canterbury city walls canterbury city walls sequence defensive walls built city canterbury kent england city walls built romans probably walls constructed stone earth bank protected ditch wall towers gates placed walls linked network roman roads region collapse roman britain canterbury went decline walls remained influenced decision settle city end 6th century anglo retained defensive walls building gates defend canterbury viking incursions norman invaders 11th century took city resistance 12th century walls ill maintained little military value fears french invasion years war led canterbury defences decision taken restore city walls thirty years old roman defences rebuilt stone incorporating older walls remained towers constructed circuit coming years rebuilt stone brick defended batteries guns england parts wall deliberately damaged parliament english civil war 17th century doors city gates burnt restoration charles_ii new doors 18th 19th centuries canterbury city walls came extensive pressure urban development gates west gate destroyed extensive parts walled circuit knocked way new roads buildings german bombing second world war caused damage despite remaining walls gatehouse survived post war redevelopment intact portions rebuilt entirely half original circuit survives area acres historians oliver robert consider city wall magnificent britain history 3rd 4th centuries city walls canterbury built romans canterbury called initially probably defended small fort required civic defences security situation britain deteriorated late 3rd century circuit defensive walls built city probably enclosed area acres cutting old industrial parts western city incorporating cemetery area south east outside city boundary new coastal forts built region time headquarters established canterbury walls typically feet inches thick built flint mortar limited use larger sandstone blocks height walls uncertain sections survived feet high walls stood bank earth feet feet wide feet high protected ditch typically feet wide feet deep places feet wide feet wide ran ditch wall walls gates typically positioned near angles city wall judging location roman roads possible roman gates existed gates linked network major roads ran kent riding gate took red bricks built protective towers pair entrance arches pedestrians carriages probably worth gate london gate simpler entrance arches sequence square towers protected walls additional wall tower constructed following saxon invasion britain 5th 11th centuries 5th century canterbury went decline roman institutions buildings city walls survived sent kent pope gregory convert local population christianity established canterbury cathedral city possibly walled site gave additional protection symbolically important roman city canterbury called prospered population trade increased land walls water meadows farmland built cathedral form secure inner stronghold late anglo saxon period internal street layout canterbury line outer walls remained cattle market created outside city south east later renamed george gate inserted walls allow easy access period main axis city shifted older line streets running london gate riding gate new route west gate lane built running inside walls similar way streets built time exeter winchester churches built gates including mary north gate holy cross west gate michael riding gate potentially george chapel canterbury walls mentioned early chronicler history england despite canterbury walls viking army successfully attacked city killing inhabitants scandinavian raids onwards danish army demanded fresh tribute city city walls defend city day siege chronicler roger recounts attacking thrown tops walls deaths citizens roger account story shows city walls sufficiently good condition story considered plausible time fire broke city entered canterbury 11th 13th centuries inhabitants canterbury resistance conquest england william instructed castle built city canterbury castle built south city formed circuit defence property destroyed room despite location walls historians oliver robert observed castle addition defences town timber bailey castle later abandoned second square stone built worth gate south entrance castle site new gate walls east general use book recorded houses built ditches city walls appear poor condition possibly result population pressures inner walled city canterbury spread walls century unclear walls maintained period 12th century ruins little practical defensive value century walls assigned limited royal funding local sheriff probably maintenance existing structures spent repairs wooden bars placed outside city gates regulate flow traffic 12th century including riding gate worth gate north gate area city wall called protected earthworks middle 12th century canterbury divided 12th century potentially created early anglo saxon period administrative districts named city gates termed linked maintenance manning city walls took form segments spreading centre city incorporating relevant gate suburbs spread outside walls canterbury included riding gate west gate formed end century 12th century work walls appears stopped second half 14th century city walls fell disrepair result places foot debris came cover remaining stonework old roman walls case building constructed directly defences 14th century early years war increased level concern potential french raids invasion south england canterbury particularly important defence south east formed potential barrier invaders marching london carried state canterbury defences concluded city position walls canterbury fallen age stones thereof carried away ditches walls canterbury ordered repair walls similar instructions issued authorities vulnerable cities bath rochester result historian turner described planned operation designed build walls rapidly took years complete city cathedral authorities worked closely project unusual situation given local political tensions existed money needed pay work previous century method taxation introduced support creation maintenance city walls called authorised king applied trade entering city total canterbury assigned years grants walls starting years granted richard writ allowing use county new year grant issued issues kent given canterbury tax extended years financial year approximately spent walls despite walls peasants revolt tyler army able enter canterbury unopposed saw years granted followed final grant years despite progress fast suit royal authorities richard ordered city force repair defences intervened canterbury local elections ensure trusted henry lincoln john returned office order king confidence walls maintained henry sent messages city complaining defences adequately maintained city insecure 15th 16th centuries survey suggested city walled stretch west gate north gate city allowed acquire lands worth year support maintenance walls canterbury permitted draw funding royal customs duties walls taxes canterbury gave way introduction support system rates ward tasked raise money local taxes citizens walls important symbol city 15th century art canterbury presents cathedral city wall having equal status key features city resulting circuit walls followed line roman anglo saxon defences incorporating survived good condition parts 14th century walls example lane shown feet thick base built sections incorporated original roman wall feet high places new walls continuous wall walk circuit protected external ditch city walls retained older system roman anglo saxon gates west gate rebuilt prominent mason henry unusually prominent architect city wall programme work holy cross church moved gate nearby site old roman riding gate cut new defensive towers built city walls archaeological historical evidence suggests towers generally uniform appearance half circular horse shoe hollow backed towers square towers horse shoe towers followed fashion popular making canterbury towers late example trend square towers newer design built turn 14th 15th century thomas reconstructed walls saw introduction west gate innovative piece defensive design regard forming powerful battery carefully designed wide angle covering fire positioning similar cooling castle built time gave particular focus left flank north gate likely route attackers south west corner city walls alternate heights overlapping fire documentary record canterbury guns appears clear kept west gate second wave work took place city walls late 15th century backed substantial communal effort financial contributions rebuilt probably closely resembled west gate style rebuilt brick onwards thanks public contributions completed furnished closed shortly 15th century probably following construction new gate nearby west gate appointed city henry canterbury castle serving county contrast tyler entrance jack rebels barred entry city west gate canterbury reacted concern news thomas rebellion kent repairs walls guns ammunition riding gate blocked queen mary later thanked city efforts 17th 19th centuries ditch outside walls appears partially filled reclaimed land rented english civil war canterbury initially held parliamentary forces riots broke protest actions city mayor canterbury declared loyalty charles parliamentary forces intervened city burning wooden city gates deliberately damaging walls near canterbury castle restoration charles_ii throne new wooden doors installed west gate end 18th century horse drawn coaches common canterbury lay centre new road system required extensive changes city streets typically narrow easily vehicles destroyed allow wider entrances city riding gate demolished local citizen james built new brick old foundations rapidly occupied new house blocking gateway iron bridge later built site riding gate worth gate demolished reused local garden new entrance built place drum towers water reservoir city gatehouse demolished sections wall cut away allow new roads built walls near public demolished city wall london gate demolished parts canterbury city walls fashionable citizens john gardens built south east corner walls old castle incorporating roman bank medieval wall walk design ownership land disputed park taken control city shortly construction west gate continued city resulting surviving destruction city gates reformer john howard visited noted contained large day room male female prisoners small night rooms courtyard exercise prison reform important issue early 19th century west gate considered unsatisfactory condemned dirty cramped insecure resulting extension pound lane consequent adjacent city wall legal attempt demolish west gate altogether order allow circus march parade elephants city gatehouse saved casting vote canterbury mayor prison closed west gate storage archives museum 20th 21st centuries second world war city walls near john gardens turned ammunition depot dug bank wall german bombing campaigns caused extensive damage canterbury including city walls riding gate bomb damage provided fresh opportunities archaeological investigation work canterbury excavation committee began research older theories shape roman city walls demonstrating roman medieval defences formed identical circuit post war years city walls shaped route canterbury modern ring road system protecting inner core ancient city despite proposals plan radical city road network 1950s stretch canterbury walls reconstructed including circular towers redevelopment george district early 1980s volume traffic west gate causing damage structure building remaining walls west gate protected law scheduled monuments grade listed building architecture canterbury city walls 21st century mixture multiple periods building roman 20th century majority visible walls medieval origin half original circuit survives historians oliver robert consider magnificent britain original medieval towers walls remain intact city west gate survives north gate destroyed 19th century location marked stone marker laid amateur archaeologist walter interwar years moving clockwise circuit mary church incorporates parts walls structure original medieval seen stonework square towers survive walls somewhat reduced height original medieval form converted windows outline marked local road parts roman wall discovered archaeological investigations presented local display towers survive complete original site marked stone stretch wall tower survives period water incorporated 19th century chapel south east stretch walls site riding gate marked 19th century plaque particularly preserved including john gardens public park decorated sculptures towers near stretch wall 1950s original medieval foundations towers survive sites riding gate gate remains near original height retains defensive site gate wall destroyed tower survives converted private house site worth gate marked memorial stone west gate survived excellent condition describe monumental examples town gate architecture constructed flint large circular towers square facing interior built tower 14th century designed hidden sight military appearance west gate hosts local museum cafe final towers survive stretch walls west gate north gate


