german der der literally mutual aid association members lobby group veteran organisation founded high ranking personnel west_germany main objective achieve legal economic historical rehabilitation achieve aims organisation contacts political parties employed multi historical propaganda efforts including periodicals books public speeches owned publishing house served platform publicity aims extensive body work book titles years monthly periodicals described historians touch nazi past subject significant controversy west_germany abroad organisation drifted right wing later history disbanded federal level local groups organisation monthly periodical continued exist 21st century partially achieved goals legal economic rehabilitation propaganda efforts led image popular culture results felt scholarly treatments weighed large amateur historical studies memoirs picture books websites post world war context conference held soviet_union united_kingdom united_states july august determined occupation policies allied occupied germany face included allies attempts perceived population justice met limited success western zones occupation arrival cold war undermined policies reviving ideas necessity fight soviet communism echoing hitler important post war development decision west_germany outbreak korean war clear western allies german_army revived help face soviet_union german officers convinced future german_army possible moral rehabilitation end october group senior officers produced document known memorandum west german chancellor included key demands german soldiers convicted war criminals released german soldier including cease measures transform domestic foreign public opinion regards german military need taken accepted turn advised representatives western powers german armed forces possible long german soldiers remained custody accommodate west german government allies number war crimes sentences public declaration supreme allied commander dwight followed january read come know real difference regular german soldier officer hitler criminal group believe german soldier lost honor fact certain individuals committed war acts reflects individuals concerned great majority german soldiers officers year career officers granted war basic law unlike deemed criminal organisation trials act nation book title suggested entity crimes nazi regime shifted consequently career soldiers covered law political climate changing ban forming veterans associations lifted encouraged shifting tone world war discourse veterans west german government political parties members came forward campaign rights formation began late loose association local called support groups majority participants officers junior grades summer formally established october consisted local branches leadership december high ranking general paul spokesperson known commanders early leading figures kurt active members release prison respectively effective spokesman death division assumed role served chairman acted federal spokesperson ostensibly existed provide aid veterans included members convicted war criminals included managed avoid yugoslavia stand trial war crimes fleeing wall camp principles publication periodical late beginning draw attention generate public controversy including speculation neo nazi organisation response wrote open letter denying accusations describing advocacy organisation troops asserted members rejected forms citizens described aims organisation providing legal assistance support allied captivity help families aid searches missing campaigned veterans awarded legal status persons public service article basic law qualify rights career soldiers historian david large wrote like public tell story real goals investigating statutes applied practice able organisation stood example claimed represent entire membership surviving fallen families total reality organisation rolls exceed attained number late 1950s held early 1960s organisation asserted merely fourth arm claims dubious explains large nazi organisation combining military police powers military arm members stood jurisdiction separate personnel transitioned smoothly formations detachments concentration camp organisation units thoroughly implicated war crimes campaigns west east atrocities civilian population soviet_union poland hand war progressed grew encompass personnel began resemble contributing postwar confusion organisation status allowed proponents advance idea men soldiers like phrase forth materials later publicly chancellor large argues meaningless contrary myth clean actively participated racial war soviet_union ideology political discouraged leaders spirit european patriotic sentiment described issue viking publication internal disagreements began emerge mid-1950s stance organisation favored political outspoken orientation rest leadership favored moderate approach order goals legal economic rehabilitation opinion come establishment government advocacy main stated aims organisation provide assistance veterans campaign rehabilitation legal status respect war early existence focused help find lost comrades actions tracing service meetings embraced activities concerned fate members missing action humanitarian non political activity help improve perception west german government society large public relations activities image according large important faced going scrutiny calls ban organisation events literally tracing service meetings later evolved annual veterans fact large scale conventions accompanied rallies inaugural convention organisation held major meeting began announcing veterans ready duty declaring support freedom order justice speaker delivered different message general convicted war criminal invited demonstrate called solidarity condemned western allies real war criminals insisted members stood soon list honour caused west_germany periodicals far canada carried headlines hitler guard cheers chief general worrying allies article reporting speech greeted approval cries pig dog spokesperson hastily tried distance organisation remarks subsequent conventions effect political purposes added controversy surrounding organisation controversies section war criminals victims notion personnel soldiers like found way discourse war captivity claimed members victims victor justice complained harsh conditions status prisoners war war criminals differences veterans organisations campaigned immediate amnesty early release war criminals allied captivity issue significant organisations cooperation area contingent satisfactory resolution area partly reason west german government sympathetic fate individuals effort secure early release chancellor met kurt prison went inspection tour periodical use drawings german barbed wire publications post war organisation west german association families war captivity depicted stage called ordinary military career books publications turn saw role peace seeking veterans organisations explicitly distanced early 1950s relationship political parties scenes cultivated close relationships ruling christian democratic union main opposition social democratic_party garnering attention membership numbers influence meetings politicians early 1950s claimed represent million potential voters vast veterans living west_germany time successful politicians fears millions soldiers threat nascent west german democracy leader kurt persecuted nazis decided establish contact met leaders believed people members evidenced internal party correspondence considered number politically significant letter referred branch later defence policy expert politician member parliamentary delegation future chancellor west_germany handled relationship maintained close contact attending private public meetings keeping regular correspondence leadership membership ways efforts reforming veterans futile dealing succeeded causing concerns evidenced internal party correspondence members described found best champion centre right free democratic_party platform closely aligned goals voted process demanded release called war criminals war criminals largely termed west_germany time welcomed establishment veterans organisation members coalition partner larger deliver wanted main thrust lobbying directed especially election years controversies took cause imprisoned executed war crimes openly celebrated nazi past partial list ensuing controversies years existence staged procession celebration manner christmas celebrated nazi_germany marched castle bavaria chanting nazi songs including guard adolf_hitler loves plans convention faced strong opposition local social democratic_party jewish council students association university hierarchy federal government officials intervened event postponed scaled smaller meeting lacking qualities political event following executed war criminals cemetery focal point veterans distinct nazi overtones convention attracted crowd concluded comrades gathering tomb convicted war criminal executed interior minister prohibited holding citing german red_cross decision lend support meetings attempted place obituary max simon german newspaper simon convicted war criminal sentenced life imprisonment allied courts role massacre pardoned subsequently tried twice federal courts killings crimes horror west german public wrote found guilty refused run obituary convention planned city cancelled short notice public pressure large studied extensively stated anti democratic anti semitic public statements essence concluding leaders remained true nazi ideology similarly historian worked archives 2000s discovered members positions consistently racist anti semitic anti democratic german news magazine der described investigative article brown bluff veterans exploited postwar politics referencing work der quoted member letter leadership conveying dismay jews powerful stand way political support rehabilitation reported findings leadership maintained close contacts far right groups results lobbying produced early successes chancellor announced public speech members combat formations soldiers like rest simply drafted large describes declaration irresponsible military historian refers reference western credible claims forth points east brutality attempted ironic following months number war criminals