christianity medieval scotland christianity medieval scotland includes aspects christianity modern borders scotland middle ages christianity probably introduced lowland scotland roman soldiers stationed north province collapse roman authority fifth century christianity presumed survived british south scotland retreated pagan anglo advanced scotland largely converted irish missions associated figures fifth seventh centuries missions founded monastic institutions collegiate churches served large areas scholars identified distinctive form celtic christianity significant bishops attitudes clerical relaxed significant differences practice roman christianity particularly form method calculating easter issues resolved mid seventh century scandinavian scotland tenth century christianity papal authority dominant religion kingdom norman period eleventh thirteenth centuries scottish church underwent series reforms royal lay patronage structure based local churches developed large numbers new monastic foundations followed continental forms reformed began scottish church established independence england developing clear structure special daughter rome continued lack scottish leadership form late middle ages problems catholic_church allowed scottish crown gain greater influence senior appointments established end fifteenth century historians decline traditional monastic life late middle ages orders grew particularly expanding emphasised preaching population new saints devotion despite problems number quality clergy black death fourteenth century evidence fifteenth century church scotland remained stable reformation sixteenth century early middle ages early middle ages population scotland probably practised form celtic evidence christian symbols destruction religions suggest roman occupation brought christianity north gave province control southern island spread parts called roughly corresponding scotland collapse roman authority early fifth century major circles influence emerged northern britain east kingdoms eventually stretched river forth west people close links ireland brought scots south british speaking descendants peoples roman influenced kingdoms old north powerful longest surviving kingdom finally english angles invaders overrun southern britain held kingdom later northern reached borders scotland south east scots remained pagan scholars christianity survived departure romans retreated pagan anglo advanced scotland carried irish scots missionaries lesser extent rome england richard argued motivations included example patrick idea growing interest sixth century missionaries ireland operating british mainland movement traditionally associated figures regarded later construct result confusion irish saint church dedicated sixth century created new centre worship christian influence extended region probably disciple left ireland exiled founded monastery west_coast scotland missions carried western islands later influence extend seventh century went found church east_coast influence spread kingdom south east scotland result series overlapping informally organised churches emerged important religious centre partly result work abbot unclear historic conduct missions outside small life elevated north britain general means speed converted christianity uncertain process begun early evidence includes fact patrick active fifth century referred letter indicating previously christian abandoned faith addition poem set early sixth century probably written scotland remark conversion likely run considerable period beginning fifth century complete seventh conversion general population stretched eighth century key containing long generally east west orientation suspected known christian proximity church christian inscriptions found found end roman era early fifth century twelfth century concentrated strongly eastern scotland south river modern east borders scotland scholars agree place element word church represents evidence british church roman immediate post roman period scotland located south country fifth sixth centuries inscribed stones indicate christianity spread southern scotland earliest called stone dating east north class stones began christian symbolism early eighth century early church buildings originally wooden like excavated evidence survives era basic masonry built churches beginning west_coast islands spreading south east early tended square ended walls similar irish period medieval parish church architecture scotland typically elaborate england churches remaining simple towers highlands simpler built rubble masonry indistinguishable outside houses farm buildings celtic christianity celtic church term scholars describe specific form christianity origins conversion ireland traditionally associated patrick form christianity later spread northern britain general description christian establishment northern britain prior twelfth century new religious institutions primarily french origin began root scotland celtic form christianity contrasted derived missions rome reached southern england leadership canterbury subsequent missions canterbury helped convert anglo saxon kingdoms reaching early eighth century begun presence result christianity mix celtic roman influences roman celtic christianity similar doctrine accepted ultimate papal authority differences practice contentious method calculating easter form head priests known differences rites baptism form service addition scholars identified significant characteristics organisation irish scottish christianity relaxed ideas clerical intense ecclesiastical institutions lack structure bishops important element church hierarchy seventh century church increasingly influenced roman form christianity careers active death abbot monastery bishop founder monasteries intensified ties rome major spokesman roman case called king decide form kingdom decided favour roman form calculating easter period kingdom expanding lowland scotland established region west presumed adopted roman forms christianity victory battle ended dominance region bishop followers ejected mac der king attempted establish links church wrote abbot asking formal irish position calculation date easter help building stone church manner romans duncan suggested group clergy led bishop took latin suggested presence church ross dedicated peter seen bishop rome early eighth century subsequent similar territory mid eighth century ireland accepted roman practices place centre scottish christianity disrupted arrival raiders sacked monks killed year abbot withdrew ireland taking relics periodic returns relics ending western isles eventually fell pagan influence church highlands islands threat posed forced union kingdoms kenneth mac traditionally dated according annals abbot took relics ireland earliest version chronicles kings scots says year removed kenneth mac church built probably indicating relics divided abbot new monastery emerged bishop new combined kingdom subsequently come known kingdom scotland early series reforms continental europe england particularly associated france tenth century scotland remained largely unaffected late eleventh century physically scottish monasteries differed significantly continent isolated collection wooden surrounded wall irish architectural influence seen surviving round towers early scottish establishments secular clergy families famously existed scotland north forth reaction reforming movement monks called lit god began ireland spread scotland late eighth early ninth centuries took vows poverty lived individually lived existing monasteries cases introduction new forms reformed eleventh century replaced tradition continued parallel new foundations thirteenth century scottish played major scottish mission scottish irish clergy undertook missions expanding empire founded monasteries called meaning monasteries german establishments germany scottish monks local saints region high middle ages conversion scandinavian scotland official conversion scandinavian scotland took place end tenth century evidence christianity viking controlled highland islands large number isles called western northern isles indicate priest isle period changes patterns grave goods viking place names suggest christianity begun spread official conversion according saga written northern isles king norway stopped south walls way ireland norway king summoned local stout said order subjects baptised refuse killed spot swear island fire steel story islands officially christian receiving bishop early eleventh century appears authority york hamburg bremen different points twelfth century subordinate archbishop today trondheim scandinavian scotland record clear bishop late tenth century followed gap century possibly filled bishops appointment bishop major effects conversion bring end raids christian sites allowed recover status cultural intellectual centres probably viking violence led settled society northern scotland reformed introduction continental forms scotland associated saxon princess queen margaret second wife iii exact role unclear known communication archbishop_of_canterbury provided monks new abbey subsequent foundations margaret sons alexander particularly david tended reformed type followed lead set abbey late tenth century belonged new religious orders originated france eleventh twelfth centuries stressed original virtues poverty obedience service mass followed forms reformed houses period saw introduction sophisticated forms church architecture common continent england known collectively rectangular blocks allowed massive reinforced walls round arches bear weight rounded barrel vault roofs incorporate refined architectural detailing dedicated order saint originally founded northern italy eleventh century established scotland sponsorship alexander early thirteenth century settled alongside taken reformed establishments inch created numerous new establishments abbey originating village near eastern france achieved important scottish foundations named location mother abbey abbey near france achieved foundations founded abbey originating near foundations named monastery des military orders entered scotland david knights founding knights given west cult saints like christian country main features medieval scotland cult saints saints irish origin particularly revered included figures called saints remained major figure fourteenth century new foundation endowed william abbey relics contained handed abbot care regional saints remained important local identities important saint cult pet focused glasgow relics carried sacked installed durham cathedral cult emerged northern scotland earl important scotland andrew established east_coast kings early eighth century shrine twelfth century said contained relics saint brought scotland saint began attract pilgrims scotland england away twelfth century site known simply increasingly associated scottish national identity royal family bishop important kingdom begin referred bishop site renewed focus devotion patronage queen margaret important ceremonial transfer remains abbey revered national saints late middle ages