwarf planet slightly closer mean distance sun orbit moderately inclined extreme greater high brings closer sun eccentric orbit known body discovered diameter eccentric orbit direction tilt approximately maximum temperature surface directly facing sun measured october taking account distance time gives estimated maximum temperature studies surface permit conclusion common type composed iron bearing infrared images reveal possesses approximately wide crater feature result young impact observations observed passed dim star february observed december registered observers magnitude star july july radio signals spacecraft orbit mars surface estimate mass tiny induced motion mars orbit appears changed slightly likely passing identity determined mount wilson observatory visible near images spanned rotation period revealed irregular shape dark feature interpreted fresh impact site


minor planet designation largest objects belt mean diameter kilometres discovered german march named virgin goddess home roman mythology second massive second largest body belt dwarf planet contributes estimated mass belt slightly larger significantly massive remaining rocky differentiated interior kind formed terrestrial planets numerous fragments ejected collisions billion years ago left enormous occupying southern hemisphere debris events fallen earth rich source information visible earth maximum distance sun slightly greater minimum distance sun orbit lies entirely nasa dawn spacecraft entered orbit july year exploration left orbit september route final destination researchers continue examine data collected dawn additional insights formation history history discovery discovered year discovery proposed objects remnants destroyed planet sent letter proposal english william suggesting search near locations reveal fragments intersections located commenced search march discovered coincidence fragments larger body discovered fourth object identified region known belt discovery announced letter addressed german dated march credit discovering planet time considered planets gave honor naming new discovery german mathematician friedrich calculations enabled confirm existence orbit new planet remarkably short time hours decided roman virgin goddess home fourth discovered number formal designation national variants thereof international use exceptions greece china greek adopted equivalent english greeks use minor planet numbers chinese called god star contrast goddess goes latin discovery like classified planet given symbol symbol representing altar sacred fire designed conception drawn modern form discovery objects discovered years solar system thought planets new started discovered rapid pace symbol addition major planets neptune discovered soon clear impractical continue new symbols indefinitely existing ones proved difficult draw quickly year problem addressed benjamin suggested numbering order discovery placing number disk circle generic symbol fourth acquired generic symbol soon coupled official number designation number minor planets increased circle simplified easier completely died today commonly early measurements observations harvard college observatory observations allowed rotation rate determined 1950s early estimates rotation rate came question light curve included variations shape early estimates diameter ranged produced estimated diameter close modern value mean diameter subsequent estimates ranged low high century measured estimates based measure dimension varied period star observed multiple locations eastern united_states canada based observations different sites best fit data elliptical profile dimensions dawn confirmed measurement mass determined years approaches based observations estimated mass solar masses refined estimates followed estimate mass solar masses orbit sun mars belt period earth years specifically inner belt interior gap orbit moderately inclined compared mercury moderately eccentric compared mars true considered unlikely small masses relative large relationships rare able capture temporary relationships periods million years objects identified sized objects detected vicinity dawn quasi satellites proper satellites rotation rotation relatively fast north pole pointing direction right ascension min uncertainty gives tilt coordinate systems longitudinal coordinate systems use prime separated established coordinate system based photos prime running center dark feature dawn arrived mission scientists found location pole assumed coordinate system drifted surface year close adequate define prime precision needed corrected pole established new prime center sharply defined crater meters results logical set mapping nasa publications including images maps use unacceptable working group coordinates elements recommended coordinate system pole rotating coincide accepted maps prepared dawn team positioned major surface features physical characteristics second massive body belt massive density lower terrestrial planets higher solar system surface area pakistan square kilometers differentiated interior slightly larger volume massive shape close relaxed large southern pole surface features combined mass automatically considered dwarf planet international astronomical union resolution analysis shape gravity field data gathered dawn spacecraft shown currently temperatures surface estimated lie sun overhead dropping winter pole typical daytime nighttime temperatures respectively estimate close details vary somewhat seasons surface features prior arrival dawn spacecraft surface features resolved space ground based observatory arrival dawn july revealed complex surface detail prominent surface features enormous kilometre crater centered near south pole kilometres wide crater crater younger crater dawn science team named younger prominent crater mother mythical virgin width mean diameter crater kilometres deep central peak rises lowest measured crater floor highest measured crater rim crater floor low point estimated impact responsible excavated volume likely family type products collision case fact fragments survived bombardment present indicates crater billion years old site origin known type taken account ejected volume rest presumably small fragments ejected approaching gap away effect radiation pressure analyses images shown crater penetrated deep distinct layers crust possibly mantle indicated signatures large peak center kilometres high kilometres wide old degraded rival size large include shown right recent range kilometres kilometres informal given group adjacent northern hemisphere official names largest smallest west east youngest cross cuts oldest majority region sculpted series concentric largest named wide long despite fact seventh size moon grand canyon second series inclined equator found north largest northern named wide long thought large scale resulting impacts created respectively longest solar system nearly long formed collided process happen body like differentiated reasons scientists consider surface composition information visible infrared gamma ray grand framing camera indicate majority surface composition consistent composition region richest consistent forming impact material deeper presence region consistent excavation mantle material detected localized regions northern hemisphere origin currently uncertain features associated pitted terrain observed formation pitted terrain proposed impact heated volatile bearing material pitted terrain found end deposits covered pitted terrain proposed form flow liquid water buried deposits ice melted heat impacts materials detected associated areas dark material consequently dark material thought largely composed deposited surface impacts comparatively rich bound geology large collection potential samples accessible scientists form giving insight history structure nasa infrared facility nasa studies suggest originated deeper thought consist metallic iron core diameter rocky mantle surface crust appearance calcium aluminium rich solid matter solar system forming billion years ago likely time line follows known intact resurfaced manner scientists refer presence iron classes identified parent bodies indicates differentiated histories shattered impacts basis sizes type thought pieces crust ejected large impacts depth crater crust thought roughly kilometres thick findings dawn spacecraft found evidence wrap formed impact induced section meaning complex geology classified dwarf planet retained spherical shape qualities lead thought thing knocked category dwarf planet formation large impact basins southern pole time impacts warm plastic return shape surface covered distinct found moon space acts differently surface shows significant trace iron impact speeds low rock melting process instead evolution dominated subsequent mixing bright dark components dark component probably material bright component original soil fragments small solar system bodies suspected fragments caused impacts examples type determined composition akin indicating origin deep crust currently identified solar system bodies physical samples coming number suspected fragments estimated originated identified solar system samples earth mars samples returned moon wild exploration proposal mission submitted european space agency named gravity optical radar analysis spacecraft launch time perform large preferred target mission reach belt trajectory past mars means small engine proposal refused joint nasa mission drawn multiple solar electric propulsion mission profiles including orbit nasa indicated interested mission instead set technological study spacecraft drive missions belt proposed 1980s france germany italy united_states approved exploration fly second main target plan multi aimed soviet mission developed cooperation european countries canceled soviet_union disbanding early 1990s nasa initiated discovery program intended series low cost scientific missions program study team recommended mission explore belt spacecraft engine high priority funding program remained problematic years dawn vehicle passed critical design review construction proceeded launched september space mission dawn acquired targeting image million kilometers july nasa confirmed received dawn indicating spacecraft successfully entered orbit scheduled orbit year july dawn arrival coincided late summer southern hemisphere large crater south pole sunlight season lasts months northern hemisphere including anticipated compression opposite crater visible dawn cameras left orbit dawn left orbit september travel nasa released imagery summary information survey orbit high altitude low altitude mapping orbit including digital terrain models videos scientists dawn precise mass gravity field subsequent determination component yielded core diameter estimate assuming density similar dawn data accessed public ucla website observations earth orbit observations dawn comes view dawn spacecraft approaches enters orbit true color images detailed images retrieved high altitude low altitude mapping available dawn mission website nasa visibility size unusually bright surface occasionally visible naked eye dark skies light pollution june reached peak magnitude time opposition weeks apart favorable late autumn northern hemisphere magnitude conjunction sun magnitude pollution free sky observed smaller near opposition reached opposition leo night february magnitude makes visible range generally naked eye perfect dark sky conditions light pollution absent visible experienced observer use came opposition august magnitude opposition december according sky magazine year came degrees winter spring sun years years years overtaking december magnitude decreasing came degree night sky july


