operation operation given german counter attack battle normandy took place american positions near august august german city belgium germans won victory early days august world war offensive referred american british histories battle normandy counter offensive assault ordered adolf_hitler eliminate gains united_states_army operation cobra subsequent weeks reaching coast region base peninsula cut units united_states_army advanced brittany main german striking force corps half divisions divisions initial gains defending vii corps soon halted allied aircraft inflicted severe losses attacking troops eventually destroying nearly half german tanks involved attack fighting continued days american forces regained initiative day opening german attack german commanders spot warned hitler vain little chance attack succeeding concentration armoured reserves western end normandy soon led disaster south east collapsed resulting german troops normandy trapped pocket background july following weeks warfare american forces lieutenant general bradley mounted attack code named operation cobra broke german defenses near saint entire western half german normandy collapsed august american forces captured capture town base peninsula intact bridge nearby american forces turned corner german longer anchored sea western end american forces advance west south brittany army commanded lieutenant general george activated day despite german air attacks bridge pushed seven divisions days units army began advancing unopposed brittany ports beginning july british second army lieutenant general miles mounted supporting attack code named operation eastern flank american armies german armored reserves rushed west halt american breakthrough diverted face new threat continued attacks widen corridor germans held vital road junction vii corps major general collins captured miles east august day viii corps continued advance west brittany ports brest bradley ordered drive eastward main body army open german flank german rear areas corps advanced days august approaching location headquarters german 7th army important center german command decisions von german supreme commander west injured allied aircraft july took direct command army group formation conducting battle normandy warned hitler july collapse imminent hitler continued order stand fast august hitler sent directive ordering immediate counter attack general walter deputy chief staff german armed forces headquarters sent headquarters ensure orders complied suggested chance success german forces normandy retire river intact defences south august hitler ordered attack launched demanded divisions normandy attack luftwaffe commit entire reserve including fighters according hitler qualifications met attack proceed von believe able armour main normandy create effective striking force achieve surprise ordered wait tank gun plane assembled general paul commanding german 7th army held western decided attack soon possible overall situation deteriorated main striking force assigned corps commanded general von instead divisions incomplete relieved defensive tasks assembled time 2nd division division 2nd division 1st division total tanks corps supported infantry divisions formed remnants division equally battered infantry divisions ordered attack mounted night august avoid american forces attack preparatory artillery intention hit 30th infantry division commanded major general east cut american defenses reach coast surprise achieved attack succeeded allied ultra intercepted orders operation august result bradley able obtain air support 9th air_force raf german attacks august reported troops concentrated commander division mess things fact officer von operation ordered tank units delay german attack german left flank troops attacked positions american 30th infantry division east shortly midnight germans achieved temporary surprise ultra documents arrived army headquarters late alert troops immediate assault briefly captured unable breach lines 30th division 2nd battalion infantry regiment commanded hill dominant feature cut supplied parachute drops men defended position august killed north 2nd division attacked hours later aiming south west managed penetrate miles american lines stopped 35th infantry division combat command 3rd armored division short german high command ordered attacks renewed afternoon taken allied air strikes offensive stalls noon august early morning fog dispersed large numbers allied aircraft appeared battlefield advance knowledge attack provided ultra 9th air_force reinforced raf second tactical air_force despite assurances luftwaffe german forces adequate air support allied aircraft quickly achieved complete control luftwaffe reported fighters engaged allied aircraft moment took unable reach battlefield open ground east german exposed targets especially rocket firing typhoon fighter bombers raf traditional accounts allied fighter bomber attacks battle accepted claims pilots destroyed german tanks subsequent detailed studies battlefield showed destroyed german armor knocked gunfire ground forces main effect allied air attacks destroy vehicles troops german offensive forcing german armor disperse cover accuracy rockets bombs allied fighter bombers simply poor destroy german tanks fear inside tank rocket bomb actually strike tank cause inexperienced german tank crews abandon tanks intact air attack british study found average typhoon pilot firing barrage rockets percent chance striking target size tank american counter moves august american troops continued press south near right flank german attack division supposed advance sector actually driven afternoon 1st divisions renewed attacks flanks positions sealed allowing american vii corps contain german advance bradley sent armoured combat commands german southern left flank august 2nd armored division attacking rear divisions fighting continue days prospect german success germans issued orders defensive entire poorly communicated orders resulted impossible achieve german forces retreating preparing hold ground army counter attacked german units near units 3rd army advancing open country south german armies taken august day 1st canadian army attacked weakened german positions south operation threatened break attack stalled days desperation hitler ordered attacks renewed greater intensity demanding 9th division formation opposing advance east transferred attack general commander west ordered form new headquarters named group command renewed offensive feared implicated july plot apparently order proposed counter attack soon overtaken events mounted aftermath august offensive fully halted german forces driven divisions involved lost half tanks allied counter attacks air strikes hitler ordered german forces normandy hold positions vii corps swinging east north german attack west left 7th army west danger encircled allied forces american forces advanced british canadian forces advanced threatening cut armies newly formed pocket american casualties operation significantly lighter previous operations certain sectors notably positions held 30th division took severe casualties end august nearly men 30th division killed estimates american casualties august vary fatalities unknown number wounded august canadian forces launched operation conjunction american movements northwards august brigade polish 1st armoured division linked forces infantry division sealing german troops pocket august german attempts reopen gap thwarted german troops trapped pocket surrendered allied forces effectively putting end german 7th army


operation operation spelled operation recent british sources offensive launched allied troops canadian army later stages operation overlord august intention break german defences south eastern flank allied positions normandy exploit success driving south capture high ground north city goal collapse entire german cut retreat german forces fighting american british armies west battle considered inaugural operation canadian army formally activated july early hours august canadian corps launched attack infantry broke german lines captured vital positions deep german defences intended fresh armoured divisions continue attack comparatively inexperienced divisions german armoured counter attacks slowed offensive having advanced allies halted north forced prepare fresh attack background objective british forces assaulting sword beach day german defences strongest sector german reinforcements sent normandy committed defence city warfare ensued weeks attempts british canadian forces capture unsuccessful july city north river captured operation july july british forces launched operation city east south canadian forces mounted operation atlantic cross river clear remaining portions city operation halted heavy tank losses operations ultimately secured wide deep south germans held commanding terrain ridge south city repeated british canadian attacks launched distract germans western united_states_army preparing break allied caused germans defend ridge strongest determined formations including elements divisions corps hours end operation 2nd canadian infantry division launched attack formidable german defences ridge suffered casualties territorial gains minimal july july attempt ridge operation spring poor execution resulted canadian casualties total battle ridge claimed upwards canadian casualties ridge remained german hands 2nd canadian infantry division gained ridge village martin allow troops assemble free german observation prepared launch july americans launched break offensive operation cobra gained immediate success end day operation american forces advanced south cobra start line points july american forces captured base peninsula german left flank open hours units united_states army entered brittany began advancing south west open country opposition german divisions 1st 9th shifted westward ridge face new threat british general bernard montgomery commanding ground forces normandy wanted attack eastern flank capture intending general german collapse canadian army commanded lieutenant general harry held allied consisted british corps responsible extreme eastern flank allied lines canadian corps south canadian corps launch operation commanded lieutenant general guy consisted 2nd canadian infantry division 3rd canadian infantry division 49th west riding infantry division 51st highland infantry division 4th canadian armoured division 1st polish armoured division 2nd canadian armoured brigade british 33rd armoured brigade offensive plan german defensive positions ridge remained strong forward infantry positions dug wide fields fire main concentration anti tank guns deployed villages saint forward positions halt breakthrough tanks road line defences depth held infantry division infantry division recently arrived remnants infantry division severely depleted canadians operation atlantic 12th division attached heavy tank battalion tanks reserve infantry commanded german sector 12th division command corps arrived operation knew infantry assaults supported artillery failed overcome german forward lines operation atlantic operation spring operation bombardment aircraft raf bomber command allowed british tanks break german suffered heavy casualties intact german defences depth infantry unable follow quickly support leading tanks secure ground follow units slowed solve tactical problem presented terrain deep defences proposed radical solution effect world large infantry attack canadian british infantry divisions temporarily equipped priest self propelled guns day landings replaced towed ordnance pounders priests converted armoured personnel carriers allow infantry follow tanks closely terrain permission requested americans borrowed convert air power essential component plan breaking german tactical zones preliminary aerial bombardment called raf bombers german defences flanks wide corridor axis road night august early hours august attacking forces tanks armoured personnel carriers advance corridor west road canadian 2nd division 4th canadian infantry brigade 2nd canadian armoured brigade east road british 51st division highland brigade 33rd armoured brigade columns bypass line defenders capture main german anti tank defences