peasants revolt palestine peasants revolt rebellion egyptian conscription taxation policies palestine collective reaction gradual elimination unofficial rights privileges previously enjoyed societal groups region ottoman rule local constituted bulk rebel forces urban tribes formed integral revolt muhammad ali modernization policies egyptian governor levant issued conscription orders fifth muslim males fighting age encouraged rural urban jerusalem area carry orders tax local religious followed suit local leaders rallied revolted authorities taking control towns core fighting central mountain regions palestine revolt spread parts jerusalem briefly captured rebels plundered faced superior firepower organization troops rebels defeated jerusalem coastal plain final defeat leveled afterward troops pursued captured leveled argue revolt formative event palestinian sense brought disparate groups common enemy asserted groups later constitute palestinian people revolt represented moment political unity palestine ultimate intention rebel leaders force egyptian army ottoman rule means restoring ottoman era standards defined relationship government governed standards religious laws administrative codes local norms traditions disrupted egyptian reforms background consolidating power muhammad ali rebel governor ottoman egypt modeling rule bureaucratic organization characteristic modern european states like earlier rulers egypt muhammad ali desired exercise control greater syria strategic value natural resources addition abundant natural resources syria international trading community developed markets addition ali strategy syria serve captive market goods produced egypt extension egyptian control syria sought serve state egypt ottoman sultan constantinople ali attempting independent ottoman_empire new fleet army raised built ali leadership october son launched invasion syria initiated egyptian ottoman war sake international appearances pretext expedition quarrel acre ali alleged peasants agricultural fled acre escape egyptian draft taxes demanded return advanced palestine occupying december city primary military base events preceding revolt egyptian economic political policies alienated broad influential factions palestine jerusalem bulk major clans clans jerusalem tribes areas late leader clan chief dismissed additional post administrator jerusalem having served months office official reasoning dismissal advanced age replaced son muhammad consequently removed powerful post afterward based clan prominent ally appointed muhammad post power play quickly gaining prominence region members appointed head included northern palestine number districts provoked clan anger family egyptian authorities clan based jerusalem village traditionally served toll collectors jerusalem road increasingly considered targeted authorities clan leadership arrested including head temporarily sentenced forced labor acre relations authorities tribes south central palestine antagonistic traditionally ottoman rule allowed collect tribute payments travelers inhabitants area return services state saw raiders exceeded privileges abolished practice imposed additional conditions primarily requirement transporting grain egyptian troops return right livestock based tribe hills headed subject military campaign based clan tribe essentially war new taxation categories departure secular ottoman law traditionally accepted islamic law drew local muslim anger authorities principal point contention authorities jerusalem conscription order april day convened clan leaders cities demand drafting muslim men fighting age order begin conscription men jerusalem combined men men prominent ally palestine clan according chronicled account meeting attempted address reluctance sending peasants army asking muslims war christian nations necessary big standing army replied asserted men trained art war like generations willingly shed blood defend country enemies religion countered fighters need professionally trained telling war place herd useless men revolt beginning revolt retaliation dismissal son virtual organized jerusalem gathered notified egyptian officials able palestinian arab army collect taxes claiming taken arms fled mountains difficult access time stated failure local peasants need new troops army preparation advances ottomans considered position amounting insurrection following declaration meeting local chiefs hosted clan throne village attended sons muhammad muhammad leaders expressed close cooperation family egyptian government meeting concluded agreement egyptian army palestine leadership moved openly revolt authorities time district palestine declared opposition orders sent letter refusal comply conscription orders stating son core heart naturally leave son sacrifice life uprising spread jerusalem mountainous areas today known west bank core rebels strength actual clash authorities rebels occurred vicinity group egyptian soldiers sent egyptian governor enforce draft orders local peasants nearby village fighters based tribe joined forces killed soldiers fighting defeating forces area prior clash peasants local took arms egyptian army salt center based family following confrontations egyptian army nineteenth regiment came rebel assault valley route quarters regiment roughly soldiers killed captured wounded soldiers escaped traveled bay acre walls surrounded rebel forces rebel capture jerusalem known records military planning early jerusalem coordinated assault jerusalem armed peasants jerusalem besieged city fighters attempted storm walls initially repulsed egyptian garrison earthquake occurred city fighting ceased days residents jerusalem neighborhood informed rebel leaders use sewer tunnel ran gate mill jewish quarter enter jerusalem day rebels peasants leadership chief area tribe entered city tunnel opened gate allow thousands rebels inside walled city egyptian commander city subsequently withdrew garrison jerusalem citadel positions incoming rebels rebels joined city poorer muslim residents began homes egyptian officers response egyptian troops left citadel pursue rebels began homes city revenge ordered cease rebels sixteen residents soldiers killed confrontations rebels attacked city brief counterattack men returned citadel afterward residents sympathetic revolt opened damascus gate peasant entered city reinforce rebels numbers jerusalem reached day prior rebels entry troops arrested jerusalem leading including leading islamic scholar leading locally honored descendants prophet muhammad muhammad reinforcements arrived egyptian troops withdrew citadel jerusalem captured rebels besieged fired citadel wave mass looting followed days virtually muslim jewish christian owned shop raided damaged muslim shops plundered owners able salvage valuable merchandise greek monk named resided city wrote homes egyptian officers looted rebels began shops jews christians muslims dealer suffered alike days shop intact market protests citizens looting went outnumbered rebels market areas plundered rebels began homes christians abandoned chaos despite strict orders rebel leaders local warned actions provoke ottoman sultan war muhammad ali state owned supply warehouses looted battles jerusalem departed soldiers began march jerusalem day thousands rebels left city harry forces route trip normally taken hours lasted days rebels attacked egyptian troops inflicting casualties including fatalities reached jerusalem enter city immediately instead stationed forces headquarters mount overlooked jerusalem offered amnesty rebel surrendered soldiers personally commanded pursuit rebels inside city resulting deaths rebels capture promptly released seventeen jailed entered jerusalem day egyptian troops attacked nearby christian village reported men women killed alleged involvement looting egyptian property purported revenge killings halted residents livestock seized day rebels tribe entered adjacent town protect families christian inhabitants potentially experiencing fate directly confronting muslim quarter destroyed egyptian army inhabitants disarmed apparently punishment killing favored loyalist reverend william wrote terrible vengeance failed quell turbulent spirit people distinguished great jerusalem fierce manners row occurs sure hand peasant rebels frequently requested christians fight alongside troops christians refused citing religious beliefs political status sheltered town monasteries safety june rebels decided attack monasteries looted city june rebels launched attack men solomon pools near jerusalem garrison numbering men assaulted rebel forces egyptian soldiers killed hundreds captured rebels taken returned mount rebels attempted lay siege troops spread rebellion truce negotiations june scale rebellion coastal towns acre time rebels area besieged based rebels captured eastern participating revolt attacked egyptian garrison confrontation egyptian soldiers killed rebel attack june unknown