international centred virgin mary christ joseph anne kings significant scotland organisation twelfth century contrast england parish churches scotland churches collegiate bodies clergy served wide area tied devotion particular missionary saint period local lay following example david began adopt continental practice building churches property local population land priest foundation churches began south spreading north east west universal survey scottish church papal taxation administration parishes given local monastic institutions process known appropriation time reformation mid sixteenth century cent scottish parishes appropriated norman period scotland little clear structure based ancient churches obscure records appear long reign iii bishop resident clear authority bishops norman conquest england canterbury york claimed superiority scottish church david secured appointment john monk bishop glasgow archbishop york demanded new bishop submission long running dispute followed john travelling rome unsuccessfully appeal case pope john continued submission despite papal pressure new created northern england claimed glasgow diocese territory david new bishop appointed southern diocese based offered submission york practice continue fifteenth century david sent john rome lobby bishop andrew independent archbishop point david bishops threatened transfer allegiance anti pope bishop john died david able appoint monk abbot successor submission york continued withheld church scotland attained independent status papal bull iii cum scottish formally independent york canterbury unlike ireland granted century scotland received archbishop individual scottish special daughter rome run special councils scottish bishops bishop emerging important figure late middle ages church politics late medieval religion political aspects robert carried said contain remains battle papal scottish church crown sided beginning vii france countries nations including england holy roman empire sided roman beginning urban vii appointed scotland cardinal walter bishop glasgow withdrawal france support successor created problems scottish clergy attending french universities necessitated creation scotland university scotland churches abandon favour compromise pope martin proposed council subsequent debates authority pope backed church council ultimate authority church backed divisions loyalty mirrored political divisions country church king james chancellor john cameron archbishop glasgow william leading opponent cameron accession james backed pope dominated politics years james death backed movement europe collapse papal authority papal allowed scottish crown gain effective control major ecclesiastical appointments kingdom facto authority appointments formally recognised led placement clients relatives king key positions including james illegitimate son alexander nominated archbishop age intensifying royal influence opening church accusations james help bring respective regions ross lay edges kingdom royal authority relationships scottish crown generally good james receiving papal favour scottish church followed glasgow popular religion traditional protestant historiography tended stress corruption late medieval scottish church recent research indicated ways met spiritual needs different social groups historians decline monastic life period religious houses keeping smaller numbers monks remaining abandoning communal living individual secular lifestyle rate new monastic nobility declined fifteenth century contrast saw orders later fifteenth century unlike older monastic orders placed emphasis preaching population order organised scottish province older recognised separate provinces scottish contrast english towns churches parishes tended usually parish church doctrine gained importance period number priests masses dead designed speed passage souls heaven grew rapidly number dedicated saints process grew dramatically mary having edinburgh number saints celebrated scotland added nicholas church new devotion connected jesus virgin mary began reach scotland fifteenth century including wounds holy blood holy jesus new religious including celebrations presentation mary early fourteenth century managed problem clerical held resulted parish churches priests serviced poorly trained paid number poor clerical general shortage clergy scotland particularly black death meant fifteenth century problem intensified result parish clergy largely drawn lower educated ranks profession leading frequent complaints standards education ability little clear evidence standards declining major grievances reformation form began reach scotland england early fifteenth century followers john later jan called reform church rejected doctrine despite evidence number limited popular support anti elements probably remained small movement attempts differentiate scottish practice england printing press established royal patent replace english use services


tribal tribal list thirty tribes compiled anglo saxon england time 7th 9th centuries includes number independent kingdoms smaller territories assigns number hides list tribes headed consists exclusively peoples lived south estuary territories surrounded kingdom identified scholars value hides far largest suggested deliberate original purpose tribal remains unknown scholars believe tribute list created king possibilities suggested figures purely symbolic merely reflect prestige territory represent early example book keeping historians convinced tribal originated dominated southern anglo saxon england start 9th century argued text origin tribal great importance historians middle 19th century partly mentions territories documents attempts link names list modern places highly speculative resulting maps treated caution different versions tribal survived resemble dates 11th century works contained 17th century latin treatise version survived manuscripts spelling variations versions appear based lost manuscript historians unable establish date original compilation tribal construct theories political organisation anglo insight state neighbours time held number peoples support theories origin location tribes list way tribes systematically assessed ruled historians proposed tribal list peoples administrative areas hide assessments tribal according description list total assessments terms hides number territories south variously dated second half 8th century kingdoms included assigned hides list followed number small tribes west north hides listed named tribes smaller hides identified whilst tentatively located south england border region east heard understood area settled near valley hampshire term late old english people men letter forms long tailed read number territories located means place names evidence list concludes kingdoms east angles assessed hides east hides kent hides south hides assessed hides round figures assessments unlikely result accurate survey methods assessment probably differed according size region figures purely symbolic significance reflecting status tribe time assessed totals given text figures suggest tribal form book keeping frank describes figures given kingdoms exaggerated instances entirely information surviving manuscripts manuscript lost originally produce known different tribal named earliest complete copy tribal dates 11th century included works written old english latin latin grammar work written keeping british library reference written different date later resembles contained 17th century latin treatise written henry tribal names given old english significant differences spelling differences instance use word indicate text copied different text written latin according peter highly edited form copied text suggests possibility embellished latin text survived latin documents texts contain common versions 13th century origin formed collection legal texts according intended act record native english custom versions century older flawed exercise set legal texts origin historians able agree date original compilation list according campbell notes produced rise document probably dated 7th 8th century historians barbara frank hart generally agreed tribal originated time different theories identity overlord list compiled davies placed document origin precisely near universal agreement text originates partly kings known held extensive power anglo saxon territories late 7th early 9th centuries list headed exclusively peoples lived south river peter concluded original material dating late 7th century included late 9th century document asserts kingdom centre world mapped tribal frank acknowledged evidence conclusive noted tribal certainly compiled contrast historians professor nicholas brooks suggested list origin noting account inclusion absence kingdoms notes tribute list headed early king impose tribute kingdom list produced kingdom altogether different purpose argued date original information unknown largest kingdoms included tribal proved tribute list origin notes province included list suggests tribal tribute list drawn probably originated king exercised kingdoms according values assigned people likely specific events representing individual contracts recognised time explains artificial rounded nature figures arrived figure hides west probably largest number knew notes origin theory generally accepted convincing purpose purpose tribal remains unknown years different theories suggested purpose linked range dates creation according experts tribal tribute list created instructions anglo saxon king different purposes times history hart described tribute list involved anglo saxon england south created acknowledges proof exists compiled rule notes text requires word implying tribute omitted line argues certainly tribute list according large size west saxon indicates close links scale tribute political considerations james campbell argued list served practical purpose implies tributes assessed obtained organised way notes means indicates degree exercise power acknowledges purpose tribal unknown commonly argued overlord tribute list warns assuming minor peoples hides possessed means defining distinct notes isle south tribes tiny terms geographically isolated peoples possessed royal argues values symbolic purpose intended expression status kingdom province obscurity tribal names absence list points early date original text describes monument power hides assigned reflected superior status later date imply tribal present form written large assessment considered error historian hart maintains value correct assessments designed exact largest possible tribute main rivals historiography sir henry publish tribal volume version text book written thomas gale actual discussion tribal emerged john mitchell england published walter gray birch wrote paper british archaeological society discussed detail location tribes term tribal introduced william book book following decades articles published william john john important subsequent accounts tribal according campbell cox russell hart davies david recognised antiquity document historical texts assess date origin proposed