roman fort roman fort roman province evidence claim suggested roman fort site settlement remains fort located castle hill eastern valley foot overlooking valley hill edge greater manchester fort constructed fell use time 90s replaced smaller built civilian settlement grew served logistical administrative centre abandoned site subject antiquarian archaeological investigation 18th century civilian settlement lay 1990s fort civilian settlement protected scheduled ancient monument recognising importance nationally important archaeological site historic building protecting change location fort situated step eastern valley ridge northern england site clear views valley overshadowed higher ground sides remote exposed lies chester york roman road road crosses area narrows creating pass guarded fort nearest forts manchester miles west miles east line roman road possibly signal station later site fort grid reference history roman fort constructed turf timber built guarded york chester roman road site protected status scheduled ancient monument possible fort previous trenches demonstrated fort phases construction location fort stables headquarters commander tent long narrow buildings possibly workshops known fort small probably home soldiers auxiliary fell use mid 90s allow defences fall potentially hostile hands rome fort fort replaced built turf timber built site fort use foundation trenches construction phases second dating featured gates oven workshop barracks commanders house courtyard building possibly barracks built accommodate soldiers administrative staff officers garrison numbered phase laid lines second phase defences designed withstand attacks hold enemy reinforcements main army arrive withstand determined attack civilian settlement grew early 2nd century probably home benefited trade garrison soldiers unlikely garrison supported suggested administrative logistical centre roman army soldiers regularly arriving collect pay orders supported fell use mid fort superseded neighbouring forts manchester abandoned time fell use according called belonging near position means royal fort suggested location settlement evidence support stamps produced roman wood near suggest supplied iii maybe garrisoned stage similar stamps found forts manchester indicating forts linked post roman abandoned romans rediscovered antiquarian thomas remains good condition draw plan commented pleased find double roman camp remarked roman road manchester running east finest remain roman road england saw site suffered damage 18th 19th centuries situated best draining areas valley local antiquarian poet dug trenches site record results digging continued site bought purpose organised excavation survey continued supervision francis recently involved excavation dig leaving series misleading modern earthworks interior site supervision university manchester excavation undertaken site greater manchester archaeological unit undertook excavations restoration site group led professor jones expert roman britain set work north west water owners site ensured area agriculture attempt site accessible public outline fort marked low education centre set nearby area fort investigated time archaeologists searching civilian settlement associated fort surveys revealed settlement triangular shape south fort listed scheduled ancient monument fort layout fort rectangular shape sides metres metres covering area approximately hectares acres built south fort making difficult discover lay beneath possible buildings lay east fort north south west rectangular sides metres metres covered square metres acres originally thought surrounded single ditch investigation revealed ditches separated metres wide inner ditch metres wide metres deep outer ditch metres wide metres deep ditch defensive shaped ditch ditches surrounding outer face degrees inner face degrees ditches survives metres highest point built turf sandy clay rubble foundation south lay fort corner towers feature unknown evidence remains aside single north east corners survive good condition north south civilian settlement located south defences extent uncertain test pits indicated probably extends metres west east metres metres south

Fortifications and military installations


fortifications fortifications belt series defensive walls fortifications surround capital city malta fortification built fort saint fortifications city proper began built founded grand master jean modifications following centuries major addition fort completed fortifications remain largely intact today city cyprus considered practical example ideal city renaissance fortifications urban life city fortifications known europe 17th century influenced designs fortress book described best fortified cities world today fortifications regarded important fortifications malta form world heritage site history background construction fortified city peninsula proposed order john sent commission inspect islands fortification peninsula militia built tower strengthened proposed city built order focused building fortifications base ottoman force briefly attacked malta sacked captured tripoli result order set commission improve island fortifications demolished fort saint built place fort played significant role great siege malta eventually fell month fierce fighting ottoman general killed knights held relief force arrived siege lifted construction order emerged victorious siege received financial support europe construct new capital city peninsula italian engineer sent pope design city fortifications designed italian system original design consisted ditch city designed grid plan include naval arsenal harbour small ships city stone laid grand master jean march new city called honour city walls structures built city largely complete changes design city constructed constructed arsenal built fort severely damaged siege rebuilt integrated city walls city officially capital city malta seat order march unfinished end 16th century largest settlement malta improvements modifications 17th 18th centuries fortifications strengthened construction consisting land northern end peninsula including fort enclosed known late prevent landing sea despite modifications realized walls strong withstand long siege construction lines commenced land lines modified 18th century later suburb developed area lines land town right flanks city protected 17th 18th century construction santa lines lines fort grand harbour fort fort proposals including construction fortifications implemented french occupation british rule fortifications saw use french invasion malta june order days later june fortifications handed french viewing fortifications napoleon reportedly remarked glad opened gate couple months beginning french occupation people rebelled french blockaded harbour area british portuguese support french managed hold september general british took control islands modifications fortifications british rule significant construction fort alterations included addition batteries concrete gun changes construction gunpowder magazines original demolished replaced larger gates british proposed demolition fortifications number times 19th century proposal major general henry beginning century proposal demolish saint james way military hospital sir john proposed construction citadel high ground peninsula site land surrounding area demolition city proposed demolition entire land suggested eventually fortifications left largely intact demolished located near entrance city site occupied fountain fortifications eventually decommissioned late 19th early 20th centuries parts fort fort battery remained use world war fort decommissioned fortifications included list 1960s 19th century demolished way modern city gate present day plans restore fortifications restoration started project described biggest century evicted public lands fortifications upper fort saint restored lower parts cleaned chapel michael bombed world war rebuilt restoration city gate built 1960s demolished new city gate completed layout land land large approach city consists following michael known western land built demolished 19th century forms hastings gardens john curtain curtain wall linking michael john forms hastings gardens john large angled reconstructed angle forms hastings gardens john overlooking john embassy malta curtain known james curtain curtain wall linking john james city main gate located curtain wall gate rebuilt times present constructed design piano james large angled angle thick dismantled occupied central bank malta car park james overlooking james cultural centre curtain curtain wall linking james peter paul largely dismantled way road leading peter paul corner eastern land upper upper gardens lower contains battery 19th century fort located entire land surrounded deep ditch remains flanking battery ditch unearthed protected following michael built near michael lower tier contains angle small chapel dedicated chapel destroyed world war rebuilt john built near john angle contains contains gunpowder magazine currently football ground protected curtain entrance city dismantled 19th century site occupied fountain james built near james angle contains contains gunpowder magazine central platform houses central bank malta annex peter paul built near peter paul angle contains contains gunpowder magazine concrete observation platform surrounded advanced ditch remains filled rubble facing harbour starts michael land ends gregory fort consists following andrew small beneath michael andrew lower originally containing gate demolished early 20th century small located beneath column built destroyed lightning curtain curtain wall linking andrew san originally divided parts allow ships enter breach walled work abandoned san flat faced artillery platform world war air raid shelters dug german curtain small curtain wall north san air raid shelters dug walls referred curtain small curtain wall north curtain air raid shelters dug walls referred english curtain long curtain wall near bay overlooked contains jews port number air raid shelters reconstructed located english french french curtain long curtain wall near bay linked fort saint grand harbour facing grand harbour starts peter paul land ends curtain fort consists following fort known battery battery near peter paul built british war rooms located nearby marina curtain known curtain curtain wall linking peter paul barbara originally contained del gate demolished replaced victoria gate 19th century barbara flat faced low located south corner curtain curtain wall linking barbara christopher christopher today breached way ring road upper contains lower gardens lower contains siege bell war memorial monument unknown soldier low battery built near dismantled way ring road curtain curtain wall linking christopher flat faced containing british gun magazine fort saint fort saint oldest city walls commands entrance grand harbour fort surrounding area consists following upper original star fort consisting flanks faces parade ground barracks large built linking french curtain fort containing surrounded converted magazine later national war museum built fort consists following gregory long left face altered british house pounder cwt guns gregory curtain curtain wall linking gregory conception contains british gun conception known ball small containing number gun magazines gun crew accommodation sir alexander ball buried curtain curtain wall linking conception john contains gun inch ton gun british modifications john known large point tip peninsula contains british gun magazines curtain known curtain long curtain wall linking john contains number british gun blocks located area upper