saint dawn second phase follow immediately remaining infantry brigades 2nd canadian 51st british divisions cleared isolated german forward defences 3rd canadian british 49th divisions corps began subsidiary attacks widen base captured phase 4th canadian armoured division 1st polish armoured division corridor prepare advance south prepare attack bombers eighth air_force bombard german reserve positions ultimate objective high ground north start line anglo canadian assault evening august attacking forces formed columns vehicles wide comprising tanks half tracks self propelled anti tank guns tanks bomber command commenced bombardment german positions entire armoured columns began advance rolling barrage movement slow drivers dust caused vehicles vehicles stuck bomb arranged methods columns maintain direction vehicles fitted radio direction artillery fired target marking shells guns fired bursts direction advance spite measures confusion vehicles collided knocked attack broke german defences places dawn attacking columns 51st highland division reached intended positions infantry yards objectives villages saint rapidly overran defenders columns 2nd canadian division delayed fog unexpected opposition right flank noon august allied forces captured ridge novel methods ensured attackers suffered fraction loss incurred normal attack allies south penetration ordered halt advance allow field artillery armoured divisions 4th canadian 1st polish position second phase operation german counter moves general kurt commander 12th division ordered infantry formations shattered bombers armoured attack occupy moved forward division consisting assault guns infantry tiger tanks positioning canadian shortly midday ordered counter attack leading allied troops point allied offensive plan called additional bombardment eighth air_force 4th canadian armoured division 1st polish armoured division pushed south road counter attack 12th division failed placed tanks north target area eighth air_force bombarded preparation second phase allied attack spared effects bombing tanks slowed advance 1st polish armoured division preventing breakthrough east road west road german infantry held canadian armoured formations division combat time pressed attacks hard demanded went defensive formation vehicles troops supplied rested darkness fell restore momentum attack ordered column 4th canadian armoured division seize hill west main road halfway force comprised companies regiment supporting tanks british_columbia regiment rear force fighting went round got lost dawn broke august force east hill hill half way held ground german armoured counter attacks august suffered casualties including tanks hours remained force captured forced withdraw column far intended objective units sent relieve find eventually force captured hill model night attack august germans given time withdraw reform defensive line river august anglo canadian offensive ended aftermath early phases assault great success despite casualties allied armoured divisions attempt push formations divisions canadian army held positions hill directly north time allied forces managed inflict upwards casualties german forces major general rod removed command 3rd canadian infantry division having badly wounded headquarters hit american bombs poor performance lost confidence general received command positions remainder war mounted follow offensive operation took place august august pocket closed canadian polish units contact troops south ending commonwealth participation battle normandy decisive allied victory


offensive offensive vietnamese largest military campaigns vietnam war launched january forces north vietnamese people army vietnam forces south vietnamese army republic vietnam united_states allies campaign surprise attacks military civilian commands control centers south vietnam offensive comes holiday vietnamese new year major attacks took place north vietnamese launched wave attacks late night hours january corps tactical zones south vietnam early attack lead widespread defensive measures main north vietnamese operation began morning offensive coordinated eventually north vietnamese troops striking towns cities including provincial capitals autonomous cities district towns southern capital offensive largest military operation conducted point war initial attacks stunned south vietnamese armies causing temporarily lose control cities quickly beat attacks inflicted heavy casualties north vietnamese forces battle intense fighting lasted month resulting destruction city forces occupation north vietnamese executed thousands people massacre combat base fighting continued months offensive military defeat north vietnam profound effect government shocked public led believe political military leaders north vietnamese defeated incapable launching ambitious military operation public support war declined sought negotiations end war term offensive usually refers january february offensive include called mini took place august background united_states fall question strategy attrition working south vietnam weighed heavily minds american public administration president johnson general william commander military assistance command vietnam believed crossover point reached number communist troops killed captured military operations exceeded recruited replaced americans win war central intelligence agency cia order battle estimates concerning strength guerrilla forces south vietnam september members intelligence services cia met prepare special national intelligence estimate administration gauge success conflict provided enemy intelligence operations cedar falls junction city cia members group believed number south high combined intelligence center hand maintained number deeply concerned possible perceptions american public increased estimate communist troop strength routinely provided reporters press according chief intelligence general joseph new figures create political positive proof north vietnamese capability continue protracted war attrition attempted obtain compromise cia maintaining militias constitute fighting force essentially low level fifth information collection agency responded notion ridiculous militias directly responsible half casualties inflicted forces groups george cia deputy director vietnamese affairs asked dispute september devised compromise cia drop insistence including final tally forces add prose estimate explain agency position george allen deputy laid responsibility agency capitulation feet richard director cia believed political problem didn want agency policy interest administration second half administration alarmed criticism inside outside government reports declining public support vietnam policies according public opinion polls percentage americans believed mistake sending troops vietnam risen percent percent december trend fueled belief struggle worthwhile mounting casualty figures rising taxes feeling end war sight poll taken november indicated percent wanted tougher war policy exemplified public belief error gotten involved vietnam place let win prompted administration launch called success offensive effort alter widespread public perception war reached stalemate convince american people administration policies succeeding leadership national security advisor news media inundated wave optimism statistical indicator progress kill body counts village fed press congress beginning win struggle asserted vice president nbc today mid november offensive territory gained making steady progress end november campaign reached climax johnson summoned new ambassador bunker washington billed high level policy review arrival men bolstered administration claims success chief robert asserted program countryside succeeding percent south vietnamese population control seventeen percent control general bruce field force commanders claimed defeated food recruit forced change strategy trying control people coast trying survive mountains address national press club november reported end communists unable mount major offensive absolutely certain enemy winning today certainly losing reached important point end begins come view end year administration approval rating percent early january poll indicated seven percent american public disapproved president handling war american public confused convinced doubtful adopted wait attitude discussion interviewer time magazine defied communists launch attack hope try looking fight north vietnam party politics planning winter spring offensive begun early continued early following year according american sources extreme reluctance vietnamese historians discuss decision making process led general offensive general uprising decades event official vietnamese literature decision launch offensive usually presented result perceived failure win war quickly failure american bombing campaign north vietnam anti war sentiment population decision launch general offensive complicated decision signaled end bitter decade long debate north vietnamese government factions believed economic viability north vietnam come support massive conventional southern war generally followed soviet line peaceful vietnam political means heading faction party minister defense militant faction hand tended follow foreign policy line people republic china called nation military means negotiations undertaken americans group led communist_party secretary relation early mid-1960s dictated direction war south vietnam general head central office south vietnam headquarters south prominent militant followers chinese line centered strategy allies large scale main force actions protracted guerrilla war espoused suffering massive casualties stalemate battlefield destruction northern economy aerial bombing realization current trends continued eventually lack resources necessary affect military situation south result calls negotiations revision strategy felt return guerrilla tactics appropriate defeated conventionally complained policy rejecting negotiations error americans worn war period fighting talking things bad battlefield ordered incorporate aspects protracted guerrilla warfare strategy period counter attack launched new grouping led president foreign minister called negotiations october april public debate military strategy took place print radio rival military power advocated defensive primarily guerrilla strategy south vietnam position adherents centered experiences war conservative captive old methods past experience repeating past arguments domestic military strategy carried foreign policy element north vietnam south vietnamese forces largely dependent outside military economic aid vast majority north vietnam military equipment provided soviet_union china beijing advocated north vietnam conduct protracted war model fearing conventional conflict draw korean war resisted idea negotiating allies moscow hand advocated negotiations simultaneously armed forces conduct conventional war soviet model north vietnamese foreign policy consisted maintaining critical balance war policy internal external policies domestic adversaries foreign allies self serving break domestic opponents autonomy foreign allies hundreds pro soviet party military officers arrested july came called anti party affair arrests based individual stance choice tactics strategy proposed general offensive cemented position strategy rejection negotiations abandonment protracted warfare focus offensive towns cities south vietnam arrests followed november december general offensive uprising operational plan general offensive uprising origin proposal southern headquarters april relayed following month general ordered capital explain concept person military central commission meeting july plan evening july receiving permission begin preparations offensive attended party died heart attack drinking position party crackdown sped planning major conventional offensive break military concluded government presence unpopular population south broad based attack spark spontaneous uprising population offensive successful enable north vietnamese sweep quick decisive victory basis conclusion included belief south vietnamese military longer combat effective results september south vietnamese presidential election ticket received percent