locations tribe attempting locate suggested anglo saxon peoples missing document birch paper unpublished manuscript early territorial names england announced discovery known suggested 10th 11th century copy lost 7th century manuscript compared publications manuscripts tribal available time placed tribe theories ideas instance located surrey discounted suspected accepted number acres hide needed account figures tribal calculations conclude figures probably exaggerated john advised latin versions document described error prone determined old english manuscript written copy original manuscript attempted tribe english use key passages historical texts hart attempted complete reconstruction political geography saxon england end 8th century assuming english south listed tribal produced map divides southern england provinces outlying evidence river boundaries features place names historical borders importance historians tribal valuable record historians unique similar text survived document survive great records produced administrators anglo saxon kingdoms chance survivor documents campbell suggested hart observed detailed record historical topography parallel western_europe tribal lists minor kingdoms tribes recorded generally agreed earliest fiscal document survived england historians tribal provide evidence political organisation anglo saxon england pressed service seeking interpret nature geography peoples pre viking england according particular document seen providing evidence state peoples rule influence alex uses concentration tribes small east argument existence large multi regional provinces surrounded small contested territories positions middle peoples south east suggests independent middle existed seemingly consisting peoples listed tribal expansion tenth century caused middle old divisions time places listed mere names middle 7th century constitutes model development english administrative units period according davies demonstrate created son king middle angles time introduced christianity james campbell suggestions hides given tribe sum system locally collected assessments argues tier system assessment large areas kingdoms accurate individual estates existed considers possibility tribes named tribal administrative units names originate tribe place people governed eventually coming district tribe lived barbara suggests form place names indication named feature local landscape suggests tribes dependent administrative units independent kingdoms created main kingdoms stabilized term tribal led scholars names tribes anglo saxon administrators purpose local regions names referring actual peoples identity retained fell domination administrative areas unconnected names local peoples campbell suggests truth lies possibilities davies believe smallest groups tribal originated populations formed tribes departure romans fifth century suggest tribes joined forces large kingdoms emerged beginning 7th century scott argued tribal provides evidence anglo saxon governments required system detailed assessment order construct great earthworks kingdom east recorded time tribal according davies 7th century east consisted collection regional groups retained individual identity martin agrees davies describes territory east having borders stating political authority appears primarily invested people territory early printed texts commentaries birch walter gray unpublished manuscript early territorial names england journal british archaeological society retrieved november october tribal english historical review retrieved november england sixth century origin english nation cambridge cambridge_university press retrieved november gale thomas anglo volume latin oxford retrieved november john mitchell england volume london bernard william book essays early history england cambridge cambridge_university press riley henry carpenter john extracts previously appeared government publications chronicles memorials great_britain ireland middle ages latin english london great_britain public record office retrieved november henry latin london retrieved november modern sources stephen david catherine nelson early medieval studies memory patrick usa brooks nicholas anglo saxon myths state church london press isbn campbell james anglo london isbn campbell james anglo saxon state london new_york london isbn age seventh century north western_europe press isbn davies contexts tribal social settlement patterns berlin new_york isbn scott cambridge companion cambridge new_york cambridge_university press isbn peter tribal brown carol ann anglo saxon kingdom europe london leicester university press isbn hart tribal transactions royal historical society 5th series english empire early anglo saxon kings manchester manchester university press isbn hill david rumble alexander defence anglo saxon fortifications manchester new_york manchester university press isbn john anglo migration period eighth century press isbn hunter blair peter introduction anglo saxon england cambridge cambridge_university press isbn earliest english kings london new_york isbn james defining power supremacy examination dynamics power kingdom submitted thesis university nevada retrieved august roman britain norman england london sir frank anglo saxon england new_york oxford_university press isbn alex community identity early england william andrew social identity early medieval britain london new_york leicester university press isbn barbara political ethnic identity case study anglo saxon practice william andrew social identity early medieval britain london new_york leicester university press isbn


settlement given king louis france january conflict king henry iii england rebellious barons led simon louis sided decision king henry led directly hostilities barons war conflict king caused dissatisfaction influence foreigners court henry high level taxation henry forced accept provisions oxford essentially left royal government hands council document went long series country brink civil war parties agreed submit matter arbitration french king louis firm believer royal decided clearly favour henry outcome unacceptable rebellious barons war parties broke immediately announcement settlement victory battle took control government success short lived henry oldest son edward later king edward started military campaign ended battle august defeated killed parts resistance held end final garrison castle surrendered rebels given according terms set background reign henry iii deeply troubled disputes king nobility conflict caused factors source discontent influence groups royal favourites enjoyed court relatives queen eleanor king half brothers known native nobility offended great political influence held foreigners secondly king accepted pope innocent offer crown sicily younger son offer involved current rulers island proved expensive lastly personal dispute king henry subjects simon earl leicester initially good terms henry married king sister eleanor fell leader opposition richard earl gloucester henry forced accept called provisions oxford effectively surrendered control royal government council program reform elaborated provisions westminster provisions remained effect years point henry oldest son edward later king edward joined forces henry able opposition receiving papal provisions control government years henry governing deteriorated situation failed reconcile alienated gloucester son heir gilbert april returned england long stay france reform movement july henry surrounded rebel forces tower london forced accept conditions provisions prince edward firmly father took control situation october edward took windsor castle alliance started break accept truce agree submit issue arbitration french king louis arguments settlement december henry left france present case king louis prevented attending accident represented peter henry tried september appeal french king time louis sympathetic henry cause decided favour maintaining provisions henry argued right appoint ministers officials denied violation royal accused opponents destroying royal castles laying waste royal lands injuries demanded compensation barons marks referring papal writ henry asked french king free observing provisions forced barons documents survive barons complaints barons reiterated background conflict stressed fact king accepted conditions provisions henry fact effort gain public support pledged uphold provisions fact document goes explain reform instituted council order restore law country council installed new chief chancellor appointed new counties directly government replaced annually king violated conditions argued appointed chancellor number taken custody winchester castle given provisions furthermore accusation individual royal adherents roger military raids welsh marches second document goes detail king alleged taxation claimed henry impoverished land liberties church violated corrupted justice louis decision january entirely favour henry iii settlement starts parties place decision fully hands french king louis invoked difficulties england suffered previous years stressed importance resolution pope provisions louis decided provisions obligations called king adherence castles handed barons agreement given king henry free appoint ministers concession barons general pardon extended involved conflict financial demands king henry mentioned louis firm believer royal likely embrace set barons infringement henry authority papal account deeply pious louis going ignore time henry wife eleanor louis sister law worked hard favourable decision husband clear start french king gone far partisan decision settlement little dead letter aftermath settlement present solution conflict recipe problems sided decision king barons left little choice armed rebellion hostilities started february sons henry simon attacked possessions roger marches henry summoned feudal army royal forces won important victory younger simon captured control london henry regained control kent sussex marched london negotiate terms involving maintaining provisions rejected king option remaining fight forces met spite inferior numbers forces led simon won battle edward commanding right wing quickly defeated london forces set pursuit fleeing soldiers left rest royal army open attack forces soon won day settlement called provisions reinstated edward given hostage government led soon ran problems negotiated treaty prince wales act unpopular english lords edward escaped captivity help gilbert earl gloucester come royal edward started campaign conquest forced suppress rebellion marches succeeded making large concessions moved east join forces son simon edward routed younger simon castle august found trapped forced battle smaller army battle soon turned massacre killed mutilated field dead resistance remained particularly virtually castle october set terms rebels obtain end year garrison surrendered