ranks released eligible prisoner war compensation local governments federal ministry defence announced members grade lieutenant colonel accepted old rank men wished join faced heightened scrutiny applicants went rigorous process reserved higher ranks protested government military planners avail result september applications officers accepted making officer corps compared applications enlisted men height early 1960s approximately members living west_germany members achieved success economic rehabilitation west german government partially restored pension rights personnel legislation included members served minimum years strictly military capacity amounting tiny number eligible personnel greeted development partial victory hoped lead complete rehabilitation wider aim proved impossible achieve government opened door claims personnel nazi organisations including hitler youth prospect federal government raised domestically internationally public image organisation helping outspoken members sounded nazi according large historical trials personnel testimony defence witness contended purely military organisation different prosecution rejected claim successfully argued integral apparatus tribunal found units directly involved killings prisoners war atrocities occupied countries judged entire criminal organisation aimed reverse judgement significant propaganda efforts service historical history encompassed multi publicity campaigns including periodicals books public speeches alongside publishing house dedicated presenting positive light restoring shield viewed leadership key component desired legal economic rehabilitation effort spared periodicals illustrated books periodical launched initially aimed veterans division year existence official publication renamed der volunteer editorial highlighted key themes subsequent history war especially war infamous lying able use unfortunate events connected destroy drag mud sacred let clear allied battle directed authoritarian regime resurgence strength german people far right austrian journalist nazi war correspondent organisation key employee responsible publishing arm active joined time employee death remained nazi according historian theme foreign volunteers featured prominently lending voice area editorial praised foreign volunteers like german comrades saw threat fought like lions picture books echoed themes proclaimed european lands came volunteers genuine comrades arms fought glossy books pictures featured described tales heroism propaganda photographs ideal volunteers continent produced page picture nostalgic title brothers silent project spearheaded controversial figure contributor similar books included scattered traces cavalry divisions viking division pictures cavalry units question cavalry brigade responsible murder estimated jews july august swamps operation regimental commander reported eliminating close weeks operation public speeches leadership denied connection nazi atrocities paul wrote open letter der west_germany minister defence stating concentration camp guard units served external detail possibility interfering internal procedure mention guards accompanied prisoners labour sites commanders concentration camps generally came position ignored fact structure tied nazi machine transfer personnel units shifting responsibilities units perform duties time reassigned actions nazi term operations rear kurt embodied voice speaking men convention bavaria stated troops committed crimes massacre action single man died hero death court insisted regular army outfit like occasion publicly denounced regime west_germany honour soldiers condemned notion collective guilt jews nazis victims history prejudice instance likely referencing adolf senior officer present massacre served lengthy prison term role abbey massacre second instance apparently referring members july plot rhetoric pan european unity continued later history memorial referenced open letter prison previously quoted books broad public germany rest world embodiment clearly intentionally forgotten wrote prison don forget europeans killed action units beaten death post war period men ranks fair game belief western_europe remember memoirs memoirs leading members portrayed men misunderstood fought included generals endorsing fighting skills books characterised historian charles important works literature demanded rehabilitation military branch nazi party presented members victims misunderstood heroes said nazi troops atrocities committed paul book action major work leaders connection nazi origins cover art motto honour called loyalty cloth cover general endorsed troops foreword referred european idea went describe growth called multinational force foreign volunteers fought militant example great european idea action included index war books maintained west_germany federal department media harmful young persons index created limit sale works minors violence kurt memoirs german published detailed exploits served element rehabilitation campaign condemned suffering personnel subjected crimes committed able prevent referred works published volunteers idea sacrifice german die der und presented sacrifice messages echoing der stressed theme purely military followed 1950s books works published 1960s published book called army die der work appeared title soldiers like according books titles symbolic image leaders wanted portray describes later generation books equally prior establishment publishing house affiliated books predominantly published owned extreme right wing politician publisher imprint established publishing house comes norse mythology popular right wing movements companions war god battlefield old norse memory aim publishing house publish works members cooperation authors publishing house unit commanders staff officers members titles rigorous fact checking processes common traditional historical literature accounts professional historians presented members version events dissolution published titles authors included patrick fey albert paul richard peter adjutant unit histories biographies unit histories produced assistance 1950s walter took role official historian charge coordinating writing histories divisions worked german federal military archive screen materials donated information implicated units personnel questionable activity image publication works right wing academics sympathetic unit narratives extensive volumes called official representation history backed maps operational orders points older famous unit larger work point volumes pages devoted 2nd division das authored officer french author jean paul studied massacre men das notes nature narrative provided version history references argues unit histories like publications focused positive heroic national socialism researcher parker notes similar efforts undertaken rewrite history division worked chief staff 1st corps produce parker calls multi volume chronicle division including massacre involved legal consultant sure account framework strict german laws prohibiting nazi past project included chief staff unit produced version massacre pamphlet der mid- late 1970s attempted commission favorable biography stop bad rumors according official remain wheel direct book wrote fellow member contemplated approaching approached prolific screenwriter served propaganda company came successes outcomes mid-1950s established image separated formations shifted responsibility crimes denied security police successfully integrated myth clean positive image organisation took root germany era cold war senior personnel shy fact organised nato like army elite notes emphasis original john work points especially strongly represented stressed fight europe western communist quoting german political journalist book historian george writes works produced circle trying prove informed person attempted deny soldiers brave fighters suffered big losses far served line run camps notes define terms silent matter war crimes notes minority men implicated known atrocities historically significant role battles hitler europe recognise agree picture overwhelming majority men clean living decent honourable soldiers writes argues 1970s attained monopoly historical representation recipe simple contained ingredients elite innocent war crimes nazi atrocities european army par excellence army europe historians dismiss ridicule characterisation labels self large uses words extravagant fantasies past future refers body work chorus self justification historian james describes claims called fourth branch false insistence force precursor nato outrageous transition right wing 1960s clear legal rehabilitation reach time attitudes beginning change country emerged decade suppression germany nazi past veterans activities increasingly greeted suspicion community government military planners came meet goals increasingly ignored political parties longer served purpose benefits forthcoming government began drift far right retreating nazi past time published calendar marked nazi commemoration dates organisation founding members evolve times example 1970s remained nazi according parker given access previously closed archives west german public awareness atrocities grew 1970s 1980s attitudes veterans shifted dramatically federal organisation local groups meetings greeted protests time neo nazi nationalist movements found icon project understanding world war 1980s celebrations grew large bold created enormous problems organisation image meeting turned public relations disaster press reported singing forbidden nazi songs clashes illegal west_germany damaging development stern investigative reporter meeting posing war buff later published article called nazi family reunion containing statements veterans ranged holocaust denial anti semitic comments references happy concentration camp inmates singing like birds later history monitored federal office protection constitution far right organisation briefly went list neo nazi groups causing controversy dissolution perceived west german government nazi organisation disbanded federal level chairman provided access previously closed archives researchers including parker parker materials study der published 2000s point der publishing business taken patrick right wing