number city jewish inhabitants killed raped period days jerusalem learned muhammad ali set arrive palestine reinforcements offered truce rebel leaders released leader rebels hills informed conditions truce reached rebels cancellation conscription orders return payment male abolition new taxation category terms rejected continued negotiations governor head rebels requested pardon negotiate end fighting agreed guarantees safety met late june betrayal muhammad ali responded apology explanation hand forced end meeting reconciled jerusalem time summit muhammad ali prominent including muhammad ali muhammad ali muhammad arrested sentenced exile egypt incarcerated local village region executed ali supporting revolt urban backed rebels earlier attempt capture fortress escaped similar fate fleeing island cyprus number major parts palestine rounded including religious leaders said exiled egypt son arrested executed joining revolt family powerful feudal household northern coastal region palestine time leaders executions defeat rebels responded arrest truce muhammad ali rallying rebels asserted truce negotiations ruse hold rebels arrival reinforcements egypt rebels strategy split forces fighters divisions fight troops fronts approaches city june directly affiliated attacked camp palestine coastal plain days battle followed rebels men fortress village captured june june muhammad ali landed troops egypt july convened son captured egyptian commander led ali military convoy arrested assembled ali ordered arrest rebel leaders sons muhammad dispatched army commander ali instructed ally mount lebanon egyptian forces requested release prison return allegiance clan ali request released appointed jerusalem place muhammad defected rebels start revolt immediately commenced operation people jerusalem region ordering execution found weapon ali personally ordered rebellious villages near acre recaptured inhabitants killed process receiving personal assurances enforce rule palestine ali departed egypt july continued expedition rebels pursuing ninety rebels slain rest fled situated east inhabitants rebels flee egyptian troops arrived response ranks killed troops stormed hill rebels members clans routed suffering fatalities surviving rebels including son wounded fled captured rebels fighting age sent egypt professional military training older rebels right hands cut following rebels rout july troops proceeded passing loyalist stronghold family throne village clan entered july resistance shortly afterward rest submitted muhammad ali troops loyalty muhammad ali neutrality powerful clan inhabitants city participated revolt dispatched troops north occupy arriving jerusalem july new rebel surrender muhammad ali palestine requested military assistance mount lebanon son late july led forces advancing southward number advising rebels surrender rebel leadership agreed negotiate sent arrange meeting invited leaders village agreed surrender submit egyptian authority afterward arrived arranged rebel leaders nearby areas surrender battle men headed south hills defeat confronted troops solomon pools defeated brief clashes afterward fled city august troops besieged city fort cannon fire fort restored city decisively defeated forces according historian roger rebels townspeople fought desperately suffered severely artillery fire mass killings egyptian troops took place people killed men taken taken egyptian officers wanted according historian according jewish historian joseph muslim population managed flee nearby hills jewish community stayed general town killed majority like jews fled jerusalem execution rebel leadership sons muhammad fled fighting headed east jordan river sheltered clan affiliated tribal confederation troops pursued laid siege days hole town walls late august destroyed outside town uprooted measures residents hosting fearing retaliation clan chief handed rebel leaders capture publicly executed damascus sons muhammad executed acre youngest sons exiled cairo egypt rebellious chiefs executed damascus including ali ibn jailed acre aftermath revolt immediate aftermath reduced male population palestine fifth decrease attributed large numbers peasants deported egypt work manufacturing drafted egypt military abandoned villages farms join nomadic populations peasants deported egypt general population disarmed conscription orders extended muslim population local christians taxes extended landed property include livestock consolidated hold palestine disarmed population local civil strife largely eliminated abandoned rebellious villages destroyed troops prevented inhabitants returning army razed villages taking forced heads clans leave nearby villages absence traditional local leadership exile execution left palestine urban population financially exploited government local opponents imprisoned villages replaced sons demoted instead higher ranking title son replaced popularity father compelled rural chiefs request government replace ottoman rule subsequently reinstated acre recaptured critical support british navy locals drafted muhammad ali army returned following ottoman rule long end egyptian rule intermittently recurring civil strife political factions resumed parts central palestine 1840s 1860s ottomans launched modernization reforms known empire varying degrees success coinciding efforts international powers began war influence palestine sought extend protection country religious minorities struggle carried mainly representatives jerusalem combatants arms rebels peasants mountainous regions palestine nomadic warriors constituted bulk rebels forces adult males owned rifle typically variety ownership normally transferred generation generation frequently pistol urban environments effective wide array melee weapons utilized including generally fighters different types clubs generally peasant fighters active rebel forces hailed principal rebel clans clan clan clan led forces greater jerusalem region main rebel clans sam supported men tribe region played major role fighting jerusalem hills rebels led clan southwest tribes fought allies north rebel forces acre commanded family defected service local fighting heart outside fighters led council dominated city religious leadership combat peasant men engaged prior revolt restricted vicinity lived armed conflicts fight short days returning lands remained main service needed commanded local chief turn subordinate regional leader armed conflict revolved chiefs bids local influence control protection villages instances peasant fighters assembled ottoman authority face local external napoleonic invasion ottoman authority interfered unofficial local autonomy enjoyed mountain regions conflicts peasant fighters participated fought alongside neighbors egyptian army allies egyptian army palestine divided infantry cavalry regiments consisted thousands professional soldiers known revolt force reinforcements arrived muhammad ali bringing number egyptian soldiers palestine army fighting egypt commissioned requested participation southern region egypt dispatched tribes ali pursue rebels raid villages northern region end revolt forces mobilized request convincing northern rebels surrender lebanon based forces saw combat local peasant fighters fought alongside egyptian army particularly final battles contrast peasants egypt military possessed modern arms artillery use cannons open particular inflicted heavy losses rebels egypt army possessed considerable organization contrast lack military coordination rebel forces different regions legacy revolt palestine markedly different revolts sprung egyptian ruled levant revolt occurred mountains mount lebanon unlike revolts participants socially group assortment societal groups different classes geographical areas religions significantly distinguished previous popular uprisings ottoman rule occurred jerusalem vicinity revolt revolt failed attract support people palestine term inhabitants time revolt inhabitants identified ottomans religion national sense palestine developed people jerusalem districts damascus 17th century according historian 17th century based intellectual din term religious boundaries suggesting population palestine aware geographic definition historians argue revolt formative event palestinian sense brought disparate groups common enemy groups later constitute palestinian people israeli scholar views egyptian period palestine application concept territorial state inception modern history palestine revolt represented moment political unity palestine ultimate intention rebel leaders force egyptian army ottoman rule means restoring ottoman era standards defined relationship government governed standards religious laws administrative codes local norms traditions disrupted egyptian reforms people palestine resist conquest palestine decreed sublime acted authority years later decisively interfered local affairs way conscription taxation constituted prime