italian venetian state barge venice year ascension day adriatic_sea perform marriage sea ceremony symbolically venice sea year ascension day scholars believe major barges significant having built magnificent historic maiden voyage reign iii depicted paintings ship long metres high deck floating palace main salon seating capacity throne stern bore representing justice sword scales barge propelled sailors required man ship destroyed napoleon orders symbolize victory conquering venice february announced million project rebuild work started march shipyard naval dock origin origin obscure possibility derived venetian traditional term vessel meaning covered gold hand man letters proposed based documents dating named earlier boat built shipyard called naval men suggested vessel named ship referred describing funeral rites observed honour father death twice size ship mentioned refer horns played board term middle ages analogy alleged greek word meaning common derived creature man head figure served barge word unknown greek mythology representations fact depict lion mark given great venetian vessels quotes chronicle reigned cum super quo quo jam cum wrought came san important arrived advisors etc term describe 16th century transport boat built decorated celebrate marriage daughter duke duke vessels age probable ceremonies venetian simply assigned small venetian fleet venice wealth increased naval power plans special ship built evidenced spoken sworn office mention construction shipyard naval depot historians agree major barges built believed earlier vessels regarded significant august amended add statement lord rule held time venetian law provided expense building borne public budget canopy sections purple velvet red velvet venetian nobles historian younger work origin site officials city venice described ship bearing sculpture justice marriage sea ceremony state functions festivals celebrating virgin mary bearing newly crowned wives palace law passed prohibit making private use documents mention construction larger little known vessel earliest known image appeared monumental map venice published work pictured afloat decoration save large wooden sculpture justice bow similar illustration produced younger recorded ascension day went new sea adding beautiful work larger wider proportions rich decoration built reign model successive versions ship decks adorned figures lions sculpture justice preserved museum naval history venice canopy vessel covered red fabric outside blue fabric gold stars inside frequently referred venetian chronicles ship july henry_ii france conveyed grand canal stayed visit venice ship transport newly crowned palace event subject numerous paintings franco anonymous artists despite venice economic maritime decline behest venetian senate decided new built cost existing service experts regarded old designer new ship unknown selected qualified ships work supervised new vessel approved praised maiden voyage newly elected ascension day barge modelled predecessors decorations influenced late renaissance forms contemporary illustrations sides covered mythical figures riding supported curved taking form monstrous extending ends bow spurs believed wooden sculptures including large sculpture mars lions mark positioned stern justice dressed san monastery work renowned venetian sculptor research revealed names brothers praised authors carvings beauty century service decision demolish ship magnificent historic commissioned senate construction began ship designed head master ships wooden work assigned testified phrase invention sculptor inscribed near bow established sculptor having worked commissions austria pure gold leaf handled ship ornaments sculptures including sculpture mars lions mark salvaged reused vessel long metres high deck floating palace main salon covered red velvet windows set huge carved canopy seating capacity throne stern bore traditional representing justice sword scales barge propelled rowing teams metres length sailors required man handsome youths selected ship crew new début ascension day reign iii event officially recorded vessel praised publications maria entitled regia del new palace waters newly built annual function day ascension lord german writer von work italian journey account travels italy described october terms mit den des der von der der war die die der und das man mit das und man die und order express concept word magnificent older illustrations designation present origin return old theme genuine object given artist achieve genuine laid responsibility constructing worthy carrying heads republic day traditional dominion sea task carried ship ornaments mass carvings useless reality order people leaders wonderful know people fond hats want dressed ship item inventory shows imagined napoleon ordered destroyed sake golden decorations political gesture symbolize victory conquering city french soldiers broke carved wooden portions gold decorations ship small pieces island san set fire recover gold ship burned days french soldiers carry away gold decorative elements vessel survived flames preserved venice detailed scale model vessel hull survived renamed armed cannons stationed mouth port served coastal battery subsequently ship returned prison ship entirely destroyed marriage sea ceremony marriage adriatic correctly marriage sea italian del mare ceremony maritime dominion venice ceremony established commemorate conquest originally ascension day chosen set expedition form took procession boats headed nave ship sea port modern reconstruction february plans rebuild destroyed announced started work march reported italian press years constructed colonel head million project said march build fast hurry intended project use traditional techniques original materials including fir wood reproduce gold decorations foundation supported businessmen regions written french president france financial contribution goodwill gesture compensate napoleon vandalism vessel hopes vessel visited floating museum world sees project means help venice recover glory old spirit according invaded million tourists city risks losing identity losing cultural connection history live future city needs connect remember glorious past articles franco illustration dress venetian men ladies william hastings ship state accompanied sailing vessels illustration shakespeare quarterly winter rebuilding fugitive ink blog february retrieved books venice venice italian french maria regia del etc new palace waters newly built annual function day ascension lord etc venice italian urban venice italian


order saint order saint roman catholic order founded vii duke sought commemorate victory house battle november saint day establishment order occurred long term intermittent territorial dispute initially descended female line house dispute began arnold duke claimed county resolved treaty established united counties mark charles duke count succeeded childless cousin iii joseph bavaria brought order bavaria initially order open men women limiting number male companions commemorated conversion saint standing patron saint hunters knights time award uses reward loyalty monarch service state history foundation sources agree order saint honors military victory duke saint day november sources differ specific date establishment order celebrated victory battle arnold commemorated battle future date consequently date founding depends source sources date founding order late twentieth century investigation helped clear confusion original latin statutes foundation use good friday case march furthermore clear written evidence order existed prior march original german statutes dated immediately battle possible proclaimed establishment order immediately victory knights documents drawn later leading dates date founding son william iii renewed order succession called new statutes prepared latin german remained governing documents order confirmation probably lies root confusion date order foundation initially order brotherhood reflecting overlapping religious military aspects medieval court life saint patron saint hunters knights founding order golden early 15th century started trend orders purpose established monarchs princes foster loyalty sovereign replacing old orders developed historians classify order saint order year life purpose changed fortunes needs successors changed order house duke died nephew arnold inherited arnold cousin adolf inherited territories near arnold believed adolf inherited better properties tried force failed compromise reached agreed truce adolf died cousin duke count inherited properties arnold old claim maintaining truce adolf agreed longer valid prepared force confident right inheritance met arnold battle village county knights defeated arnold knights saint day celebration declared founding order reward loyal victorious knights order remained branches family male line holding county extinct daughter maria von remained inherit county law practiced northwestern german states women hold property husband guardian consequently territories passed husband distant relative john iii duke mark couple daughters ann married henry_viii england son subsequently inherited administration order included present day north rhine lay outside ecclesiastical territories electorate cologne known rich order house march duke john william died childless duke william john claimed territories subsequent succession chaos order fell late 17th century passed jurisdiction prince duke descended cadet branch line house restored order saint assumed position grand master reward loyalty service conferred cross order gave recipients generous condition tenth set aside poor significant sum distributed day reception order death iii joseph bavaria legitimate male heir ended main line war succession brief relatively contest charles inherited cousin order moved new bavaria eventually confirmed march bavaria french revolutionary napoleonic wars order functioned primarily military order similar military order maria order present head house maria duke bavaria current grand master order structure requirements initially hierarchy membership relatively flat statutes called grand master case duke masters arms master masters required representative families origins geographic limitations masters clearing house membership investigated admission new members alleged existing membership weapons master maintained weapons arms brotherhood wore special order open men women entitled companions limits number companions admitted year new edition order statutes duke limited number men unlimited women admitted editions order statutes latin german established similar requirements membership latin editions stipulated man noble birth generations noble grandparents reputation german versions required grandparents man noble women companion versions statutes latin german female members household admitted husbands members women single required resign left service exception clause provided continued membership husbands companions order restructuring joseph confirming order king bavaria declared order kingdom linked order civic merit limited membership knights ranks counts barons excluding members native foreign nominated sovereign entrance fees gold princes rank prince paid entrance fee silver amounted silver established dress costume