popular vote buddhist crises publicized anti war demonstrations continuous criticism government southern press launching offensive finally end described calls talks criticism military strategy chinese soviet soviet pressure negotiate needed october decided holiday launch date met december decision 14th session party central committee january resultant resolution major blow domestic opposition foreign concessions center group agreeing negotiations possible document essentially centered creation spontaneous uprising order win decisive victory shortest time possible contrary western belief general plan command offensive original plan elaborated party committee headed deputy modified defense minister convinced toe line arrest imprisonment members staff anti communist_party affair went work reluctantly found task easier fact faced approved offensive work combined guerrilla operations basically conventional military offensive shifted burden sparking popular uprising worked good failed failure communist_party offered prospect negotiations possible end american bombing north eyes offensive broke effort willing settle ambitious victory operation involve preliminary phase attacks launched border areas south vietnam draw american attention forces away cities general offensive general uprising commence simultaneous actions major allied bases urban areas particular emphasis cities concurrently substantial threat combat base actions draw north vietnamese forces away offensive cities considered necessary order protect supply lines divert american attention attacks forces secondary importance considered main objective weakening destroying south vietnamese military government popular revolt offensive aimed influencing south vietnamese public conflicting evidence extent offensive intended influence march november presidential election according general new military head offensive distinct phases phase scheduled begin january assault cities conducted primarily forces concurrently propaganda offensive induce troops desert south vietnamese population rise government launched outright victory achieved battle lead creation coalition government withdrawal americans general offensive failed achieve purposes follow operations conducted wear enemy lead negotiated settlement phase scheduled begin phase iii august preparations offensive underway logistical build began mid year january tons supplies troops including seven complete infantry regiments independent battalions trip south trail logistical effort involved new assault rifles rocket propelled grenade launchers granted superior firepower armed opponents way confuse allies intentions launched diplomatic offensive foreign minister announced december open negotiations ended operation rolling thunder bombing campaign north vietnam announcement provoked diplomatic activity amounted weeks year south vietnamese military intelligence estimated north vietnamese forces south vietnam january totaled men including north vietnamese regulars members infrastructure service support troops organized divisions composed infantry artillery anti aircraft artillery regiments turn composed infantry battalions allied suspicions signs impending communist action unnoticed allied intelligence collection apparatus late summer fall south vietnamese intelligence agencies collected clues indicated significant shift communist strategic planning mid december mounting evidence convinced washington big underway months year intelligence agencies observed signs major north vietnamese military buildup addition captured documents copy resolution example captured early october observations enemy logistical operations clear october number trucks observed heading south trail jumped previous monthly average november total reached december december washington expected north vietnamese undertake intensified effort maximum effort relatively short period time despite warning signs allies surprised scale scope offensive according colonel lung answer lay allied intelligence tended estimate enemy probable course action based capabilities intentions allied communists hardly capability launch ambitious enterprise little possibility enemy initiate general offensive regardless intentions answer partially explained lack coordination cooperation competing intelligence branches south vietnamese american situation perspective best summed intelligence analyst gotten battle plan wouldn believed wouldn credible spring fall command series actions initiated north vietnamese border regions april marine_corps patrol prematurely triggered north vietnamese offensive aimed taking combat base western anchor marines defensive positions province time action ended north vietnamese troops marines killed days early september lasting october north vietnamese began marine outpost con south zone intense rounds day prompted launch operation intense aerial bombardment campaign sorties north line october battalion capital long province came attack entire north vietnamese regiment days later north vietnamese regiment attacked special forces border outpost long province attack sparked day battle drew elements 1st infantry division 18th division left north vietnamese troops dead conclusion severe came known border battles erupted october november border outpost province clashes regiments 1st north vietnamese division 4th infantry division airborne brigade infantry airborne elements lasted days time fighting north vietnamese troops lost lives intelligence confused possible motives north vietnamese prompting large scale actions remote regions artillery aerial firepower applied meant strategically operations sense north vietnamese carry stage plan fix attention command borders draw bulk forces away heavily populated coastal cities concerned situation january force estimated north vietnamese troops besieged marine garrison convinced north vietnamese planned stage attack overrun base prelude effort seize northernmost provinces south vietnam deter possibility deployed men including half maneuver battalions corps tactical zone course events disturbed lieutenant general frederick commander forces iii corps included capital military district intelligence officer suspicious pattern communist activities area responsibility notified concerns january agreed estimate ordered battalions positions near border outskirts offensive begin total allied maneuver battalions defended city surrounding area critical tactical decisions war offensive beginning january deployed army personnel marines divisions armoured cavalry regiment separate brigades south vietnam joined 1st australian task force royal thai army regiment south korean infantry divisions republic korea marine_corps brigade south vietnamese strength totaled regulars army air_force navy marine_corps turn supported man south vietnamese regional forces man south vietnamese popular forces equivalent regional local militias days immediately preceding offensive allied forces relatively relaxed announced october observe seven day truce january february holiday south vietnamese military plans allow recreational leave approximately half forces general cancelled truce corps requested ally cancel upcoming cease fire president reduced cease fire hours refused claiming damage troop morale benefit communist january captured city possession pre recorded audio tapes message appealed populace occupied following afternoon general chief vietnamese joint general staff ordered corps commanders place troops alert lack sense urgency allies grasp potential danger communicate evening january officers served intelligence staff attended pool party quarters according james analyst combined intelligence center attended party conception coming absolutely zero odd officers present talked knew coming exception general failed communicate concerns adequately washington warned president january widespread communist attacks tended oblique official optimism administration unprepared washington vietnam expecting happened offensive crack sky shake earth accident design wave attacks began shortly midnight january provincial capitals corps corps attacked headquarters field force hit followed shortly ban operations north vietnamese followed similar pattern mortar rocket attacks closely followed ground assaults conducted battalion strength elements supported north vietnamese regulars forces join local served guides lead regulars senior south vietnamese headquarters radio station operations coordinated local level daylight communist forces driven objectives general new chief intelligence notified going happen rest country tonight tomorrow morning forces placed maximum alert similar orders issued units allies responded real sense urgency orders leaves came late disregarded january north vietnamese forces capital military district bases corps installations son corps long corps following day long iii corps corps assaulted attack initial operation launched corps february total approximately north vietnamese troops participated attacks thousands stood act reinforcements blocking forces north vietnamese forces major allied airfield attacked district capitals scores smaller towns cases defense communists south vietnamese affair local militia forces supported national police usually drove attackers days hours heavy fighting continued days longer outcome instance usually dictated ability local commanders outstanding incompetent crucial crisis south vietnamese unit broke defected communists according responded news attacks optimism media presentations reports washington according closer observers general stunned communists able coordinate attacks secrecy deeply shaken according clark time initial attacks reaction military leadership approached panic military situation correct look continuously maintaining belief real objective north vietnamese attacks troops diversion position maintained february washington_post reporter peter summed feelings colleagues asking effort especially downtown diversion focal point offensive communists seek total takeover city primary targets strike downtown area headquarters general staff tan son air base independence palace embassy republic vietnam navy headquarters national radio station objectives assaulted small number local battalion city outskirts local force battalions attacked central police station artillery command armored command headquarters plan called initial forces capture hold positions hours time reinforcements arrived relieve defense capital military zone primarily south vietnamese responsibility initially defended infantry battalions local police force february reinforced ranger battalions marine_corps airborne battalions army units participating defense included military police battalion seven infantry battalions artillery battalions armored command artillery command headquarters northern edge city north vietnamese planned use captured tanks artillery pieces tanks moved base months earlier breech blocks artillery pieces removed rendering useless important targets symbolic point view national radio station troops brought tape recording announcing liberation calling general uprising government seized building held hours running ammunition attackers destroyed sacrificed explosive charges unable broadcast cutting audio lines main studio tower soon station seized embassy massive floor building situated acre compound completed september attacked man team blew hole foot high surrounding wall charged officers killed initial attack attempt gain access building having failed simply occupied grounds killed captured reinforcements landed roof building hours later embassy grounds secured loss personnel january approached vietnamese navy headquarters civilian cars killing guards square advanced base gate sound gunfire alerted base secured gate sounded alarm caliber machine gun second floor headquarters disabled cars killed wounded navy security force organized counterattack simultaneously navy advisor contacted military police soon attacked adjoining streets resulting ended attack killing captured small squads city attack officers enlisted men homes officers district police stations provided military officers civil servants began round execute found february general loan chief national police publicly executed