motivation revolt loyalty ottomans provide benefits population offered muhammad ali rule unlike ali largely left peasants local elite devices demanding traditional taxes nominal acceptance authority palestinian historiography general 20th century historians palestine arab world palestinian arab nationalists communists stripes held negative view ottoman era associated corruption according historian uniformly negative perception ottomans high regard muhammad ali arab lands ottomans sought unite rule influenced later historiography revolt factor influenced historians 20th century limited availability primary sources palestine time revolt primary arabic accounts events kept egypt bureaucracy time accounts european travelers area known written 19th century accounts people living palestine towns villages 20th century revolt largely absent palestinian collective memory according traumatic events erased collective memory decades followed revolt elite classes palestine wanted maintain healthy relations egypt urban population keen revolt largely led peasants differed attitude continued hold revolt leader high regard aftermath revolt 20th century passing oral time period sought recorded prevailing nationalist atmosphere largely focused anti anti struggle palestine contemporary arab sources relied detailed study royal archives egypt disturbances palestine states based egyptian perspective revolt aforementioned factors revolt considered manipulation elite modernization successful ottoman bid egypt efforts liberate unify arab lands sidelined concept revolt diverse participants acting based interests actual grievances manipulation largely ignored palestinian historiography recent decades


war succession war succession known war succession comprised series armed conflicts northern syria connected disputed succession iii leading christian power region decades 12th century armenian challenged supremacy capture important fortress syria leo gave rise prolonged conflict early leo tried capture greek latin formed prevented armenian soldiers occupying town iii eldest son died leaving infant son boy mother alice armenia leo niece heir iii confirmed right succeed grandfather preferred iii younger son uncle count tripoli tripoli seized resistance father died april left seek refuge leo invaded year return kingdom occasion sultan stormed absence pope innocent iii initially supported leo conflict leo knights led leo following years leo captured new fortresses syria abandoning effort improve relationship holy taking advantage isolation leo entered helping seize long leo abandoned lost armenian fortresses north mountains increased taxes unpopular relationship leo tense enabling regain war contributed weakening christian states northern syria background sultan syria egypt destroyed kingdom jerusalem late leading christian power northern syria leo lord armenian acknowledged iii relationship tense borrowed money leo failed repay leo captured rebuilt strategically important fortress seized knights destroyed abandoning ordered leo return leo refused stating right recent conquest stronger claim lost property failed include truce leo invited start negotiations accepted offer leo captured forcing surrender closely related armenian nobles willing accept leo rule mainly greek latin townspeople formed prevented armenian soldiers occupying peace restored henry jerusalem persuaded leo renounce claims leo occupation confirmed eldest son married leo niece heir alice died early widow birth posthumous son year old iii sent alice son armenia showing want acknowledge infant grandson right succeed leo united armenian church rome acknowledged holy roman emperor henry emperor envoy archbishop present leo crowned king armenian january long went persuaded barons swear oath accept right inherit iii younger son uncle count tripoli disputed validity oath expelled father support late months later leo invaded forcing younger allow father return pope innocent iii supported restoration iii responding demand began urging leo restore war phase iii died april tripoli late duke closest living relative recognized townspeople father rightful heir nobles regarded son iii eldest son prince fled kingdom loan iii tripoli long borrowed knights winning leo continued support sparked enduring conflict theatres war war leo able control territory tripoli respectively time insufficient forces rulers ready invade rulers controlled territory tripoli movements troops states shortly seized leo laid siege press cause allies sultan stormed forcing leo withdraw july soon sent letters pope innocent informing cooperation muslim rulers leo invaded king jerusalem cyprus papal cardinal truce refused acknowledge right holy pass judgement case succession leo renewed war taking advantage absence leo entered november able seize citadel defended troops long invaded forcing leo return kingdom married county tripoli consent rose late routed gates tripoli leo seized fortresses mountains controlled road laid siege fortress december troops routed army crushing revolt returned forcing leo sign truce years summer conflicts church conflict new papal peter latin patriarch peter supporter ended patriarch exploiting situation rid opponent replaced peter greek orthodox patriarch support early peter reconciled persuaded nobles rise forcing refuge citadel leo entered collected forces defeated peter captured died drink prison sultan stormed county tripoli creating opportunity leo land persuaded sultan invade forcing leo withdraw pope innocent tasked albert patriarch jerusalem peace ally knights urged leo return attempt renew truce leo demand promising withdraw long leo broke promise refused return decided terminate union armenian church rome hand granted fortresses knights arranged marriage sister hugh cyprus leo ambushed transporting provisions skirmish grand master knights badly injured news leo action shocked pope innocent forbade christian rulers assist leo urged john king jerusalem intervene behalf john sent knights northern syria fight leo leo expelled latin priests gave shelter orthodox patriarch driven dispatched region pope innocent proclaimed new crusade wanted persuade leo assist year leo renounced lands seized retained john married leo daughter period position weakened attempt vengeance assassins murder eldest son brought conflict old ally leo support began find new allies promising land grants including head taking advantage absence leo army entered night february days later held citadel surrendered struggle latin patriarch peter consecrated prince protégé seized leo restored knights leo absence captured armenian forts north mountains finding treasure increased taxation unpopular subjects refused assist leo tried capture leo assisted leo flee visited john king jerusalem acre autumn john recognized prince early year provide military assistance rose leader william persuaded come town arrival sought refuge citadel soon fled granting citadel regain war came end aftermath leo dying came leo forgive great nephew year old daughter isabella grandson leo elder brother john king jerusalem husband leo eldest daughter refused accept leo claiming new conflict lasted decades weakening christian states northern syria


old persian geographical area persian empire held nobility known neo greek period military state persia rule cyrus great regarded royal inscriptions list concept generally interpreted meaning group people country people administrative incorporated original kingdom corresponding modern northern iraq upper middle upper modern day north eastern syria south east modern turkey neo empire collapsed period violent civil wars followed invasion coalition subject peoples iranian peoples late 7th century culminating battle fallen completely divided median empire east neo empire west parts empire argued constituted media respectively account ninth tributary district comprised rest excluded despite rebellions functioned important empire people given right govern rule language known combat skills soldiers constituted main heavy infantry empire military major destruction fall empire early scholars described area john curtis strongly disputed claim citing eventually wealthiest regions empire wealth land great prosperity agriculture effectively years contrast policy empire intervene internal affairs ruling long continued flow tribute taxes persia fall empire mid 14th centuries late 11th century late 10th late 7th centuries respective middle empire neo empire dominated middle_east militarily culturally economically politically neighbours paid tribute late 7th century empire descended period civil war drastically weakened eventually led number subject peoples forming alliance attacking civil war ridden battle eventually left destroyed years come continued fight aid egypt feared rise new powers new capital eventually taken despite continued fight final defeat costly victorious battle forces allowed advance rescue defeated