refugee controversy refugee controversy sweden refers surrounding events referendum banned municipality admitting foreign refugees despite opposition demonstrations local centre party politician municipal commissioner time successful gaining support municipal assembly hold referendum decide ban acceptance foreign refugees controversial referendum passed majority ban gaining publicity swedish media outcome heavily criticized swedish media politicians including prime minister turn expelled centre party following referendum led forming nationalist party swedish march municipal elections year party received votes led municipal commissioner position held party support reduced municipal elections following party loss support ban overturned municipal assembly accepted refugees decade background motion member centre party farmer elected municipal commissioner centre party led municipal assembly june referendum acceptance foreign refugees municipality motion came proposal refugees accepted municipality idea disliked speculated reason motion refugees small number municipality instead idea create protest sweden positive stance refugees despite heavy protests country municipal assembly decided october referendum referendum passed completely ban accepting foreign refugees referendum debate media attention municipality decision referendum met criticism rest country immigration minister social democrat described vote expression violation refugees human dignity majority population favor referendum citizen stated foreigners create problems democratic vote reported favor accepting refugees afraid expressing opinion public day vote september associated_press reported refugee issue split families friends town church referendum protests drew attention abroad september philadelphia_inquirer wrote referendum accepting refugees quiet swedish town ugly battle watched closely country tolerant attitudes absence racism head local social welfare board planning taking care refugees said lot people ashamed terrible town changed strongest opposition time symbol minority supported acceptance refugees municipality according local newspaper swedish media especially evening newspapers loved simple farmer want foreigners village wanted open arms main argument debate leading day referendum foreigners able fit community repeatedly stated people come unknown cultures impossible integrate swedish society chairman branch center party stated media referendum racism claimed reason vote lacked housing jobs said interview surprised attention town received media stupid farmers live isolation town simply wants care result referendum held september day swedish general election passed percent majority votes led criticism swedish population prime minister sweden said results tragic leader centre party called ban improper result referendum led concerns swedish government municipalities follow footsteps day vote commented sad result loser unfortunate swedish historian stated likely reasons relatively large county time high unemployment numbers county accepted large refugees compared rest sweden saw reason lack jobs stated strengthened local traditions nazi groups relatively strong 1930s aftermath ban heavily discussed swedish media following criticism claims associated new swedish movement centre party decided exclude companions party responded forming nationalist party swedish march municipal elections year party received percent votes led municipal commissioner position held party support reduced municipal elections following party loss support referendum overturned municipal assembly accepted refugees decade died party active municipal election party received votes making largest party


greek medieval town located near site modern westernmost point peninsula southern greece founded century william town served main port mint located capital commerce italy brought great prosperity town began decline early 15th century declined ceded byzantine served capital residence ottoman conquest ottoman rule declined rapidly commercial links italy broken 16th century abandoned falling ruin little remains town today traces city wall church buildings harbour history founded century william ruled ruler state established fourth crusade encompassing peninsula southern greece foundation evident french italian latin rendered contemporary greek documents medieval town located bit west modern village northern tip forms westernmost point site known antiquity best anchorage likely site ancient city established haven capital located inland kilometres away fortress kilometres port formed administrative heart location main port communication traffic italy described town greek ministry culture website rapidly established important financial urban centre international renown according resemble activity city modern sense word cosmopolitan city frequented italy soldiers merchants chiefly trade brought great prosperity evidenced fact system weights measures 14th century featured hospital banks monastery based list town counted making largest town site mint 13th century cessation struck coins inscribed initially reign ruled onwards main residence court location political significance assemblies took place inheritance parliament oath allegiance isabella surrounded set walls scholars long disputed exactly debate concerns relation nearby fortress view consider originally served town citadel case probably original site mint alternative june captured troops ferdinand claimed title virtue marriage isabella granddaughter william ferdinand residence soon seized aided barons dissatisfied rule naples ferdinand began coins issues mint reign cut short arrival legitimate louis battle fought northeast july defeated ferdinand killed remainder army fled soon handed town fortresses occupied departed taking corpse ferdinand town decline began early 15th century following fortunes time prince ruled found endangered attacks byzantines hand designs family late brother law seized enormous booty recorded chronicle took years conflicts diplomatic venetian deal restored city july byzantines brother john viii launched attack remains brothers swift progress forcing prince retire unsuccessfully attacked byzantines truce concluded year italian franco seized town sold elder brother hands began openly pursue aspirations attacked territories latin archbishop stephen brother byzantines led emperor john viii person attacked lands byzantine fleet defeated navy