british airborne operations north_africa british airborne operations north_africa conducted british 1st parachute brigade commanded brigadier tunisia campaign world war period november april planning began operation torch allied invasion north_africa decided attach 1st parachute brigade 1st airborne division allied forces taking american airborne unit 2nd battalion parachute infantry regiment invasion short period training brought operational strength mainly men 2nd parachute brigade brigade deployed north_africa november units brigade dropped near november near november november seizing airfields fighting infantry action linking allied armoured force supporting december inability units british army link force 2nd parachute battalion lieutenant colonel john frost forced retreat miles nearest allied units attacked times retreat reached allied lines safely taken casualties months 1st parachute brigade ground role serving formations advancing allied ground forces suffered heavy casualties occasions took large numbers axis prisoners brigade transferred mid april left rejoin rest 1st airborne division train operation allied invasion sicily background formation german military pioneers use airborne formations conducting successful airborne operations battle france including battle fort impressed success german airborne operations allied governments decided form airborne formations decision eventually lead creation british airborne divisions number smaller units british airborne establishment began development june prime minister winston_churchill directed war office memorandum investigate possibility creating corps parachute troops despite prime minister desire airborne troops short period number problems rapidly encountered war office military existed britain light military purposes shortage suitable transport aircraft tow carry august churchill informed volunteers selected train airborne troops currently begin training limitations equipment aircraft war office stated memorandum prime minister december parachute troops probably trained ready operations spring figure purely arbitrary actual number trained prepared period rely entirely creation training establishment provision required equipment training establishment parachute troops set raf near manchester june named central landing establishment initial volunteers began training airborne operations number designed constructed royal_air_force provided number armstrong medium bombers conversion transport aircraft organizational plans laid war office calling parachute brigades operational immediate development airborne formations initial volunteers training hampered problems threat invasion war office officials senior british_army officers believe sufficient men spared effort rebuild army battle france create effective airborne force believed force raiding value affect conflict useful way material problems armed services expanding rebuilding particularly army british industry organised sufficient war support services fledgling airborne force finally airborne forces lacked single coherent policy clear idea organised come command army raf inter organizational rivalry war office air ministry charge raf major factor delaying expansion british airborne forces expansion despite difficulties mid fledgling airborne establishment able form british airborne unit special air service battalion numbered approximately officers ranks formed converting commando february thirty men battalion conducted british airborne operation operation raid southern italy hoped destruction italian civilian military installations water supply damage italian morale italian war effort north_africa raid failure airborne troops captured italian military forces help provide british airborne establishment vital lessons future operations shortly operation conducted memorandum circulated war office chiefs staff army royal_air_force requiring special air service battalion expanded parachute brigade july period discussion problems creating formation chief imperial general staff authorised raising brigade headquarters 1st 2nd 3rd 4th parachute battalions air troop royal engineers given title 1st parachute brigade volunteers infantry units recruited new formation august initially commanded brigadier richard nelson gale replaced mid brigadier brigade began extensive training regime included conducting trials tests new airborne equipment october joined brigade formed independent brigade group formation recently returned india shortly followed october formation headquarters 1st airborne division command brigadier control 1st parachute brigade 1st brigade units currently training brigades shortly promoted rank major general supervised newly formed division underwent prolonged expansion intensive training new brigades raised assigned division new equipment tested mid april division able conduct small scale airborne exercise benefit prime minister transport aircraft participated late december division brought strength mid september division coming close reaching strength informed operation torch allied invasion north_africa place november informed 2nd battalion american parachute infantry regiment campaign argued larger airborne force utilised invasion large distances comparatively light opposition provide number opportunities airborne operations war office commander chief home forces won argument agreed 1st parachute brigade 1st airborne division place command general dwight command allied troops participating invasion air ministry unable provide transport aircraft operate brigade united_states_army air forces took responsibility providing group wing flew douglas practice drop conducted unit brigade october lack american familiarity british airborne equipment technique lack british familiarity led men killed meant delay training whilst new techniques developed turn resulted majority brigade personnel travelling north_africa having conducted training drop brought operational strength partly cross posting personnel newly formed 2nd parachute brigade provided sufficient equipment resources brigade departed north_africa beginning november insufficient number transport aircraft allocated brigade possible transport 3rd parachute battalion air battalion strength consisting headquarters staff companies battalion landed gibraltar dawn november commander lieutenant colonel pine coffin informed battalion scheduled conduct airborne operation day pine coffin kenneth anderson commander british army mission airfield conduct parachute drop capture airfield near port bordered tunisia algeria known allied intelligence battalion german currently stationed likely given task vital companies capture airfield achieved hold airfield relieved commando conduct amphibious landing capture link battalion challenging task pine coffin battalion arrived fewer need conduct parachute drop aircraft failed arrive gibraltar sufficient aircraft found november took gibraltar landing american pilots flying experience night drops locating drop zones darkness extremely difficult decided delay mission dawn november day operation pine coffin staff began plan mission transport battalion follow coast reached harbour leading turn south east fly low airfield status dropped airfield present drop companies mile away form launch attack airfield planning completed american pilots operation briefly interrupted german aircraft flew area dropped stick bombs aircraft took day experienced uneventful flight airfield aircraft experienced mechanical problems ocean causing casualties lead flew airfield observing airfield dropped followed succession remaining transport aircraft drop reasonably accurate containers dropped miles airfield thirteen men injured drop primarily landed killed accidentally shot gun officer knocked unconscious landing remained days occasion heard little unknown british force drop observed flight german transport aircraft carrying battalion having seen airfield occupied aircraft turned secured airfield battalion came attack initially commando secured number anti aircraft guns salvaged sunken vessels port harbour combination squadron arrived evening november fend future attacks battalion held airfield conjunction commando november withdrew linked company rest 1st parachute brigade 1st parachute brigade 3rd parachute battalion arrived november stores arriving slightly later evening reconnaissance parties travelled airfield remainder brigade following morning november day brigade joined 2nd battalion american parachute infantry regiment attached brigade battalion arrived north_africa november supporting advance united_states fifth army original intentions lieutenant general kenneth anderson commander british army brigade minus 3rd parachute battalion conduct parachute drop port approximately miles german lines brigade issued briefing materials operation studied sailed north_africa plan abandoned time arrived allied intelligence reported german troops recently ensured airborne operation question ambitious plan cancelled november army directed single parachute battalion dropped day near battalion contact french forces remain neutral support allies secure guard cross roads airfield soul patrol eastwards harass german forces 2nd battalion drop time objective capturing airfields 1st parachute battalion commanded lieutenant colonel james hill selected task hill objected battalion forced vessel carrying supplies equipment arrange transportation drivers provided arrived subjected luftwaffe air raids targeted airfield hill argued result men exhausted believe battalion equipment hours asked operation postponed short period denied hill faced problems planned operation american pilots transport aircraft transport battalion inexperienced conducted parachute drop time training exercises photos airfield surrounding areas single small scale map available navigation ensure aircraft found drop zone delivered battalion accurately hill decided sit cockpit leading assist pilot despite battalion arriving november packed container meant removed individually battalion prepared november took escorted american lightning fighters engaged drove german fighters approached border encountered thick clouds forced turn landing decided battalion conduct operation day allowed rest night time 2nd battalion successfully conducted drop capturing objectives securing area passed control 1st parachute brigade remained area time 1st parachute battalion took morning november encountered excellent weather allowed transport aircraft drop battalion accurately airfield landed successfully man killed rigging line twisted neck mid drop officer broke leg landing men wounded gun accidentally fired battalion second command major pearson remained airfield small