castle ruined medieval castle located les overlooking river historical normandy upper normandy france located kilometres north west paris kilometres construction began auspices richard simultaneously king england feudal duke normandy castle expensive build majority work unusually short time took years time town constructed complex advanced design uses early principles concentric fortification earliest european castles use castle consists separated dry inner enclosure captured french king philip lengthy siege century castle residence exiled david scotland castle changed hands times years war french king captured english king definitively remained french ownership henry france ordered demolition ruins time felt threat security local population castle ruins listed monument french ministry culture inner bailey open public march november outer open year history background richard inherited normandy father henry_ii ascended throne england rivalry french king richard king england powerful king france despite fact richard vassal french king paid homage lands country richard crusade joined philip france wary invade territory absence richard captured imprisoned return journey england released february richard absence brother john revolted aid philip philip conquests period richard imprisonment normandy took richard normandy construction high river important transport route site manor identified naturally position valley site town grand terms treaty january richard philip king allowed site despite richard intended build castle purpose protect normandy philip helped fill gap norman defences left fall miles away castle belonged philip act base richard launch campaign norman french control richard tried obtain manor negotiation walter archbishop reluctant sell manor diocese profitable lands belonging diocese recently damaged war philip besieged normandy richard grew tired waiting seized manor act opposed church attempt pope iii walter left rome november richard sent delegation represent rome party richard lord chancellor william bishop died journey rest including philip bishop durham bishop arrived rome walter issued normandy prohibited church services performed region roger detailed bodies dead lying streets square cities normandy construction began hanging normandy later repealed april richard gifts land walter diocese including prosperous port site fortified town constructed time grand known les castle sits high limestone les overlooking bend river castle connected series contemporary king richard reign crown expenditure castles declined levels spent henry_ii richard father attributed concentration resources richard war king france work cost estimated richard spent estimated castles england reign similar father henry_ii pipe rolls construction contain earliest details work organised castle building activities involved mentioned rolls miners stone lime workers water carriers soldiers guard workers cut ditch surrounding castle transported raw materials castle master mason omitted military historian allen brown suggested richard overall architect supported interest richard showed work frequent presence castle built considerable expense built relatively rapidly construction large stone castles took better decade instance work dover castle took place cost richard present construction ensure construction proceeded rate happy according william richard labourers working castle rain blood advisers thought rain evil richard king moved pace work took keen pleasure mistaken angel descended heaven urge abandonment cursed year approaching completion richard remarked fair year old daughter richard later boasted hold castle walls butter castle largely completed point castle site execution french soldiers retaliation massacre welsh mercenaries ambushed french thrown deaths castle position high surrounding landscape final years castle richard favourite residence charters written bearing fair castle rock richard enjoy benefits castle long died april infected arrow wound shoulder sustained besieging siege richard death king john england failed effectively defend normandy philip ongoing campaigns fell philip forces castles philip simultaneously besieged french forces june effectively ending norman independence philip laid siege captured long siege september march philip continued siege winter king john attempt relieve castle matter time forced main source siege poem william philip chaplain result modern scholars paid little attention fate civilians les siege local population sought refuge castle escape french soldiers ravaged town castle supplied siege extra mouths feed rapidly diminished stores non combatants allowed inside increasing number people castle effort alleviate pressure castle supplies roger evicted civilians group allowed pass french lines second group similar size days later philip present learned safe passage civilians forbade people allowed siege lines idea people possible drain resources roger evicted remaining civilians castle people possibly group allowed french opened fire civilians turned castle safety found gates locked sought refuge base castle walls months winter half number died exposure starvation philip arrived february ordered survivors fed released treatment civilians uncommon scenes repeated later years war french gained access ward towers following philip ordered group men look weak point castle gained access ward soldier named found use french chapel guards setting fire buildings philip men lowered allowed rest army castle anglo norman troops retreated inner ward short time french successfully breached gate inner ward garrison retreated finally supplies running low roger garrison knights soldiers surrendered french army bringing siege end march drawn medieval contemporary writers emphasised importance supplies capitulation garrison case siege castle french control main obstacle french entering valley removed able enter valley normandy time given normandy directly ruled french king city surrendered philip june rest normandy easily conquered french french control prison margaret future queens france convicted adultery tour affair having heads shaved locked away fortress following scottish defeat battle hill second war scottish independence child king david certain court forced flee france safety time southern scotland occupied forces king edward iii england david years old bride joan tower year old daughter edward granted use philip remained residence david return scotland david stay english hands long return captured battle cross endured year captivity tower london years war english french crowns possession castle switched times saint castles normandy offered resistance henry england capitulation rest besieged year surrendered english december resisting castles saint eventually fell normandy temporarily returned english control mercenary known hire captured french english revived capture execution joan arc war turning month later captured french gained english forced region castle taken french time state believed castle posed threat local population repaired request french states general king henry ordered demolition building material reused monks granted permission use stone maintaining monasteries demolition came end site left ruin classified monument conference contributions medieval military architecture held les allen brown attended conference remarked castle satisfying care attention journal published result conference run volumes based international conferences subject castles 1990s archaeological excavations carried excavations investigated north fortress searching entrance architect entrance found excavation reveal addition north castle enable use guns structure dated 16th century conclusion excavations site enormous archaeological potential unanswered questions castle philip took repaired collapsed tower outer bailey gain access castle archaeological investigation examined tower generally thought collapsed philip recover dating evidence consensus completely rebuilt tower conjunction archaeological work efforts preserve remaining structures today inner bailey open public march november outer open year round layout innovations consists inner middle outer main entrance castle called inner bailey separated rock cut ditches housed castle stables workshops storage facilities common extant castles result phases construction adapted added period use essentially result period building division bears similarities design built henry_ii century overlooking town outer bailey southernmost feature castle pentagon shaped towers spaced wall corners north outer bailey middle bailey irregular like outer bailey wall middle bailey towers towers allowed garrison provide fire fashion time towers curtain walls middle outer cylindrical castles europe use stone projections wall openings allowed objects dropped enemy base wall introduced western architecture result 13th century tops towers european castles usually surrounded wooden galleries served purpose eastern innovation originated half 8th century middle bailey inner bailey gatehouse middle inner bailey earliest examples towers flanking entrance remove blind spot immediately gate wider trend late 12th 13th century onwards castle strongly defended design inner bailey wall semi circular projections innovation advantages firstly rounded wall absorbed damage siege engines better provide perfect angle aim secondly curved wall allowed arrows fired angles inner bailey contained main residential buildings principles concentric defence unusual design inner bailey curtain wall meant castle advanced age built concentric fortification fully developed castles des concentric castles widely copied europe instance edward england crusade built castles wales late 13th century founded concentric inside inner bailey contained king accommodation rooms audience room allen brown interpreted audience room king chamber historian believes probably throne room throne room political importance castle england similar buildings similar design france 12th 13th centuries allen brown described finest castles europe military historian sir charles wrote occasion mention considered masterpiece time reputation builder lion great military engineer stand firm single structure mere models seen east introduced original details invention stronghold despite reputation great fortress highlights absence peculiar weakness castle built soft chalk allowed walls undermined attributed important solely military structure symbol power richard statement dominance richard having lands philip taken castles france dover england advanced age surpassed cost works edward england half 13th century