median alliance conquered alliance rule unpopular long cyrus great defeated king ironically took provinces persian empire empire major capitals sparsely populated rule settlement smaller cities towns villages plain level mountains tell according recent cities remained intact revive despite cities left largely ruins battles led fall empire 7th century rural prosperous according greek scholar passing described ruins handful dwelling greeks turned north west following east bank river described rural abundance corn villages found palace villages round villages remained days sake wounded likewise provisions abundance flour wine great stores collected horses supplies having gathered acting district testimony example rich agricultural resources region existence palace known exactly palace located suggest near inscription found egypt written describes cities obtained administrative centres rule valley tell kilometers east location unknown tell kilometers north ancient city prior persian rule greatly continued empire region script everyday writing system religion empire tolerated judicial system calendar imperial standards imposed remained force like tributary peoples persian empire obliged pay taxes king persia king campaigned supply troops tribute carved east north sides consist seven men carrying animal skins carrying length cloth carrying leading rise empire resorted policy troublesome conquered peoples predominantly fellow semitic tribes jews lands allowed integration led rebellions empire 7th century 6th century indigenous originally speaking spoke infused eastern survive people day consequently persian rule gradually main language spoken empire fell language empire speak ruling elite needed bilingual capable speaking conquest violent destruction cities meant bilingual skilled individuals died language script incorporated culture late 6th century following conquest language adopted vehicle written communication different regions vast empire different peoples languages use single official language modern scholarship dubbed official imperial assumed greatly contributed success holding far empire long imperial highly standardized based historical roots spoken dialect inevitable influence persian gave language new clarity robust flexibility richard questioned classification imperial official language noting surviving accorded status particular language imperial territories suggesting era use generally thought centuries fall imperial near recognizable remained influence native iranian languages script vocabulary survived essential characteristics writing system largest collections imperial texts fortification number extant documents witnessing form come egypt particular best known wisdom book similar style biblical book sufficiently uniform difficult know particular example language written careful examination reveals occasional loan word local language group thirty imperial documents recently discovered analysis published november texts rendered leather reflect use 4th century bce provinces written script survive day christian people iraq south eastern turkey north eastern syria north western iran revolts provinces revolted persian empire revolts suppressed illustrated regions acted suggesting ethnic cultural link having said rebellion occur different parts empire geographical reasons region swept rebellion campaigns effectiveness invincible army shown greatly depleted time eventual collapse soldiers continued brave fierce warriors soldiers time wear heavy armour act melee troops serve troops different fought cavalry heavy infantry useful line troops infantry specifically trained engage hand hand massive army assembled early 5th century contemporary estimates place numbers million number enormous summoned troops realm remarks soldiers employed expedition greece contingent wore heads bronze helmets helmets foreign design hard describe shields spears resembled egyptian ones carried wooden clubs iron wore author influence art sculpture continued serve king time considered greatest ruler king kings ruled king powerful subordinates believed great palace built persian city employed construction building albeit tributary peoples western closer mount lebanon fine trees found timber processed grand palace eastern charged gold influence art sculpture seen areas empire examples include doorway relief palaces area near tiles decorated human headed winged figures lions symbol god chosen symbol god rule best example influence observed gate nations human headed winged bull entrance protect palace evil spirits expressed calm humanity tried answer question influence transmitted possibilities include contacts persia frequent architects visited palaces suggest slaves brought persia work new palaces economy countries primary occupation farming large output farms resulted highly populated chief crop fueled growing region grain wheat seeds provided source like rest world time economy relied heavily produce farms rivers including fish fruit meat raised fertile soils agricultural year began summer flooding posed risk farmers whilst supposedly driven prayers god ensure prayers answered tall built house grain mice trees grown fruit prevent hot winds region destroying crops tall palm trees planted smaller trees breaking wind plants heat sun intensity provided plenty plants shaded following persian conquest added original mix tree growing art mastered tree cutting artificial mating order palm trees yield fruit north rainfall met demands farming parts covering assist irrigation cattle sheep raised milk turned butter draught animals pigs ducks chickens raised meat hunting supplemented food supply birds fish time resulting farming seasons allowed men women master skills life arts philosophy leisure fertile soils river valley civilization come archaeological findings buildings dramatically destroyed evidence post period noted areas including palace iii north west palace burnt palace temple complex fort town wall houses passed called greek soldiers described city large deserted city wall feet breadth height circuit wall built clay bricks rested stone foundation feet high near city pyramid stone breadth height pyramid fled away neighbouring villages despite description city abandoned archaeological evidence period occupation phase temple complex burnt palace described occupation include traces south room burnt palace red glass analysis yielded date temple pipe lamp group seven pottery vessels considered ascribed period occupation south east palace deep bowl bowl compared pottery village pottery vessels south east palace eye regarded period material culture eye found town hall houses palace iii bronze sticks heads having identified period like capitals greatly destroyed battles century importance city clear evidence indicate city rule conquest cyrus great cyrus cylinder mentions cities cult statues returned describes city large prosperous city named seen opposite west bank river city brought wine crossing skins temple identified built fifth centuries graves site belonged period grave site pair circular clearly identified similar silver found near grave dates grave number period grave contained bodies stamp seal showing goddess standing lion indicate ancient religion practiced population rule objects grave include bronze gold earlier described silver different kinds silver glass bowl copper pottery bottles clear items date northeast site shows significant evidence rule small fortified palace probably local governor includes bronze wall plaques bronze bit type known contexts tubes decoration tapering pottery pottery palace similarities pottery identified dam salvage project dam salvage project items identified period project located northwest upper valley site amounts pottery dated include similarities times include clay iron blades bronze plate identified horse forehead plaque bronze finger ring animal engraved found site considered widespread empire project grave site excavated found bodies included conical pot bronze pin objects considered distinctive type period late fourth century alexander great led army conquer empire empire vast territory numerous tributary peoples ensured rebellion constant problem new greek empire relied administrative system place govern new lands consequently lands alexander great died greek successor state empire created war retained control persian empire chronicles greek culture ancient cities like whilst greek rule subject constant eventually successful iranian incursions forced role frontier province defending empire later defending empire romans greek rule east long cultural impacts mid century began empire iran establishing domains temporary revival power imperial authority regions late 3rd early 2nd century soon came incorporate lands known mid second century rule empire aimed emulate persian predecessors similar system administration involving smaller provinces main rebel rise empire power shared clan leaders possibility retention provinces empire new capital founded result culture knowledge exchanged greeks invasions alexander great consisted soldiers scientists historians beginning century romans began expanding empire cost initially nomadic military tactic shooting worked deadly effect slow heavy moving infantry romans time superior technology strategy drove mediterranean continued resist roman rule invading turn invaded romans times capital sacked times consequence bloody inconclusive wars meant provinces bore fighting troops fighting change governing lands fighting naturally events served undermine begun adopt christianity century remained spoken language region second century roman empire began achieve upper hand established province province empire known land middle persian area fell early muslim conquests region remained speaking largely christian middle ages remain area day number towns villages region addition cities populations remain christian retain language script