detachment collected airborne equipment supervised burial casualty lieutenant colonel hill led rest battalion approximately strong trucks town important road railway centre approximately miles airfield battalion arrived welcomed local french garrison strong hill managed persuaded cooperate order garrison german observers impression possessed larger force actually hill arranged battalion march town times wearing different holding different equipment time short time battalion entered german aircraft arrived bombed town caused little damage casualties day company sent detachment engineers village sir miles away contact local french forces believed pro british harass german forces detachment found village contact french allowed pass town nightfall force reached town decided night dawn german convoy armoured cars passed detachment decided set ambush convoy returned anti tank mines laid road mortar guns set concealed positions convoy returned approximately leading vehicle struck exploded blocking road vehicles disabled mortar fire bombs remaining anti tank mines number germans killed rest taken prisoner slightly wounded detachment returned prisoners slightly damaged armoured cars success ambush hill sent second patrol harass local german forces withdrawn encountered larger german force inflicted british casualties bombed inflicting civilian casualties destroying number houses november hill visited commanding officer french forces guarding vital bridge warned attempt german forces cross bridge opposed battalion hill attached company french forces ensure bridge captured german forces soon arrived bridge commanding officer demanded allowed control bridge cross attack british positions french rejected german demands conjunction company repelled subsequent german attacks lasted hours battalion reinforced american field artillery battalion elements despite fierce resistance german forces proved strong november allied forces yielded bridge surrounding area germans days later hill received information strong italian force included number tanks stationed hill hill decided attack force attempt disable tanks following night moved battalion small guard detachment remained sir linked force french infantry hill decided battalion section inch mortars cover companies advanced hill attacked italian force small force road rear hill ensure italian tanks retreat battalion arrived hill incident began prepare attack prior beginning attack loud explosions rear hill anti tank grenades carried accidentally detonated killing battalion lost element surprise hill immediately ordered companies advance hill force reached hill engaged mixed force german italian soldiers assisted italian light tanks hill drew revolver adjutant small group advanced tanks firing shots observation ports attempt persuade crews surrender tactic worked tanks reaching tank hill men fired tanks crew hill shot times chest adjutant wounded tank crew swiftly dispatched small arms fire hill survived prompt medical treatment replaced commander battalion major pearson supervised routing rest german italian soldiers days later battalion moved area south linked allied ground forces came command armoured regimental group known blade force battalion remained area conjunction blade force withdrawn december november 1st parachute brigade ordered british army prepare 2nd parachute battalion commanded lieutenant colonel john frost drop near coastal city order deny nearby port airfield axis limited number transport aircraft available brigade decided companies november remainder battalion following day length operation estimated days operation delayed hours november november period period 3rd parachute battalion arrived subjected axis air raids inflicted casualties airborne troops damaged aircraft finally november brigade ordered prepare 2nd parachute battalion parachute drop near town order deny use axis raid airfields order destroy enemy aircraft stationed battalion link ground forces british army advancing battalion position time parachute drop november operation delayed hours night november brigade informed occupied advance elements infantry division despite difficulties aerial photographs proposed landing zones brigade ordered 2nd battalion drop airfield battalion destroy aircraft stationed airfield spread fear nearby axis troops link ground forces british army advancing morning november strong battalion boarded transport aircraft took bound insufficient time conduct aerial reconnaissance airfield lieutenant colonel frost forced choose landing zone battalion position lead aircraft fortunately locating clear open space near airfield airfield abandoned germans landing battalion scattered unopposed incurred seven casualties drop fatal airfield secured battalion rallied platoon company remained airfield guard wounded discarded midnight rest battalion moved battalion advanced transport available hand drawn unit look words like fucking travelling circus parachute battalion november battalion reached position allowed airfield began advance reached airfield find abandoned battalion counter attacked number german tanks supported fighters germans repelled dusk frost pulled battalion westwards position hoping await arrival advance units british army arrive wireless message received dawn december frost informed allied drive postponed short later german armoured column seen advancing frost decided set ambush try destroy leading elements column surprised group filling water bottles nearby ambush sprung early inflicting single casualty battalion having taken casualties running low ammunition managed drive column mortar fire brief respite armoured cars tank seen moving battalion different direction reportedly sporting recognition signals british army frost sent party greet vehicles taken prisoner revealed vehicles german captured equipment german commander sent captured message demanding frost surrender refused comply instead ordered radios mortars destroyed battalion evacuate westwards allied lines approximately miles away battalion managed withdraw higher ground suffered number casualties german armour positioned high ground consisted ridge crowned small hills attacked tanks infantry supported heavy mortar fire battalion suffered number casualties saved unexpected intervention german aircraft troops knocked tanks inflicted heavy casualties battalion suffered approximately casualties frost took decision battalion retreat westwards wounded left guarded small detachment nightfall company attempt way village night november december battalion began retreat moving quickly possible number captured german forces pursuing battalion december battalion headquarters support company attached commanded frost reached arab farm linked company formed group strong large number missing german forces soon located surrounded frost men fierce battle began low ammunition frost realised farm held night led charge weakest german defences broken frost hunting horn rally remaining marched allied held town stopping farm supplies group reached town december linked american patrols continued reach allied lines days aided units 56th reconnaissance regiment battalion ultimately suffered sixteen officers ranks killed captured wounded mission historians commented operation labelled mission mistake let inadequate intelligence peter makes similar argument writing mission disastrous episode badly planned based faulty intelligence mission suffered lack information lack adequate arrangements link ground forces lightly armed comparatively airborne troops ground role reinforcements 2nd parachute battalion arrived britain good battalion losses december moved linking rest brigade frost men retreated brigade informed infantry role december came operational control british corps moved positions near arrived commando french unit regiment assigned command brigade took defensive positions deployed patrols immediate vicinity remained static role december placed command infantry division participate attack heavy rain caused operation cancelled decided continuing poor weather assault impractical brigadier asked brigade transferred rear airborne role request denied corps stated insufficient troops replace brigade remained positions defending entire area brigade subsequently heavily involved fighting occupied especially 3rd parachute battalion launched attacks geographical feature known green hill multiple attacks companies battalion able gain crest hill driven enemy counter attacks night january brigade relieved transported exception 2nd parachute battalion remained command infantry division lack troops replace plans use brigade conjunction corps cut axis lines communications finalised january transferred corps came command 6th armoured division remain long days later came command french corps located area given command french units stationed 36th infantry brigade 1st guards brigade february parachute battalion ordered mount attack supported company belonging french foreign legion battalion launched attack night morning captured features fierce opposition heavy casualties meant battalion forced retreat concentrate cut supplies reinforcements counter attacks 6th armoured division failed reach battalion battalion guards able capture february battalions came increasingly heavy attack day decided withdraw battalions february parachute battalion transferred 1st parachute brigade entire formation came command 6th armoured division british division hoc division relieved 6th armoured division middle february brigade remained static positions rest february minor enemy attacks major offensive took place february inflicted casualties took prisoners cost killed wounded march brigade relieved regimental combat team marched new positions located road ran brigade held positions attacks took place march taking prisoners march brigadier given command forces brigade sector including brigade commando entire force repelled attacks night march entire force compelled retreat miles new positions particularly strong attack broke positions held brigade french battalions new positions held enemy attacks secured march 2nd 3rd parachute battalions placed reserve march request brigadier argued brigade exhausted required rest 3rd parachute battalion ordered march tasked attacking feature known previous attack failed heavy casualties launched attack feature night forced withdraw dawn day exhausting ammunition taking numerous casualties regarded vital position general allied offensive launched brigade ordered attack 1st parachute battalion night march successfully seized hours fighting march entire brigade participated general allied offensive aimed taking control area 1st 2nd parachute battalions launched attack day taking numerous