cow tower cow tower artillery tower river norfolk england built city authorities response threat france indigenous english rebels tower intended defend north eastern approach hand cannons stood apart main city walls close river height allowed fire higher ground opposite city tower designed hold garrison required furnished probably different floors dining sleeping maintained 15th century played role rebellion rebels attacked deploying artillery damaging tower repairs tower walls late 19th century inadvertently caused long term damage taken ministry works condition year conservation project 21st century cow tower managed english_heritage city_council tower shell floors roof building lost circular tower metres metres high divided storeys walls metres thick base core flint stone faced inside outside brick archaeologist smith considers feature finest medieval england walls smaller pieces artillery roof supported heavier wide giving weapons adequate firing space cow tower specially designed support use gunpowder artillery making rare structure england period close god house tower southampton west gate canterbury history 14th century cow tower artillery tower built city norfolk england prosperous city late 14th century population involved key medieval industries forming centre international trade city erected circuit defensive stone walls ditches impress outsiders status great city defend invasion civil disorder fears grew threat french raids england onward citizens particularly concerned potential french raid city drawing parallels position experience southampton trading city devastated french attack threat combined recent events peasant revolt rebels looted city encouraged local government improve city defences gunpowder weapons begun introduced england early 14th century initially offensive siege weapons rapidly adapted defensive purposes expensive potential value defending castles city walls understood specialised facilities begun built acquired gunpowder weapons team gunners gunpowder pieces use city walls typically small guns called hand cannons heavier pieces termed tower built approaches bend river meadow called acquired current built initially called dungeon tower hospital meadows surrounding land hospital intended function specialised artillery tower housing gunpowder weaponry capable suppressing attackers far river narrow point tower defences relatively limited value enemy successfully crossed historical references earlier tower area responsible collecting tolls acting prison unclear site cow tower refers different tower area cow tower fortifications stretch river gatehouse bishop bridge lying south followed boom towers controlled access kilometre river tower positioned metres river north cow tower directly city walls protective timber linked tower line city wall north west ran south meet bishop bridge city accounts details payments construction tower including charges bricks stone sand lime equipment stone mentioned bricks brought site river boat timber brought great total cost building records including labour came number bricks tower probably twice listed number purchased city bricks location build 15th 16th centuries cow tower formed city defences 15th century crown occasionally issuing instructions repaired hospital formally transferred rights tower immediately surrounding land city population grew significantly onwards city continued maintain urban defences like towers belonging city period cow tower probably leased merchant military use robert led uprising norfolk marching army camped north east river overlooking cow tower rebel attacks river hospital meadows attempt bishop bridge given access city brought artillery turned cow tower damaging rebellion failed tower required extensive repairs 17th 21st centuries city walls demolished late 18th 19th century city cow tower avoided destruction tower owned trustees great hospital carried repairs structure late 19th century british_army considered repairing tower use ammunition depot repairs 19th century modern concrete walls combined erosion river soon caused extensive damage wide splits formed tower northern ministry works took tower address problems promptly undertook extensive sequence repairs lasted archaeological investigation carried works architectural survey building carried historic buildings monuments commission 21st century cow tower managed english_heritage city_council tower shell floors roof lost tower protected law scheduled monument architecture cow tower story circular building protruding turret main building metres metres tall tapering walls metres thick base core flint stone faced inside outside brick holes seen walls turret contained spiral staircase originally higher forming look position walls rest stone layers flint bricks probably abbey norfolk stone coming chalk pits near southern gates particularly particularly executed archaeologist smith considers tower feature finest medieval england earliest known use brick external load capacity use brick sort fortification prestigious practical brick absorbed impact artillery fire better stone river bends metre tower base timber piles original construction cow tower deliberately designed house gunpowder artillery built making rare form defensive structure time england god house tower southampton west gate canterbury historians oliver robert far consider building unique britain god house extension existing building west gate city walled circuit concept isolated artillery tower common france temporary permanent defensive features years war english french kings lower levels hand cannons overlapping fields fire roof reinforced large timber joints supported heavier possibly wheeled carriages tower considerable height allowed reach river higher ground overlooking city getting roof required hoisted formed accounts tower construction tower gun installations intended deal external threat approaching far river roof wide facing river constructed flush floor roof giving plenty room fire facing away river sloping open positions windows tower facing city rectangular relatively unprotected entrance tower fortified tower expected defended direct attack land tower designed able maintain garrison required furnished ground floor second floor second floors having ground floor formed dining area floors military purposes sleeping accommodation walls ground floor chasing cut unclear theories include contained support turn supported floor held supported floor remains ammunition store tower 16th century


fort fort fort point malta built order saint john protect entrance harbour oldest forts world fort extensively altered british 19th century remained use military fort restored early 21st century good condition malta tentative list world heritage sites knights fortifications malta history background failed proposals watch post existed santa maria known point fort post probably small structure manned persons peninsula played significant role great siege malta invading ottomans built battery order bombard fort saint siege peninsula known point ottoman proposal build fortification point italian military engineer proposed fortified city known design similar fort proposal probably lack funds second proposal time build year later jacob proposed construction large artillery battery similar coastal batteries built malta coastline time battery fort built northern shore peninsula proposed early built construction designs fort eventually possibly threat french invasion commissioned grand master designed newly appointed engineer order construction began supervision completed july fort named knight military engineer jacob recognition long years service order paid construction new fort paid donated rest funds paid new fort small eighteenth century standards similar large fort despite design considered revolutionary earliest forts built world fort major fortification built order saint john completion fort nearby battery decommissioned converted private residence proposal build fortified city occupying entire peninsula fort like earlier proposals late 17th early 18th centuries plan french invasion occupation fort saw use french invasion malta june time commanded knight joseph maria von garrison men volunteer light infantry regiment ship san militia fort armed guns mortars follows guns pounder guns pounder guns pounder guns pounder guns shell firing mortars stone firing mortars fort fortifications actively tried resist invasion june french attempted capture minor skirmish successfully repelled fort fired guns support counterattack order navy french prevented french ships entering june french bombarded fort land sea fort garrison fought commander managed bring ammunition june bombardment fort continued french captured fort militia left fort reducing garrison men end day ammunition run parts fort damaged bombardment soldiers attempted escape french captured fort french hands june subsequent uprising insurrection french rule insurgents built batteries facing fort held french armament reduced guns follows seven pounder guns pounder guns pounder guns pounder guns british rule fort officially taken british military september permanently garrisoned parts damaged french occupation repaired major changes initially years british occupation fort armed guns fourteen pounder guns pounder guns pounder 1860s british saw fort perfection small fort flanks capable considerable resistance prototype forts world armed mainly pounder guns circular demolished way single gun mounted traversing platform similar ones found towers fort armed eighteen pounder guns inch guns pounder major modifications demolished way inch ton guns remainder fort underwent significant changes following years 1880s british considered fort replacing larger fortification proposed instead demolition height reduced level 1890s gun breech loading guns built modifications parts structure converted gun crew accommodation magazines defence point enhanced construction cambridge battery garden battery built covering area cambridge battery fort blocks constructed rest peninsula early 20th century fort included list damaged aerial bombardment world war recent history british troops left malta fort abandoned fell state disrepair parts point plant early 2000s point peninsula redeveloped british barracks demolished high rise apartments built instead restored fort project alterations british gun repaired gardens built number proposals use building including catering facilities military museum exhibition space art gallery layout design fort mainly based work final design resulted revolutionary fortification oldest forts world noticeable feature fort circular modeled bears similarities tour built malta early 18th century surviving example tower rows roof contained replaced sloping mount single gun 1860s contains main gate commemorative plaque main body fort consisted diamond shaped structure flanks faces faces right flank originally dismantled late 19th century british located centre fort main structure surrounded ditch galleries significantly altered british british built breech loading guns fort