officer captured civilian clothing photographer edward adams film photography title execution won pulitzer prize spot news photography widely seen defining moment vietnam war influence public opinion united_states war called picture lost war outside city proper battalions attacked logistical headquarters complex long air base struck battalion adjacent iii corps headquarters objective tan son air base northwestern city attacked battalions combat ready battalion awaiting transport went instead directly action halted attack total communist battalions troops undercover lived worked capital years committed objectives dawn attacks city center eliminated severe fighting allied forces erupted chinese neighborhood southwest city center staging area command control center north vietnamese bitter destructive house house fighting erupted area february residents ordered leave homes area declared free fire zone fighting city came close fierce battle rangers forces march operations surge offensive second week february estimated phase january april approximately soldiers killed unknown number wounded years figure held excessively optimistic represented half forces involved battle stanley claims confirmed figure claimed smaller number enemies disabled estimating period troops killed captured south vietnamese suffered killed wounded missing action allied forces suffered killed wounded missing morning january allied defensive positions north river city attacked battalions 6th regiment target 1st division headquarters located citadel square mile complex palaces parks residences surrounded moat massive earth masonry fortress built beginning 19th century emperor long defenders led general managed hold position majority citadel fell south bank river 4th regiment attempted seize local headquarters held bay makeshift force approximately americans rest city overrun forces initially totaled approximately men sides rushed reinforce resupply forces lasting days battle longest single battles vietnam war days north vietnamese occupation intelligence vastly number troops little appreciated effort going necessary general informed joint chiefs enemy approximately companies citadel marines sent battalion area clear formations stationed relief forces kilometers southeast marines 1st marine division soldiers 1st division marine_corps cleared city street street house house deadly destructive form urban combat military engaged battle seoul korean war trained historical cultural significance city american forces immediately apply air artillery strikes widely cities outside elements 1st air cavalry division airborne division fought seal access cut lines supply reinforcement point battle battalions men taking fighting city approaches imperial capital north vietnamese regiments forced march vicinity order participate february allies gradually fought way citadel taken days intense struggle city declared recaptured forces february members 2nd battalion 3rd regiment 1st division raised south vietnamese flag palace perfect peace intense action allies estimated north vietnamese forces killed captured city surrounding area marines soldiers killed fighting wounded troops killed wounded missing civilians lost lives battle left homeless original population destroyed end battle aftermath recapture city discovery mass graves uncovered south vietnamese citizens sparked controversy diminished time victims shot death simply buried alive official allied explanation initial occupation city quickly begun systematically round guise education execute south vietnamese civilians believed potentially hostile communist control taken custody included south vietnamese military personnel present government officials local civil servants teachers policemen religious figures historian claimed captured document stated communists eliminated administrative personnel policemen north vietnamese officer later waters stating forces rounded captives transport north local commanders battlefield executed sake general commander 1st division believed captives executed communists order protect identities members local infrastructure covers blown exact circumstances leading deaths citizens discovered mass graves known exactly victims killed result executions considering evidence captured documents witness things attack began january intended serve purposes real attempt seize position diversion draw american attention forces away population centers deception plausible easy general view purpose combat base provoke north vietnamese focused prolonged confrontation confined geographic area allow application massive artillery air strikes inflict heavy casualties relatively region end moved nearly half maneuver battalions corps anticipation battle american media covered action extensively inevitable comparisons actions battle french base besieged ultimately overrun forces command general war knew penchant large scale operations death believed going attempt replicate victory intended stage reverse marine_corps army defenders surrounded north vietnamese divisions totaling approximately men siege lasted april allies subjected heavy mortar rocket artillery bombardment combined sporadic small scale infantry attacks outlying positions exception special forces camp major ground assault base battle largely duel american north vietnamese combined massive air strikes conducted aircraft end siege air_force marine_corps navy aircraft dropped tons ordnance defense base overland supply route base cut airborne resupply cargo aircraft extremely dangerous heavy north vietnamese fire thanks innovative high speed super utilized fighter bombers combination large numbers supply helicopters air_force hercules cargo aircraft employing innovative delivery method aerial resupply halted offensive began feelings ran high base attack corps truce cancelled communist assault happened offensive passed intermittent battle continued base continued battle february offensive reached height wrote memo staff delivered claiming enemy attempting confuse issue suspect trying draw attention area greatest threat northern corps let caution confused end major allied relief expedition operation launched brigades cavalry division reached april north vietnamese forces withdrawing area sides claimed battle served intended purpose estimated north vietnamese troops killed considerably wounded operation american lives lost wounded phases iii enhance political posture paris talks opened north vietnamese opened second phase general offensive late april intelligence sources estimated february north vietnamese dispatched men trail replace losses incurred earlier fighting prolonged vicious combat war opened april lasted men division backed artillery threatened logistical base northwestern province known battle north vietnamese clashed marine army forces withdrawing north vietnamese lost estimated men inflicting casualties allies killed wounded early morning hours communist units initiated second phase offensive known south vietnamese americans mini striking targets south vietnam including time allied intelligence better prepared stripping away element surprise communist forces intercepted allied screening elements reached targets battalions managed slip capital chaos severe fighting occurred took days root local force battalion bridge tan son forces withdrew area leaving dead fighting sooner died forces province suffered doubt american defeat war regiments 2nd division attacked special forces border surveillance camp corps south vietnamese troops isolated intense attack decision avoid situation reminiscent evacuated air fire abandoned north vietnamese communists returned launched second wave attacks city fighting phase differed mini installations attacked series actions forces occupied buddhist mistaken belief immune artillery air attack fighting took place notable event occurred june members regiment surrendered forces largest communist surrender war actions brought death suffering city inhabitants homeless killed wounded second phase casualties amounted killed wounded south vietnamese servicemen killed wounded phase iii offensive began august involved attacks iii corps significantly series actions north vietnamese forces participated main offensive preceded attacks border towns initiated order draw defensive forces cities thrust marines august continuing border clearing operations north vietnamese regiments asserted heavy pressure special forces camp province kilometers border fighting lasted days north vietnamese broke combat resulted deaths north vietnamese south vietnamese americans struck phase attacks sustained easily repulsed far concerned august offensive dismal failure weeks fighting loss troops single objective attained final decisive phase historian pointed communist failures final decisive period troops killed action casualties suffering endured communist units sustained operations beginning tell fact apparent military gains possibly justify blood effort exacerbated situation half communist troops rallied allied forces increase figure april issued directive subordinate units circumstances going risk entire military force offensive contrary endeavor preserve military potential future campaigns aftermath north vietnam leadership outcome offensive ambitious goal producing general uprising ended dismal failure total approximately communist troops participated initial onslaught follow phases overall border battles month winter spring campaign communist troops killed action keys failure difficult strategic mobility allied forces allowed threatened areas battle plan complex difficult coordinate demonstrated january attacks violation principle mass attacking instead concentrating forces specific targets allowed forces defeated launching attacks teeth vastly superior firepower incorrect assumptions entire campaign based according general van correctly evaluate specific balance forces enemy fully realize enemy considerable capabilities capabilities limited set requirements actual strength communist effort regain control countryside somewhat successful according state department virtually delta stronger regions countryside belongs general reported offensive brought programs halt large extent controlled countryside unfortunately state affairs heavy casualties backlash south vietnamese americans resulted territorial losses heavy casualties losses inflicted units struck heart infrastructure built decade estimated north vietnamese troops killed point forward forced fill ranks north vietnamese regulars change little effect war north vietnam little difficulty making casualties inflicted offensive western historians come believe motive campaign elimination competing southern members party allowing control war won conclusion phase offensive realized sacrifices vain general north vietnamese commander battle gave insight defeat translated victory honesty didn achieve main objective spur uprisings south inflicted heavy casualties americans big gain making impact united_states intention turned fortunate result rose address congress party members proceeded party bid quick victory faction sparked debate party leadership lasted months leader main force war quick victory faction came severe criticism august report situation accepted published broadcast radio single shifted nation war strategy restored prominence party ideological conscience proclaimed provisional revolutionary government republic south vietnam took future peace negotiations title long seven years victory south vietnam south vietnam nation turmoil aftermath offensive tragedy compounded tragedy conflict reached nation cities time government troops pulled defend urban areas moved fill vacuum countryside violence destruction witnessed offensive left deep psychological south vietnamese civilian population confidence government shaken offensive reveal massive american support government protect citizens human material cost south vietnam number civilian dead estimated government additional wounded new refugees generated joining nearly displaced war end south vietnamese living refugee camp homes destroyed fighting heavily damaged nation infrastructure virtually destroyed south vietnamese military performed better americans expected suffered lowered morale rates rising thousand