prisoners securing objectives repulsed german counterattack albeit heavy losses heavy confusing fighting continued companies 3rd parachute battalion having attached 2nd parachute battalion reinforce 1st parachute battalion seized objectives end march brigade secured objectives taken german italian troops prisoners march brigade took positions covering left flank 46th division weeks remained area conducting numerous patrols encountering little opposition march brigade relieved regimental combat team moved rear travelled april remained brigadier left england new command replaced brigadier shortly brigade rejoined 1st airborne division began training airborne landings place operation allied invasion sicily aftermath time north_africa 1st brigade captured enemies prisoners war suffered casualties 2nd parachute battalion example entered north_africa officers ranks absorbed replacements january left april officers ranks overall casualty percentage eighty percent 1st parachute battalion officers remained battalion entire tunisia campaign killed sufficiently wounded sent rear brigade given title red german troops fought distinct honour 1st airborne division commander major general frederick arthur pointed signal brigade given enemy seldom won battle finest fighting troops title later officially confirmed general sir alexander commanding 18th army group applied henceforth british airborne troops lieutenant colonel compiled official history british_army airborne forces second world war analysed brigades actions campaign terms brigades airborne operations stated missions conducted 1st 2nd parachute battalions severely handicapped lack aerial photography shortage maps lack experience american air crews dropped battalions beginning missions causing highly inaccurate dispersed drops believed lack expert airborne matters allied forces headquarters army ensured brigade efficiently lack expertise meant logistical planning arrangements mission better argued brigade suffered lack light anti tank weapons fourth company battalion absence handicap battalion especially surrounded enemy forces terms brigade ground role considered terms patrolling night patrols arms particularly artillery armour lack training forced learn skills combat suffered lack reinforcements high physical mental standards airborne training led small pool reinforcements easily depleted absence transport forcing brigade rely captured enemy vehicles pack animals finally argued inefficient employ parachute brigade ground operations expanded sufficient transport extra personnel possessing superior officer understood specialised role brigade played advise effectively use

British airborne operations in North Africa


great raid great raid largest raid mounted native americans white cities united_states followed council house fight republic texas officials attempted capture prisoner chiefs come negotiate peace treaty killing dozen family followers texas officials determined force release white captives avenge viewed bitter betrayal war chief buffalo raised huge war party bands raided deep white settled areas southeast texas buffalo tribes main article buffalo war chief buffalo determined merely complain viewed bitter betrayal spreading word bands raiding white settlements revenge buffalo led great raid buffalo gathered huge raiding party warriors wives young boys provide comfort work altogether thousand set west texas great raid raid went way plains west texas cities victoria texas coast largest organized raid point raided burned towns plundered victoria town attacked huge war party crossed central texas attacked town victoria august rangers found tracks gigantic war party coming west texas war party broke attacked victoria citizens warned resident wrote victoria presented sudden appearance mounted immediate outskirts village citizens victoria hid buildings killing dozen townspeople riding departed victoria rifle fire buildings began riding dangerous war party intended gather horses coastal towns prepared central texas cities attack victoria camped night august nearby spring creek sack leaving victoria august continued camping night creek ranch miles early august surrounded small port texas second largest port republic texas time began stores houses ghost town located miles northeast present day port reportedly killed whites including customs officer hugh delayed escape retrieve gold watch home reportedly family killing captured wife weeks juliet black woman child realizing plains indians experience water townspeople fled raiders safety water saved remaining aboard small boats schooner captained william marshall anchor bay safe water refugees witnessed destruction looting town unable thing curse entire day plundered burned buildings hats stolen tied feather beds bolts cloth horses dragged large numbers cattle slaughtered outraged citizen judge john grabbed gun ashore shallow water warriors indians chose spare believing mad later found ashore face nearly thousand indians pistol weapon difference time great raid trade goods route overseas new_orleans louisiana san_antonio texas austin texas total inventory valued reported moment including undisclosed silver noted addition cloth trade goods usually present warehouse time cases hats belonging james robinson san_antonio merchant indians free went village amid little like demons drunken robinson hats heads robinson like young balloons loading pack raiders booty finally began retreat afternoon august battle creek main article battle creek rangers trailing war party time unable engage sheer numbers days looting gave militia ranger companies chance gather volunteers texas ranger companies east central texas moved intercept indians contact creek near city texas august normally fared fast deadly light cavalry detained considerably captive slower pack normal tactic ride fast possible away scene victory occasion slowed pace acceptable heavily laden pack militia rangers caught raiders normally found impossible battle creek running gun battle attempted kill raiders recover indians simply attempted away dozen bodies recovered reported killing war party losses probably higher normal greed saved turn militia discovered stolen abandoned fight divided went home conclusion great raid largest indian raid white cities history united_states technically occurred republic texas united_states war party literally burned city ground took horses hundreds thousands dollars ranging silver cloth mirrors unfortunately war party sheer volume slowed vulnerable attack militia caught equally militia missed opportunity destroy bulk raiding party concentrated recovering dividing recovered online sources handbook texas online dawn buffalo link february


battle roads battle roads referred battle monitor virginia battle ironclads noted arguably important naval battle american_civil_war standpoint development navies fought days march roads virginia elizabeth rivers meet james river enters chesapeake_bay adjacent city norfolk battle effort confederacy break union blockade cut virginia largest cities norfolk richmond international trade major significance battle meeting combat ironclad warships uss monitor virginia confederate fleet consisted ironclad ram virginia built remnants uss supporting vessels day battle opposed conventional wooden ships union navy day virginia able destroy ships federal flotilla uss congress uss cumberland attack uss minnesota run aground action halted darkness falling tide virginia retired care wounded included captain flag officer franklin repair minimal battle damage determined complete destruction minnesota roger jones acting captain absence returned ship morning march night ironclad monitor arrived taken position defend minnesota virginia approached monitor intercepted ironclads fought hours able inflict significant damage duel ended virginia returning home navy yard repairs strengthening monitor station defending minnesota ships fight blockade remained place battle received worldwide attention immediate effects navies world naval powers great_britain france halted construction wooden ships followed suit new type warship produced monitor based principle original use small number heavy guns mounted fire directions demonstrated monitor soon standard warships types incorporated designs warship hulls rest century background military situation blockade norfolk april shortly outbreak hostilities charleston harbor president abraham_lincoln proclaimed blockade ports states april virginia north_carolina passed blockade extended include ports extension local troops seized norfolk area threatened navy yard portsmouth commandant captain charles loyal union advice received subordinate officers favor orders union secretary navy ships northern ports refused act april gave orders ships yard destroy facilities ships burned screw frigate uss old frigate cumberland towed away successfully burned waterline engines intact destruction navy yard ineffective particular large drydock relatively undamaged soon restored firing shot advocates gained south largest navy yard hull engines time famous warship seized thousand heavy guns plus gun carriages large quantities gunpowder norfolk navy yard portsmouth confederacy controlled southern roads prevent union warships attacking yard set batteries point island elizabeth river james map union retained possession fort monroe old point comfort virginia peninsula held small man island known rip raps far channel opposite fort monroe island completed fort named fort wool fort monroe went control lower_peninsula far newport news forts monroe wool gave union forces control entrance roads blockade initiated april cut norfolk richmond sea completely blockade union navy stationed powerful warships shelter shore based guns fort monroe batteries newport news range guns point island year war confederacy little oppose birth ironclads steam propulsion began applied warships naval renewed interest armor vessels experiments tried armor war prior american_civil_war british french navies built armored ships planning build french_navy commissioned world ocean going ironclad warship great_britain followed year later hms warrior use armor remained controversial united_states_navy generally reluctant embrace new technology virginia civil war broke confederate secretary navy stephen early advantages armor looked confederacy match industrial north numbers ships sea compete building vessels individually superior union edge provided armor gathered group men able vision practice john john porter william men searched south factories build engines drive heavy ships wanted found place immediately best facility iron works richmond building engines scratch year learning suggested taking engines hulk