soap soap arabic type soap produced west bank palestine chief ingredients virgin olive oil main agricultural product region water compound finished product ivory colored scent traditionally women household use significant industry 14th century city soap factories supplying half soap palestine industry declined mid-20th century following destruction caused earthquake later disruption israeli military occupation soap factories survive old soap factory turned cultural heritage center history soap traditionally women household use 10th century small soap making factories appeared trade soap making required process 14th century significant soap making industry developed soap prized queen elizabeth england exported middle_east europe 19th century saw major expansion soap manufacturing center soap production fertile crescent city factories producing nearly tons soap annually half soap production palestine john wrote soap 1830s highly levant muhammad ali syrian historian wrote 1930s soap best famous soap today quality found secret produced soap industry began decline mid-20th century caused natural disasters especially earthquake destroyed old city israeli military occupation israeli military raids second destroyed soap factories historic quarter soap factories survive face continuing problems terms soap manufacture export general manager factory owned family commented factory produce tons soap annually physical economic obstacles face israeli occupation especially produce barely half today according united_nations office coordination humanitarian affairs road blocks set west bank created problems transportation supplies material factories making difficult workers homes factories soap widely sold west bank exported jordan kuwait arab israeli cities considered important aspect cultural heritage preservation soap making industry focus local projects including restoration conversion old soap factory cultural heritage center center research exhibition facilities includes small model soap factory makes soap traditional methods project hope local non governmental organizations market soap west raise funds community projects production process like soap chief ingredients soap virgin olive oil water compound compound mixing ashes plant grows banks river jordan locally supplied lime compound heated water olive oil large copper pits solution water compound increasingly concentrated series cycles repeated days time shaped wooden tool known stir liquid soap continuously liquid soap spread wooden frames set setting cut classic cube shape soap stamped company trademark seal soap undergo drying process months year involves ceiling high structures resembling hollow centers allow air finished product ivory colored scent soap leaving factory individual sold locally wrapped hand paper destined export left usually dispatched stiff sacks protect damage


history known history spans years ruled destroyed peoples originally settlement came control ancient roughly years conquered principal cities fell bce empire bce alexander great besieged captured city bce inhabitants killed assault city center learning philosophy nearby area changed hands regularly greek successor kingdoms syria egypt besieged taken bce rebuilt roman general granted great thirty years later roman period maintained prosperity receiving grants different emperors member senate governed city diverse population greeks romans jews conversion christianity city spearheaded completed saint destroyed pagan temples conquered muslim general ibn adopted islam early muslim rule city went periods prosperity decline control driven hands late 13th century capital province stretched peninsula witnessed golden age ottoman appointed dynasty 16th century experienced destructive earthquakes world war british forces captured city grew significantly half 20th century mandatory rule population city result palestinian exodus arab israeli war came egyptian rule occupied israel day war center political resistance oslo assigned direct control newly established palestinian authority israel withdrew emerged victor palestinian elections fighting rival city wider strip sole governing authority israel subsequently blockaded strip launched assaults response rocket attacks bronze age settlement region dates bce tell site located south present day city began ancient egyptian fortress built territory tell prospered cities began trade agricultural goods egypt economic interests shifted cedar trade lebanon role reduced port ships carrying goods declined economically site virtually abandoned remained early bronze age enjoyed demographic economic growth local population began tell area experienced total collapse civilization cities region abandoned 23rd century bce place emerged semi nomadic cultures pastoral camps family dwellings continued exist early bronze age urban center known tell began arise inland middle bronze age tell southernmost locality territory serving fort bce egypt occupied second city developed ruins tell city destroyed century later routed egypt egypt settled tell rose time 15th century bce city finally ceased exist 14th century end bronze age ancient period city present day began develop site tell city served egypt administrative capital residence egyptian governor region point strategic importance earliest times constantly involved wars egypt syria powers appeared frequently egyptian records iii mentioned syrian egyptian route letters egyptian hands years settled people cultural links 12th century bce league important city states hebrew bible mentions occupying area extended far people island modern crete scholars speculate descendants mentioned hebrew bible place imprisoned met death believed deserted according biblical accounts fell rule reign king david early 11th century bce united monarchy split bce northern kingdom israel kingdom israel fell iii bce came rule 7th century came egyptian control persian period centuries bce enjoyed certain independence flourished bce unsuccessfully attacked later bce greeks established trading post coins athens model bce alexander great besieged city resist conquest path egypt months finally capturing bce led named defended arab mercenaries siege months overcome storm defenders local elements fought death women children taken captives city neighboring sympathetic alexander rule organized city city state greek culture took root gained reputation center learning philosophy belonging kingdom passed bce 1st century bce half century mediterranean port arrived red_sea bce king alexander besieged city year inhabitants hoped help king killed city destroyed come aid classical antiquity roman rule rebuilt consul incorporated roman empire bce command roman rule brought centuries relative peace prosperity city busy port trade middle_east africa acts mentioned desert route jerusalem christian gospel explained road philip baptised nearby water granted great roman emperor bce formed separate unit kingdom governor charge city affairs division kingdom placed syria death bce annexed province syria burned jews rebellion romans remained important city destruction jerusalem following year passed march jerusalem return establishment roman province restored trade links roman period prosperous city received grants attention emperors member senate governed diverse variety greeks romans jews populated city mint stamped coins adorned gods emperors visit emperor favored personally inaugurated wrestling boxing competitions new stadium soon known alexandria damascus city adorned pagan temples main cult temples dedicated apollo local deity spread christianity initiated philip arab port later city religion faced obstacles spread inland population pagan worship strong number local christians assembled hear scriptures read seized mutilated romans christians harshly persecution bishop believed disciples saint persecution arrested christians condemned death byzantine rule advent christianity breakup roman empire