thousand july deadliest year war date men killed addition heavy civilian casualties inflicted battle forces retake cities presence fighters villages exposed rural bases attack writes young long province example local taking june offensive divided sections section survived lost province subjected historian called sky non stop bombing wake offensive fresh determination exhibited government february declared state martial law june national assembly passed request general population induction armed forces end year decree failed pass months previously strong political opposition increase bring south vietnam troop strength men military anti corruption campaigns demonstrations political unity administrative reforms quickly carried established national recovery committee oversee food distribution housing construction new refugees government americans encouraged new determination exhibited ordinary citizens republic urban communists launched attacks drove previously active support government journalists political figures religious leaders alike militant professed confidence government plans saw opportunity consolidate personal power took real political rival vice president air_force commander presidential election aftermath supporters military administration quickly removed power arrested exiled crack south vietnamese press ensued return president party members high positions government military summer president earned south vietnamese population begun little dictator suspicious american allies unwilling believe south vietnamese caught surprise offensive visiting washington official knew coming didn johnson decision march bombing north vietnam confirmed feared americans going abandon south vietnam communists bombing halt beginning negotiations north brought hope end war fear peace july meeting johnson honolulu american president affirmed partner negotiations support coalition government form government people south vietnam united_states offensive created crisis johnson administration increasingly unable convince american public major defeat communists optimistic assessments prior offensive administration pentagon came heavy criticism ridicule credibility gap opened widened battlefield continued widen february posted highest casualty figures single week entire war killed wounded result heavy fighting went deadliest year war forces soldiers killed february selective service system announced new draft men second highest war february robert secretary defense overseen war eventually turned stepped office troop request weeks february generals communicated necessity reinforcements troop increases vietnam insisted needed forces country scheduled deployment sense urgency tempted emphasized white_house restraints allow operations possibly north vietnam february responded use division operations authorized responded challenging assessment situation pointing dangers spot commander consider concluding summary need troops ask bizarre influenced severe strain imposed military vietnam commitment undertaken reserve forces joint chiefs repeatedly requested national prepare possible intensification war ensure nation strategic reserve depleted ordering demand forces attempting solve pressing problems comparison previous communications confidence optimism resolve february request troops urgent desperately need time essence february previously authorized airborne troops marines dispatched south vietnam joint chiefs played hand advising president johnson turn requested division sized reinforcement called marine army johnson dispatched february determine military requirements response offensive days replaced clark military finally obtain permission widen war written report trip contained mention new strategies building strategic reserve grave language suggested man request proposed matter vital military necessity wrote memoir deliberately concealed truth matter order force issue strategic reserve president february johnson discussed proposed troop increase fulfill require increase overall military strength men expenditure additional billion fiscal billion monetary concerns pressing fall spring struggling severe monetary crises period new tax bill budgetary cuts nation face higher inflation possible collapse monetary system johnson friend concerned american public think avoid creating feeling pounding troops according pentagon papers fork road reached alternatives stood stark reality meet request mean total military commitment south vietnam deny attempt cut size sustained stretched active forces surely upper limit military commitment south vietnam reached evaluate request possible impact domestic politics johnson convened group february tasked members complete policy members argued offensive represented opportunity defeat north vietnamese american terms pointed win militarily north vietnam match troop increase bombing north halted change strategy required seek victory staying power required reach negotiated settlement require aggressive strategy designed protect population south vietnam divided group final report issued march failed seize opportunity change directions recommend continue road march succeeded secretary defense month entered office staunch supporter vietnam commitment opposed views turned war according simple truth military failed sustain respectable argument position results meetings group bore convinced solution united_states believed troop increase lead violent stalemate sought administration assist convincing president reverse cap force levels men seek negotiations turn responsibility fighting south vietnamese quietly sought allies assisted effort called group assistant secretary defense public affairs george air_force colonel robert february secretary state dean proposed partial bombing halt implemented north vietnam offer negotiate extended march reiterated proposal explaining rainy season north bombing effective military sacrifice occur purely political ploy north vietnamese probably refuse negotiate casting freeing hand short period putting monkey firmly follow troop request leaked press published new_york_times march article revealed request begun debate administration according high level officials believed troop increase matched communists simply maintain stalemate higher level violence went state officials saying private widespread deep changes attitudes sense watershed reached great deal said historians concerning news media turning point public perception war popular cbs anchor walter stated news broadcast february disappointed optimism american leaders vietnam washington faith longer silver find clouds added stalemate ended negotiation victory far suffering loss morale majority americans rallied president poll january revealed percent polled considered hawks war percent percent offering opinion early february height phase offensive percent declared hawks percent percent held opinion johnson comments press immediately offensive leaving impression public lack communication caused rising disapproval rating conduct war end february approval rating fallen percent percent end march percentage americans expressed confidence military policies southeast_asia fallen percent march president johnson informed forget men president staff lesser version troop increase planned sent vietnam days later suggestion johnson called wise men exceptions members group accounted hawks war group joined final assessment majority group according thinking solely vietnam anymore members called war leaving president deeply shaken according pentagon papers advice group decisive convincing johnson reduce bombing north vietnam johnson depressed course recent events new_york_times article released days democratic_party united_states new_hampshire primary president suffered unexpected setback election finishing barely ahead senator eugene mccarthy soon afterward senator robert kennedy announced join contest democratic nomination emphasizing support johnson administration wake president televised address nation vietnam policy march troop request response military situation march working hard convince tone hard line speech maintaining force levels present size bombing negotiating proposal surprise previously opposed form offered opposition suggestions march president johnson announced partial bombing halt television address stunned nation declining run second term office washington surprise april announced conduct negotiations scheduled begin paris june president johnson replaced commander general decision december army chief staff saw relief punishment entire new strategy quickly demonstrated closure strategic base ending multi division search destroy operations gone discussions victory north vietnam new war policy centered american effort takeover fighting south vietnamese countryside destruction communist logistics new administration president richard nixon oversee withdrawal forces continuation negotiations memoirs biographies


persian gulf campaign persian gulf campaign operation british_royal_navy force cease raids british ships persian gulf particularly persian arab coasts straits operation success limited royal_navy forces heavily involved napoleonic wars unable permanently suppress strong fleets expedition achieve short term goals destroying bases vessels including largest ship region converted merchant ship operations continued british unable destroy vessel attacks resumed lower intensity previously characterised time actions piracy charge disputed historians particular notably current ruler sultan muhammad book myth arabian piracy gulf counter argument strong independent maritime force subject british aggression attempt stamp authority allies trade routes thought important iraq india operation joint campaign royal_navy fleet honourable east india company soldiers drawn garrison bombay expeditionary force led captain john navy frigate hms region following attacks british shipping persian gulf french established diplomatic missions attacks threatened british trade links region placed british relations persia jeopardy time french aspirations british india cause concern british government available charts persian gulf inaccurate incomplete time ships hide squadron problem reported return resulted improved british area background early nineteenth century indian_ocean important link trade routes british india united_kingdom honourable east india company merchant ships known east regularly crossed ocean carrying millions pounds worth goods important ports indian trade bombay western coast indian significant hub regional trade links persian arab ports persian gulf ships traded persian gulf named country ships smaller weaker big east british long maintained naval presence region outbreak napoleonic wars diverted british strength indian_ocean dutch colonies cape good hope java french bases france leaving persian gulf arabian sea largely addition convoy needed escort east hostile waters navy presence gulf replaced warships owned private fleet nicknamed bombay marine like royal_navy bombay marine spread thousands miles ocean leaving country ships persian gulf french raiders rare gulf country ships operated convoys targets operating semi completely independent persia arabian peninsula fleets captured large ships shannon small boats larger merchant ships crews converted formidable pirate ship warship carried cannon attempted recapture months later nearly vessels attacked managed escape destruction diplomatic failures lacking available naval forces launch campaign gulf british authorities attempted use diplomacy end threat february young sultan ibn sultan signed treaty promising bring end attacks originating territory french installed attacks continued encouragement lord governor general india determined send ambassadors empire afghanistan persia effort secure support prevent french gaining allies india western borders diplomatic campaign ambassador persia instructed discuss problem persian government french influence unable obtain guarantees second diplomatic mission sent london sir jones instructed discuss issue jones deciding travel persia sea diplomatic convoy consisted frigate hms convoy commanded captain robert refused wait slower force reached persian gulf arrived october jones completed journey land returned south straits