festival days included insignia order black collar narrow short poppy colored bows short black cape sword hat laid state buried stars gold cross lies white field crown represented conversion saint legend vast firm fidelity gothic letters reverse lies imperial latin inscription english remembrance restoration original dignity originally consisted collar jewel collar consisted stylized horns men women cloud like figure jewel depicted relief conversion saint overall design alluded saint patron hunters patron knights great cross worn special days days smaller cross worn member fined omission smaller cross decorated appropriately size collar order dynasty consisted gold links consisted rectangular representation conversion saint open relief surrounded gold white frame alternated links consisted initial letters motto vast firm fidelity gothic letters small golden rays links alternatively red green center rectangular link hung white cross arm numerous small golden flames point cross tipped small gold ball arm cross straight gold rays center cross round bearing golden representation relief conversion saint green background reverse cross bore design representation red background order poppy red narrow green borders knot ends green borders ends covered gold metallic ribbon like order worn left shoulder right hip cross worn cross narrow arms white numerous golden flames straight rays arm point cross tipped small gold ball gold balls arm cross dimensional gold representation crown cross hung center cross large round consisting small golden representation conversion saint green background surrounded wide border red motto order vast gothic letters set small diamonds reverse center cross golden representation relief imperial cross symbol prince arch steward holy roman empire red background surrounded white like border inscription remembrance restoration original dignity star order worn left breast silver star points surrounding gold white cross golden flames round poppy red central bearing motto vast golden gothic letters surrounded white gold border partial list recipients recipients austrian service recipients order saint attained rank general austrian military service french revolutionary napoleonic wars august maria und von von der joseph von prince von count von ferdinand george united_kingdom louis prince friedrich prince friedrich joseph prince charles duke francis duke john austria louis austria joseph von von von alexander joseph von und christian august und george prince diplomats alexander french recipients napoleon louis clarke post napoleonic recipients prince maria bavaria prince arthur duke order compiled sources medieval order vii duke founder william iii duke william duke john iii duke duke early modern order john william duke order unused reinstated charles iii philip charles bavaria modern order joseph bavaria bavaria bavaria bavaria bavaria iii bavaria crown prince bavaria duke bavaria duke bavaria born explanation currency


great great known year polish respectively lithuanian parliament polish lithuanian commonwealth held warsaw principal aim restore sovereignty reform commonwealth politically economically great achievement adoption constitution described europe modern written national constitution world second united_states_constitution polish constitution designed long standing political defects polish lithuanian commonwealth system golden liberties constitution introduced political equality townspeople nobility placed peasants protection government worst abuses constitution abolished parliamentary institutions veto time placed mercy deputy choose interest foreign power legislation passed 3rd constitution sought existing anarchy fostered country democratic constitutional monarchy reforms instituted great constitution confederation intervention russian_empire invitation origins reforms great responded increasingly situation polish lithuanian commonwealth century earlier major european power largest state continent 18th century commonwealth state machinery increasingly dysfunctional government near collapse giving rise term polish anarchy country managed provincial assemblies historians hold major cause commonwealth downfall peculiar parliamentary institution veto free veto principle permitted deputy legislation adopted early 18th century poland lithuania controlled state managed ensure reforms carried weaken privileged status golden freedoms matters helped inefficient monarchs elected commonwealth throne start 18th century neighboring countries content deteriorated state commonwealth affairs thought democratic power borders enlightenment european cultural movement gained great influence certain commonwealth circles reign king august roughly coincided enlightenment poland partition poland earliest successive 18th century commonwealth territory eventually removed poland map europe shocked inhabitants commonwealth clear progressive minds commonwealth reform decades preceding great rising interest progressive constitutional reform partition polish noble envoy bar confederation sent ask french jean offer suggestions new constitution new poland submitted recommendations government laws poland finished considerations government poland partition underway notable works advocating need reform presenting specific solutions published commonwealth polish lithuanian founder effective conduct debates ordinary composer polish national anthem political thoughts civil liberties patriotic letters hugo head forge party anonymous letters political law polish nation remarks life jan seen crucial giving upcoming reforms moral political support great era proceedings major opportunity reform present opened october deputies words constitution met dual number newly elected deputies joined earlier established second day transformed immune threat veto russian catherine great issued approval confederation ago point considering successful conclusion necessary russia need polish aid fight ottoman_empire statesman respected factions elected marshal supporters reforms gathered patriotic party group received support strata polish lithuanian society societal political including aristocratic catholics radical left party conservative right wing led progressive brother prince adam sought alliance prussia advocated opposing king patriotic party including wished accommodation king liberal left wing polish led hugo known forge looked support people warsaw king supported reforms initially allied faction represented preferred republican form government events world appeared play hands poland neighbors occupied wars intervene forcibly poland russia austria engaged hostilities ottoman_empire russo turkish war austro turkish war russians found fighting sweden russo swedish war king hoped gain russian support reforms attempted draw poland austro russian alliance seeing war ottomans opportunity strengthen commonwealth internal russian politics plan implemented russia poland turned potential ally triple alliance represented polish diplomatic scene primarily kingdom prussia line reasoning gained support polish politicians adam new polish prussian alliance provide security russian intervention king drew closer leaders reform minded patriotic party alliance helped elections supportive royal faction conservative faction gained new seats threaten stay divided begun reach consensus constitutional monarchy approach started draft constitutional document overall years passed major reforms second half duration brought major changes elections autumn resulted new group deputies joining elected second marshal elected seen associated initially seen conservative later switch sides join doubled number deputies exceeded capacity parliament chambers deputies secure seat public interest grew entire building observation galleries comprised representatives nobility clergy supported townspeople fall organized black procession demonstrating desire political process taking cue similar events france fear demands met peaceful protests turn violent april adopted law addressing status cities rights free royal cities act legislation voting rights act march incorporated final constitution new constitution drafted king contributions including hugo king credited general provisions giving work final shape aimed constitutional monarchy similar england strong central government based strong monarch wanted parliament powerful state institutions gentle social revolution classes addition till dominant nobility violent overthrow old order reforms opposed conservative elements including party reform advocates threatened violence opponents managed debate new constitution forward days original opposed deputies away easter ensuing debate adoption constitution took place quasi coup état recall notices sent known opponents reform pro reform deputies arrived early secret royal guard positioned royal castle gathered prevent russian supporters disrupting proceedings met members present half dual number count individuals eligible proceedings including senate king bill read adopted overwhelmingly enthusiasm crowds gathered outside work great end passing constitution continued debate pass legislation building document notable acts passed declaration assembled estates confirming government act adopted days earlier guarantee nations crown poland grand lithuania october unity poland grand single state equal representation state governing bodies mutual declaration strengthened polish lithuanian union keeping federal aspects state intact disbanded day soon learning russian army invaded poland gave commander chief position king voted end session aftermath soon friends constitution regarded polish political party including participants great formed defend reforms enacted promote ones response new constitution enthusiastic provinces party exerted stronger influence great reforms brought confederation intervention russian_empire november great including constitution