forced submit handed niece married constantine future byzantine emperor constantine besieged fleet came city aid captured forcing constantine ransom destroyed fortifications longer seized western power following final byzantines divided princes residence thomas exchanged portion constantine originally settled surrounding region raided ottoman turks sultan fell ottomans remainder byzantine nearby continued play role military stronghold 19th century garrisoned ottoman venetian war attacked knights malta rapidly fallen obscurity ottomans apparently declining maritime links italy severed 16th century abandoned half ruined ruins described successive travellers 19th century photographs taken later german occupation greece world war german_army demolished remains early 19th century authors travellers like robert contended latin form gave royal english title duke princess cousin claim repeated publications like encyclopedia 20th century view rejected military officer antiquarian william martin pointed time english royalty hold titles originates suffolk location archaeological remains town situated small plateau sloping slightly downwards west east extreme northwestern end peninsula known antiquity town occupied irregular shape metres east west metres north south surface square metres northern western sides town bordered sea protected cliff height descending sea port located north shielded dangerous western southwestern winds material remains medieval town today city wall surrounded settlement largely disappeared difficult trace today remains foundations appear substantial fortification lightly built thickness metres reinforced rectangular towers gates left far substantial remains eastern southeastern southern sides fronted ditch metres excavated soil dumped inner elevate city wall small citadel located southwestern corner town port separated main town wall situated excavated basin today swamp probably separated sea artificial mole protected extensions city walls entrance harbour west offering protection wind coast remains buildings interior town notable large monumental staircase large church dimensions metres northeast church relatively simple construction unusual size proposes identification church assemblies nobles held remaining portions church walls completely destroyed german_army occupation site currently managed 6th byzantine accessible car open visitors external link


concentration camp concentration camp german network german nazi concentration camps camps built operated polish areas annexed nazi_germany world war consisted original camp combination concentration camp iii labor camp staff factory satellite camps constructed hold polish political prisoners began arrive prisoners took place september went major site nazi final solution jewish question early late transport trains delivered jews camp gas chambers german occupied europe killed million prisoners died percent jewish approximately jews killed holocaust died camp deported included poles soviet prisoners war witnesses tens thousands diverse including unknown number killed gas chambers died starvation forced labor infectious diseases individual executions medical experiments course war camp staffed members german approximately percent later convicted war crimes including camp commandant executed allied powers refused believe early reports atrocities camp failure bomb camp railways remains controversial prisoners known escaped successfully october units prisoners assigned staff gas chambers launched brief unsuccessful uprising soviet troops approached january population evacuated sent death march prisoners remaining camp liberated january day commemorated international holocaust remembrance day following decades survivors wrote memoirs experiences camp dominant symbol holocaust poland founded museum site named world heritage site history background discrimination jews began immediately nazi seizure power germany january law restoration professional civil service passed april year excluded jews legal profession civil service similar legislation soon deprived jewish members right violence economic pressure regime encourage jews leave country voluntarily jewish businesses denied access markets forbidden advertise newspapers deprived access government contracts citizens harassed subjected violent attacks businesses september laws enacted laws prohibited marriages jews people extraction relations jews germans employment german women age domestic servants jewish households citizenship law stated related blood defined citizens jews minority groups stripped german citizenship start world war germany jews emigrated united_states palestine united_kingdom countries ideology brought elements racial combined pan territorial goal obtaining living space people nazi_germany attempted obtain new territory invading poland soviet_union intending kill jews living viewed inferior master race invasion poland september german dictator adolf_hitler ordered polish leadership destroyed approximately civilians killed end addition leaders polish society nazis killed jews prostitutes mentally ill senior group leader head ordered september jews rounded concentrated cities good rail links initially intention jews points east possibly madagascar poland annexed nazi_germany located germany province upper suggested site concentration camp polish prisoners aide higher police leader von bach bach searching site house prisoners region local prisons filled capacity richard head concentration camps sent concentration camp commandant walter inspect site held sixteen dilapidated story buildings served austrian later polish army barracks camp workers head approved site april intending use facility house political prisoners lieutenant colonel oversaw development camp served commandant senior lieutenant appointed deputy original camp administrative center complex local residents evicted including people lived barracks jewish residents brought lay foundations polish jewish residents western districts expelled places adjacent camp germans ordered poles villages general government german citizens offered tax concessions benefits relocate area october germans arrived nazis planned build model modern residential area incoming germans including schools playing fields amenities plans went forward including construction apartments fully implemented basic amenities water sewage disposal inadequate water borne illnesses commonplace prisoners