expecting meet return journey october discovered hands isolated warship captured crew able recapture vessel later rejoined detached conduct survey persian coast operation demonstrated pirates controlled southern persian gulf arabian sea april despite brief deployment ship line hms frigates hms hms persian gulf appeared raiding shipping driven ships bombay marine later year huge fleet raiders appeared arabian sea caused severe disruption regional trade fleet attacked merchant shipping indian coast seized large country ship named crew converting flagship height early estimated forces persian gulf arabian sea included large employed men ships british operations aftermath raid following monsoon season british authorities india decided significant force effort destroy larger bases ships found counteract french encouragement persia forces gathered bombay summer small warships aurora mercury prince wales fury joined bomb royal_navy frigates hms caroline charles gordon john placed command entire expeditionary force temporary rank commodore force complemented troops bombay garrison including battalion foot soldiers 47th foot assortment marines engineers artillery men 2nd bombay native infantry command lieutenant colonel smith expeditionary force left bombay september intending rendezvous following week force repeatedly delayed passage providing escorts convoys country ships arabian sea subsequently rescuing survivors rotten fell apart ocean swell considerable loss life force eventually arrived october sultan informed warriors descended coast join understanding protracted land campaign impossible forces available determined series small raids principle pirate bases area straits beginning north arabian coast battle british flotilla arrived independent town november discovering fleet harbour pirate fleet initially sailed attack british retreated size expeditionary force clear failed return port successfully wrecked crew setting fire ship prevent seizure boats launched onshore allies numbers unknown significantly formed series defences town protected offshore bombardment blocked approach heavier warships november deployed smaller ships close bombard town provide cover troop offshore november squadrons ship boats amphibious landings small force lieutenant samuel landed north positions acting diversion main body expeditionary force landed south lieutenant colonel smith diversion distracted arab defenders remained southern defences significant counterattack smith cannon fire ship boats covering landing drove arabs smith ordered men advance fixed pushing town driving arabs house house cover advance smith men set fire buildings path created smoke cover smith able storm capture palace harbour secure ordered squadron bay burnt craft including large smith secured town burning warehouses destroying ammunition stores fortifications town arab forces retreated fall palace british surrounding hills morning november operation complete british force returned ships having suffered light casualties killed wounded arab losses unknown probably significant damage fleets severe half largest dangerous vessels destroyed operations november ordered attack persian town inhabitants fleeing arrival british fleet ships burning opposition casualties exploration southern persian coast revealed main target island principal stronghold sending ships block passages channel hired local pilots descended town november following fruitless negotiations local ordered attack november smith troops landing unopposed assuming enemy fled smith men approached town fortress heavy fire british troops reached gate despite heavy casualties smith able rally forces artillery support sloop fury forced fort surrender sunset given guarantees harmed taken prisoner large arab vessels burnt british landing parties expeditionary force suffered casualties fight fort arab losses estimated killed fort town turned local ruler professed support british withdrew forces early december squadron christmas operation launched successful attack january town rebelled sultan swiftly recaptured restored minor naval operations individual local ships continued main body squadron returned bombay january having considered mission inflict significant damage forces persian gulf success aftermath operation succeeded aim reducing french influence political forces region encouraging attacks british shipping unable totally halt activity persian gulf royal_navy forces indian_ocean diverted java returned force destructive actions weaker rarely arabian sea ultimately forces ottoman_empire seized measure control exerted tribes arabian peninsula subsequent british intervention military diplomatic reduced threat attacks nineteenth century campaign significant effect british region reported available charts persian gulf inaccurate incomplete allowing ships hide squadron bombay marine long aware problem developing charts region years leading campaign david mission region charts published response problems


invasion invasion amphibious operation formed important british campaign blockade capture french indian_ocean territories isle france mauritius napoleonic wars islands formed fortified base french frigate squadron commodore raid british convoys east travelling britain british india ships destroyed convoys previous year despite attention squadron royal_navy ships commodore responded raiding fortified anchorage saint paul capturing frigates captured east raid consequence commander general des committed suicide lead garrison british landing parties encouraged consider larger operation seize island small british held island rodriguez base british_army counterpart lieutenant colonel henry planned land forces island capital saint force governor island militia plan launched july combined forces british sailors soldiers royal marines landed separate beaches number men drowned heavy surf majority invasion force reached beaches safely marched inland attacking french outposts approached capital recognising garrison unable defend saint militia long french commander colonel surrendered island garrison stores background french indian_ocean islands isle france provided secure base french french_navy frigates operate british shipping region entire french revolutionary napoleonic wars determined poorly defended region british trade french government ordered commodore sail isle france joined large powerful frigates specific orders target british trade frigates bay success caroline capturing east action seizing action november french squadron captured number smaller british warships large portuguese frigate counteract ships british commander region admiral ordered commodore operate islands squadron royal_navy frigates instructions disrupt french movements prepare future invasion attempts ships successes east captured blockading frigate december largely powerless prevent large french ships leaving fortified action address problem request british_army force government madras force british soldiers honourable east india company capture tiny island rodriguez rodriguez provided secure harbour ships collect supplies repair minor damage short sailing distance french islands previously british ships forced return madras cape good hope decreasing time available operations islands rodriguez provided staging post prepare planned invasions september led amphibious operation defences harbour saint paul raid saint paul important demonstration ability strike french directly landing men beaches british soldiers sailors royal marines landing party able storm defences rout defenders allowed squadron enter harbour capture caroline number smaller ships docked attack caused island commander des committed suicide order troops attack british positions unopposed able destroy defences public works town leaving large quantities captured supplies ships colonel replaced des unable effectively defend island remaining garrison event invasion preparation early cyclone season came end ordered squadron frigates captain guy victor attack british convoys bay initially unsuccessful sailing madagascar brief refit encountered defeated convoy action july british response french progress late june sailed frigates rodriguez leaving captain samuel isle france remainder rodriguez lieutenant colonel henry conferred best method invading rapidly island determining best plan land soldiers island capital saint defeat garrison outside town forcing new governor surrender government madras augmented garrison rodriguez previous year june stood men british_army regulars army overall command transport troops called frigate hms hms captain veteran raid saint paul recovering accidental explosion months inflicted severe facial injuries passengers robert diplomat trader sent london assume governorship islands captured july force squadron consisting frigate hms hms captain henry hms captain curtis invasion squadron number supporting transport ships reached july main body approached marie draw french forces away secretly landing brigade lieutenant colonel force soldiers small battery supplies needed campaign landed loss direction navy lieutenant john landed secured beach party seamen distributing soldiers supplies came ashore advancing rapidly seize heights beach drove french outposts cut main road saint saint paul french communications movement reinforcements east saint ordered forces land ashore intended schooner named secure beach organise landing forces boat approached beach wind strengthened built powerful surf smashed schooner ashore force break apart strong landing party drowned realising smaller transports similarly overwhelmed waves ordered small brig named driven shore allowed number additional boats safely reach beach provide cover landing nightfall morning july french failed concentrate forces consisted regular french army soldiers militia dispersed island seeing landing beach practical captains successfully landed contingents providing sufficient force march saint landing advanced capital west french road saint paul routing defenders minimal casualties aside french resistance series minor skirmishes forces closed saint advancing british met representatives later signed capitulation surrendered entire island garrison supplies offshore blockaded saint paul landing soldiers july observed ship attempting break harbour hearing news surrender sent barge command lieutenant george norman pursue fugitive exhausting hour chase norman able catch board ship revealed named edward carrying guns men norman able defeat crew brief struggle men wounded discovered carrying despatches french government authorities isle france fell british hands aftermath invasion cost british combined total dead wounded including drowned wreck casualties incurred skirmishes road saint french casualties known probably similar number french failed meaningful resistance british force rapidly established carried french outposts facing significant opposition island reverted pre revolutionary following invasion briefly assumed governorship moving mauritius island capture december replaced command remained position island restored france end napoleonic wars success allowed british forces concentrate remaining french territory indian_ocean isle france provided number secure plentiful supplies british frigate squadron new headquarters safe harbour short journey away able frigates french ports isle france frequently aggressively developing plan seize small offshore islands near main isle france disrupt passage shipping ability french frigates use ports raiding bases plan ultimately led disastrous attempt seize shipping grand port frigates squadron lost photo gallery