george george greek august high official empire humble origin companion childhood raised high state office assumption power caused great resentment aristocracy high offices opposed policies shortly death appointed regent age son john assassinated days later soldiers result conspiracy led nobles soon emperor michael viii biography early life service family attested 11th century produced notable members century exception nicholas patriarch constantinople george born coast circa family considered low born brothers childhood friends raised palace pages assumed educated sharing classes scholar sisters later married member family emperor november raised highest state offices george commander chief army brothers eldest brother grand chamberlain head respectively according contemporary emperor loved george letters calls son brother reign george emperor senior minister trusted advisor little known personal involvement governance state participation council convened discuss proper reaction invasion holdings death george supported majority opinion campaign invaders absence campaign george left regent state return raised george naming new title succeeded george extremely high honour combined title normally conferred close emperor offices preserve aristocratic families elevation mark personal affection favour line policies aimed curb influence independence powerful nobility appointment low born new men high posts harsh arbitrary treatment nobles aroused traditional aristocracy especially capable ambitious michael hostility intensified emperor gave low born favourites noble george niece michael married daughter murder marry john staunch opponent uncle religious policies exiled nun michael death restored monastery saint andrew transferred relics patriarch prominent member capital literary circles appointment regent assassination shortly died august left george regent guardian year old son john patriarch shared john later historians patriarch named contemporary historians appointment enraged aristocracy position extremely unpopular clergy associated high handed treatment church people feared try throne importantly faced hostility army particular latin mercenaries apparently denied usual addition probably resented intention raise national army composed solely byzantine greeks recorded taken measures held command good position exploit grievances prevent action testament provisions son succession regency deathbed demanded oath taken senate army people clergy present court absent state immediately death george aware vulnerability complete lack support called assembly leading nobles officials military commanders offered resign post favour person assembly chose dignitaries led michael encouraged stay accepted oath loyalty young emperor conspiracy leading aristocratic families way apparently played covert leading role days death sources disagree exact date august widely accepted date memorial service held monastery founded john iii serving burial place entire court attended army plain monastery soon george brothers arrived service began outside church soldiers assembled latin mercenaries began demand young emperor john went outside raised hand quiet soldiers allegedly signal joined large mob stormed church aiming kill brothers warned going george sent secretary investigate mistaken killed crowd mob realized error secretary wearing black shoes wore green ones entered church soldiers swords hand people inside church scattered brothers tried hide george hid altar door corner emperor tomb mob proceeded search church george discovered latin soldier named charles dragged altar despite pleading ransom life executed great crowd corpse repeatedly stabbed pieces parts gathered sack burial unnamed brother law slain fate uncertain scholars believe survived identified chief minister michael viii family houses mob george wife fled uncle michael pleaded husband life told quiet share fate responsibility affair supported fact murderers persecuted mercenary charles appears later death followed purge prominent new men john recalled died committed suicide way imprisoned george survived apparently time prisoner eventually reached high office michael michael meantime consolidated position named regent rank soon took title early crowned emperor ostensibly guardian emperor john recapture constantinople sidelined imprisoned john crowned sole emperor founding dynasty ruling house byzantium treatment historians contemporary sources history negative brothers calls little men worthless specimens humanity false tongue foot beating floor dance reliable account issue suspect hand evidently tries new men originally belonged generally strongly biased favour michael tries assassination historians time paint favourable picture account near contemporary generally follows closely notably fails repeat negative comments records assembled nobles persuaded stay church riot day murder george treatment reign emperors general far favourable considers promoted merit murder names directly responsible later historian likewise avoids negative comments modern historians


kingdom isles kingdom isles comprised islands clyde isle man 9th 13th centuries islands known norse southern isles distinct northern isles historical record incomplete kingdom continuous entity entire period islands concerned referred kingdom isles later rulers claimed title times rulers independent external control period norway ireland england scotland times appear competing claims parts territory islands involved total land area square kilometres extend kilometres north south viking influence area commenced late 8th century whilst doubt dynasty played prominent role early period records dates details rulers speculative century hostility kings isles rulers ireland intervention crown norway directly vassal earl recurring themes invasion late 11th century resulted brief period direct norwegian rule kingdom soon descendants asserted period largely independent came end emergence death kingdom split century later islands kingdom scotland following treaty perth geography principal islands consideration follows isle man located irish sea modern england northern_ireland scotland wales islands clyde kilometres north largest southern inner west north peninsula including inner north small isles including outer aka long_island west separated northern inner waters islands referred total land area approximately square kilometres isle man square kilometres total islands clyde square kilometres total inner square kilometres total outer square kilometres total modern wales viking world early stage kilometres east northeast outer kilometres northeast norway kilometres east total distance southern tip isle man butt lewis northern outer approximately kilometres early history early viking incursions prior viking incursions southern formed kingdom north inner outer nominally control historical record sparse according conquered occupied isles unknown onwards repeated raids british isles recorded islands britain devastated sacked named viking leaders probably based scotland appear irish annals early reference norse presence irish records king viking scotland heir took army ireland 9th century references foreign appear term variously succeeding centuries refer individuals mixed scandinavian celtic descent culture dominant southwest scotland parts northern england isles according saga king united norway opponents fled islands scotland including west_coast northern isles pursued enemies incorporated northern isles kingdom little decade later following year local viking rebelled sent subdue quickly declared independent king isles title retained rest life find reported leader fighting ireland connection far definite left successors little record succeeding decades suggests appearance looks like story created later days norwegian claims sovereignty region similar problems mac supposed 9th century ruler ancestor clan suggested appearance looks like product fourteenth century house besieged kings returned dublin britain following year numerous captives likely scandinavian significant western coasts scotland described son king annals ireland argues viking scotland probably includes man time suggesting early date organised kingdom isles source recorded having gone aid father assault died succeeded briefly died year probably died lament mac king died suggests lost kingdom time norse taken isle man certainly held expelled dublin dozen years year later grandson killed battle forces constantine mainland scotland events setbacks norse definitive moment fighting recorded annals describe defeat mac naval battle isle man decades 10th century obscure period far concerned possible probably ruled period influence king isles record death mac king probably succeeded cousin king recorded suggesting king western isles scotland died decades later whilst religious retirement succeeded mac probably nephew brother mac succeeded sons known launched major expeditions ireland recorded having won battle man sacked twice later notwithstanding battle man recorded annals said won possibly forces directly scandinavia command annals record death describing king clear completely new term originally earlier refer island kingdom complex geography western scotland lack written records makes certainty extent nature kingdoms hard example chronicle kings indicates kings reigned late 11th century buried mean lay close emerging kingdom scotland furthermore records annals hint western isles organised kingdom time ruled assemblies regularly elected public affairs kings dublin point saga main source information north stout earl took control placed called charge isles independence asserted son mac died year possible rule overlapped zone influence north south death asserted control held death battle islands held according welsh text recorded having king wide variety places death included isle man islands denmark difficult reconcile rule apparently came according obscure reference prophecy king mac scotland active time potentially fluid nature scandinavian norse scots influence period recorded ruler stout son mighty took control circa death decades later continuing close alliance isles norway suggested record annals year fleet led son king norway dublin seize kingdom england god monarch norway death excuse exert direct rule century mac said ruler king dublin possibly king suggesting isle man possible ruled mac recorded having control dublin followed father mac high king ireland took possession isles death son ruled records rulers remain obscure arrival irish influence probably means white hand reason unknown origins uncertain son nephew mac king dublin extension descendant survivor defeat battle bridge fled man little heard succeeded taking island possibly help troops western isles ancestor succeeding rulers isles king dublin contemporary source refers predecessors king isles eventually ousted dublin fled died plague clear extent dominance asserted islands north man growing irish influence seas brought rapid decisive response norway high level political instability suggested battle fought isle man internal strife men north island led man named later history norse influence result general disorder islands counter irish influence established direct norwegian took northern scottish mainland dyed sword red blood according dragged north campaign taking command ship sailing able claim entire peninsula island remained norwegian rule dozen years result scotland signed treaty settled boundary scots norwegian claims islands formally acknowledged existing situation giving claims second expedition saw incursions ireland saga reports obtained daughter marriage young son left nominal charge isles arrangement long august killed fighting year old returned norway bride king son apparently appointed consent successfully fought rebellion brother reigning seven years brother eyes went pilgrimage jerusalem died surviving son minority force invitation nobility isles mac grandson mac overlord isles route accession proved unpopular expelled years fleeing ireland years later attempted appoint background unknown possession kingdom isles arrived lewis sent chiefs isles summon assemble declare king meantime followers spent time violated girls gave species pleasure amid sensual news reached chiefs isles assembled appoint king