raf raf known time raf lime grove hms ministry defence site london borough british government site second world war constructing military hospital preparation casualties day landings required purpose later park operations time royal_air_force technicians navy supported operations closed soon end war headquarters government communications headquarters park operations including computers moved renamed remained new agency moved purpose built headquarters buildings site general post office support united_states air forces europe air_force 7th air division sac activities raf south ministry defence project model site surplus military requirements sold redeveloped new housing site cleared total new homes approved construction development park chosen reflect heritage site history coming ownership british government land site built mainly open fields public dating crossed area high road field end road cricket matches played field institute second world war land government owners telling brothers buildings site constructed use military hospital preparation military casualties normandy landings subsequently clear required purpose barracks navy park established outpost site known second world war hms house machines german messages total machines operated controlled raf technicians detachment american personnel stationed separate area operating machines site split blocks block sited near lime grove housed personnel accommodation administrative services block protected brick walls military police contained computers public passed blocks level security meant support staff administrative block know activities block local residents end war dismantled recycled maintaining secrecy operations operations park government code school moved april crown purchased estate proximity meant staff far london site known london signals intelligence centre years later july government communications headquarters began new purpose built buildings completed february aside operations general post office established training school women teacher training college opened ministry aviation opened training school site blocks built south east area site blocks adapted original conditions new uses division remained site blocks aerial masts erected division nearby train line electrified removed year left united_states_air_force established non flying base raf south coordinate air_force 7th air division sac activities great_britain british government school children american service personnel established site 1950s 1960s joined dental mental health united_states military continued use buildings site closure redevelopment acre site sold ministry defence project model ministry defence estates london programme reduce number military sites greater london area george purchased site planning build new homes entire site cleared building commenced george taylor corporate merger submitted application build homes site report london borough planning department rejected proposal december year grounds site local residents raised concern november year leader council explained council control planning laws new development completed entirely residents began newly built houses december development named park recognition heritage site roads play area received names related wartime went


main navy munitions buildings main navy munitions buildings constructed constitution avenue known street washington national mall park provide temporary quarters united_states military buildings constructed navy bureau yards docks united_states department war occupying munitions building buildings resistant fire buildings constructed concrete solid construction temporary buildings remained use long end world war august secretary war relocated offices state war navy building old executive office building munitions building department war headquarters remained munitions building early years world war space available pentagon construction munitions building turned navy department war completely vacated munitions building construction pentagon completed buildings suffered structural problems 1960s december president richard_nixon announced buildings demolished plan carried land reclaimed turned constitution gardens vietnam veterans memorial built near munitions building site early 1980s construction constructing munitions main navy buildings idea conceived franklin roosevelt assistant secretary navy forth idea president wilson roosevelt originally suggested temporary building placed president wilson disliked idea building white_house lawn roosevelt suggested placing buildings national mall park street renamed constitution avenue near lincoln memorial roosevelt wanted ugly wooden buildings people want tear right away world war buildings fire resistant concrete steel materials recommended roosevelt later expressed regret allowing building constructed saying didn think let gates heaven responsible parks washington project originally intended navy department war wanted project buildings proposed concrete construction expensive wood frame building congress accepted proposal concrete buildings approved funds project march task design construction buildings given navy bureau yards docks buildings completed months munitions building munitions building constructed contained square feet space stories designed provide temporary accommodations department war employees world war war department greatly expanded end war main navy munitions building housed military personnel including secretary navy large parking lot feet wide mile long located rear munitions building space accommodate approximately cars small exhibits display corridors munitions buildings showing military uniforms types gas masks military daily rations army photographs munitions building separated main navy building vehicle 19th street main entrance munitions building located 20th street munitions building total wings end world war munitions building housed technical branches including general united_states_army corps engineers ordnance corps chemical warfare service signal corps army air service march army finance office moved munitions building february plans forth build oil steam plant main navy munitions building november army inspector general office organized reserves welfare section secretary office office chief moved munitions building national_guard bureau housed munitions building army industrial college headquarters time munitions building constructed war department headquartered state war navy building completed located 17th street white_house 1930s war department department state white_house need additional office space august secretary war harry acting chief staff army george marshall moved office munitions building late 1930s new war department building constructed 21st streets completion new building solve department space problem ended department state help deal space shortage fourth story added main navy munitions buildings world war coming office world war breaking europe secretary war henry faced situation war department spread numerous buildings washington maryland virginia munitions building july congress authorized funding new department war building arlington virginia house entire department roof office space available pentagon completed wing secretary war vacated munitions building moved pentagon department war vacated munitions building construction pentagon completed department navy took munitions building department war relocated building placed navy material systems command offices munitions building world war signal intelligence service located munitions building early years world war september signal intelligence service able break japan purple department war continued receive intercepted messages magic including final messages japanese embassy washington attack pearl harbor main navy main navy building navy time built demolished building contained square feet space wings connected munitions building elevated covered walkway navy offices housed main navy building soon opened included bureau navigation bureau supplies accounts bureau steam engineering bureau construction repair bureau yards docks bureau ordnance bureau medicine surgery secretary navy offices naval operations compensation board later navy offices moved main navy including navy red_cross examining board retiring board previously housed courts apartment building converted offices office united_states marine_corps moved main navy navy annex building located new_york avenue 18th street united_states_coast_guard relocated building navy department library relocated main navy building small reinforced concrete roof main navy building radio communication training criticism main navy munitions buildings disliked going intentions peter charles making national mall open space surrounded aesthetically pleasing government buildings munitions navy buildings described scores sprung like mushrooms war despite dislike solid construction concerned buildings remain long period demolition munitions building housed approximately employees navy army air_force veterans administration department state decades use building experienced structural problems late 1950s 1960s including cracked concrete piers numerous interior cracked bent walls settling floors buildings constructed damp foundations settling portions buildings declared unsafe resulting approximately employees relocating facilities december president richard_nixon announced plan main navy munitions buildings plan involved moving navy employees new buildings crystal city areas arlington virginia main navy munitions buildings remained mall demolished 1970s constitution gardens built site main navy munitions buildings vietnam veterans memorial built nearby early 1980s