recently raised bed elizabeth river colleagues promptly accepted suggestion expanded proposing design projected ironclad adapted hull porter produced revised plans submitted approval july new design accepted work began immediately burned hull towed dock union navy failed destroy subsequent conversion process plans modified incorporate iron ram fitted offense addition ram consisted guns smooth bore rifles trials showed rifles firing solid shot pierce inches armor plating iron works produce solid shot shell believed virginia face wooden ships given shell solid shot monitor result battle different armor plating originally meant thick replaced double plates thick backed iron pine armor pierced broadside forward aft revisions usual problems associated transportation system south resulted delays pushed launch date february commissioned february bearing virginia uss monitor intelligence working develop ironclad caused union secretary navy waited congress meet request permission consider building armored vessels congress gave permission august appointed commission came known ironclad board senior naval officers choose designs submitted consideration men captains joseph smith commander charles henry davis board considered seventeen designs chose support completed far radical design swedish engineer inventor john uss monitor monitor built yard east river brooklyn incorporated new striking design features significant armor armament instead large numbers guns small bore characterized warships past opted guns large caliber wanted use guns settle guns larger size unavailable mounted cylindrical turret diameter high covered iron thick rotated central moved steam engine controlled man afraid pounds black powder fire huge cannon raise risk explosion turret demanded charge pounds possibility virginia found charge pierce armor plate finding affected outcome battle flaw design pilot house ship small structure forward turret main deck presence meant guns fire directly forward isolated activities ship despite late start novelty construction monitor actually completed days counterpart virginia virginia activated opposing forces union confederate battle command confederate chain command lieutenant roger jones directed conversion virginia disappointed named captain jones retained aboard virginia executive officer ship led captain confederate states navy determined rigid system place secretary wanted aggressive franklin captains greater applied post evaded issue appointing head office orders detail flag officer charge defenses norfolk james river control movements virginia technically ship went battle captain union command north_atlantic blockading squadron held flag officer louis devised plan frigates engage virginia hoping trap event plan broke completely ships ran aground intentionally confined waters day battle absent ships expedition north_carolina absence leadership fell second command captain john uss ships ran aground unable influence battle participation disregarded accounts emphasize contribution captain monitor john neglect march virginia havoc wooden union warships battle began large virginia steamed roads morning march captain intended attack soon possible virginia accompanied elizabeth river joined roads james river squadron patrick henry teaser passing union batteries newport news patrick henry temporarily disabled shot boiler killed crew repairs returned rejoined time union navy warships addition support vessels sloop war uss cumberland frigate congress anchored channel near newport news frigate lawrence steam frigates minnesota near fort monroe uss got way soon saw virginia approaching soon ran aground lawrence took important battle virginia headed directly union squadron battle opened union fired advancing enemy replied preliminary effect virginia open fire easy range cumberland return fire cumberland congress bounced iron plates penetrating later cumberland lightly damaged virginia virginia rammed cumberland waterline sank rapidly fighting guns long water according took seamen wounded brought casualty total nearly cumberland nearly resulted sinking virginia virginia bow ram got stuck enemy ship hull cumberland listed began pulled virginia time vessels locked cumberland anchors hanging directly virginia come loose ships gone virginia broke free ram breaking backed away turned virginia congress seeing happened cumberland lieutenant joseph smith captain congress ordered ship grounded shallow water time james river squadron commanded john tucker arrived joined virginia attack congress hour unequal combat badly damaged congress surrendered surviving crewmen congress ferried ship union battery north shore opened fire virginia retaliation ordered congress fired hot shot heated red hot congress caught fire burned rest day near midnight flames reached magazine exploded sank stern personnel losses included killed missing presumed drowned wounded died days suffered like damage inflicted virginia completely unscathed shots cumberland congress union troops ashore reducing low speed guns disabled armor plates crew killed wounded wounded captain left thigh pierced rifle shot james river squadron turned attention minnesota left fort monroe join battle run aground virginia dealt surrender congress joined james river squadron despite damage deep draft falling tide virginia unable close effective darkness prevented rest squadron aiming guns effect attack suspended virginia left expectation returning day completing task retreated safety confederate controlled waters point night killed enemy sailors lost union lost ships aground united_states_navy greatest defeat world war caused panic washington lincoln cabinet met discuss disaster frightened secretary war told virginia attack east_coast cities shell white_house meeting ended assured colleagues safe ship traverse river added union ironclad heading meet virginia march monitor engages virginia sides respite prepare day virginia wounded ashore underwent temporary repairs captain wounded command second day fell executive officer lieutenant roger jones jones proved aggressive man replaced virginia prepared renewal battle congress monitor commanded lieutenant john arrived roads union ironclad rushed roads hopes protecting union fleet preventing virginia threatening union cities captain informed primary task protect minnesota monitor took position near grounded minnesota waited board felt friend stand hour trial wrote captain van vessel commander official report day engagement morning dawn march virginia left anchorage point moved attack minnesota aground followed ships james river squadron found course blocked newly arrived monitor jones believed strange craft confederate sailor mocked cheese boiler towed minnesota realizing nature opponent soon apparent choice fight shot engagement fired monitor virginia shot flew past monitor struck minnesota answered broadside began lengthy engagement hands called quarters approached mile opened stern guns signal monitor attack enemy van added fighting hours close range overcome armor ships proved adequate handicapped offensive capabilities virginia expected fight armored vessel guns supplied shell armor piercing shot monitor guns standard service charge powder sufficient momentum penetrate opponent armor tests conducted battle showed guns operated safely efficiently charges battle finally ceased shell virginia struck pilot house monitor exploded driving fragments paint iron viewing slits eyes temporarily command ship monitor forced draw executive officer lieutenant samuel took monitor returned fight period command confusion crew virginia believed opponent withdrawn minnesota aground falling tide meant reach furthermore virginia suffered damage require extensive repair convinced ship won day jones ordered norfolk time monitor returned discover opponent apparently giving fight convinced virginia orders protect minnesota risk ship pursue moves result claimed victory confederate secretary navy stephen wrote confederate president davis action conduct officers men squadron reflects honor navy report read deep interest details fail nerve arms seamen remembered virginia novelty naval architecture wholly unlike ship floated heaviest guns equal ordnance motive power obedience helm officers crew strangers comparatively ship courage professional ability flag officer associates achieved remarkable victory naval annals record washington belief monitor virginia strong men awarded thanks congress resolved thanks congress american people lieutenant united_states_navy officers men ironclad monitor command skill gallantry exhibited remarkable battle monitor rebel ironclad steamer day engagement minnesota shot rounds inch solid shot rounds inch solid shot second fuse rounds inch solid shot inch shells second fuse inch shells second fuse pounds service powder crew members alexander henry smith dennis killed battle wounded monitor crew peter williams awarded medal honor actions battle spring roads virginia remained drydock month getting repairs battle damage minor modifications improve performance april able leave drydock recovering wound hoped jones picked succeed observers believed jones performance battle outstanding system promotion navy scuttled chances post went year old commodore monitor severely damaged remained duty like antagonist jones deemed young remain captain day battle replaced lieutenant thomas days later turn relieved lieutenant william late march union blockade fleet augmented hastily refitted civilian ships including powerful illinois outfitted iron plating late april new ironclads stevens uss joined blockade considered best eliminate threat posed opponent virginia returned tried attacking unfavorable circumstances captains declined opportunity fight water choosing particular positive orders risk ship consequently vessel spent month amounted ships fight ship fought march destruction combatants end came virginia blockade norfolk little strategic use confederacy preliminary plans laid ship james river vicinity richmond adequate preparations confederate army major general benjamin abandoned city consulting navy virginia draft great permit pass river depth favorable circumstances trapped captured sunk union navy allow decided destroy ship towed island portsmouth gang taken ashore set burned rest day following night shortly dawn flames reached magazine blew monitor likewise survive year ordered north_carolina christmas day blockade towed coast command fourth captain commander john wind increased waves high sides monitor took water soon water hold gained pumps fires engines order given abandon ship men rescued uss rhode_island went sank early hours december won victory claims immediate aftermath battle roads based