great rage coming night set fire house destroyed partly sword partly flames followers recorded king son known red apparently account small size spent time court henry england encouraged ambitions attempt dominance irish sea reigned years managing maintain degree peace stability era incident time mac nobles took dublin force held years assassination son described powerful lords dublin rose attacked man killing process son black succeeded father killers executed shortly mac clan ireland fleet man territories scotland recorded fighting naval battle dynasty reign citizens dublin offered rule city accepted according chronicle inflicted heavy defeat mac allies following returned islands leaving city invading forces mac style appears unpopular ensuing conflicts beginning end isles coherent territory rule single magnate powerful barons isles began plotting emerging forceful figure lord parental origins obscure known married daughter red half sister possible found favour helping control northern influence spread popularity led son heralded isles save man future king isles son heard engaged forces naval battle clear victor subsequently agreed remain ruler man northern inner outer whilst young sons nominally control southern inner islands clyde father supervision years later invasion isle man caused flee norway leaving undisputed ruler entire realm difficult control distance days time likely facto control local rulers nominal governance seas took ultimate conclusion declaring independent ruler isles power base southern effect recreated debate source legitimacy suggested claims descent mac preserved tradition accepted broadly authentic modern scholars asserts contrary image projected recent clan historians nationalists isles explicit extended narrative accounts thirteenth century saga chronicle kings man isles early leaders saw competitors isles basis descent mother claim royal status based position segment prince best known historical figures scotland known mac norse literal meaning summer traveller common viking met death possibly assassinated tent camped near invasion scottish mainland point took possession territories southern isles distributed sons previously agreed received went possibly divided styled kings isles descendants held title chronicle man lamented marriage cause ruin kingdom isles divided kingdom descendants eventually known lords isles giving rise clan clan clan sons killed theory island territories subject norway mainland ones kingdom whilst kings north isles kings norway life scottish monarchs sought control islands descendants held diplomacy having failed achieve alexander took personal command large fleet sailed clyde anchored island alexander ill died action continued successor alexander iii strategy eventually led invasion king norway stalemate battle retreated died december entertained death bed following ill fated expedition rights norwegian crown old yielded kingdom scotland result treaty perth man having overcome brother reigned brief time black resumed north isles death passed eldest son mac chosen successor black half brother instead overlord lewis battled slain died patrick isle succeeded sons ruled kingdom turn reigned norse kings rule absorbed kingdom scotland death life norse times written records archaeological evidence period extensive knowledge daily lives population lacking known system evidence suggests settlers prosperous families similar status northern isles possibly owing relaxed political regime sent representatives lewis harris southern parliament man produced important pagan norse burial grounds 11th century cross slab decorated irish viking art found found today peninsula south hills contains small connected sea short artificial canal important site maritime activity centuries spanning viking later periods scottish clan rule stone built system maintain constant water levels boat discovered dated 12th century stones known west_coast scotland christian memorials found continued exist spoken language southern norse settlement period place evidence suggests status pre norse names total little continuity style pottery north early viking period similarities exist suggests later norse settled ireland irish slaves clyde norse found place evidence suggests settlement pattern developed numerous place names norse origin isle man initially pagan culture detailed information return christian religion islands norse era elusive modern day diocese man retains centuries old


operation operation applied series injured civilians bosnia siege initiated wounding year old attracted international media attention programme reported evacuated hundreds second half attracted significant controversy concerning scale selection criteria motivations western european governments press inspired wounding siege war erupted march following bosnia declaration independence socialist federal republic yugoslavia april forces representing yugoslav people army took positions areas surrounding capital initiated siege years siege characterized sniper fire directed city buildings infrastructure civilian residents city reports showed beginning siege november average persons killed wounded day july marketplace mortar july mortar shell fired troops hit neighbourhood injuring year old killing including mother hospital unable provide adequate treatment injuries received spine head abdomen developed result surgeon treating tried unsuccessfully evacuated relief flight resorted distributing photograph foreign journalists picked story giving widespread coverage international especially british press evening august bbc news led coverage injuries august british prime minister john major personally intervened raf hercules london great street hospital commencement operation following days months dozens evacuated program media dubbed operation week beginning august people taken reported later hundreds eventually evacuated programme countries including sweden ireland organized czech_republic finland france italy norway poland offered hospital beds reaction criticism operation widely publicized reported september raised million donations evacuate wounded attracted number criticisms addressed operation limited scale motives british press foreign governments launching devotion resources evacuation instead supplying material support local medical services broader issue united_kingdom response war bosnia criticisms scale critics focused small numbers persons evacuated operation august violence bosnia killed average children day thousands injured homeless beginning siege april operation united_nations high commissioner refugees approved critically wounded patients medical evacuation british press storm prompted offers hospital beds countries august vast increase prior offers help total estimated children requiring hospital treatment bosnia supermarket argument scale response critics questioned criteria patients selected evacuation challenged decision include children transports tens thousands adults remained wounded city spokesperson commented regarded supermarket potential refugees asking mean britain wants help children maybe wants children blond children blue eyed children patrick head united_nations medical evacuation committee said treated children like animals zoo trying pick choose suit public relations agenda government revised approach included adults flights city claims wounded combatants taken sweden italy patients paid bribes included transports foreign minister douglas august countered operation evacuate relatively city wounded benefit help everybody doesn mean shouldn help somebody later acknowledged months western european indifference war yugoslavia new public sympathy inspired case like day following night criticisms british government press questions scale selection motives british press government case launching operation challenged critics sudden intensity coverage devoted single victim protracted siege december evacuation program operation angel received minimal press coverage financial times suggested human interest stories captured popular imagination british press summer silly season parliament susan douglas october edition american magazine progressive said british papers competition condition use evacuation british guilt standing apart bosnia british government widely depicted having launched operation direct response level press interest joked operation acronym instant response media attention council europe publication later noted european governments criticized exercise having political media operation humanitarian relief mission received criticism domestic press mark independent called prime minister major efforts mission failure silence hostile based misunderstanding popular bosnia failure manage domestic press skepticism yugoslavia operation regarded evidence british government taken sides conflict favouring muslims serbs evacuation local treatment aid workers immediately criticized operation arguing sick children poorly served programmes obliged travel hundreds miles argued costs evacuated child programme funds improve local facilities treatment head hospital plastic surgery department said better sent tools jobs properly big token evacuations overseas development administration predecessor department international development wrote november british medical journal overseas development administration foremost supplying medical humanitarian aid people bosnia conflict circumstances medical teams needed requested supplied medical supplies appropriate form aid received personal pleas doctors know evacuate patients treated solution trying help aftermath press coverage surrounding evacuation later cited example disaster pornography academic analyses concerned portrayal child victims violence disaster ways victims western northwestern european agency similar vein presented press interest operation evidence popular appetite news stories resemble structure tone fictional narratives war war films work effectively stripping easily confusing details conflict focusing instead problem protagonist experience problem human circumstances news reporting case balkans compete level basic established way understanding things surprising memorable news stories come bosnia rescued child operation portrayed representative trend public reaction media coverage disasters leads shapes official state response creation policy existed developing theme argued emotional focus british public dismayed government ambiguous cautious attitude conflict bosnia widespread government inactivity crisis resolved rescuing handful children terms recovering sense agency conflict characterised political military authorities alike desire seen expressed transporting incorporating need distress tended better textbook public relations cites episode example game players british government press sought achieve individual advantage despite initial improvement paralyzed neck required breathe died great street april aged seven following months intensive care called victim war