german criminal prisoners concentration camp arrived intended act prison system mass transport concentration camp included catholic prisoners suspected members resistance jews arrived prison poland june interned building polish tobacco monopoly adjacent site camp ready population grew quickly camp absorbed poland including polish underground resistance march imprisoned poles end confiscated land surrounding area create square kilometre zone interest surrounded double ring electrified barbed wire fences like nazi concentration camps gates displayed motto work brings freedom initial victories operation summer fall hitler new enemy soviet_union led dramatic changes nazi anti jewish ideology profile prisoners brought construction began october ease congestion main camp head intended camp house prisoners war interned forced laborers plans called expansion camp house eventually inmates initial contingent soviet prisoners war arrived october march alive transferred died disease starvation time hitler decided jewish people combination labor camp camp chief construction unlike predecessor competent dynamic spite ongoing war carried construction deemed necessary camp new reception building hundreds buildings planned realized plans initially called occupancy prisoners space allotted nazi concentration camps later changed prisoners designed barracks house people destroy gas chamber red house called bunker staff brick cottage converted facility tearing inside windows operational march second brick cottage white_house bunker converted weeks later structures use mass killings early visited camp person july given demonstration mass killing gas chamber bunker toured building site new plant constructed nearby town early nazis decided increase greatly capacity originally designed basement ground level converted killing factory installing gas tight doors highly lethal based dropped chamber ventilation equipment remove gas went operation march iii built design designed start centers constructed spring june operational victims killed structures gypsy camp december issued order send concentration camps including separate camp set known gypsy family camp transport german arrived february housed section approximately brought died transport polish killed arrival suspected ill spotted fever gypsy prisoners primarily construction work thousands died poor conditions prisoners transferred concentration camps murder remaining population august cleared gypsy camp witness camp later told unsuccessfully battling improvised weapons loaded trucks surviving population killed gas chambers murder people nazis world war known language iii examining sites new plant manufacture type synthetic rubber essential war effort chemicals manufacturer chose site near towns german kilometres east kilometres east town financial support form tax available corporations prepared develop industries frontier regions eastern fiscal assistance law passed december addition proximity concentration camp source cheap labor site good railway connections access raw materials february ordered jewish population expelled way skilled laborers brought work plant poles able work remain town forced work building factory visited person march decreed immediate expansion parent camp house persons development camp began months later construction began april initial force workers assigned work construction number increased course history inmates total worked plant died result disease physically impossible workload addition concentration camp inmates comprised work force employed slave laborers europe initially laborers walked seven kilometers plant day meant rise arrived exhausted unable work camp called iii constructed began housing inmates october concentration camp financed built private industry january labor education camp moved parent camp prisoners forced work building site charged hour workers skilled workers camp administrators expected prisoners work percent capacity free worker inmates able perform percent site managers constantly threatened inmates transportation death gas chambers way try increase productivity deaths transfers gas chambers reduced prisoner population nearly fifth month numbers new arrivals life inmates averaged months factory initially expected begin production shortages labor raw materials meant start postponed repeatedly plant ready commence production overrun soviet troops german industrial enterprises krupp built factories satellite camps served corporations involved armaments industry prisoner populations ranged dozen thousand built centers far satellite camps designated external camp extension labor camp industries satellite camps included coal mines metal works chemical plants industries prisoners work forestry farming evacuation death marches liberation november soviet red army approaching poland ordered operations cease iii dismantled transformed air raid shelter ordered remove evidence killings including mass graves destroyed written records final week camp liberation burned demolished buildings ordered evacuation camps january charging camp commanders making sure single prisoner concentration camps falls alive hands enemy january evacuated guard largely foot thousands died subsequent death march west approximately prisoners bergen concentration camp germany liberated british april weak sick walk left rifle division red army arrived camp january found prisoners corpses left items found soviet soldiers men suits women tonnes short tons human hair camp liberation received little press attention time attributes factors previous discovery similar crimes concentration camp competing news allied summit soviet_union interest propaganda purposes attention jewish suffering vast extent camp area divisions took camp 100th rifle division established russia rifle division russia rifle division motor rifle division russia war liberation parts served hospital liberated prisoners soviet polish investigators worked initial months document war crimes years followed soviets dismantled exported factories barracks looted polish civilians area residents mass graves ashes gold facilities prison camp soviet site museum work lasted decade oldest known survivor died aged october poland camp commandant pursued british intelligence corps arrested farm near germany march confessed role mass killings memoirs trial supreme national tribunal warsaw poland convicted murder hanged camp april percent staff survived war