opponent behavior dismissed present day historians agree result monitor encounter victory combat ironclads primary significance battle general verdict overall result draw acknowledge southern fleet inflicted far damage received imply gained tactical victory compared civil war battles loss men ships union navy considered clear defeat hand blockade seriously threatened entire battle regarded assault ultimately failed initially battle roads unions media claim victory sides headline boston newspaper day battle read driven steamer implying union victory confederate media focused original success wooden union ships despite battle ending stalemate seen sides opportunity raise war time morale especially ironclad ships exciting naval innovation intrigued citizens evaluation strategic results likewise disputed blockade maintained strengthened virginia roads decisive confederate weapon concluded union claim strategic victory confederate advocates counter arguing virginia military significance larger blockade small war virginia mere presence sufficient close james river federal incursions imposed constraints peninsula campaign mounted union_army general george worried interfere positions york river fears continued affect movements army virginia destroyed impact naval warfare days battle attracted attention world navies uss monitor prototype monitor warship type ships names applied entire classes successors hms dreadnought built including river monitors played key roles civil war battles mississippi james rivers immediately started construction monitors based original larger plan known class monitors design proved exceptionally suited river combat low profile heavy turret caused poor rough waters russia fearing american_civil_war spill russian alaska launched sister ships soon plans reached followed described monitor revolving turret later inspired similar designs future warships eventually modern battleship vulnerability wooden hulls armored ships noted particularly britain france wisdom planned conversion battle fleet armor given powerful demonstration feature emulated successful impressed ease virginia sunk cumberland naval architects began incorporate hull designs purpose built ram modern era french armored ram guns said sole function preparing way ram inclusion warship hull design persisted outbreak world war despite improvements naval gunnery quickly close action warships impossible commemorating battle virginia warship served confederacy battle roads continuing source confusion contention originally screw frigate united_states_navy carrying uss parties continued use capture rebuilt ironclad conversion complete officially changed virginia despite official change union accounts persisted calling original confederate sources virginia monitor persuaded popular accounts adopt familiar acknowledged technically incorrect actually exist wheel steamer named victor saw roads running blockade captured taken federal service named spelling variant river namesake uss use roads area small community montgomery county virginia near location iron confederate ironclad forged known iron mined plating confederate ironclad displayed norfolk naval shipyard portsmouth anchor virginia sits lawn museum confederacy richmond commemorating battle monitor resting ocean floor years wreck monitor located team scientists remains ship found upside cape_hatteras relatively flat sandy depth site declared national marine sanctuary receive distinction monitor advanced state deterioration timely recovery remaining significant artifacts ship components critical numerous fragile artifacts including innovative turret guns anchor steam engine propeller recovered transported roads museum newport news virginia treated special tanks stabilize metal reported years metal completely stabilize new uss monitor center museum officially opened march scale replica uss monitor original recovered turret artifacts related items display commemorating battle roads battle roads significant event naval civil war history detailed books televised civil war documentaries film include tnt ironclads new_york_city designer monitor john died march statue commissioned state commemorate battle ironclads statue features stylized male nude figure water iron located park virginia state dedicated monitor anderson park site battle park contains historical markers commemorating ships virginia dedicated million mile long monitor memorial bridge tunnel located mile site battle


offensive offensive russian strategic offensive red army 2nd shock 8th armies baltic fleet german_army detachment units mainland estonia eastern world war september german counterpart abandonment territory retreat operation german soviet offensive commenced soviet 2nd shock army defence army corps river vicinity defenders managed slow soviet advance sufficient army detachment evacuated mainland estonia orderly fashion september constitutional government estonia captured government buildings germans city abandoned german forces september seized capital took rest mainland estonia september background prelude attacks pushed army group north west lake resulting series operations south soviet forces advanced baltic coast end operation strategic offensive june august army group centre soviet offensive designed baltic offensive eliminate positions army group north baltic began intricate supply transport operation 2nd shock army river september 25th river boat brigade engineer troops ordered ferry units lake crossings built russian settlement sound village vessels worked hours day carry troops horses artillery tons ammunition lake luftwaffe units observed intervening 2nd shock army acquired command 3rd baltic september soviet baltic fronts launched offensive operation september german 18th army segment town mouth river section railway junction lake soviet 3rd baltic attacked german army corps german units held positions prevented army detachment encircled estonia soviet objectives soviet forces attempted capture estonia capital hoped quick breakthrough open path armoured units north cutting army detachment rest army group north red army command presumed main direction retreat german forces concentrated forces attempt block roads german objectives army group north considered abandoning estonia february soviet offensive large number units freed changes continued defended hitler orders german command considered important maintain control southern shore gulf finland ease situation finland soviet baltic fleet trapped eastern bay gulf retention oil reserves oil industry important economic reasons exit finland war september provided political impetus abandoning estonia day suggested possible hold ordered plans evacuation operation drawn hitler declared given cost provide support favour new course government influence sweden maintain current foreign policy lunch ordered plan secretly initiated day visited headquarters army detachment discuss details evacuation september evacuation estonia discussed army headquarters length september commander chief army group ferdinand requested convince hitler order evacuation german troops continental estonia operation emphasised holding delaying order mean units estonia trapped hitler agreed september according plan main forces army group withdraw mainly order army corps army corps line stable army detachment passed officially beginning operation supposed september retreat gradual lines resistance withdrawal backed mainly units consisting estimates german_army command wanted leave estonia naval force vice admiral began evacuating elements german formations civilians september headquarters prepared detailed plan leave positions night september objectives troops men deserted 20th division 1st militia border defence auxiliary police battalions general planning aim defend independence estonia comparison forces beginning offensive september german_army corps reduced modest division men defending men 2nd shock army army corps practically armoured forces 3rd baltic deployed armoured vehicles red army placed artillery pieces kilometre line pitting pieces artillery kilometre practically german artillery strong iii corps stood soviet 8th army numbering troops pro independence troops numbered operations 3rd baltic commenced offensive early morning september german army corps subjected artillery barrage shells leading rifle corps crossed river long section east breached defence 2nd shock army forced way german divisional headquarters artillery positions stationed near held frontage albeit heavy losses army detachment corps northernmost elements army group north risk getting encircled destroyed general ferdinand ordered army corps abandon defence quickly northern tip lake border defence regiments security regiment remnants 20th division retreating distant swamp blocked advance units 8th rifle corps destroyed battles september soviet rifle corps murdered taken prisoner wounded parish church defence allowed army detachment escape estonia iii corps 11th infantry division abandoned positions unbeknownst soviet 8th army soviet forces began advancing early morning took evening reached line taking corps declared dead wounded night september headquarters corps near southwestern coast alongside 11th infantry division headquarters 11th infantry divisions sent command 16th army left organise defence september harbour retreated september near border rearguard carried final battle ground destroying soviet tanks military personnel wounded institutions industries prisoners civilians evacuated sea chief evacuation navy admiral eastern baltic_sea mainly responsible securing evacuation purpose commanded 24th landing flotilla 14th security flotilla 31st flotilla 5th security flotilla 1st evacuation flotilla total approximately small warships launches escort ships vessels days troops civilians tons goods removed estonia military personnel sea course evacuation following ships suffered damage soviet air army attacks board people killed wounded hit personnel killed hospital ship refugees wounded crew board sunk middle baltic_sea dead evacuation sea despite fact time evacuation shorter planned considered complete success killed september provisional government formed national committee republic estonia declared independence estonia military units clashed german troops seizing state offices government appealed soviet_union recognize independence republic time advance units arrived early september german troops practically abandoned city streets german unit leave morning navy artillery battalion stationary artillery armaments special equipment guns evacuated ammunition telephone exchange radio broadcast house locomotives railroad cars railway destroyed power plant fired sea old city harbour