women early modern scotland women early modern scotland renaissance early sixteenth century beginnings mid eighteenth century society enforcement social order absolute aspects women retained family marriage join husband groups higher social ranks marriages political nature subject complex negotiations women mothers play major women major workforce unmarried women acting farm servants married women playing major agricultural tasks particularly harvest found keeping schools trading society lived marginal existence women limited access formal education girls benefited boys expansion parish school system women taught reading domestic tasks writing noble households received private education female literary figures emerged seventeenth century religion particularly important means expression women seventeenth century women greater opportunities religious participation movements established women little legal status beginning period unable act witnesses legally responsible actions mid sixteenth century increasingly statutes allowing prosecuted seventy cent estimated individuals prosecuted women executed result historians seen period characterised increasing concern women attempts control status early modern scotland society men total authority women post reformation marriage service stating wife governance husband long continue alive common western_europe scottish society stressed daughter duties father wife duties husband virtues obedience given high mortality rates women inherit important responsibilities fathers husbands evidence towns indicates households headed women continuing existing business interest noble society created wealthy powerful women including catherine campbell richest widow kingdom husband ninth earl died twice widowed margaret lady described having greatest lady scotland politics theory complicated led margaret tudor mary guise advent queen mary queen scots concerns threat male authority exemplified john blast trumpet regiment women advocated deposition reigning queens political nation took pragmatic view situation accepting mary queen strains created played later difficulties reign exactly worked practice difficult scottish women period reputation foreign observers individuals spanish ambassador court james noting absolute houses husbands family marriage unlike england derived males females scotland members group sharing fictional common ancestor women retained original surname marriage join husband marriages intended create friendship groups new bond women marry age boys girls social elite married teens married period life cycle service twenties resources status skills allow establish household normally marriage followed period highlands effectively period trial marriage sexual activity accepted legitimate highland women based higher birth rate highlands married earlier lowland counterparts marriages particularly higher society political nature subject complex negotiations mothers took leading role negotiating marriages lady children finding suitable compatible partners reformation extensive marriage bars meant noble marriages necessitated papal later grounds marriage proved politically personally divorce separation bed board allowed exceptional circumstances usually adultery reformed divorce allowed grounds adultery scotland countries allow legal grounds divorce unlike england divorce cases initiated relatively far social scale work women acted important workforce addition domestic tasks carried wives female servants unmarried women worked away families farm servants married women worked husbands farm taking major agricultural tasks particular role harvest forming team women played important expanding textile industries spinning setting men highlands significant evidence men considered agricultural work beneath status places formed majority rural workforce roles preserve women including wet nurses evidence single women engaging independent economic activity particularly found keeping schools trading highly successful like edinburgh left widow seven children husband suicide managed business affairs successfully amassed estate death late sixteenth century lower social scale rolls poor relief indicate large numbers children endured marginal existence particularly vulnerable times economic women responsible fathers husbands cent households particularly worried authorities gave instructions particular notice education writing end fifteenth century edinburgh schools girls described schools probably taught lay women development private tuition families lords wealthy extended women mid seventeenth century boarding schools girls particularly edinburgh london family sized institutions headed women initially aimed girls noble households eighteenth century complaints daughters traders following social superiors institutions eighteenth century poorer girls taught dame schools informally set widow teach reading cooking widespread belief limited intellectual moral capacity women desire intensified reformation women personal moral responsibility particularly wives mothers necessitated ability learn understand able independently read bible commentators tended encourage education girls thought receive academic education boys lower ranks society benefited expansion parish schools system took place reformation usually outnumbered boys taught separately shorter time lower level frequently taught reading writing female rates based signatures female servants cent late seventeenth early eighteenth centuries cent women ranks compared cent men nobility educated women queen mary obvious example early eighteenth century education expected include basic literacy musical instruments including keyboard household management accomplishments emphasised seventeenth century notable aristocratic female writers book written woman published scotland elizabeth later major figures included lady elizabeth lady extant late seventeenth early eighteenth century written women largely religious content religion historian argues women means public participation men result active religious life important women social elite church going played important lives women women largely excluded administration heads households voted appointment new minister parishes allowed women position participate seventeenth century saw women participating radical religion prominent examples women threw dean reading new english service book cathedral bishop wars presbyterian king favoured structure church similar england later said led edinburgh woman according houston women probably freedom expression control spiritual destiny groups outside established church presence country mid seventeenth century principle male authority challenged women chose different religious leaders husbands fathers broke away established restoration reports indicate women preach women known executed movement crime law beginning period women limited legal status married woman property rights husband permission expected given men considerable latitude women authority handful cases turn higher courts session intervene protect women domestic abuse usually abuse began public order criminal courts refused recognise women witnesses independent criminals actions assumed lie husbands fathers result married woman sell property sue court contracts husband permission post reformation period women women disciplined sessions civil courts stereotypical offenses including prostitution seen criminal independent commissions set try women child murder pressure law placed guilt woman concealed pregnancy birth child later died aftermath initial reformation settlement parliament passed act similar passed england year earlier practice consulting capital crimes passing act repeal estimated persons tried scotland accused cent women executed witch hunt scotland seen means controlling women reasons scottish witch hunt intense nature england advanced historians major periods prosecution coincided periods intense economic distress accusations followed withdrawal charity marginal figures particularly single women accused changing attitudes women particularly reformed perceived women moral threat noted partial explanations witch hunt led historians concept associated circumstances single significant cause


second partition poland second partition polish lithuanian commonwealth second partial ended existence polish lithuanian commonwealth second partition occurred aftermath war defense constitution confederation approved territorial russian_empire kingdom prussia division ratified polish parliament short lived attempt prevent inevitable complete annexation poland partition background political commonwealth deteriorated helpless condition successfully forced unnatural ultimately deadly alliance enemy prussia polish prussian pact signed giving false hope commonwealth found ally shield reformed constitution established separation branches government eliminated abuses reforms prompted aggressive actions neighbours wary potential renaissance commonwealth poland reform improve russia permission empress catherine angered arguing poland fallen prey radical high tide france russian forces invaded commonwealth war defense constitution army russian_empire invited pro russian conservative polish alliance confederation fought polish forces supporting constitution conservative nobility believed russians help restore golden liberty abandoned prussian allies badly outnumbered polish pro constitution forces fought prince defensive war measure success ultimately ordered abandon efforts supreme commander king august king decided join confederation demanded russians russia invaded poland ensure defeat polish reforms overt goal partition viewed poland saw little need giving poland countries frederick william prussia saw events opportunity strengthen country frederick demanded catherine country abandoning poland close ally prussian participation war coalition revolutionary france participation russia encouraged prussia recently suffered major defeat battle prussia compensated parts polish territory russia soon decided accept prussian offer partition january prussia signed treaty russia agreeing polish reforms revoked countries receive commonwealth territory russian prussian military took control territories claimed soon afterward russian troops present prussian troops meeting nominal resistance deputies commonwealth presence russian forces agreed russian prussian territorial demands infamous commonwealth deputies russians russia prussia wanted official legal poland demands russia took square kilometres prussia took square kilometres commonwealth lost reduced russia received parts brest accepted july russia reorganized newly acquired territories split prussia received cities danzig land parts accepted september september sources vary prussia organized newly acquired territories south prussia commonwealth lost million people million people remained polish lithuanian lands left commonwealth merely small state puppet king russian garrisons keeping eye reduced polish army aftermath expect partition king august joined near end lost prestige support hand attracting increasing support march uprising begun defeat uprising november year resulted final partition poland ending existence commonwealth