lines lines line fortifications malta surround fortifications form capital city outer defences construction lines began named military engineer designed lines modified course 17th 18th centuries saw use french blockade today fortifications largely intact dilapidated need restoration lines considered complicated elaborate fortifications malta tentative list world heritage sites knights fortifications malta history background controversy construction city founded march jean grand master order john city occupied half peninsula large separating grand harbour harbour protected fortifications including land deep ditch fortifications designed early 17th century strong resist large attack new technological developments increased range artillery fears ottomans attack malta grand master asked pope urban viii help improving island fortifications pope sent examine defences proposed building second line fortifications land members order number military engineers strongly opposed plans large garrison needed man lines deemed expensive eventually decided construct lines improper disagree pope military engineer resigned post commission fortifications protest work lines began ceremony carried commemorate laying foundation stone controversy surrounding construction fortification expensive new grand master imposed new tax property tax created dispute order clergy protested pope priests influenced population national protest plans leaked authorities leaders arrested fortifications named lines architect june lines considered partially incomplete improvements modifications fears ottoman attack rose fall following year grand master invited military engineer improve fortifications time lines construction number weak points identified original design especially forming land acute defended attempted correct flaws making number alterations san western end lines constructing entire land crowned near eastern end minor modifications flemish engineer work modifications lines progressed slowly beginning 18th century facing unfinished works continued number engineers including charles lines largely complete des constructed alterations following decades construction northern suburb founded area lines land suburb named grand master commonly known town right french occupation british rule french forces invaded malta june order couple days french occupied island september rebelled blockaded french forces harbour area foreign help lines remained french control blockade built battery battery order bombard british took malta lines remained functional military establishment number minor alterations including des demolition gates addition gunpowder magazines traverses recent history fortifications included list listed national inventory cultural property islands 1970s parts destroyed way large storage tanks today lines intact parts dilapidated state need restoration layout land land large approach consists following known san heavily altered course 17th 18th centuries notre dame curtain curtain wall linking san philip contained notre dame gate partially demolished 1920s accommodate traffic requirements philip large angled centre land following james luke anne curtain curtain wall linking philip francis contained anne gate replaced larger gate larger gate demolished facilitate flow traffic francis large linked grand harbour mark land surrounded ditch contains following san near san san notre dame facing creek damaged aerial bombardment world war notre dame known lower near notre dame curtain san philip number modern government buildings located open area notre dame philip damaged aerial bombardment world war damage repaired des philip francis demolished early 20th century way modern road francis known upper near anne curtain philip francis malta environment planning authority offices located open area surrounded advanced ditch gate known built gate enlarged british known des eventually detached facilitate flow traffic looks like arch crowned consisting inner outer located near francis protected gallery overlooking near land near flank facing harbour starts san land originally ended michael land consists following small forms land curtain long curtain wall base hay wharf cemetery built upper 19th century unnamed curtain wall breached modern road addition known north located entire acting secondary line defence grand harbour facing grand harbour starts francis land ends peter paul land consists following known magazine linked francis land contains 18th century gunpowder magazine curtain wall linking platform near curtain flat faced platform near curtain curtain curtain wall linking platform large containing 19th century gunpowder magazine concrete inch gun removed curtain curtain wall linking breached modern road linking peter paul land


town walls town walls medieval defensive structure town north wales walls constructed foundation edward designed form integrated system defence alongside castle walls long include towers project completed large quantities labourers brought england cost building castle walls came huge sum period walls slightly damaged rebellion political changes 16th century reduced need maintain defences town fortifications treated development road railway systems 19th century survived largely intact modern period today walls form world heritage site administered historians oliver robert describe defences impressive walled circuits europe history 13th century english construction town site occupied abbey monastery favoured welsh princes site controlled important crossing point river coastal inland areas north wales defended years castle english kings welsh princes control region conflict renewed 13th century leading edward intervening north wales second time reign edward invaded huge army pushing north westwards montgomery chester edward captured march decided location form centre new county abbey relocated miles inland new english castle walled town built monastery site ruined castle abandoned rebuilt edward plan colonial enterprise placing new town walls high status native welsh site symbolic act demonstrate english power traditionally design defences thought inspired growth new planned towns created france english held period characterised straight streets defended combinations castles town walls recent research shown english town design played significant role shaping town plans analysis new towns wales england period identified common similarities design featuring street plan stretching away coast river aligned castle usually positioned corner street plan forms mirror image example ditches protected stone wall walls built time castle overall supervision master james saint george edward chief architect north wales summer huge numbers labourers england chester brought wales building season phase work walls involved digging ditches future town secure area order allow work commence stone walls towers constructed phases richard engineer master james second command north wales built western walls vulnerable town deliberately given priority john francis mason finished south wall remainder walls eastern completed supervision philip edward separate costs town walls castle total cost projects came huge sum period 14th 18th centuries new town populated english settlers particularly nearby lancashire town walls designed encourage immigrants settle safety town successful properties paying rent king making successful neighbouring welsh residents appear slowly arrived inside town 14th century subject considerable suspicion protecting town remained priority period constable charged security castle mayor protecting town walls probably duty citizens forces attached castle walls guarded improved firing positions built town walls start 14th century welsh prince rose rebellion english rule cousins took control castle despite defensive walls town occupied months sacked welsh forces townspeople complained worth damage including destruction gates bridges town walls century later records walls repaired henry_viii preparation potential royal visit ascension tudor dynasty english throne heralded change way wales administered welsh origin rule eased hostilities welsh english military importance defences declined townspeople walls defensive ditches rubbish parts town walls robbed stone period use construction local buildings 19th 21st centuries 19th century changes town walls order accommodate new railway line roads engineer thomas built new walls accommodate traffic new suspension bridge river robert constructed chester railway line ran unusually period attempts protect appearance medieval fortifications entrance railway walls south town built form mock gothic exit tunnel dug western walls interest town walls grew 19th century towers restored wall walk opened tourists walls surveyed time results published town walls leased local authority ministry works effort began conserve protect fortifications houses buildings grown walls 14th century removed effort improve appearance walled circuit assist conservation archaeological work 19th century inserted demolished arnold taylor prominent historian castles conducted extensive academic work history architecture walls 1950s 1960s adding prominence today walls managed welsh heritage organisation tourist attraction form popular walk town walls safe tourists use walls require ongoing maintenance financial year example cost terms walls declared world heritage site classed grade listed building hold scheduled monument status considered historians oliver robert impressive walled circuits europe architecture town walls today present largely long triangular circuit town hectares acres thanks remaining relatively small town unusually preserved built local limestone castle additional stone upper parts eastern walls built historical record shows walls unclear precisely involved implies walls simply bare stone possibly surviving towers gap backed lacking walls inside towers originally included wooden bridges allow sections walls sealed attackers tops walls feature unusual design uses sequence provide flat relatively wide wall walk east walls emerge castle chester road enters town east towers gate lower gate giving access town features substantially altered original medieval appearances lower gate equipped twin towers controlled access prior construction bridge ferry estuary wall originally high places later raised current height stone early 14th century west walls include towers rising upwards south west corner towers significantly affected 19th century developments converted entrance way road whilst suffered deep caused excavation chester railway tunnel remaining stretch walls stone design originally town walls western wall originally extended river ending round tower lost similar spur arrangement seen chester lincoln walls stretch south town towers upper gate formed main inland entrance town medieval period addition twin towers originally protected stone stonework remains rare survival town period lived entrance medieval period original defensive ditch filled replaced modern road second gatehouse mill gate designed allow access royal lay outside main town similarly features twin protective towers remains hall grand building originally built town walls edward dismantled moved castle walls mock gothic built accommodate local railway possibly drawing similar designs chester unique set medieval built southern town walls constructed use royal staff working adjacent buildings 13th century


hall hall fortified manor house england dating constructed son law william held family 19th century initially taking form design built central hall story stone tower added providing additional security acting status symbol family start 17th century new stone hall added south tower able retain hall despite challenges english civil war house caught early 19th century hall pulled way new farmhouse tower survived 21st century tower care english_heritage operates tourist attraction history 15th 16th centuries hall originally built village south son law william held manor 12th century providing military service regional feudal lords exchange land built earlier manor house different site possibly close village church hall initially constructed central hall cross wings wing containing family living accommodation kitchen service rooms style popular time england generally william descendants owned lived hall 19th century storey tower survives today built western end range replacing existing buildings houses towers common period towers added subsequently tower probably constructed grandson william tower probably built response security situation troubled anglo scottish border time social statement status wealth family provided additional accommodation timber building built early 15th century south tower probably provide chambers 17th 18th centuries start 17th century possibly new hall built stone replace older timber framed positioned south replacing earlier 15th century extension new hall slightly having floor unlike new halls period storeys old hall probably adapted use service area investment family fortunes began deteriorate english civil war broke supporters king charles parliament thomas royalist supporter found losing war fined parliament royalist surrounding manor sir john hall lands immediately north mortgage led prolonged legal dispute john grandson successfully claimed estates exchange giving work property early 18th century providing additional service room impacted hall close scottish border william owner abducted scottish soldiers shortly skirmish occupied looted rebel forces 19th 21st centuries early 19th century medieval structure property limiting owners buildings tower pulled allow construction hall farm including modern farm house tower survived farm building estate owned hall farm placed tower department environment decided open public archaeological excavation site took place making handful sites investigated way 21st century tower care english_heritage tourist attraction protected law scheduled monument architecture surviving hall early 16th century tower wing hall referred tower despite label construction date relatively late compared similar fortifications designed equivalent towers region tower measures red sandstone walls thick high ground floor originally carved wooden ceiling fireplace doors leading externally hall originally stairs reach ground floor floor formed principal chamber tower accessed stairs hall fireplace walls painted wood stairs led second floor equipped fireplace wood roof original windows survive tower remain larger older suggesting built defence mind earlier towers originals mainly replaced 18th century versions original roof resembled nearby hall replaced later date current roof design probably late 16th 17th centuries current roof restored