eventually brought trial poland active nations investigating war crimes total staff brought trial november trial began poland supreme national tribunal brought court staff trial defendants included commandant arthur women camp leader maria camp leader trials ended december death sentences life sentences prison sentences ranging years doctor prisoners testify behalf person acquitted staff hanged war crimes trials trial including camp leaders doctor friedrich guards frankfurt trials held west_germany december august convicted defendants giving prison sentences ranging life years months owner chief executive officer firm suppliers executed supplying chemical use humans command control camp guards members death head units personnel total posted war percent personnel officers percent non commissioned officers remainder rank file members approximately personnel worked security worked medical political departments camp headquarters economic administration responsible property dead prisoners personnel camp included women worked guards nurses overall command authority entire camp department concentration camps economics main office considered comfortable posting members amenities abundance slave labor prisoner groups officers preferred witnesses household slaves behavior lived wife children villa outside camp grounds personnel initially allowed bring wives children live camp camp grew crowded restricted arrivals facilities personnel families included library swimming pool coffee house theater hosted regular performances prisoner work detail prisoner block usually appointed head received better rations lodging tremendous power prisoners abused prosecuted war difficulty determining atrocities performed orders individual actions personnel assigned gas chambers lived site personnel oversaw killings gas chamber bulk work jewish prisoners known special squad responsibilities included guiding victims gas chambers removing looting corpses housed separately prisoners somewhat better conditions quality life improved access goods taken murdered prisoners able steal trade black market hungarian doctor reported numbered prisoners hungarian jews killed committed suicide work generally shot matter weeks new units formed incoming transports prisoners placed units survived camp liberation life camps prisoners day began hour later winter morning roll describes roll beginning lasting hours weather cold time day summer prisoners ordered line outdoors rows stay officers arrived guards force prisoners hour hands heads levy detention having missing button cleaned food bowl inmates counted counted describes dead present roll standing supported fellow inmates ordeal prisoner men found dead barracks night prisoners assigned staff slept separate barracks roll took minutes roll work details walked place work abreast wearing striped camp underwear ill fitting wooden shoes prisoner orchestra women orchestra forced play cheerful music workers left camp responsible prisoners behavior worked escort working day lasted hours summer little winter work took place outdoors construction sites gravel pits lumber yards rest periods allowed prisoner assigned measure time workers took sunday work day prisoners rest required clean barracks weekly shower prisoners allowed write german families sundays inmates speak german trade bread help composing letters members censored outgoing mail second mandatory roll took place evening prisoner missing remain standing place found reason absence discovered regardless weather conditions took hours roll individual collective depending happened day prisoners allowed retire blocks night receive bread rations water hours later prisoners slept long rows wooden lying clothes shoes prevent stolen according thousand people superimposed compartments barracks unable stretch completely slept man feet head neck chest stripped human dignity pushed bit kicked effort inches space sleep little comfortably long sleep types prisoners distinguishable triangular pieces cloth called jackets prisoner number political prisoners red triangle witnesses purple criminals green indicated letter jews yellow triangle second fit second category uniquely prisoners prisoner number chest soviet prisoners war left arm civilians prisoners received hot drink morning breakfast thin vegetable soup noon evening received small bread prisoners saved bread following morning notes daily intake exceed prisoners subjected live medical experimentation better fed clothed arrangements poor inadequate lack fresh water installed years camp construction began camps infested disease carrying inmates suffered died diseases infection occurring common cause death children gypsy camp block prison prison numerous rules punished prisoners spend nights standing cells cells held men stand forced day work prisoners prisoners sentenced death attempting escape confined dark cell given food water left die basement dark cells tiny window solid door prisoners placed cells gradually oxygen cell lit cell use oxygen quickly subjected hanging hands backs hours days shoulder joints selection process july gave written authorization chief main security office prepare submit plan die der final solution jewish question territories german control coordinate participation involved government organizations resulting general plan east called population occupied eastern_europe soviet_union siberia use slave labor murdered addition eliminating jews nazis planned reduce population conquered territories million people starvation action called hunger plan food supplies diverted german_army german civilians cities razed land allowed return forest german colonists plans total jewish population europe million people conference january worked death rest killed initially victims killed gas firing squads methods proved operation scale killing centers nazi camps replaced primary method mass killing mass took place early september inmates killed gathering basement block building proved unsuitable mass site killings moved operated july victims killed order victims calm told undergo ordered outside locked building gas chamber building converted storage facility later served air raid shelter gas chamber reconstructed war original components remained site people killed mass moved provisional gas chambers killings continued larger iii construction bunker temporarily reactivated november large numbers hungarian jews summer capacity outdoor pits bodies day planned