author publisher regional chapters continued exist 2000s 2010s groups worked maintain momentum recruitment younger generations outreach foreign veterans aided continued publication der acclaimed aim today link older younger generations common cause note historians publication predominant theme continued europe editorials devoted idea laid foundation unification europe expansion nato freedom stated issues informal successor international war grave memorial foundation brothers silent formed stated goal maintaining war graves 1990s 2000s fall berlin wall worked arranging new commemorative sites dead soviet_union including ukraine assessment legacy grew size west german veterans organisations successful membership approaching studied postwar veterans movements west_germany writes der fire eating editorials ignored overwhelming majority veterans interested rebuilding civilian lives getting old consider returning military service membership began fall sharply 1960s organisation significant threat democracy main goal restoration notes performance lobby group performance lobbying organisation mixed large sees combination resentment inflated self importance efforts attitudes campaign regain honour exercise political influence partially successful writes credits west_germany government major political parties military planners keeping sufficient distance veterans organisations limit role new republic armed forces respect concludes hand historical definition achieved remarkable success history results felt day public perceptions popular culture works translated english historians edward davies write unfortunately scholarly writings remained confined small audience readership german authors english language spin offs considerably larger authors note year head start german view related fascination hardly remains mystery tradition outside instrumental creating perception popular culture comrades arms engaged noble crusade according notions questioned west german german society overall wanting forget past embraced image highlights long term effects older generation died new post war writers image force revolutionary european army degree admiration acceptance varies overall tendency positive lives grown stronger tradition continues present time popular history books web sites new titles appear year myths forth propaganda efforts books amateur historical studies focus solely military aspects accounts personnel adding volume material groups international consider incorrectly judged history popular history davies contend better known prolific authors tradition include wrote accounts michael men provided numerous non peer reviewed wartime chronicles units highly decorated men critics dismissive works describing pulp soldier pulp literature texts focus hero making expense historical truth popular author mark published books publishing according authors tradition range extreme fringes far right richard jean partisan authors gordon popular historians generally present positive light include john james lucas bruce historian notes non scholarly works christopher writer tim literature genre definition military historian robert includes books fey michael works aimed military history websites davies argue inspired messages visuals found way internet forums popular culture german war effort contend websites especially attractive group popular culture includes banned germany austria groups thrive including europe north_america end 1990s groups approximately groups dedicated german world war units contrast time groups dedicated american units era


scottish society early modern era scottish society early modern era encompasses social structure relations existed scotland early sixteenth century mid eighteenth century roughly corresponds early modern era europe beginning renaissance reformation ending beginnings industrial revolution scotland period society complex series ranks orders headed monarch great emerged distinct group local society position consolidated economic administrative change rural society variety groups ill defined including major followed limited rights common land pasture urban society led wealthy merchants beneath conflict urban elite beneath ranks urban rural society variety groups mobile men unemployed descent counted male line helping build importance clans increased power state economic change eroded power organisations process accelerate government responded threat power clan chiefs eighteenth century reformation major impact family life changing nature baptism marriage leading change wider relationships status burial practices placing greater emphasis role father limited demographic evidence indicates generally expanding population limited short term crises severe probably seven ill years urban centres continued grow largest edinburgh followed glasgow population growth economic second half sixteenth century led growing problem responded series acts parliament established old poor law attempted ensure relief local poor mobile unemployed nature society meant women directed husbands families remained important workforce economically independent lived marginal existence beginning period women little legal status increasingly reformation major subjects witch hunts occurred relatively large numbers end seventeenth century social structure aristocracy early modern scotland society series ranks marks status king great period longer feudal nobility power based territorial land traded headed small number usually descended close relatives king larger group senior nobles formed political classes beginning period holding major office holding place king council taking major crises rebellions period considered king natural heads system local patronage loyalty bonds set mutual obligations barons held increasingly nominal feudal important right hold courts deal matters land ownership offences including minor acts violence important local tenants chief held legally held land directly king period major local area period feudal declined barons tenants chief merged form new identifiable group group roughly equivalent english gentlemen saw king natural advised exerted influence important individual local community ran courts acted sat local called private course sixteenth century acquire role national politics gaining representation parliament playing major role reformation crisis result reformation creation presbyterian position local society enhanced gained new status elder greater oversight behaviour local population disciplinary functions sessions middle ranks variety groups ill defined included later characterised walter scott owning substantial land practice tenant paid entry sum annual duty pass land heirs meant number people holding possession lands previously controlled church nobility expanded probably numbered seventeenth century government defined financial legal local government increasingly fell substantial engaged agriculture majority working population property rights included lesser free tenants farming based lowland highland settlements handful families held individual land rights jointly farmed area suitable teams shared rights common pasture occupied small portions land participated joint farming hired labour farms rights grazing eighteenth century evidence suggests children servants agriculture died scotland fourteenth century virtually restored statute law miners society urban settlements headed merchants held local office member council workers majority urban population merchants served long acquiring skills status enjoy certain rights privileges major sources trade included export wool fish coal salt cattle imports included wine sugar luxury goods important crafts included metal working leather working pottery later wig making frequent disputes rights political control occasionally violence occurred perth half sixteenth century poor society men women lacked clear social relationship social superior service unemployed numbers times economic women cent households particularly worried authorities rural society needed relief extreme tended lowest ranks rural society including labourers servants took roads quarters men disability claimed suffered personal disaster fire theft discharged soldiers sailors probably returning home searching work tended restricted area probably moving limited number parishes search work relief tied agricultural calendar individuals moved circuit different work available poor relief abundant urban centres particularly largest centres like edinburgh result particularly times extreme poor form large section society roughly quarter population perth classified poor poor urban society diverse group largest numbers women period quarters poor received relief women thirds remainder servants casual labourers clans unlike england derived males females scotland members group sharing fictional common ancestor women retained original surname marriage marriages intended create friendship groups new bond borders reflected common surname shared surname seen test proving large bodies support beginning period helped intensify idea feud usually carried form revenge large body counted support rival sides conflict groups occurred reign james systems judicial law enforced early eighteenth century feud suppressed borders leadership heads great largely replaced authority seventeenth century combination feudal system obligation seen creating highland clan system head clan usually eldest son chief powerful branch leading families clan formed fine seen equivalent lowland providing council peace leadership war scots managed clan lands collected isles adjacent western acted military elite defending clan lands raids taking attacks clan enemies followers clan tenants supplied labour clan heads acted soldiers early modern era usually took clan surname turning massive group highland clans direct threat restoration government relations england effort suppressing independence focused borders glorious revolution economic change royal justice begun undermine clan system eighteenth century process accelerated rebellion highland dress banned enforced compulsory purchase jurisdictions exile chiefs sending ordinary colonies labour largely reduced clan leaders status simple generation family considerable concern safety