destroyed retreating german units combat contact red army government estonia failed concentrate soldiers retreating fronts units scattered mixed german detachments withdrawing government lacked significant military forces soviet forces concentrated units securing national capital government led rear admiral troops seized september acting president estonia evacuated sweden following days pro independence battle groups attacked soviet troops counties success aftermath german evacuation carried orderly fashion army group north plans paid soviets der german high command surprised impressed speed evacuation 8th army went remaining west islands archipelago landing operation amphibious attack overall baltic offensive resulted expulsion german forces estonia lithuania large soviet soviet rule estonia established force followed carried forced agriculture began completed mass march private farms confiscated farmers join collective farms armed resistance movement forest brothers active mass total participated supported movement killed soviet authorities fighting forest brothers suffered hundreds deaths killed sides innocent civilians armed resistance forest brothers number underground nationalist groups active members sentenced long terms imprisonment actions decreased rapidly joseph death large political prisoners allowed return estonia political arrests numerous kind crimes humanity committed occupation period late 1980s attempt integrate society soviet system failed armed resistance defeated population remained anti soviet helped organise new resistance movement late 1980s regain independence rapidly develop modern society


battles valley battles valley hebrew collective series military engagements syrian army arab israeli war fought valley includes main sites battle battles near engagements battles jordan valley saw fighting area battles began shortly israeli declaration independence syria shelled night military engagement israel syria syria attacked israeli forward position attacked occupied attack failure syrian forces attempted capture bet reaching stalemate retreated initial position remained end war campaign perceived decisive israeli victory causing syrian high command birth heroic tales israel syria small territorial gain certain actions criticized israel retreat background stage war referred civil war mandatory palestine started following ratification resolution november granted israel mandate declare independence declared night armies number arab states invaded israel attacked israeli positions arab states surrounding mandate palestine started prepare weeks according arab plan syrian army attack new state southern lebanon capture forces area found lebanon wish actively participate combat plans changed attack southern heights later syrian force assembled moved headed sudden plan change force moved proceeded finger eventual attack staged syrian army meant consist brigade sized units time prepare 1st brigade state readiness soldiers infantry battalions armored battalion artillery batteries prelude according plan attacked southern heights south sea river hitting densely populated jewish area settlement came surprise expected attack south lebanon jewish villages original confrontation line friday syrian 1st infantry brigade commanded colonel southern lebanon positioned attack day ordered return syria south enter palestine south sea began advance saturday battalions soldiers exhausted onset invasion syrian force consisted reinforced infantry brigade supplemented armored battalion including tanks field artillery battalion troops moved spotted reconnaissance attack expected israeli troops attack invaders night bulk syrian forces set camp southwestern company armored reinforcements split south proceed jewish water station forces area consisted units 2nd battalion brigade indigenous villagers including reduced guard corps company police station force headed battalion commander deputy killed action battle battalion commander declared state emergency area notice authorized men seize necessary arms settlements urged dig build fortifications fast possible necessary work force battles saturday night observation posts reported vehicles lights moving ridge east sea opening shots fired syrian artillery approximately dawn syrian aircraft attacked valley villages following day syrian company split main force attacked water station heavy weaponry worker killed israeli reserve unit called arrived minutes took positions town point defended battalion reinforcements neighboring villages entrenched actual village abandoned residents april british escort positions village included police station west cemetery north neighborhood south railway station set positions abandoned british military base east village animal station southeast israeli sent area station know syrian control vehicle blown managed escape alive day syrian company attacked water station proceeded advance halted village residents platoon reinforcements armed cannons company retreated position commenced artillery fire development gave israeli forces time organize defenses course israeli harassed syrian positions southeastern sea shore trenches dug set syrian aircraft bombing runs bet attack resumed dawn attacked village northern positions armor stayed infantry advance concentrated israeli fire village despite severe ammunition shortages israeli defenders believed town targeted built fortifications ben told cabinet situation grave aren rifles heavy weapons israeli platoon leader commented severe lack experienced field commanders hastily promoted despite having sufficient knowledge experience syrian president visited prime minister defense minister told forces destroy night syrian force attempted surround crossing jordan river north sea encountered minefield senior syrian officer wounded spotted reported additional allowed valley villages evacuate children elderly sick conduct maneuvers massive reinforcements region panic surprise men tried flee frontal villages set near military police service northern command personally stopped buses allowed women children proceed safety syrian 1st brigade commanded brigadier general consisting vehicles including tanks advanced west columns coast flanking south contingent allocated south order secure safety main force flanking west entered stalemate new israeli position northwest villages coastal column shelled israeli positions inflicted enormous damage dug shallow trenches infantry warfare head cover clay houses vulnerable heavy weapons eventually forced abandon posts concentrate police station brought wounded deputy commander brigade arrived station called reinforcements manage arrive time soldier participated battle reported troops left defend police station second syrian column reached heavy weapon defenders possessed ineffective syrian armor fearing forces completely cut order given retreat leave wounded retreat disorganized heavy israeli casualties recorded police station fell reinforcements commanded arrived immediately hit significantly affect battle israeli platoon commander reinforcements wrote clear soon arrived battle hear retreat initially force saw fall trench hastily withdrew day syrian aircraft bombed israeli village regional school southwestern shore sea evening fallen new israeli defensive line set facing syrian counterparts night company 3rd battalion attempted recapture police station reached school station assault actual fort morning message sent preparing evacuation order given stay villages abandoned morning villagers carried order return positions local arabs present location syrian troops captured villages fight proceeded destroy israeli wrote order given disclose flight residents clear fire smoke rose villages hurt morale making defensive preparations counterattack police station failed delayed syrian attack hours evening delegation arrived ask reinforcements heavy weapons members later wrote david ben told spare country line wrote chief operations officer told alternative letting arabs approach thirty meters gates fight tanks close combat prepared reinforcements gave order point abandoned fight site ben argued send battery pre world war mountain guns nicknamed proper sights ben wanted send jerusalem insisted sent valley ben eventually agreed night platoon departed sea raided syrian contingent raid failed delayed syrian attack giving defenders hours prepare second raid company crossed jordan struck syrian camp customs house near main bridge short battle syrian defenders companies fled destroyed camp vehicles including armored cars losses fall command realized importance campaign region clear separation valley battle fought iraq south born given command forces area having charged creating commando battalion 8th brigade day company reinforcements program allocated reinforcements came form company brigade company villages lower valley counterattack police station night gave israeli forces additional day prepare defense attack plans called reinforcements assuming main syrian thrust intending carry operation south sea planned main effort north near bridge drive west asked diversion area protect right flank complied main objective seize bridge river north blocking israeli attack iraqi line communications heavy syrian started police station means cannons mortars barrage lasted half hour syrian army began advance bridge jordan river north unlike attack action saw participation nearly syrian forces stationed including infantry armor artillery israeli defenders numbered persons according israeli head count regular fighters members orders fight death support guns deployed road mortar exploded battle projectiles night syrian expeditionary force attempted infiltrate bet caught caused main syrian force attack started frontal armored attack consisting tanks number armored vehicles infantry company pierced israeli defense infantry distance tanks knocked syrian tanks armored cars cannons defenders kept small arms fire syrian infantry stopped citrus meters settlements surviving syrian tanks withdrew halted assault dug holding territory fence police fort left number lightly damaged tanks managed repair bet despite syrian superiority numbers equipment destruction multitude armored vehicles infantry failure infiltrate likely cause retreat main syrian force organized sparsely numbered armored infantry force attack bet tanks supported mortar fire moved yards settlement defense stopped provide fire support infantry attack failed attempts breach israeli small arms fire defense gave attempt force people defenses bet disorganized trenches communication link command sent company commanders assess situation battle taking place artillery reached middle day placed ridge israeli artillery war