byzantine_empire province official recognition christianity constantine increase sympathy religion represented bishop council vast majority inhabitants continued worship native gods roman empire time remained unaffected time inhabitants converted christianity constantine decided separate pagan giving episcopal julian reversed process reign half 4th century bishop clergy territory shared administration julian death independence restored rivalry intensified 4th century christian community small poor carried influence city church insignificant members allowed hold political office conversion christianity spearheaded saint obtaining decree emperor ordered city pagan temples destroyed idol worship forbidden byzantine government continued christians persecuted city forcing undertake measures result empress commissioned construction church atop ruins temple note according likely exist persecution christians cease harsh frequent previously large 6th century mosaic tile floor depicting king david discovered inscription states floor donated merchant brothers starting point peninsula important city early christian world famous scholars taught academy rhetoric including 6th century scholar celebrated church saint built century depicted mosaic map important political commercial center southern coast palestine northern municipal border marked southern boundary unknown jurisdiction reach towns included territories large representation approximately half preserved easily explained mainly small tentative excavations byzantine covered inhabited old city arab rule converts islam city greek speaking christian population capitulation muslims near end byzantine era home increasingly influential group arab traders including ibn later second ruler islamic muhammad visited city prophet islam besieged army general ibn assistance ibn following battle byzantine_empire central palestine muslims victory gave control palestine countryside major cities garrisons succeeding head forces began stronger efforts conquering byzantine territory year siege city jewish community fought alongside byzantine garrison summer forces broke siege captured killing byzantine garrison attacking inhabitants victory attributed combination arab strategy byzantine weakness influence arab residents believed site muhammad great grandfather ibn lived merchant buried city destroyed victorious arab army arrival muslim arabs brought drastic changes churches transformed including cathedral john baptist previously temple great mosque population adopted islam religion relatively quick contrast city countryside eventually arabic official language christian population reduced insignificant minority residents deposited property high priest fled city east muslim conquest placed administration district palestine province rule continued district successive arab served minor administrative center earthquake struck city details effects appointed governors christians jews worship trade continued noted writings bishop saint visited city year saw end rule palestine arrival center writing islamic law muhammad ibn ash born lived early childhood founded prominent schools law islam named city laid waste civil war arab tribes area apparently recovered 9th century according persian wrote merchants grew rich place great market people christian writer writing described rich things port occasionally succumbed neglect arab rule overall decline commerce followed palestine rulers disrupted overland trade routes city ruled influence egypt started grow leading slow decline city orange introduced area arriving india established agreement turks control land south including egypt rule arab described large town lying egypt border desert beautiful mosque seen monument arabic language poet born city rule control according chronicler william tyre found ruins unable totally built lack resources king baldwin iii built small castle possession completed military held city north castle construction baldwin granted surrounding region knights great mosque converted cathedral saint john arab traveler wrote today populous hands william tyre confirms civilian population persuaded occupy area outside castle establish fortifications gates surrounding community year king jerusalem withdrew assist egypt based force led nearby evaded force assaulted instead destroying town built outside castle walls killing inhabitants refused refuge castle managed miles time seven years later prepared defense time forces fell following capitulation surrendered return release master ordered destruction city fortifications year later richard apparently city walls dismantled result treaty agreed months later according medium sized city possessing gardens early 13th century constructed neighborhood extension old city rule rule virtually ended khan completely destroyed southernmost point conquest left army recalled death emperor general subsequently drove city defeated proclaimed sultan egypt way battlefield assassination sultan passed times expeditions remnants states domination started initially small village territory sultan days march son muhammad instituted capital province bore governorship province covered coastal plain south north extending east western slopes hills major towns earthquake devastated years later destroyed restored year center conspiracy sultan plot detected crushed carried syrian described rich trees looks like cloth spread land accounted cities towns north central jerusalem sub governors ruled second reign muhammad briefly overthrown places returned allegiance exiled sultan muhammad defeated sultan forcing surrender throne imprisoned city acquired governorship central palestine highly favored transformed city having built horse race course college mosque khan hospital castle late coinciding appointment governor provincial privileges governor direct sultan cairo removed muhammad decree served second term governor subordinate syria plague spread city killing majority inhabitants suffered destructive flood rare arid palestine traveler ibn visited city noted large populous walls round old fine mosque great mosque present built early governor plotted commit treason sultan plot detected exiled replaced din ibn soon city fell hands revolted violence ibn met gates gifts proposals peace regained throne retook year destroyed crops battle rival occurred failed throne fled unsuccessful stand governed din later sultan executive secretary built neighborhood ottoman era early ottoman rule dynasty small town inactive port ruined buildings reduced trade incorporated ottoman_empire ottoman army quickly efficiently crushed small scale uprising local population generally welcomed fellow muslims shortly palestine quick submission ottomans divided districts including district stretched north east south larger damascus province damascus early governor member military corps rose elite military officer state minister eventually trusted aide sultan magnificent received governorship apparently interim appointment appointed governor egypt deposed years later sultan died short later son treasurer governor shortly death dynasty rule century derives later appointed governor deposed years later returned governorship governor order successfully led ottoman contingent persia sultan awarded province died explanation provided biographies family evident chose home place castle son succeeded governed thirty years incorporating jerusalem governor damascus istanbul died line ibn known arab identified control knowledge successfully led pro ottoman troops army rebel din series battles later appointed governor tripoli lebanon deposed arab wives children led successfully militarily dynasty heavy debt arab son governor jerusalem inherited impoverished governorship father died borrowed large sum french order meet heavy taxes imposed city governor province briefly belonged period office peaceful prosperous city gained good reputation considerably reducing strife nearby settled population appointed son governor jerusalem killed expedition mount lebanon resumed control year designated capital palestine indicating city rapid recovery great mosque restored constructed turkish market stalls anonymous petitions damascus sent istanbul complaining failure protect alleged pro christian tendencies served excuse ottoman government soon imprisoned damascus assets confiscated provincial authorities later sent istanbul died prison brother governed early implementing anti french anti christian regime ottoman government soon reign ended ottomans officials appointed govern period considered golden age ottoman rule city gradually removed office ottomans appointed based family govern death local tribes disposed consisting loads goods markets city wealth attack ottomans recently replaced governor damascus revolt ottomans november ali rebellious sultan egypt sent troops aid helping check power ottomans levant briefly occupied french army napoleon referred outpost africa door