children period prompted high infant mortality abolition reformation meant baptism mechanism role responsibilities fathers wet nurses young children families mothers took primary role bringing children emphasised role father older children reformation increasing emphasis education resulting growth parish school system effects limited children poor girls children left home period life cycle service youths left home domestic agricultural servants ended married established independent households marriages subject careful negotiation particularly higher society marriage lost status reformation irregular marriage simple public promise mutual agreement followed continued accepted valid period women managed household worked husbands obedience husbands stressed limited practice divorce developed reformation available wider range causes accessed larger section society england high mortality rates relatively common state women acquired independence status forced marginal existence common elaborate complex system prayers dead dominated late medieval scotland removed reformation simpler services introduced burial inside church discouraged causing local wished buried ancestors led uniquely scottish solution adding fourth aisle churches usually pulpit closed burial families local majority burial outside church stone markers increasingly common early seventeenth century reliable sources track population scotland late seventeenth century estimates based english records suggest end middle ages black death subsequent recurring plague caused population scotland fall low half million people price inflation generally reflects growing demand food suggests probably expanded half sixteenth century half years second half sixteenth century saw local national necessitating shipping large quantities grain baltic distress exacerbated plague major periods population expansion probably famine prices relatively stable early seventeenth century early seventeenth century famine common periods famine prices invasions profound impact scottish economy destruction crops disruption markets resulting rapid price rises century population probably expanded period stability followed restoration calculations based tax returns indicate population population seriously affected failed known seven ill years result severe famine particularly north seen particularly severe partly famine relatively rare second half seventeenth century year shortages kind reliable information national population census conducted reverend alexander showed inhabitants scotland persons compared situation population result industrial revolution began eighteenth century numbers evenly spread kingdom roughly half living north early modern population highlands housed small isolated dwellings population expanded settlements sub divided create new marginal land settled clusters occupied summer pasture grazing permanent settlements cent population lived grown later medieval period mainly east south country suggested mean population smaller largest edinburgh probably population beginning era seventeenth century number people living capital grew rapidly expanded city walls suburbs suburbs reached population towns end period glasgow poverty middle ages scotland limited organisation poor relief england lacking religious major english cities possessed hospitals houses houses offered confinement treatment scottish parishes religious foundation cent funds available local causes poor relief protestant book discipline proposed catholic_church support poor aim realised population growth economic second half sixteenth century led growing problem government reacted major pieces legislation poverty major element system poor relief justices peace given responsibility dealing issue poor law act modelled english act passed years earlier limited relief poor old sick imposing long list including parish elders draw lists poor assessed belonging parish sent place birth stocks punished probably actually increasing level unlike english act attempt provide work able bodied poor practice begging disregarded times extreme poor rates slow set edinburgh result outbreak plague gradually introduced cities perth glasgow legislation provided basis later known old poor law scotland remained place mid nineteenth century faced greater problems poverty caused population growth comprehensive system known new poor law created subsequent legislation built principles provision local poor punishment mobile important later act declared local assessed session provide financial resources local relief relying voluntary contributions mid seventeenth century system largely rolled limited highlands system largely able cope general poverty minor crises helping old survive provide life support periods relatively low cost overwhelmed major crisis women early modern scotland theoretically society men total authority women worked practice difficult marriages particularly higher society political nature subject complex negotiations mothers took leading role negotiating finding marriages lady children finding suitable compatible partners reformation extensive marriage bars meant marriages necessitated papal later grounds marriage proved politically personally beginning period women limited legal status criminal courts refused recognise witnesses independent criminals actions assumed lie husbands fathers post reformation period women partly evident independent commissions set try women child murder pressure law placed guilt woman concealed pregnancy birth child later died eighteenth century poorer girls taught dame schools informally set widow teach reading cooking nobility educated women women formed important workforce unmarried women worked away families farm servants married women worked husbands farm taking major agricultural tasks particular role harvest forming team women played important expanding textile industries spinning setting men evidence single women engaging independent economic activity particularly found keeping schools trading highly successful edinburgh left widow seven children husband suicide managed business affairs successfully amassed estate death late sixteenth century lower social scale rolls poor relief indicate large numbers children endured marginal existence popular religion scottish focused bible seen major source moral authority large illustrated highly valuable objects early century translation commonly adopted authorised king james version scots version printed scotland geneva bible continued employed seventeenth century subject family worship strongly encouraged books devotion distributed encourage practice encouraged investigate carried seventeenth century marked high water mark discipline sessions able apply religious sanctions denial baptism enforce behaviour obedience difficult cases immoral behaviour work local magistrate system modelled employed geneva public occasions treated later seventeenth century efforts sessions stamp activities dressing penny weddings dancing reformation severe impact church music influenced early scottish reformation attempted accommodate catholic musical traditions worship drawing latin hymns vernacular songs important product tradition scotland spiritual popular ballads composed brothers james john robert adopted remained popular reprinted later came dominate hostile catholic musical tradition popular music placing emphasis scottish commissioned assembly church congregations sing common tunes unlike trained sung parts hymns late medieval scotland evidence occasional individuals causing harm declining half sixteenth century aftermath initial reformation settlement parliament passed act similar passed england year earlier capital crime despite fact scotland probably quarter population england times number entire period james visit denmark country familiar witch hunts encouraged interest study return scotland attended north witch trials major persecution scotland act people notably convicted send storms james ship james obsessed threat posed inspired personal involvement wrote tract opposed practice provided background material shakespeare tragedy james known personally supervised torture women accused views seventeenth century pursuit largely taken sessions attack catholic practices scottish society accused cent women executed witch hunt scotland seen means controlling women intense witch hunt involved named counties point began decline trials tightly controlled judiciary government torture standards evidence raised growing relative peace stability economic social tensions contributed accusation reduced occasional local east recorded executions trial british parliament repealed act

Scottish society in the early modern era


english poor laws english poor laws system poor relief existed england wales developed late medieval tudor era laws codified poor law system existence emergence modern welfare state second world war english poor law legislation traced far legislation passed deal poor earlier tudor legislation dealing problems caused history poor law england wales usually divided statutes old poor law passed reign elizabeth new poor law passed significantly modified existing system poor relief later statute altered poor law system administered local parish level highly system encouraged large scale development poor law unions poor law system fell decline beginning 20th century owing factors introduction liberal welfare reforms availability sources assistance friendly societies trade unions reforms bypassed poor law system poor law system formally abolished national assistance act parts law remaining books history medieval poor laws earliest medieval poor law ordinance labourers issued king edward iii england june revised ordinance issued response outbreak black death england estimated population died decline population left surviving workers great demand agricultural economy britain landowners face choice raising wages compete workers letting lands unused wages labourers rose forced prices economy goods expensive produce attempt prices ordinance subsequent acts statute labourers required work wages kept pre plague levels food workers saw shortage conditions opportunity flee employers edward iii passed additional laws punish escaped workers addition statute cambridge