began fire rounds began retreat fired syrian officers believed hit headquarters took shelter hit syrian ammunition depot village ignited fires dry fields soldiers operated cannons lacking sights proficient handling acceptable level accuracy achieved practice shots sea artillery fire took syrian army complete surprise decided retreat recalling company total shells fired israeli artillery syrian officers shot fleeing soldiers reasons syrian withdrawal 3rd battalion brigade sent boat previous night sea planning assault capture noticed shelled companies managed climb carried smaller raid dawn bombing water carriers threatening syrian 1st brigade line communications second reason running ammunition promised attacked short ammunition ordered withdrawal troops ran ammunition instead sent 2nd brigade north aware attributed syrian withdrawal surprise israeli artillery fire aftermath effects troops returned set fortifications damaged tanks armored cars gathered taken rear settlers returned night identify bodies comrades fields buried common grave dawn staff reported enemy repelled expecting attack report read forces repelled yesterday heavy attack tanks armored vehicles infantry lasted hours attack repelled brave stand men hands tanks mortars heavy machinery took toll enemy field cannons caused panicked retreat enemy yesterday left morning forces entered took large booty french ammunition light artillery ammunition captured tanks armored vehicle enemy enemy large reinforcements expecting renewal attack villagers returned largely destroyed expecting attack reinforcements brigade took positions villages participants battles sent rest units lost soldiers reorganized wake fall news successful stand provided morale boost israeli villages battle influenced british opinion balance power war success field cannons prompted israeli high command use attempts capture flight hand stirred controversy young state fueled news massacre days issued newsletter accusing abandoning national assets things accusations subsequently repeated media play campaign started villagers clear battles valley major ground engagements israel syria south sea minor patrol skirmishes continued campaign combined battle possibly coordinated attack arab countries northern end held british mandate palestine jewish state according partition despite offensive considered decisive syrian defeat sides syrian defense minister chief staff blamed resigning dismissed prime minister result battle reasons defeat gave low level strength israeli defenses lack coordination according syrian historian supposed assist battle british observers convinced arabs going win war compared battle luftwaffe failure battle britain showed germany going win air war observers said greater edge enjoyed won tank kill controversy syrian tank damaged near gates preserved location subject dispute bar retired colonel native defenders time claimed stopped tank cocktail account ordnance corps probe determined shot killed tank crew resident participated battle told tank hit fire soldier cocktail possibly hit crew


operation sky monitor operation sky monitor nato mission monitor unauthorized flights bosnia war operation began response united_nations security council resolution established ban use military aircraft requested aid member states monitoring compliance beginning october nato monitored violations fly zone aircraft based germany italy greece united_kingdom operation documented violations fly zone april response high volume unauthorized flights security council passed resolution authorized nato enforce fly zone engage response nato sky monitor april transferring forces newly established operation deny flight background september beginning yugoslav wars united_nations security council issued resolution established general complete deliveries weapons military equipment yugoslavia goal reducing violence country security council reaffirmed resolution added provision naval force monitor compliance resolution council called states deny permission aircraft land territory destined land taken territory federal republic yugoslavia setting precedent later anti air measures response resolution nato began perform operations behalf united_nations july operation maritime monitor monitored violations security council resolutions ships maritime monitor nato dispatched airborne early warning aircraft region monitor sea traffic aircraft flew missions course operation october security council passed resolution resolution security council expressed concern use aircraft war bosnia established formal ban military flights bosnia called member states help united_nations protection force monitoring compliance ban military flights shortly october nato aircraft operating maritime monitor began monitoring flights bosnia essential goal mission conduct surveillance order determine parties conflict fly zone day october operation sky monitor officially began nato planes expanded monitoring flight paths adriatic operation operation sky monitor aircraft operated adriatic established october second hungary established permission hungarian government october operated hours day providing constant surveillance flight hungary october important milestone nato history operational mission warsaw pact nation alliance significantly hungary agreed nato aircraft attacked hungarian air_force provide support fighters support necessary marked important milestone actual military cooperation nato warsaw pact monitoring aircraft sky monitor initially drawn nato airborne early warning squadron based nato air base germany air base italy greece italy forward operating bases operation expanded british squadron raf french squadron air base nato forces fell authority allied forces southern europe commanded admiral united_states_navy nato countries provided personnel aircraft operation belgium canada denmark germany greece italy netherlands norway portugal turkey united_states rules engagement sky monitor restrictive purpose operation monitor prevent unauthorized flights participating aircraft authorized use force self defense furthermore rules engagement nato forces directed action attacked engage opponent possible result strict rules engagement nato forces engaged combat operation sky monitor sky monitor documented violations fly zone significant came march aircraft bombed muslim villages violation combat violation fly zone led calls nato actively enforce zone monitoring compliance results beginning april nato documented violations fly zone bosnia including violations sides conflict numerous violations nato documented considered combat mission violations combat missions nato decided end sky monitor ban ineffective december nato members voted enforce fly zone military force requested united_nations nato involvement gained crucial backing president elect bill_clinton december told press favor enforcing fly zone time called nato use force response blatant violations ban military flights bosnia security council resolution march resolution authorized member states necessary measures order ensure compliance fly zone result new resolution nato sky monitor began operation deny flight april deny flight nato forces continued monitor document unauthorized flights authorized enforce zone engage necessary operation sky monitor nato air operations balkans including significant operation deliberate force operation allied force sky monitor nato area air operation collaborative missions united_nations set precedent future nato cooperation based model nato forces use superior technical expertise assist pursuing broader mission sky monitor affected military policy proved utility nato principal aircraft operation monitoring missions wide variety circumstances important nato planning later operations


operation turkey operation turkey known operation british supply mission north_africa took place march august second world war mission undertaken wing pilot regiment squadron royal_air_force prior allied invasion sicily unusually mission known different names different branches british armed forces british_army called operation turkey royal_air_force known mission involved royal_air_force page halifax bombers miles england tunisia british needed complement smaller american capacity required operations planned 1st airborne division mission halifax combination shot german long range patrol aircraft altogether lost seven arrived tunisia time participate invasion sicily supply operation success landing zones sicily british airborne operations followed casualties weather conditions anti aircraft gunfire background december allied forces advancing tunisia north african campaign coming close victory north_africa imminent discussions began allies objective americans argued immediate invasion france british believed island general dwight january prime minister winston_churchill president united_states franklin roosevelt met conference settled debate island sicily allies objective invasion occupation sicily benefit allies opening mediterranean_sea routes allied shipping allowing allied bombers operate airfields closer mainland italy germany operation eventually decided invasion planning began february british eighth army command general bernard montgomery land south eastern corner island advance north port syracuse seventh army commanded general george land south coast port western corner island landings simultaneously mile stretch island south eastern coastline 1st airborne division conduct brigade size airborne operations road bridge south syracuse captured 1st brigade operation port seized 2nd parachute brigade operation finally bridge river taken 1st parachute brigade operation plans british airborne operations discussed lieutenant colonel george commander wing pilot regiment brought problem theatre american known british service small size capacity pilots thirteen troops cargo artillery gun plan operation involved coup main assault bridge 2nd battalion south regiment carry seven troops gun deliver larger force bridge initial assault decided needed american british missions mission england time transporting north_africa require tow miles atlantic_ocean coast portugal spain miles north_africa reach tunisia towed distance known possible test concept prove necessary endurance page halifax bombers squadron raf towed coastline britain mission given ahead modified landing gear takeoff reduce drag halifax bombers modified long range fuel tanks fitted bomb bays pilots came wing having left england wing departed tunisia earlier year week period training followed crashes killed thirteen men mission conference hosted wing raf training bomber crews tow deliver north_africa discussed end decided priority bomber crews fully trained deliver north_africa