castle castle large uniquely shaped roman fort latin north west england known romans fort built early 2nd century partly demolished rebuilt roman forts normally playing card shaped rectangular rounded corners castle shaped fit available site addition complex defensive earthworks known fort roman empire multiple banks ditches outside usual stone fort appears sited control protect lead mining area support border defences wall fort surveyed thomas 19th century historian 20th survey 21st fully excavated finds fort inscriptions hercules 6th legion roman army normally stationed york apollo fort garrison 2nd finds include containing shoes coins fragments pottery nails bronze handle shaped like situation castle sea level hills border northumberland lies west modern road way long distance roman era situated south wall north main road ran northwest york southeast maiden way road connected wall york road castle isolated roman sites britain help explain remains largely survived site shaped spur high ground castle hill farm permanent pasture remains lie grass clearly seen aerial photographs roman fort covers acres outside system concentric defensive ditches fort sited exert control area near lead mines provide support wall roman fort built early 2nd century partly demolished rebuilt destruction uprising northern tribes fort modified wholly rebuilt year appears preceded iron age fort followed roman camp permanent fort constructed ways typical roman fort inside wall straight roads cross headquarters building commandant house set blocks auxiliary soldiers store food usual bath house temple dedicated emperor outside wall altar mentioned hercules unique features firstly fort military engineers modified usual rectangular plan suit available site distorted internal features fort similarly distorted barracks fitted headquarters building limited area hectares acres secondly wall surrounded steep defensive ditches banks hill spur seven spur constitute complex defensive earthworks known roman fort multiple banks ditches outside usual stone inscriptions found provide evidence roman army units fort inscribed leg god hercules loyal faithful erected regular army legion based york altar inscribed god apollo commander 2nd fulfilled inscriptions naming 2nd lower rhine date altar big stone slab supported columns topped coin dated little archaeological research taken place castle john excavated bath house north east corner leather shoes recovered roman rubbish tip henderson cutting drainage ditch thomas surveyed fort describing waste follows north multiple ditches remains supposed cemetery station variety antiquarian perfect remains roman strange appear furnished loads excellent neighbouring fields hitherto productive interesting fort surveyed described roman britain noted fort uniquely shape extraordinary set defensive northern pottery excavated 1950s suggested fort constructed time wall survey english_heritage showed large roman civilian settlement north west fort artefacts found include coins pottery glass objects jet inscribed stones university durham carried survey english_heritage project absence excavation archaeologists exploited uncover roman artefacts earth thrown animals finds include fragments roman table pottery rim fragments serving jet iron nails bronze bath house likely handle instrument like razor roman fort given geography town area tribe northeastern england probably means property estate celtic british local leader tribe protection site privately owned castle farm scheduled ancient monument profit company heritage secured heritage lottery fund grant develop programme events fort include website guided tours public survey days volunteers educational events schools