outer solar system dwarf planet known named hawaiian small discovered observations large observatory hawaii unusual number ways thought extended family formed years ago debris large impact disrupted ice mantle larger moon large amounts pure water ice surface rare belt objects tenth mass orbit surprising dynamics unusually eccentric appears greatly influenced larger satellite history small satellites discovered time designated observations observatory team outer larger satellites discovered january formally designated nicknamed team smaller inner satellite discovered june formally termed nicknamed september satellites numbered admitted official minor planet catalogue respectively permanent names announced international astronomical union september moon named daughter hawaiian goddess fertility goddess dance big island hawaii observatory located goddess water sea cooled sister lava flowed sea turning new land legend children came different parts body dwarf planet appears entirely rock superficial layer ice original mantle thought impact spun current high speed rotation material formed small belt objects family additional outer smaller detected observations confirmed brighter exist closest tenth distance volume held influence hill sphere makes unlikely exist surface properties outer roughly diameter larger brighter strong absorption features observed infrared spectrum consistent nearly pure water ice covering surface unusual spectrum similarity absorption lines spectrum led brown colleagues conclude unlikely system formed capture passing belt objects orbit dwarf planet instead fragments sizes calculated assumption infrared reasonable surface composition measured space ground based small close seen independently based common inner moon tenth mass diameter space adequate angular resolution separate light triple system camera confirmed line indicates presence water ice strong spectrum faint detect smaller metres visual magnitude making object belt easily large amateur characteristics nearly days days moderately elliptical non orbit inclined respect orbit impact created thought occurred early history solar system following years circular orbit orbit likely disturbed massive moved outward tidal dissipation caught escaped resonance times currently close resonance resonance strongly orbit current argument year period years present appear exactly edge earth having periodically observation provide precise information size shape happened late 1980s tiny change system require medium professional detection years discovery years situation unique regular satellites great orbit preserve viewing angle years