battle battle november known battle chinese pinyin took place days start chinese phase offensive following entry people volunteer army korean war offensive reversed united_nations advance river occurred intervention wake north korean invasion south_korea start war battle fought british australian forces 27th british commonwealth brigade american armour artillery support chinese division village river capturing october british australians ordered pull attempt consolidate western flank eighth army immediately following success americans chinese division 39th army attacked southward intending cut forces withdrew face unexpected chinese assault halt chinese advance 27th british commonwealth brigade ordered defend lower crossings rivers rearguard conjunction 24th infantry division upstream right night november chinese north mounted scale assault 24th infantry division pushing american infantry regiment nearly kilometres chinese force subsequently turned west advancing rivers threatening rear 27th british commonwealth brigade cutting road following day attacked american artillery battery guarding vital concrete bridge near british australians successfully counter attacked chinese forces occupying number nearby day turn counter attacked pushed high ground night battle chinese 3rd battalion royal australian regiment captured defended hill limited offensive support held face heavy counter attacks confused command decisions resulted night withdrawal contact withdrawal threatened open 27th british commonwealth brigade left flank australians ordered immediately ridge ultimately late regain feature darkness following heavy fighting pressure australians unexpectedly ceased midnight parties chinese observed beginning withdraw early morning chinese attack checked new positions fields railway crossing north fighting costly sides australians halted advancing chinese division inflicted numerous casualties suffered heavy losses aftermath inexperienced australian battalion commander lieutenant colonel floyd relieved position british brigade commander having taken days earlier following death previous commanding officer nonetheless 27th british commonwealth brigade succeeded preventing chinese break keeping open vital withdrawal routes river securing left flank suffering significant casualties chinese offensive halted day difficulties chinese north temporarily forced withdraw north successfully reinforced positions holding line late november eighth army forced withdraw chinese began second phase offensive starting long retreat south forces expelled north_korea withdrew 38th parallel sought establish defensive positions background military situation korean war began early morning june following surprise invasion republic korea northern neighbour communist democratic people republic korea numerically superior better equipped korean people army kpa crossed 38th parallel rapidly advanced south easily overcoming south response united_nations decided intervene behalf south_korea inviting member states send forces restore situation consequence american ground forces hastily deployed attempt prevent south collapsing strength poorly equipped early august forced north known perimeter key allies britain canada australia committed forces initially limited naval contingents largely viewed token efforts diplomatic pressure british agreed deploy infantry brigade july later dispatch second brigade crisis worsened canadians agreed provide infantry brigade battalion arrive december total member states eventually contributed forces australia nations commit units fighting playing small significant united_nations command initially led general douglas forces deployed japan british commonwealth occupation force formed basis australian response fighter bombers squadron raaf flying missions july frigate destroyer committed naval operations time 3rd battalion royal australian regiment preparing return australia prior outbreak war remained japan july australian government announced commit strength poorly equipped infantry battalion fighting following period preparation training equipment began immediately hundreds reinforcements hastily recruited australia force soon began arriving fill battalion battalion commanding officer lieutenant colonel floyd replaced lieutenant colonel charles green officer extensive operational experience fighting japanese new_guinea second world war green took perceived inexperience september embarked korea concentrating september joined british 27th infantry brigade garrison formation committed hong_kong british government situation deteriorated perimeter late august bolster eighth army lieutenant general walker commanded brigadier brigade renamed 27th british commonwealth brigade consisted 1st battalion highland regiment 1st battalion middlesex regiment strength british battalions mustered men ranks brigade short transport heavy equipment integral artillery support rely entirely americans 16th field regiment royal new_zealand artillery arrived january strength nearly men addition gave brigade increased tactical weight allowing australians work familiar environment attached formation time arrived theatre north broken rapid retreat forces conducting successful amphibious assault breaking perimeter southern tip korean peninsula steady advance began driving north northwards 38th parallel 27th british commonwealth brigade attached 1st cavalry division command major general gay october brigade took vanguard advance west_coast north suffered heavily preceding weeks continued resist strongly 27th british commonwealth brigade moved kilometres capturing october killing north taking prisoners loss man killed wounded british australians passed command 24th infantry division october overall command major general john church 1st cavalry division remained complete capture brigade ordered seize advance continued north little respite october australians fought major action killing north capturing brigade prisoners loss seven men wounded intending defeat north bring war close forces pushed river chinese border brigade crossed river moving october removed restrictions movement forces south river prepared final phase advance directive joint chiefs staff chinese intervention support north_korea october crossed river north attacked forward australian companies early following morning resulting australian losses killed wounded north suffered heavy casualties including killed captured australians succeeded defending north withdrew intelligence indicated british australians facing north korean 17th tank brigade preparing line defence kilometres away war considered 27th british commonwealth brigade continued pursue north advance increasingly encountered strong resistance approached border prelude opposing forces took lead battalion brigade october kilometres morning aircraft reported large north korean formation consisting battalion sized force infantry supported tanks self propelled guns positioned wooded battle ensued australians strong north korean armoured force defended positions north korean counter attacks evening following day australians advanced high ground overlooking killing capturing number north skirmishes afternoon town cleared remaining elements 27th british commonwealth brigade opposition fighting heaviest undertaken australians entering war north korean casualties included killed captured australian losses killed wounded including green wounded stomach artillery fire battle wounds dying days later november following capture 21st infantry regiment set rapidly road west encountering strong north korean position quickly turned noon november lead battalion reached kilometres river americans clashed north korean armoured force north 5th 9th infantry regiments 24th infantry division secured advancing kilometres border weeks october chinese moved divisions people volunteer army river overall command marshal order reinforce remnants kpa south korean intelligence 13th army group crossed border october penetrated kilometres north_korea reinforced early november divisions 9th army group total divisions composed men chinese ambushed forces widely dispersed corps 8th cavalry regiment 24th infantry division ordered river result 27th british commonwealth brigade began moving south general withdrawal face chinese phase offensive ultimately north 27th british commonwealth brigade penetrate november divisional reserve brigade ordered pull attempt consolidate western flank immediately following success chinese division 39th army overall command attacked southward intending cut retreating forces eliminate remnants 1st infantry division 1st cavalry division cutting road junction chinese 38th 40th armies approached river east remained lack transport remainder brigade moved south forward element eighth army left flank battalion soon isolated communications armour artillery support finally november army trucks available battalion completed south incident bed river evening announced green temporarily replaced replaced japan months observer eighth army headquarters posted resume command despite lack operational experience infantry commander taking amid difficult circumstances following green death little time acquainted battalion inexperience soon told local situation deteriorated walker elected stand north rivers response chinese offensive following day received new orders hold left forward section halt chinese advance 27th british commonwealth brigade ordered defend lower crossings rivers rearguard conjunction 24th infantry division upstream right brigade concentrated area middlesex occupied town high ground north east held positions covering western approaches designated brigade reserve information available british australians suggested chinese likely attack easterly direction adopted later criticised failing account took defensive position kilometres west village remained days companies formed far partially destroyed bridge near company occupied positions road south right 24th infantry division covered crossing south korean corps held positions east forced defend wide frontage positions weakened kilometre gap 27th british commonwealth brigade nearest american formation 2nd battalion 19th regimental combat team brigade eastern flank battle opening moves november night november chinese north mounted scale assault 24th infantry division dawn heavily engaged pushed nearly kilometres chinese force turned west advance rivers threatening rear 27th british commonwealth brigade cutting road previous afternoon patrol middlesex clashed large chinese patrol kilometres north east suffered number casualties main chinese attack come early morning large numbers refugees continued south causing british australians concern given possibility chinese cover positions november group chinese attacked battery 61st field artillery battalion attached 27th british commonwealth brigade american guns supporting brigade position road kilometres south protecting vital concrete bridge kilometres south battalion headquarters chinese established number road blocks area proceeding assault american gun line nearby bridge attack cut road 27th british commonwealth brigade single means resupply withdrawal exposed available crossing river considered chinese cleared gun position hills secured brigade danger surrounded cut crossing lost threatened command lieutenant colonel george restore situation companies drawn west bank reinforce company attack south supported american tanks time company major alexander wilson ordered immediately attack north clear road hasty control measures place avoid possibility forces accidentally engaging air support requested american trucks wilson men stepped tanks support north command captain howard moore battery 61st field artillery formed semi circle created perimeter strongly defending positions automatic weapons gun shields assaulting east chinese attempted infiltrate gun line number creek beds american depressed brought action firing open sights point blank range bouncing shells frozen fields exploded assaulting troops second turned minutes later fire americans expended rounds range metres weight fire insufficient halt assaulting force supporting fire nearby battery directed aircraft overhead temporarily stemmed chinese onslaught running low small arms ammunition having lost destroyed men killed seventeen wounded americans faced prospect overrun gunners killed member chinese demolition team metres bridge finally crossing single file fire companies began systematically clear road supported machine gun fire middlesex company continued advance lead tanks infantry relief force arrived closely followed remainder company rapidly cleared gun position chinese withdrew north railway nearby hill american tanks continued engage chinese dead found vicinity gun line new position chinese continued dominate road order open road moved clear chinese high ground located