passed placed restrictions movement labourers tudor poor law origins english poor law system traced far late medieval statutes dealing tudor period poor law system codified monasteries primary source poor relief dissolved reformation causing poor relief largely voluntary basis compulsory tax collected parish level early legislation concerned making able bodied work especially labour short supply following black death tudor attempts tackle problem originate reign henry vii parliament passed act ordering idle suspected persons shall set stocks days nights bread water shall town suitable work shall resort best known born remain pain remedy problem poverty offered merely swept sight moved town town distinction simply punished moved reign henry_viii proclamation issued describing mother root ordering replace stocks punishment change confirmed act following year important change directed justices peace assign poor area generally poor limited disabled sick elderly person begging area imprisoned days nights stocks bread water sworn return place authorized able bodied sworn return place born space years labour provision healthy man simply unable find work able bodied unemployed category unable find work stark choice break law bill drawn calling creation system public works deal problem unemployment funded tax income capital law passed year later allowed london great poor reformation threatened eliminate infrastructure provide poor result king henry_viii hospital thomas hospital condition citizens london pay maintenance city unable raise revenue voluntary contributions instituted definite compulsory poor rate replaced sunday collections church mandatory collection poor london increasingly concerned number poor work find work established house correction predecessor king palace poor receive shelter work cap making feather bed making wire drawing able bodied poor life tougher reign edward act passed subjected extreme provisions criminal law years branding penalty offence death second justices peace reluctant apply penalty edward passed poor act designated position collector parish created register licensed poor assumption parish collections relieve poor begging completely prohibited government elizabeth edward successor mary inclined severity act passed called offenders burned ear offence persistent hanged act clear distinction professional unemployed fault early reign elizabeth passed laws directly aimed providing relief poor example act relief poor required parish residents ability pay contribute poor collections forward mind shall refuse weekly relief poor according abilities bound justices peace fined additionally act enabled justices peace survey register poor determine money required relief assess parish residents weekly appropriate poor act required towns create competent stock wool iron stuff poor work houses correction refused work workers forced work punished accordingly complete code poor relief act relief poor provision poor eventually poor law immediate origins poor law system deteriorating economic circumstances sixteenth century england historian george stated england suffered rapid inflation time caused population growth american silver poor period causing numbers poverty increase charitable giving decreased dissolution monasteries religious new colonial solution early development english colonization schemes initially ireland later north_america new method alleviate condition poor suggested utilized considerably time merchant colonization proponent george noted current domestic conditions day great numbers want content hazard meat wages hope amend estates suggest institution service time richard preface divers english bees led abroad recommends poor realm scope additionally recommends prisons send new world virginia system service fully developed subsequent colonies adopt method modifications suitable different conditions times english transportation implemented soon evolve government endeavor transportation act old poor law poor law earlier practices poor relief contained act relief poor cited beginning old poor law system created system administered parish level paid local rates rate relief ill old work called poor form payment items food parish clothing known outdoor relief aged people accommodated parish houses usually private charitable institutions able bodied refused work placed houses correction subjected attitudes provision able bodied poor relatively unusual developed later law said parents children responsible elderly parents live children old poor law parish based system parishes based area parish church system allowed behavior poor poor know considered able differentiate poor making system humane initially efficient poor law operated time population small know people circumstances known idle poor unable claim parishes poor rate system provided social stability needed adapted cope population increases greater mobility regional price variations act sought deal settled poor found temporarily work assumed accept indoor relief outdoor relief method relief time history seen harsh act supposed deal considered threat civil order act passed time poverty considered necessary fear poverty people work house correction set county system separate system distinguished settled poor variation application law tendency migrate generous parishes usually situated towns led settlement act known poor relief act allowed relief established residents parish mainly birth marriage unfortunately laws reduced mobility labour discouraged leaving parish find work encouraged industry create short contracts days employee eligible poor relief prove settlement removed parish nearest place birth prove connection moved hundreds miles parishes passed route responsibility supposed supply food drink shelter night act passed requiring wear badge red blue cloth right shoulder letter initial parish practice soon fell movement began end 17th century establishment bristol corporation poor founded act parliament corporation established combined housing care poor house correction petty offenders following example bristol towns cities established similar corporations decades corporations required private act suitable smaller towns individual parishes starting parish dozen small towns individual parishes established institutions specific legal authorization concentrated south county essex late society promotion christian knowledge began promote idea society published pamphlets subject supported sir edward successful efforts steer test act parliament act gave legislative authority establishment single parishes joint ventures parishes importantly act helped idea establishing national audience parish corporation established england wales housing million people receiving kind parish poor relief end century parishes pamphlet writers expected earn money labour poor vast majority people obliged residence ill elderly children labour proved largely demands needs expectations poor ensured came character general social policy institutions combining functions night shelter ward thomas gilbert finally succeeded passing act established poor houses solely aged introduced system outdoor relief able bodied basis development system financial provision low paid workers settlement laws altered removal act prevented non settled persons moved applied relief napoleonic wars impossible import cheap grain britain resulted price bread increasing wages similarly increase agricultural labourers poverty following peace government lord liverpool passed corn laws price grain artificially high saw great social unrest end french wars saw industrial agricultural depression high unemployment social attitudes poverty began change system considered poor law system criticized free market parliamentary select committee looked altering system resulted acts passed saw passing poor employment act issue bills advance money consolidated fund limited carrying public works fisheries united_kingdom employment poor great_britain passing poor law amendment act built reduce cost poor relief suggests possible reasons gradual increase relief given able bodied males including enclosure movement decline industries wool spinning lace making contends farmers able advantage poor law system shift labour costs tax royal commission poor law royal commission operation poor laws set following widespread destruction machine breaking swing riots report prepared commission including nassau william senior served secretary royal commission primary concerns reflecting influence fear practices old poor law position independent practices particular concern system hired cheap labour system low wages relief report concluded existing poor laws undermined prosperity country interfering natural laws supply demand existing means poor relief allowed employers force wages poverty inevitable commission proposed new law governed overarching principles eligibility enter conditions worse free outside test relief available reformed capable outside choose act introduced partly test idea eligibility mentioned recommendation royal commission outdoor relief relief given outside abolished implemented report recommended separate aged children able bodied females able bodied males report stated parishes grouped unions order spread cost central authority established order enforce measures poor law commission set earl grey took year write report recommendations passed easily parliament support main parties bill gained royal opposed bill concerned bring philosophy new poor law poor law amendment act passed government lord melbourne largely implemented findings royal commission presented findings years earlier new poor law considered far reaching pieces legislation entire nineteenth century classic example fundamental whig reforming legislation period act aimed reduce burden rate seen attempt whig government win votes classes great reform act despite labelled amendment act completely overhauled existing system established poor law commission oversee national operation system included forming small parishes poor law unions building union giving poor relief aim legislation reduce costs rate area reformed method financing poor law system continued paid poor rate property owning middle classes poor law amendment act ban