asia inhabitants fled result forces easily razed remains city walls rebuilt destruction abandoned city failed siege acre year duration french influence short effect egyptian rule ottoman revival culturally dominated neighboring egypt early 19th century muhammad ali egypt conquered palestine strangely muhammad ali instructed son purchase cotton harvest cotton production ali main source wealth egypt production low year instead allowing residents dispose wished american scholar edward robinson visited describing populated town larger jerusalem old city lying suburbs laid nearby plain stated soil rich supported delicious abundant port inactive benefited trade commerce position route egypt syria production soap cotton trade governor time robinson noted virtually ancient history antiquity disappeared constant conflict occupation plague struck city lacked political economic stability egyptian ottoman troops battled outside ottomans emerging victorious effectively ending egyptian rule palestine battles brought death destruction barely city began recover plague church saint renovated french charles visited gathering sizable collection byzantine inscriptions describing city great mosque detail sultan wells restored municipal council formed ali modern began son said appointed mayor ottoman authorities like regions cities palestine time economically politically dominated number powerful clans particularly families destructive earthquakes occurred world war erupted british forces defeated ottomans second battle general leading allied forces finally conquered battle british rule war league nations granted quasi colonial authority ottoman territories great_britain france included british mandate palestine jewish quarter destroyed palestine riots jewish families fled city 1930s 1940s underwent major expansion new neighborhoods built coast southern eastern plains areas damaged riots went reconstruction funding developments came international organizations missionary groups egyptian control result arab israeli war egypt obtained control surrounding area growing population augmented influx refugees fleeing nearby cities towns villages captured israel nominally jurisdiction palestine government entity established arab league arab israeli war provide palestinian government palestine members government removed cairo little influence events egyptian occupation strip interrupted months crisis withdrawal israeli forces egyptian president issued reforms including expansion educational opportunities civil services provision housing establishment local security forces egypt political activity severely curtailed government sponsored arab national union established place palestine government abolished gave city citizens greater voice national politics palestine government officially united arab republic union syria egypt pan arab policy reality turned direct egyptian military governorship continued withdrawal syria shortly palestinian liberation organization founded formally practically proclaimed hold authority year later conscription instituted palestinian liberation army israeli control occupied israel day war defeat coalition arab armies israeli occupation existing structures administration maintained administrative tasks continue executed palestinian civil servants policy government administration declared felt israeli military frequently interfered city administration order control local resistance occupation immediate aftermath war military governor threatened dismiss municipal council cut utility services local leadership unable force residents city turn weapons action deemed excessive revoked israeli military governor strip organized armed struggle israel peaked largely crushed israel defense forces command israeli army attempted disperse high concentration palestinian refugees camp developed new housing schemes resulted establishment northern district united_nations relief works agency opposition claiming forced military governor dismissed city mayor refusing annex camp municipality 1970s frequent conflicts erupted israeli authorities city leading center confrontation uprising consequently economic conditions city worsened palestinian control palestinian authority september leaders israel signed oslo calling palestinian administration strip west bank town implemented israeli forces withdrew leaving new palestinian national authority administer police city led chose provincial headquarters newly established palestinian national council held inaugural session march israeli cabinet withdrew military settlements strip including route narrow strip adjacent border egypt plan palestinian organization won surprise victory palestinian elections engaged violent power struggle rival palestinian organization administration forces strip members dismissed government west bank response currently facto control city strip israel bombarded nearby cities strip air ground assault operation summer rains aim end continued rocket attacks launched islamic secure release israeli soldier captured palestinian march human rights coalition charged humanitarian situation reached worst point israel occupied territory day war december israel commenced air strikes operation cast lead israel stated strikes response repetitive rocket mortar attacks strip israel stated responding israel military blockade strip january israeli tanks infantry invading air naval support thirteen including soldiers killed according palestinian sources total killed injured addition buildings destroyed damaged strip israel began operation november lasting days july took responsibility rocket attacks israel members killed leading israel launching operation day


syrian coup état syrian coup état refers events february government syrian arab republic overthrown replaced ruling national command arab socialist party removed power union party military committee regional command leadership coup precipitated power struggle party old guard represented din younger factions neo position february supporters old guard army ordered transfer rivals days later military committee backing younger factions launched coup involved violent fighting damascus result coup party historical founders fled country spent rest lives exile government radical administration syria history coup created permanent syrian iraqi regional branches party respective national commands senior syrian iraq legacy coup rule syria initiated propaganda campaign iraqi government overthrown movement brought power background consolidation power taking power syrian coup état officially 8th march revolution power struggle broke erupted national council revolutionary command party sought united arab republic federation encompassing egypt syria terms skeptical new union wanted loose federation party rule syria interference large street demonstrations favour union took time party knew respond issue majority syrian arab nationalists adherents general instead trying win support populace moved consolidate control syrian military conservatives military recruited fill senior positions newly recruited officers came countryside low social class officers replaced chiefly urban upper middle middle class officer corps replaced officer corps rural background leading minority officer changes led control military establishment cost protests loss legitimacy emergence military traditional elite consisting upper classes overthrown political power felt threatened party socialist policies muslim brotherhood syria historical rival syrian regional branch felt threatened party secular nature supporters syrian communist_party opposed party system party establishing majority muslims arab nationalists making feel alienated party chiefly dominated minority groups people countryside general created urban rural conflict based predominantly ethnic differences coming power party threatened predominantly anti sentiment urban politics probably reason managed stay power weakly organised fragmented opposition faced conflict cohesive internal unity collapsed seizure power din followers wanted implement classic sense wanted establish loose union egypt implement moderate form socialism party state respected rights individual freedom speech freedom thought quickly forced background 6th national party congress military committee supporters succeeding creating new form strongly influenced new form laid emphasis revolution country arab world time 6th national congress implemented resolution stressed implementation socialist revolution syria form socialism economy adhere state planning commanding heights economy foreign trade believed policies end exploitation labour capitalism disappear agriculture envisioned plan land given works private enterprise exist retail trade construction tourism small industry general changes party party aftermath riot cities retreat regained control brief period formed new government halted process respect civil liberties private property policy