metres east road hill metres high offered clear fields fire west fields river dominated road running river supported tanks machine guns mortars company captured hill wilson occupied summit reinforced platoon withdrawing remainder company road inch mortar vickers medium machine gun sections established company command major gordon attacked second chinese road block supported number american tanks action guns battery fired support british infantry vigorous engagement gordon wounded chinese compelled withdraw leaving dead road number later found carrying demolition charges presumably use bridge survivors battle seen moving hills ordered companies establish positions eastern flank order protect road chinese cleared gun line hills attacks south continued threaten 27th british commonwealth brigade position remained fighting continued chinese mounted heavy counter attack company outpost wounding men forced withdraw high ground cover sustained fire vickers medium machine guns sited road pinned reverse slope morning light observation aircraft continued monitor growing concentrations chinese hills rear 27th british commonwealth brigade reports indicating strength approximately division determining chinese cut road night believing dangerous remain forward required requested approval limited withdrawal decided pull forward units river moving south river near brigade counter attacked chinese forces occupying nearby order clear route south plan envisioned holding road open recaptured high ground previously held company middlesex pass clear occupy hills east brigade rearguard follow occupy right new defensive position brigade adopt tight defensive perimeter hills overlooking north bank maintain river position west australians prepared cross river regain lost position kilometres south faced difficult approach moving river battalion route paralleling disputed ridge overlooked metres east assaults november australians crossed began preparations assault chinese positions kilometre east road kilometres north support fighter bombers squadron raaf attacked chinese rockets machine gun fire occasions war australian aircraft operated support main ridge running south east nearest road second rear chinese occupying occupied briefly morning pushed chinese mortar fire fell forming road start line battalion attack began company left flank company right forward reserve extended line fixed company commanded captain bill company led captain major george broken leg vehicle accident days mortar platoon sited battalion headquarters alongside road sections vickers medium machine guns pounder anti tank guns anti tank platoon assault pioneer platoon provided local defence mortars laid continuous barrage attempt counter chinese mortar fire conjunction machine guns tanks began engage beginning advance australians began suffer casualties initially unable confirm location chinese commenced ascent met heavy small arms fire higher ground south east long approach metres open field company relieved chinese forced australian companies fight hard order gain metre crest lacking artillery support australians instead relied battalion integral support weapons inch mortars medium machine guns support tanks provided fire support stand position near road companies heavily engaged moved company command major walter brown attack hill south reinforce right flank company succeeded establishing crest forcing chinese position supporting fire light machine guns vickers medium machine guns allowed company right capture second crest finally hours heavy fighting australians achieved objectives determined defence company prepared counter attack chinese company captain archer remained reserve road battalion headquarters support company orders attack lacking detail strength defenders unknown assaulting force prevailed securing ridge limited offensive support fighting company platoon commanders lieutenant week led crossing killed section commanders corporal jeff jones immediately took command platoon assault moving section section steep slope direct fire heavy chinese mortar machine gun fire awarded silver star actions successful assault opened road south enabling middlesex battalion brigade headquarters number supporting units withdraw road australians followed remained rearguard british battalions took new positions covering river crossing chinese mortars machine gun fire continued fall round destroyed company headquarters killing men wounding including evacuated ordered consolidate positions secure railway bridge companies committed troops available task chose ignore order middlesex occupied hill north east found clear minor feature occupied chinese moved south platoon tanks positioned small group hills kilometres east brigade able dominate road light began fade administrative elements formation 61st field artillery battalion moved south river amid bitter wind british australians stood dusk nightfall posting remainder brigade began night routine high ground november hour light november chinese attacked company forward australian company occupying positions road kilometres north mortars machine guns machine gun fire fell support company battalion headquarters metres south decided relocate headquarters metres rear chinese infantry launched strong attack company assaulting fields darkness simultaneously falling companies holding hills captured afternoon face heavy chinese counter attack feared loss entire force ordered general withdrawal pulling order concentrate battalion road informing ordered dark company attack night withdrawal occurred decision proved tactical error demonstrated months followed chinese skilled moving hills road bound forces failed hold ridges roads confronted strong concentrations result withdrawal threatened open 27th british commonwealth brigade left flank recognising danger posed ordered immediately companies ridge ultimately proved company lieutenant lawrence clark following wounding afternoon succeeded breaking contact chinese suffering number killed wounded confused withdrawal company forced fight way hill companies clear positions hard time fighting way ultimately late australians regain feature darkness weight chinese attack continued mount company southern right flank left able regain previous position hill positions previously occupied companies occupied chinese superior numbers remainder concentrated railway crossing instead arranged shell mortar relinquished ridge standing patrol middlesex posted south western pass anticipation renewed chinese attack following heavy fighting pressure australians unexpectedly ceased midnight parties chinese observed beginning withdraw chinese attack checked new positions fields railway crossing north amid confusion exact companies remained unclear remainder night australian losses killed wounded number suffered entire advance north_korea number officers battalion later critical decision withdraw engaged believing dangerous unnecessary lack detailed planning reconnaissance orders seen factor ensued company immediately withdrawn ordered suffered number casualties companies commanded experienced veterans 2nd australian imperial force delayed favourable circumstances prevailed fared better consequence following morning patrol company cleared abandoned company positions unopposed area found chinese dead equipment casualties chinese north clear australians attacked mixed force estimated men killed found carrying demolition charges despite events previous night australians held road company continued occupy chinese hill isolated rest battalion companies positioned field east west road respectively come daylight exposed chinese positions high ground day visited dissatisfied battalion having lost confidence commander relieved position appointing second command major bruce place returned posting eighth army headquarters came forward command battalion ordering dig number clearing patrols company advanced unopposed hill overlooking road kilometres north east company reaching australians observed chinese withdrawing northwards valley east chinese attacked afternoon november apparent chinese withdrawal general aftermath casualties 27th british commonwealth brigade initial success turn counter attacked chinese pushed high ground night action brigade lost killed wounded majority australians chinese losses known dead removed battlefield according commander chinese 39th army infantry company chinese regiment division badly 27th british commonwealth brigade engagement australian forces later estimated chinese suffered killed wounded battle chinese successfully captured defended hill limited offensive support held face heavy counter attacks confused command decisions resulted battalion conducting night withdrawal contact fighting costly sides australians halted advancing chinese division inflicted numerous casualties lost heavily nonetheless 27th british commonwealth brigade succeeding preventing chinese break keeping open vital withdrawal routes river securing left flank suffering significant casualties chinese offensive finally halted day difficulties royal australian regiment later granted battle honour chinese north temporarily forced withdraw north walker successfully reinforced positions holding line chinese failed exploit initial success instead adopt deliberately cautious strategy subsequent operations november 24th infantry division 27th british commonwealth brigade followed chinese withdrawal limited advance morning australian clearing patrols killed seven chinese soldiers prepared advance remainder brigade company occupied hill kilometres north east opposition discover north korean company reverse slope australians engaged north machine gun fire inflicting heavy losses defenders capturing forcing withdraw artillery remainder battalion deployed right occupied hills north brigade advance planned north korean attack night november large numbers chinese dead previous fighting discovered november advance wheeled north west moving forward kilometres east encountering little resistance taking number prisoners process november 27th british commonwealth brigade advanced slowly north november occupied hill bend river kilometres north following weeks remained area conducting extensive patrolling company size small groups chinese north winter approached weather cold amid snow strong winds unprepared extreme conditions australians increasingly suffered health problems particularly older members battalion lacking training equipment operations ice snow maintenance proved additional cold weather clothing equipment issued ultimately proved able commander thirty seven years old new birth commissioned australian 2nd battalion green second world war serving intelligence officer headquarters 16th brigade campaign awarded military cross actions fighting track new_guinea later served liaison officer 6th division finishing war staff officer posted 7th division headquarters island taking amphibious landing volunteered serve japan war posted battalion company commander arriving february leaving battalion serve headquarters months returned battalion second command battalion renamed 3rd battalion australian regiment later granted royal prefix remained battalion time change command confirmed commander chief lieutenant general sir promoted lieutenant colonel november developed good working relationship held high regard went command demanding period korea united_nations resumed offensive november shortly chinese began second phase offensive chinese 13th army group launched series surprise attacks night november pushing eighth army river chinese inflicted heavy losses south 2nd infantry division right flank eighth army began long retreat south time chinese 9th army group ambushed corps near reservoir freezing winter weather set eighth army succeeded avoiding corps evacuated sea december despite inflicting heavy casualties chinese forces expelled north_korea withdrew 38th parallel sought establish defensive positions reserve start renewed chinese offensive 27th british commonwealth brigade spared initial offensive soon forced forces withdrawal withdrew kilometres days arriving kilometres north east seoul december british australians occupied defensive positions attempt secure northern approaches south korean capital battle