formation formation highlands formation near earth moon served landing site american apollo mission named kilometer diameter crater located formation crater names 15th century italian monk apollo originally scheduled land highlands unable flight technical failure thought formed debris impact formed mare apollo crew members sampled cone crater feature close proximity immediate landing site mission provided insight composition material deep inside formation data mission helped determine approximate age mare suggesting billion years old formation geography widespread hilly geological area covering large portions lunar surface mare thought composed impact formed area primarily composed relatively low ridges hills exist valleys blanket impact covered debris younger impacts material possible debris found formation originated deep beneath original crust samples collected insight history moon formation based data obtained apollo indicates history impact possibly spanning approximately million years relatively recent impact created cone crater feet feet deep near landing site apollo main objectives mission sample original material located rim samples obtained formation apollo suggest impact formed basin older billion years geology analysis apollo samples suggests major constituents present immediate landing area impact melt samples compositions recovered major surface units apollo landing site immediate impact blanket cone crater million years old surrounding older terrain apollo mitchell recovered material cone crater impact believed excavated impact material possible depth samples returned moon classified vicinity cone crater studies conducted samples apollo shown samples support possibility landing site volcanic rocks sparse samples cone crater somewhat abundant samples recovered farther west opposite immediate landing site explanations presented majority landing site lies depth excavation cone crater presence flow beneath landing area excavated nearby crater diameter believed likely similar recovered cone crater inconclusive recovered direct affiliation landing site located valley ridges exists possibility merely deposited result impact events apollo crew members sampled cone crater appeared layered fractured contrasting appearance surrounding area older age increase size number closer cone crater believed originate greatest depth excavation cone crater believed general characteristics formation texture landing site selection apollo early apollo mission landing sites restricted regions technical reasons apollo demonstrated ability land pre specified landing zone mission planners considered landings rough interesting areas moon aborted apollo mission originally scheduled land apollo scheduled land region mare apollo failed land decided target apollo regarded interesting scientifically site apollo objective sampling impact gain insight moon history landing site near formed cone crater chosen crater served natural drill hole allow obtain primary objective mission


main belt diameter discovered relatively elliptical orbit requires years circle sun unusually slow rate rotation requiring days complete revolution axis primitive type means surface high proportion carbon giving dark surface reflects light falls visited near spacecraft june way spacecraft hemisphere revealing large depressions surface type explored visited largest visited spacecraft observation history director austrian naval observatory offered position assistant newly completed vienna observatory job represented gave access new inch largest world time point discovered employ vienna inch inch instruments find additional retired discoveries found november initial elements austrian working observatory suggested wife vice director paris observatory ground based observations determined type found unusually long period rotation june near spacecraft passed moving velocity close approach allowed spacecraft capture images surface provided data accurate dimensions mass based spacecraft hemisphere fly nearby distance following description dark comparable fresh asphalt thought share composition cm2 surface dominated minerals number extremely large individual named coal fields basins world largest wide average radius impacts appear large volumes suggested angular edges differences colour visible appearance interior indications material movement direction density measured near half typical indicate loosely packed rubble pile true type studied ground based equipped systems interior volume consists open space existence long indicate structural strength contain large internal components low interior density inefficient impact shock helps preserve surface features high degree orbit eccentric taking outer reaches main belt nonetheless orbit lies entirely mars cross slowest rotation periods known rotation period range hours slow rotation rate near able photograph surface slow rate rotation accounted satellite search near images revealed larger diameter times radius


great great formally designated bright september member family pass sun bright visible sun daytime sky discovery appeared suddenly morning skies september visible naked eye discovered independently people reports suggest seen early september cape good hope gulf guinea days observers southern hemisphere reported new record observations chief assistant royal observatory cape_town south_africa observation september independent discovery reported apparent magnitude tail degree length rapidly days exceptionally bright object majesty cape david gill reported watching rise minutes sun september described nucleus undoubtedly single certainly diameter fact described resembled star 1st magnitude seen daylight rapidly approaching discovered estimated miles kilometres sun surface subsequent studies determined passes extremely close surface sun hours passage easily visible daytime sky sun reached estimated magnitude shortly reached september sun cape observed aid neutral density filter right moment transit sun limb boiling noted disappeared view suddenly trace seen sun surface post evolution passage moved dark skies faded sun remained prominent objects sky september observers including began notice nucleus elongated broken pronounced bright balls light october clear broken fragments observers reported relative fragments varied day day mid october developed notable pointing sun anti tails fairly common phenomenon result geometry giving appearance tail pointing sun material driven away sun nucleus reached maximum apparent size december faded gradually despite remained visible naked eye february definite sighting june studies studies orbit showed great moving identical path previous great seen suddenly appeared morning sky passed extremely close sun suggestion fact period drastically shortened passage studies showed period years years studied great developed idea fragments larger broken earlier passage great demonstrated plausible thought great fragment sister fragments established members family known descended current models support frequent prior literature famous fact ultimate parent associated aristotle time described writings aristotle time appearance historian wrote born years appearance consequently reports taken eye witness accounts mention chinese literature time instead february february periods years considered likely fragments great return years time spread centuries