polish bureau interwar polish general staff second department organizational unit charged use codes study codes particularly purpose breaking precursor agency bureau created polish soviet war played vital role securing poland survival war bureau formed merger pre existing agencies december bureau began breaking germany seven years polish overcame growing structural operating equipped bureau broke soviet weeks outbreak world war july warsaw polish bureau revealed techniques equipment representatives french british military intelligence unable polish intelligence technology transfer allies unprecedented advantage ultra ultimately victorious prosecution world war precursor polish army section precursor bureau created section reported polish general staff contributed substantially poland defense forces polish soviet war helping preserve poland independence recently regained wake world war section included codes loose polish term refers principal categories opposite practice english loosely refers codes codes polish soviet war russian broken sizable polish included army lieutenant jan world famous professors mathematics russian army following ill disciplined signals security procedures army world war decisive advantage german enemy result polish soviet war polish military regularly kept informed russian signals stations movements russian armies intentions operational orders russian according polish colonel sending messages operational nature means periods war purposes operational communications purposes command higher means communication messages transmitted entirely clear means incredibly system trained specialists reading messages child play held personnel stations discipline crucial month august polish signals soviet general commander northern soviet war commanders armies commander army commander horse army commander cavalry corps armies group named city group ukrainian town group general infantry divisions cavalry division etc rule day latest day immediately sent polish general staff section intelligence operational section important signals read entirety chief general staff commander chief marshal interception reading signals provided polish intelligence entire russian operational orders poles able follow operation horse army second half august incredible precision monitoring correspondence including famous historic conflict russian commanders included order revolutionary council war western confirming operational orders giving authority supreme chief soviet armed forces entire operational order intercepted august read august stating tasks armies essence previously known soviets likewise intercepted polish operational signals doubts polish stood abreast modern small number polish higher headquarters equipped radio stations great shortage finally polish headquarters cautious russians polish division use land line polish enjoyed generous support command col chief polish general staff section intelligence worked warsaw radio station war polish long range radio time polish work led things discovery large gap red army left flank enabled poland marshal drive war winning wedge gap august battle warsaw discovery bureau archives decades polish soviet war borne assertion radio intelligence furnished polish commander chief years complete current intelligence aspects functioning red army especially units operating anti polish radio intelligence large degree determined course military operations conducted poland january fighting march operation april operation ukraine battles second battles cavalry army battle battles warsaw bureau polish general staff bureau formed merging radio intelligence office polish office bureau charged generation supervision use codes study codes particularly purpose breaking bureau took additional responsibilities including radio communications military intelligence posts poland abroad radio mobile direction finding intercept stations locating traffic analysis spy fifth column operating poland stalking late early arrived warsaw customs office germany package according accompanying declaration supposed contain radio equipment german firm representative demanded package returned germany going customs shipped equipment mistake demands alerted customs officials notified polish general staff bureau took keen interest new developments radio technology happened saturday afternoon bureau experts ample time look matter carefully opened box found fact contain radio equipment machine examined machine box bureau leading commented machine commercial model time military model devised trivial episode practical importance fix date bureau interest machine began manifested initially entirely legal acquisition single commercial model july german machine messages broadcast german military radio stations polish monitoring stations began polish bureau german section instructed try read effort fruitless eventually abandoned remained slight evidence effort form densely written sheets paper commercial model machine january major tour duty chief staff 1st legion infantry division chief radio intelligence office subsequently bureau bureau deputy chief chief german section captain bureau predecessor agency headed major relative outstanding world war austro hungarian army captain civilian bureau employee taught secret course university selected mathematics students years later world war france students discover entire course taught french general book course published september hired young graduates course bureau staff members successes setbacks german_navy adopted device modified civilian machine german_army followed suit complexity system increased introduction albeit connecting leads use december historian david describes greatest advances history applying pure mathematics theory groups breaking german armed forces machine worked precise bureau received french military intelligence captain german documents pages daily keys september october year obtained french military intelligence agent german agent worked germany office berlin french worked military logical structure polish bureau commissioned radio company owned build doubles specifications method messages exploited weaknesses german operating procedures called characteristics independent connections involved compiling card catalog certain features set indicator settings germans increased difficulty messages decreasing interval changes order quarterly initially monthly february daily october year increased number leads number varied method easy relied letter pairs german_navy security conscious army air_force introduced new secure indicator procedure remained years setback occurred november changed different known worked new catalog characteristics compiled built specifications radio company january colonel mayer directed statistics compiled week period comparing numbers messages solved ratio came percent commented percent limit possibilities slightly augmented personnel attained percent read certain material faulty transmission reception causes remains information obtained directed principally german office general staff section intelligence fall mid april worked major jan april turn german office officer form situation office intended wartime service head situation office september campaign system pre defining indicator setting day operators given network method characteristics depended changed september exception network intelligence agency nazi party change july operators chose indicator setting insecure procedure sending message key twice remained use quickly exploited devised manual method sheets commissioned company produce bomb sheet method worked single order sets sheets produced germans introduced new december giving choice assemble machines given day increased number possible orders read small minority messages new resources produce sets sheets fortunately fact network old method indicator setting messages allowed use previous method working information essential production set sheets allowed resumption large scale january january germans military difficult break increasing number connections seven world war broke september colleagues working years establish german order battle succeeded working nearly percent german attack poland came surprise polish general staff results obtained polish intelligence according absolutely exceeded normally possible woods bureau german section housed polish general staff building 18th century saxon palace warsaw year moved specially constructed new facilities woods near south warsaw working conditions better cramped quarters general staff building dictated requirements security germany looking potential military civilian workers general staff building agents lacking access staff building observe personnel entering leaving photograph concealed miniature cameras annual intelligence assignments german agents warsaw placed priority securing polish general staff gift allies july war instructions polish general staff bureau chiefs col major civilian mathematician col mayer chief intelligence revealed poland achievements representatives france britain explaining broken undertook country polish reconstructed details equipment including sheets bomb return british pledged prepare sets sheets possible wheel orders french contingent consisted major french radio intelligence chief french air_force staff british sent commander head britain government code school chief british commander head royal_navy intercept direction finding stations working german military machine late ultimately solved crucial element letters alphabet entry drum inspired guess wired simple order meeting later question asked connections entry drum learn simple answer poles gift western allies weeks outbreak world war came moment soon park mathematician gordon written ultra gotten ground learned poles nick time details german military machine operating procedures use allied supreme commander dwight war end described intelligence park having value simplified task commander enormously expressed thanks decisive contribution allied war effort churchill greatest wartime fear hitler suspended operation sea lion invaded soviet_union german submarine succeed sea locked britain major factor britain defeat battle atlantic regained mastery naval benefited british seizure german equipped naval vessels breaking german naval signals ultimately relied techniques pioneered polish bureau britain hitler united_states deprived essential forward base subsequent involvement european north african theaters week meeting letter dated august thanked poles polish cooperation patience enclosed little paper derby horse race evidently race hoped win loss acknowledging september clear poland unlikely halt ongoing german invasion received orders destroy files evacuate essential personnel bureau abroad german invasion poland september key bureau personnel evacuated southeast soviets invaded eastern poland september romania way destroying equipment documentation eventually crossing yugoslavia neutral italy reached france personnel bureau german section worked workers radio company built doubles equipment german section remained poland interrogated gave away secret polish mastery outside paris october poles resumed work german close collaboration britain government code school park interest security allied services sending messages line doubles closed messages ironic hitler late december col accompanied captain visited london park british asked polish turned took position polish team remain polish armed forces formed french soil actually reached britain earlier comfortably eventually september went british embassy romania brushed preoccupied british diplomat january british spent days polish colleagues brought poles set sheets produced park john polish supplied information january poles break wartime traffic october period collapse france june ultimately percent keys found solved park remaining percent commented polish british people worked recovery keys depended intercepted material far greater british french finally france contrast work poland sought daily keys finding key read messages surprised poles percent keys credit inter allied collaboration prevented effort facilitated discoveries fighting started norway april polish french team solved hard letter code germans communicate fighter bomber squadrons exchange meteorological data aircraft land code appeared december polish preoccupied code attention german assault west impending breaking luftwaffe code took mounting urgency trail elusive code system letters changed hours led clue came british noticed code letters change randomly changed replaced british poles realized principle discovered germans meant poles having midnight solved daily setting effort read luftwaffe signals germans opening offensive west belgium netherlands order reach borders france changed procedure message keys rendering sheets completely useless temporarily defeating joint british polish attacks according took day night effort overcome new difficulty resumed following capitulation france june poles evacuated algeria october resumed work near southern france sponsorship little years later november learned bbc allies landed french north_africa operation torch knowing germans planned occupy france november evacuated days later november germans marched southern france morning november occupied years establishment october thousands messages originating french territory europe provided intelligence allied commands resistance movements thousands soviet messages having departed polish personnel evaded occupying italian security police german sought escape france spain jan died january sinking mediterranean_sea french passenger ship returning southern france tour duty algeria guide robbed gunpoint spanish border arrested january incarcerated months released red_cross intervention managed land sea air route join polish armed forces britain inducted polish army eventually promoted lieutenant work breaking german hand polish signals facility having occupied france british considered risky invite work park finally end work close world war bureau ceased exist nearly inception war end bureau incorporated essentially agency core personnel carrying tasks extinguished work late returned family devastated politically altered poland live years death february remain england death august secret preserved despite fared better colleagues polish military chiefs captured germans tried escape france spain night march poles edward prisoners war sent slave labourers germany perished despite dire circumstances held mayer emphasizes betrayed secret making possible allies continue exploiting vital intelligence resource war lecturer secret university course owner produced equipment bureau knew details technology warsaw german occupation bureau workers interrogated german intelligence commissions workers approached german agents kept silent popular culture polish military historian book battle secrets revealed german broken polish world war disclosure came seven years ultra secret changed conventional views history war polish film secret generally fair superficial account bureau story years later hollywood film criticized historical including omission poland fundamental work


castle hill mere castle hill called mere castle medieval fortification built richard earl cornwall hill overlooking village mere wiltshire england castle constructed stone towers inner buildings gates abandoned 14th century stripped stone earthworks remain 21st century history construction village mere small settlement early 13th century richard earl cornwall acquired manor richard brother henry iii immensely rich began build castle mere castle built long hill chalk ridge overlooking village hill flattened metre deep ditch cut west archaeologist mcmahon describes documentary sources imply castle rectangular stone built structure towers incorporating hall inner outer gate deep chapel resembled smaller version castle castle probably entered west possible road running south hill time village expanded planned town unofficial market castle renovated possibly response threat rebellion england time decline richard son inherited property death taken crown edward gave royal favourite piers earl cornwall edward fell power john edward second son took possession new earl cornwall edward iii castle permanent cornwall 14th century castle declined abandoned richard lead taken castle roofs reuse castle visitors accounts imply stonework dismantled 18th century accounts suggest reused construction work town prospered wool later trade 21st century 21st century site protected law scheduled monument owned cornwall leased local parish council illuminated night memorial 43rd infantry division located castle site ceremony held castle site easter archaeological investigation archaeological excavations site carried baker results work subsequently lost


east west east west device forts built king henry_viii protect harbour haven wales positioned haven villages angle respectively overlooking sea east completed remains reused defensive site second world war west described contemporaries forming round tower demolished west fort built site 19th century background built consequence international tensions england france holy roman empire final years reign king henry_viii traditionally crown left coastal defences local lords communities taking modest role building maintaining fortifications france empire conflict maritime raids common actual invasion england unlikely modest defences based simple towers existed south west sussex coast impressive works north england general fortifications limited scale henry broke pope paul iii long standing marriage wife catherine catherine aunt charles holy roman emperor took personal insult resulted france empire declaring alliance henry pope encouraging countries attack england invasion england appeared certain construction henry issued order called device giving instructions defence realm time invasion construction forts english coastline soon work began east village angle angle overlooked mouth haven harbour fortification west built haven east constructed narrow metres sea historian george owen described building having intended physical remains 20th century comprised metres stone building stone enclosure north subsidiary building metres away main site south east construction work completed walls begun collapse according owen west round tower feet diameter later use peace achieved france military attention shifted spanish threat increasingly prosperous south west england tensions spain grew invasion appeared likely resulting royal permission given reuse stonework east new coastal defences work carried fort continued decay 20th century outbreak second world war east adapted use british military interior cleared shed built corner trench dug north building rifle formed east building machine gun position dug protected outside land erosion damaged east site north wall collapsed major archaeological survey funded welsh heritage agency took place east defensive structure survive wales protected law scheduled monument west demolished 19th century west fort built site visible remains