forms outdoor relief stated able bodied person receive money help poor law authorities conditions harsh discourage people claiming built parish parishes small parishes group form unions poor law commissioners responsible overseeing implementation act reasons impossible apply terms act eligibility cases impossible high cost building incurred rate meant outdoor relief continued popular alternative despite efforts ban outdoor relief parishes continued offer cost effective method dealing outdoor labour test order outdoor relief order issued try prevent people receiving relief outside new amendment applied industrial north england area law considered reviews system failed found temporarily unemployed fall stock demands called unemployment reluctant enter despite method gaining aid nottingham allowed exemption law continued provide outdoor relief abuses shortcomings system documented novels charles later people abyss jack london despite aspirations new poor law unable bad life outside primary problem order diet inmates eligible expect outside necessary inmates acceptable level reason ways found deter entrance measures ranged introduction prison style uniforms segregation inmates yards normally male female boys girls yards scandal conditions union found dangerous prompted government review abolition poor law commission replaced poor law board meant committee parliament administer poor law cabinet minister head despite scandal occurred treatment new poor law poor law commission replaced poor law board scandal criticism henry parker responsible union tensions somerset house caused failure poor law commissioner poor law altered increasing costs visiting society formed highlighted conditions led inspected union act passed order financial burden placed unions individual parishes boards guardians middle class committed keeping poor rates low possible reform act increasing welfare legislation legislation required local authorities support poor law board replaced local government board local government board led crusade outdoor relief supported charity organisation society organization viewed outdoor relief destroying self reliance poor effect renewed effort deter outdoor relief reduce increase numbers work house county councils formed district councils meant public housing unlike health income maintenance developed outside scope poor law poor law policy new poor law concerning elderly sick mentally ill children humane expense providing mixed changing attitudes causes nature poverty decline abolition poor law system began decline availability forms assistance growth friendly societies provided help members poor law system trade unions provided help members medical relief disqualification removal act meant people accessed medical care funded poor rate longer disqualified voting elections chamberlain circular encouraged local government board set work projects unemployment rates high use conservatives passed unemployed act provided temporary employment workers times unemployment royal commission set investigate changes poor law commission produced conflicting reports investigations largely ignored liberal government implementing scheme welfare legislation welfare reforms liberal government provisions provide social services stigma poor law including old age national insurance period fewer people covered system term replaced poor law institution means tests developed inter war period poor law attempt offer relief affected stigma according slowly system poor law die attrition surgical essential organs world war evidence makeshift hospitals wounded servicemen numbers poor law system increased interwar years despite extension unemployment insurance virtually workers self employed workers provided outdoor relief aspect poor law continued cause resentment burden poor relief shared equally rich poor areas fell heavily areas poverty worst central issue rates rebellion led george written provocative attack system pamphlet entitled smash poverty interwar years responsible measures largely killed poor law system board guardians default act passed response boards guardians supporting miners general strike officially abolished local government act poor law guardians test term disappeared unemployment assistance board set deal covered earlier national insurance act passed liberals able bodied poor absorbed scheme people receiving poor relief form institution poor law system finally abolished introduction modern welfare state passing national assistance act national health service act came force created modern day national health service opposition opposition poor law grew beginning 19th century system felt costly considered academic circles encouraging underlying problems argued disciplinary approach social problems whilst writings thomas focused attention growth david argued iron law wages effect poor relief view undermine position independent period following napoleonic wars altered function model period second maintained national trust george poor law commissioner reformed system report select committee poor laws condemned poor law causing poverty introduction new poor law resulted opposition gave evidence royal commission operation poor laws suggested existing system proved adequate local needs argument strongest industrial north england textile industries outdoor relief effective method dealing unemployment cost effective method poor law commissioners faced greatest opposition lancashire west riding yorkshire high unemployment economic depression new poor law seen interference little understanding local affairs opposition unusually strong committees formed opposition hours movement leaders hours campaign richard joseph john leaders anti poor law campaign book murder published aimed creating opposition system pamphlets published spreading propaganda poor law commissioners alleged inside opposition poor law yielded successes delaying development attacked crowd boards guardians determined continue old system poor law commission granted boards right continue providing relief old poor law movement new poor law short lived leading instead turn scotland ireland poor law systems scotland ireland distinct english poor law system covering england wales irish legislation heavily influenced english poor law amendment act scotland poor law system reformed scottish poor law act ireland irish poor law act attempt control responsibility welfare statutory basis exceptional ireland stopped irish potato famine increasingly resorted outdoor relief emigration method keeping cost poor relief removing surplus labour reforms irish war independence resulted abolition boards guardians jurisdiction irish free state replacement county boards health historiography historiography poor laws passed distinct phases orthodox account poor laws focuses deficiencies old poor law early historiography influential successfully system presents analysis poor law myth old poor law making new arguing old poor law reduce efficiency agricultural workers lower wages compound burden rate instead argues old poor law device dealing problems structural unemployment wages rural sector rapidly growing economy areas poor law concerned historians include extent second great reform act contributed poor law amendment act extent outdoor relief abolished following new poor law


ancient athens ancient greek city states specifically daughter man male heirs called women allowed hold property order father property family required marry father nearest male relative woman married evidence suggests required divorce marry relative women allowed hold property right subject restrictive rules evidence city states mainly coming city states wrote laws offering laws govern marriages mythology history number greek women appear including widow king status explain numbers sons law inherited fathers law greek mythology sacred war originated dispute etymology term feminine acting lot estate ancient greece describe daughter man died leaving male heir translates attached family property estate ancient greek city states women property system devised ownership male defined family line required marry nearest relative father family system inheritance known strictly speaking terms equivalent woman owned property unable dispose argues translation female orphan term woman property inherited estate entire system unique ancient greece mainly institution athens athens city state best documented terms aspects legal history law attributed women brothers marry nearest male relative paternal family starting father brother moving nearest male relative paternal historian john notes order relatives required marry coincided relatives required avenge murder set relatives known athens group relatives inherit property absence legal heirs possible set relatives right marry went eldest property inherited debt affect status definition term athens case daughter living brothers father died term cases 10th century encyclopedia gives definitions including married time father death unmarried daughter brothers living father stated term daughter living sisters indicates normal usage mother dead incorrect mother alive bearing status occasionally term feminine form greek term orphan later writer text stated term daughter given man marriage father deathbed extant use term sense literature probably misunderstood scenario comic playwright term athens somewhat loosely legal proceedings politician 4th century bce speeches attempted use law mother claimed law defined female father brother shared father paternal grandfather opponent disputed interpretation law speech 4th century bce rests claim speaker mother young brother died following father death legal authorities recognized speaker claim valid unknown appears according plays woman brother died father considered brother father development practice unclear laws dealing prior legislative activity bce according 1st century writer authored legislation covering laws attempted prevent combination estates marriage modern historians seen effort maintain stable number households according husband sexual intercourse times month order provide children inherit father property time bce law definitely attested unclear nearest relative power dissolve previous marriage order marry cases historian sarah