june moved raf cornwall distance travel left hour flight sale airport morocco arrival sale released land sand patch alongside runway ground fitted spare landing gear carried inside flight immediately took leg journey algeria journey end left final destination airfield tunisia soon possible flight provided pilots change hour relieve fatigue flights carried june july arrived june days operation flight england hours bay halifax combination escorted raf bristol long range fighter aircraft kept altitude avoid german radar escorting fighters return safely short fuel mission dangers hours flight snapped tow rope trying avoid low cloud sea halifax discovered pair german shot surviving attacks luftwaffe fighter patrols experiencing turbulent weather total seven delivered north_africa time invasion sicily total losses flights raf seven pilots killed aftermath british airborne operation sicily began july transporting 1st brigade left tunisia sicily route encountered strong winds poor visibility times subjected anti aircraft fire avoid gunfire pilots aircraft climbed higher took action confusion surrounding manoeuvres released early crashed sea drowning men remaining missed landing zones miles failed release returned tunisia shot landed target single carrying platoon infantry landed near bridge commander lieutenant swam river half men positions opposite bank objective captured following simultaneous assault ends platoon dismantled demolition charges fitted bridge dug wait reinforcement relief came yards bridge exploded landing killing board carrying south regiment coup main party landed miles bridge occupants eventually finding way site second mission operation began july aircraft carrying 1st parachute brigade took north_africa following parachute force aircraft comprising seven casualties occurred takeoff aircraft crashed route released prematurely aircraft crashed sea arriving sicily having lost element surprise shot coastal anti aircraft batteries time arrived landing zones hours start parachute landings german defences alerted managed land intact caught german machine gun fire destroyed approach surviving carrying brigade anti tank guns included defence bridge


battle battle croatian serbian battle war fought army republic bosnia croatian defence council army october november marks evidence alliance set washington agreement march united_states end war fought bosnia coordinated launched separate operations aimed capture offensive started october primary aim advancing held supported secondary attack aimed disruption defences threatening supply route primary attacking force soon ground halt shifting focus operation substantial reinforcements deployed ensure gradual advance october decided attack considered directly threatened strategic plateau launched offensive operation november following brief advance thought brought variety causes direct request president bosnia cooperate commanding officers forces met coordinate operations time washington agreement captured november political significance battle future developments war bosnia battle militarily significant planning execution operation winter croatian army aimed relieving siege late november december territorial gains battle right flank operation winter background revolt croatian serbs centered predominantly populated areas city parts regions eastern croatian settlements significant populations areas subsequently named republic serbian declared intention political integration serbia viewed government croatia rebellion march conflict escalated war croatian war independence june croatia declared independence yugoslavia followed month decision decision came effect october campaign ethnic initiated croatian civilians non serbs expelled early november ethnic remained protected areas sector south sector north respectively yugoslav people army increasingly supported croatian police unable cope situation croatian national_guard formed renamed croatian army november establishment military croatia hampered united_nations arms introduced september final months saw fighting war culminating battle barracks siege battle january agreement signed representatives croatia fighting sides ending series unsuccessful united_nations protection force deployed croatia supervise maintain agreement conflict largely passed entrenched positions soon retreated croatia bosnia new conflict anticipated serbia continued support advances restored small areas croatian control siege lifted operation croatian towns villages intermittently attacked artillery missiles croatia personnel prepared set new army serbs declared serbian republic bosnia january ahead february march referendum independence bosnia later cited pretext war serbs set capital march day fatalities war recorded final days march army started artillery attacks brigade crossed border adjacent town reply april artillery began war originally pitted serbs non serbs country evolved sided conflict end year war started time army renamed army state proclaimed held territory controlled bosnia proportion change significantly years involved croatian war independence limited capacity military aid occasional air raids launched significantly artillery attacks urban centres prelude following new military strategy united_states endorsed bill_clinton february washington agreement signed croatia bosnia march agreement ended war established federation bosnia political settlement allowed deploy additional troops series small scale attacks designed wear military attacks claimed territorial gains october adopted attrition warfare strategy relying numerical superiority compared suffered manpower shortages strategy aimed limited advances support heavy weapons means transport unavailable time march november conducted series attacks relatively limited objectives attacking mountain peak mountain area near mountain efforts near september november little gains time attacks north successfully repulsed hoped general staff muster sufficient reserves hold simultaneous relatively limited attacks little territory changed hands result offensive end october shortage troops worsened interest albeit different reasons wanted reverse april loss town home significant community war control road advance planned secondary axis offensive kilometres miles northwest wanted deny supply route passing order weaken defence clear coordinated advance probably forces commands agreed simultaneous offensive revealing actual battle plans counterparts contribution offensive operation planned jointly order battle initially committed troops secondary axis thrust organized mountain infantry brigade right flank kilometre manned 7th corps southwest mountain infantry brigade left flank effort primary attack axis zone grouped additional troops facing estimated soldiers surrounding plateau defended approximately troops assigned 7th infantry brigade 2nd corps supported corps level artillery armour bulk force consisted troops contributed 1st 2nd 3rd guards brigades supported special police 60th guards airborne battalion participation battle denied croatia thought likely occurred specifically 1st croatian guards brigade thought taken battle reports pertaining battle specify battalion brigade taking operation 7th corps commanded brigadier general corps formally control operation commanded colonel 2nd corps command colonel timeline october launched secondary axis operation drive october hours primary attacking force started moving primary effort offensive day main objective mountain infantry brigade added augment force initial advances day gradually advanced elements mountain brigade sent reinforcements attacking force october moved close direct heavy mortar fire town october 7th corps requested meeting corps representatives coordinate advances area postponed meeting october replacement corps commanding officer october 37th light infantry brigade added attack slowly progressing mountain ridge addition elements 27th mountain infantry brigade battalion 7th mountain infantry brigade joined push november general staff committed guards brigade attached general staff battle beginning offensive assembling guards brigades command general supporting units including 60th guards airborne battalion october ministry defence croatian republic bosnia general staff met decided launch operation capture town decision reportedly motivated desire consolidate territory controlled strategic importance plateau commanded northern approaches held field operation originally scheduled october postponed hours needed time prepare delayed arrival reconnaissance teams postponed offensive november november advanced north main axes attack western axis advanced main road capturing village november eastern axis offensive moved began north suspended westward advance explanations pause forward including fog rain need secure territorial gains wear equipment fatigue personnel regardless day president bosnia requesting adequate level cooperation avoidance conflicts finally public participate offensive day targeted missiles november captured civilian population started evacuate visited corps headquarters discuss cooperation refused discuss matter citing inadequate officers present proposed new meeting day brigade headquarters chief general staff major general written apology behalf claiming officers time new meeting took place proposed meeting concluded agreement withdraw troops right flank thrust allow strike direction coordinate advances cooperation established joint command completed november right flank force pressed forward capture pass kilometres miles away special police 60th guards airborne battalion entered shortly noon completed capture town proceeded capture nearly entire plateau bringing 1st home guards regiments hold defensive positions plateau unable counter attack timely manner reserves place task aftermath significantly shortened positions held opposite captured square kilometres square miles territory captured nearly square kilometres square miles area battle losses amounted killed action wounded troops november troops killed wounded soldiers died wounded counter attack near november battle concrete result renewed alliance war advance military effort coordinated washington agreement following victory morale advantages recapture initiative control split road allowing improved logistics area greater volume transport arms ammunition especially united_states ended arms bosnia november effect allowed supply arms shipments flowed croatia finally outcome battle secured right flank field especially significant later month operation winter launched northwest order draw force besieging prevent capture battle considered significant contribution subsequent success croatian war independence war