changes win sufficient support population large opposed party rule upper classes continued capital capital country solution loss capital continuing party left wing argued won given total control economy power struggle moderate dominated national command party dominated syrian regional command party led coup état power struggle crushing riots power struggle started military committee minister defence muhammad committee senior member wanted reconciliation end confrontation middle class contrast believed solution protesters save 8th march revolution open military committee prove decisive coming events support military committee initiated violent counter attack decision led downfall responded revealing military committee plan taking party party national command secretary general national command responded information ordering dissolution syrian regional command forced withdraw request party rank file rose protest old guard asked big role party played government replied percent revelations national command led exile national command military committee control syrian regional command initiated attack initiated drive extended state ownership electricity generation oil distribution cotton estimated percent foreign trade downfall national command military committee continued respective struggle control party national command invoked party rules regulations military committee clear beginning initiative lay military committee reason military committee success alliance group branches adhered orders dissolve syrian regional branch disliked opposed leadership called true cells party power contest allied military committee national command fought party structure military committee managed turn party structure head 2nd regional congress held march decided endorse principle regional secretary regional command head state regional command acquired power appoint prime minister cabinet chief staff military commanders change curtailed powers national command little syrian internal affairs response 8th national congress april originally planned launch attack military committee persuaded fellow national command members notably member member ali lead removal party civilian leadership occurred iraqi regional branch decision voted office secretary general succeeded fellow national command member syrian born rooted party politics solve crisis command joint meetings national regional commands took place longer loss office secretary regional command changed allegiance support national command leader syria held offices regional command secretary chairman presidential council prime minister commander chief assistant secretary general regional command facto leader syria coup november national command issued resolution stated forbidden regional command transfer dismiss military officers consent national command hearing resolution rebelled immediately ordered colonel arrest commanders garrison deputy supporters national command response called emergency session national command decreed regional command dissolved prime minister chairman new presidential council deputy recalled exile office minister defence commander chief appointed chairman new expanded national revolutionary council supporters responded making war national command liked sympathy support showdown use force response coming coup left london coup began february tested authority minister defence ordering transfer key supporters major general colonel major military committee respond day staged ruse threw national command balance ruse commander facing israel reported headquarters quarrel broken line officers guns chief staff left heights hurry lengthy discussion officer corps returned february exhausted hours later launched coup long attack private residence began led supported squadron tank units led despite spirited defence forces surrendered ammunition spent daughter lost eye attacks commander bodyguard nearly killed saved smuggled syria resistance outside damascus forced send forces quell uprising loyalists briefly controlled radio station resistance reported military defeats resistance collapsed national command member organised resistance military defeats issuing statements government different hiding places aftermath new government immediately coup officers loyal armed forces imprisoned alongside prison acts government appoint minister defence support coup told support actions later interview claimed military intervention party democratic disputes resolved democratic manner view actions necessary end view dictatorship national command government referred syria radical government history initiated radical policies internally externally tried syrian society agreed agree implement beliefs practice military committee officers key decision making process lost central institutional authority fight key reason committee existence place acquired took offices prime minister president instead opting rule office assistant secretary regional command undisputed ruler syria coup controlled syrian armed forces post head bureau officers affairs onwards absorbed running country place given task controlling armed forces later prove mistake lead downfall revolution appointed president regional secretary regional command secretary general national command prime minister appointed minister foreign affairs personalities head military intelligence appointed chief staff colonel muhammad appointed minister labour head newly established popular resistance forces colonel founding member military committee appointed minister reform later minister interior neo believe ben prominent writer subject ideology preached syria coup referred neo ideology classic form espoused general agreed theory stating onwards existed parties military party party real power lay noted military martin remains remains little military civilian initial founding military committee syrian officers exiled cairo chain events total corruption proceeded logic agreed stating coup marked end politics syria shared sentiment stated longer recognise party split national command deepest movement history splits party emerged remained party leaders coup brought new generation leaders power different aims predecessors supporters syria non syrian regional branches hampered lack financial means syrian regional branch funded supporters syrian state disposal theoretically able establish new party organisations pro opinion failed work regional branches changed allegiance baghdad later post national congress officially designated 9th held new national command elected change ideological orientation syrian regional branch new national command believed arab party unification arab world syria new leaders saw impractical following coup national command syrian regional command ceased effective role arab syrian politics following exile national command members including convened 9th national congress differentiate syrian 9th national congress elected new national command attend congress national command secretary general like exile syria hard left party moved brazil remaining till party party relations national command toppled iraqi regional branch remained verbally supportive legitimate leadership iraqi regional branch regained power july revolution attempts merger achieve supposed goal arab unity reconciliation syrian establishment rule iraq members syrian dominated movement defected iraqi counterpart iraqi loyal attempted change allegiance damascus reason damascus loyal old national command older members visited iraq sent message regional secretary iraqi regional command visit iraq leading iraqi official acquired decision making power beginning damascus government began overwhelmingly anti iraqi propaganda campaign counterparts baghdad responded iraqi helped 4th regional congress syrian regional branch called party attempt seize power reported promised recognize historical leadership iraq foreign minister personal office syrian ministry defence headed iraqi regional branch arab nationalist fact iraqi nationalist syrian regional branch began denouncing thief claimed stolen ideology proclaimed principal founder thought iraqi regional branch proclaimed founder referred greatest syrian day claimed conceive political movement condemned death government syrian regional branch erected statue honour long coup majority followers outside syria view principal founder iraqi regional branch seized power syrian regional branch responded mentioning press release organisation taken power iraq instance mentioned appointed president mention party affiliation instead referred incident military coup syrian denied giving legitimacy iraqi iraqi instance stated shortly iraqi regional branch seized power foreign minister stated shortly preventing operation meaning iraq syria anti iraq propaganda reached new heights syria time strengthening position party state toppled movement signal change attitudes joint syrian dominated national command syrian regional command referred iraqi