states scholars lean opinion nearest relative dissolve previous marriage given birth son states opinion definitely proven roger argued son forced marry nearest relative law required marry provide new unable fulfill monthly duties wife entitled sex produce heir father property alternatively required divorce marry nearest relative legal procedures man died leaving felt literally translates available specialized procedure type court judgement called proceedings took place court citizen resident aliens athens charge affairs case man daughters legal rights held invalid young male prior coming age serving time military allowed claim legal right permitted aristotle day taking office priest hereditary unclear man eligible marry married previous wife claiming evidence points ancient speeches implying men wife acquired normal procedure procedure responsible overseeing treatment claimed pregnant households sons came age gained ownership inheritance athens age given extant law years past age son laws appears eldest son considered heir maternal grandfather sons considered father household son inheritance maternal grandfather property happened father mother alive unlike son inherit father named grandfather heir consolidate position posthumously adopted maternal grandfather required 4th century bce legal practices changed son inherit father maternal grandfather son divided estate passed heir secured possession inheritance law specified support mother likely debts grandfather inherited property law rule exactly owned property son took possession appears sources actually owned husband contrast usual procedure athens husband owned property wife number speeches imply property considered owned little ability dispose husband probably day day control property administered responsible management heirs came age position husband closest guardian orphan property likewise responsible orphan care property orphan came age parallel orphan property exempt practice requiring citizens perform public tasks compensation orphan possible husband allow posthumous adoption son son father prevent inheritance newly adopted son property natural father advantage preserving commonly translated household incorporating ideas property preservation paternal usually felt reason practice historian david argues fact point practice instead argues practice adoption allowed preservation feels reason evolved ensure orphaned daughters married historians including sarah feel children considered transmit paternal grandfather historian agrees arguing adoption unnecessary especially husband gave son maternal grandfather argues attention paid aspects probably emphasis actual practice keeping household productive unit historian roger states main principle man guardian property husband uses principle claim man adopted father required marry states divorce based principle arguing father adopted husband husband heir sees development flowing desire number households constant according legislation treated property reforms transformed property son automatic heir father estate taking wife little estate considered action generally stressed public speeches called nearest male relative wish marry belonged lowest income class athens required find husband provide graduated scale according income class addition property requirement designed ensure poor found husbands law happen infant young marriage claimed sequence set relatives claim paternal heirs line sons sisters father heirs line father paternal following paternal father paternal relatives exhausted half brothers father mother line sons maternal half sisters father seventh line maternal father maternal father appears relatives related degree eldest similarly related relatives priority claiming chances modern estimates odds woman roughly seven fathers died biological sons law allowed man adopt male son daughters brothers modern historians estimate families daughters childless modern historian said distinctive rare married married time father death required divorce current marry unclear modern historians come conclusion required son inherit grandfather estate evidence roman playwright play includes plot element involving claim girl actually play written 2nd century bce adapted plays earlier comedies makes slightly reliable source common sense argues son born need parcel relative order provide male heir grandfather estate right marry required refuse match find possible husband buy order remain married wife cases alleged speaker speech character play city states evidence ancient city states scattered ancient women extensive rights including right inherit property manage property comparable term occasionally rendered law applied unmarried girls kings responsible finding father death list royal said kings sole judges cases concerning unmarried father exact meaning statement debated historians interpreted mean kings right chose suggested kings merely right nearest male relative competing claims suggestion king choice restricted citizens land given literally translates holders inherited land retained right dispose inherited property restrictions marry 4th century bce aristotle records restrictions marry married father lifetime directions father nearest allowed marry chose called treated athens term literally translated having father property description condition considered father brother father living relative right marry called list eligible status limited paternal sons candidates fitting conditions free marry chose wished free obligation marry nearest relative paying inheritance nearest relative wish marry free find tribe willing marry wished owe laws fact city states known allowed daughters inherit brothers daughters received half share son prevent abuse system time limit right closest marry limit expired right passed nearest married ran possible limit man marry unlike athens owned inheritance son inherit died son eligible inherit father owed laws law views subject especially according aristotle city state laws given nearest wish marry time alexander great law deals inheritance returning limiting paternal estate estate mother exile city states allowed women inherit property daughters considered unknown surviving fragments laws cities laws set forth rules governed ideal state described republic felt real world included dealing inheritance general outline practice daughter man died male heirs gave rules governing husband said inherited plot divided added plot main departure law came direct heir inheritance relations case assigned inheritance person pair male female ordered marry provide heir estate like later history bce appointed govern city state athens issued set laws known later literary works knowledge laws appear subject striking contrast legislation concerned internal affairs family external public life 4th century bce practice falling disappeared period continued appear new comedy scattered inscriptions 3rd century bce dated correctly refer occasional method developed avoid adoption son father possible noted mythology tales heroic greece royal succession passed father law son law historians seen early example pattern examples include heroic era royal followed pattern case married helen succeeded helen father living sons example odyssey married father brother historical examples aristotle related revolt athens bce originated dispute sacred war bce started disagreement likely daughter married athens likewise widow king forced marry son man executed king stated reason married father example daughter king married brother granddaughter deaths grandfather paternal father married son father adopted renamed father adoption son husband son father died leaving father household danger extinction second marriage produced son continued household mother possible include daughters managed remain married daughter father tried marry prospective husband refused match daughter married non relative instead literary examples literature daughter considered uncle responsible marriage sister marriage plot play play daughter status allows son citizen athens wrote comedies titled extant comedies titled man estate latin comedies survive based greek plays dealing based based play speech indirectly concerns claimed real origin dispute cousin claim related speech includes description claiming


death death deposed italian fascist dictator occurred april final days world war europe executed italian communists small village northern italy official version events shot walter communist partisan colonel end war circumstances death identity killer subjects continuing confusion dispute controversy italy took country world war nazi_germany soon met military failure autumn reduced leader german puppet state northern italy faced allied advance south increasingly violent internal conflict partisans april allies breaking german defences northern italy general uprising partisans taking hold cities situation april fled milan based tried escape swiss border mistress captured april local partisans near village lake shot following afternoon days adolf_hitler suicide bodies taken milan left suburban square large angry crowd insult physically abuse hung upside metal service station square initially buried unmarked grave body dug stolen fascist supporters months later recovered authorities kept hidden years eventually remains allowed interred family home town tomb place pilgrimage neo anniversary death marked neo fascist rallies post war years official version death questioned italy generally internationally way drawn comparison john kennedy assassination conspiracy theories journalists politicians historians account forward wide variety theories speculation died responsible different individuals times claimed killer included subsequently secretary general italian communist_party president italy respectively writers believe death british special forces operation aim supposedly retrieve secret agreements correspondence winston_churchill allegedly carrying captured official explanation remains credible narrative preceding events background ruled italy fascist leader dictator title taken country world war nazi_germany june following allied invasion sicily july deposed arrest italy switched sides joined allies later year rescued prison raid german special forces hitler installed leader italian social republic german puppet state set northern italy based town near lake republic came called threatened allies advancing south internally italian anti fascist partisans brutal conflict known italian civil war slowly fighting way italian peninsula allies took rome florence summer later year began advancing northern italy final collapse german_army gothic line april total defeat republic german imminent mid april based milan government took residence city end month partisan leadership declared general uprising main northern cities german forces retreated assumption control milan german_army northern italy surrender fled city april attempted escape north switzerland day left milan declared members fascist government fascist leaders guilty having suppressed constitutional guarantees destroyed people freedoms created fascist regime compromised betrayed country bringing current punished penalty death capture arrest april mistress fascist leaders travelling german convoy near village north western shore lake group local communist partisans led pier attacked convoy forced halt partisans recognised italian fascist leader convoy stage germans hand italians exchange allowing germans proceed eventually discovered convoy vehicles later said face like wax blind read utter exhaustion fear completely lacking dead partisans arrested took spent night local barracks fascist leaders families found convoy arrested partisans aside sixteen prominent shot following day killed successive nights fighting going area fearing rescued fascist supporters partisans drove middle night nearby farm peasant family named maria believed safe place hold spent rest night following day evening capture socialist partisan leader northern italy announced radio head association yellow fear trying cross swiss frontier arrested handed tribunal people judge quickly want think execution platoon honour man deserve killed like dog order execute differing accounts exist decision executed secretary general communist_party claimed ordered execution prior capture said radio message april words thing needed decide fascist leaders pay lives question identity claimed given order deputy prime minister government rome leader communist_party prime minister later denied said government authority approval senior communist milan said order came general command partisan military units application decision subsequently gave different story said member action party heard news capture immediately agreed executed gave order carried according leo action party representative decision execute taken night april group acting behalf comprising communists subsequently announced day death executed orders event instructed communist partisan general command walter immediately carry order according words shoot asked partisan according thought execution conflicting versions theories died forward war account walter essential components remains credible referred italy official version largely confirmed account provided classical narrative story set books written 1960s journalist franco accounts vary detail consistent main facts left milan early morning april carry orders given arrival met local partisan commander arrange handed colonel mission afternoon partisans including drove maria farmhouse collect picked drove short distance village vehicle pulled entrance villa narrow road known told stand villa wall shot gun borrowed gun having jammed differences account presented acting manner immediately prior death said read sentence death omitted said words aim heart account said immediately prior execution differences exist account given involved including according met asked list fascist prisoners captured previous day marked names execution said challenged executed replied adviser inspired policies responsible according discussion concerning decision execute took place gave different account claimed april convened war tribunal comprising president tribunal condemned death objections proposed executions later denied tribunal convened said convinced deserved death trial according law book wrote 1970s argued decision execute taken meeting partisan leaders april constituted valid judgment tribunal article ordinance constitution courts war lack judge required ordinance present casts doubt assertion subsequent events dictatorship representations body example pictures engaged physical labour bare half naked formed central fascist propaganda body remained potent symbol death causing revered supporters treated contempt opponents assuming broader political significance evening april bodies executed loaded van south milan arriving city early hours april dumped ground suburban square near main railway station choice location deliberate partisans shot august retaliation partisan attacks allied bombing raids bodies left public display time said remarked blood shall pay bodies left considerable crowd gathered corpses vegetables shot kicked face american eye witness described crowd sinister control bodies hoisted metal framework half built standard oil service station hung upside meat hooks mode hanging northern italy medieval times stress hanged reason given involved hanging way protect bodies mob movie footage happened appears confirm case autopsy american military authorities arrived city ordered bodies taken delivered city carried army took photographs bodies publication including positioned pose arm arm april autopsy carried institute legal medicine milan version subsequent report indicated shot bullets version specified seven bullets bullets near heart given cause death bullets identified samples brain taken sent america analysis intention prove hypothesis caused insanity resulted analysis evidence found body autopsy carried theft corpse death display corpse milan buried unmarked grave cemetery north city easter sunday body located dug young fascist friends period sixteen weeks moved place place hiding places included villa monastery convent authorities searched eventually august body leg missing tracked monastery far milan charged assisting hide body authorities arranged body hidden monastery small town remained years whereabouts body kept secret family remained position newly appointed prime minister agreed place birth reliant far right including neo fascist party deputy support parliament came knew widow tomb anniversary death family carried september supporters present giving fascist salute laid rest large stone tomb decorated fascist symbols contains large marble head tomb register visitors paying respects sign tomb neo fascist place pilgrimage numbers signing tomb register range dozens hundreds day thousands signing certain comments left supportive anniversary death april dates neo fascist supporters mark major rallies march takes place centre town cemetery event usually attracts supporters thousands includes speeches songs people giving fascist salute post war controversy outside italy version executed largely accepted italy subject matter extensive debate dispute late 1940s present variety theories died different individuals identified times responsible carrying shooting comparisons john kennedy assassination conspiracy theories described italian equivalent speculation reception version involvement kept secret earliest descriptions events series articles communist_party newspaper late person carried referred named series articles newspaper tempo march communist_party subsequently confirmed involvement speak publicly published account series articles later month repeated book later wrote published years death versions story published including 1960s books setting classical account story fine ore journalist franco long noted original story published subsequent versions provided versions events provided account probably built facts certainly embellished obvious coupled belief communist_party selected claim responsibility political purposes led italy believe story wholly largely previously unpublished private account written communist_party archives appeared confirmed key facts story undoubtedly eyewitness prepared narrative private records communist_party publication perceived motivation tell truth furthermore reputation reliable known disliked personally reasons seen significant largely confirmed account account published commentators convinced historian commented sweeps away bad novels constructed years end possibility ridiculous versions years true truth clear claims book half century lies partisan leader repeated claim earlier claimed inadvertently wounded earlier day tried grab gun partisans killed shot dead british hypothesis claims britain wartime covert operations unit special operations executive responsible death ordered british prime minister winston_churchill allegedly cover retrieve secret agreements correspondence men carrying captured partisans said correspondence included offers churchill peace territorial concessions exchange hitler join western allies alliance soviet_union proponents theory included historians journalists including peter theory dismissed partisan leader published book claimed shot accompanied mission british_army officer called john shot journalist peter claimed established john robert british agent ancestry according john went maria farmhouse morning april killed italian state television channel broadcast documentary produced theory forward interviewed documentary claimed arrived farmhouse sitting bed standing john took outside told orders eliminate knew things said shoot john said shoot making clear killed italian took house corner nearby lane stood fence shot documentary included interview said mother seen shooting said heard shots looked clock documentary went claim later villa subsequently staged cover theory criticised lacking evidence particularly existence correspondence churchill commenting television documentary christopher woods researcher official history dismissed claims saying love conspiracy making earlier death theories including journalist claimed shot earlier day near maria farmhouse execution staged corpses forward franco theories theories included allegations subsequently leader communist_party post war italy future president italy carried claimed committed suicide books newspaper articles journals websites