sixth facility built prisoners transported german occupied europe rail arriving daily convoys july conducting selections incoming jews segregated deemed able work sent selection officer right admitted camp deemed unfit labor sent selection officer left immediately group selected die quarters total included children women small children elderly appeared brief superficial inspection doctor completely fit selection process complete ill young walk transported trucks killed spot bullet head belongings arrivals seized area camp called canada called canada seen land plenty camp enriched confiscated property officers told victims shower undergo victims outer chamber walked gas chamber disguised shower facility issued soap delivered ambulance special bureau known institute actual delivery gas victims handled order supervising doctor doors shut men dumped roof holes chamber victims dead minutes despite thick concrete walls screaming heard outside failed attempt noise motorcycle engines throttle nearby sound heard engines wearing gas masks dragged bodies chamber victims glasses artificial limbs jewelry hair removed dental work extracted gold melted corpses burned nearby ashes buried thrown river gas chambers worked capacity april july massacre hungary jews hungary ally germany war resisted turning jews germany invaded march rail spur leading directly completed deliver victims closer gas chambers early july hungarian jews half pre war population deported rate day considerable period incoming volume great resorted burning corpses open air pits selection took place october medical experiments german doctors performed wide variety experiments prisoners doctors tested rays device large female prisoners injected chemicals women effort shut subsidiary bought prisoners use research subjects testing new drugs prisoners deliberately infected spotted fever research exposed toxic substances study effects infamous doctor known angel death particularly interested research identical twins performed cruel experiments inducing diseases twin killing died perform comparative took special interest deliberately induced twins prisoners study effects kurt took jewish children use medical experiments concentration camp april children killed hanging conceal project skeleton collection obtained pool jewish inmates chosen perceived stereotypical racial characteristics general manager nazi research institute responsible delivering skeletons collection anatomy institute university region occupied france collection sanctioned direction august ultimately inmates shipped killed august later convicted doctors trial death toll exact number victims difficult fix certainty prisoners registered evidence destroyed final days war early visited camp ordered mass graves opened corpses burned addition ashes disposed way impossible future time number corpses burned shortly following camp liberation soviet government stated million people killed site figure regarded greatly exaggerated interrogation said adolf told half million jews killed gas chambers half million died causes later wrote regard figure half million far high limits destructive possibilities book final solution estimated number killed work destruction european jews estimated number killed maximum jewish victims french scholar george use german data estimate number killed arriving figure deaths including million jews poles larger study started train arrivals combined records jewish deaths million total deaths figure adopted official state museum 1990s stated figure million total deaths possible nation greatest number jewish victims hungary accounting deaths followed polish jews deaths french dutch greek fewer percent soviet jews murdered holocaust killed german forces driven russia killing reached peak approximately jews killed holocaust died camp largest group victims non jewish poles accounted deaths thousand killed soviet peoples nations witnesses imprisoned died estimated gay men prosecuted german code section sexual acts men detained concentration camps unknown number sent sent percent died escapes resistance allies knowledge camps inmates times able distribute information camp messages radio polish government exile london reported prisoners july reports long time discarded exaggerated unreliable allied powers germany opponents information available allies years accurate frequent reports polish home army captain known person volunteer imprisoned concentration camp spending days gathered evidence genocide organized resistance structures known camp report smuggled outside world november released camp eventually escaped april personal report mass killings dismissed allies previous reports information concentration camp published winter polish underground newspapers poland lives newsletter members bureau information propaganda warsaw area home army published occupied poland based accounts fictional memoir diary prisoner written published april warsaw published books camp death written hell polish writer social activist founder combat group organized aim sending information happening buried notes ground hoping found camp group took smuggled photographs corpses preparations mass killings attitude allies changed detailed page report compiled jewish prisoners escaped april report finally convinced allied leaders mass killings taking place details report released swiss press diplomat george printed june new_york_times plans originating polish government provided foreign ministry august starting plea michael growing campaign jewish organizations persuade allies bomb railway lines leading point british prime minister winston_churchill ordered plan prepared told precision bombing camp free prisoners disrupt railway technically feasible historian david published essay titled bombed arguing air_force capability attack books bernard martin gilbert raised similar questions british 1990s historians argued allied bombing accuracy sufficient proposed attack history inherently problematic endeavor controversy decision lasted present day countries individual escape attempts prisoners attempted escape camps polish soviet prisoners fleeing work sites outside camp successful unknown common punishment escape attempts death starvation families successful arrested interned prominently displayed deter manage escape picked people random prisoner block death daring escape staged june polish prisoners auto mechanic camp breaking warehouse dressed members units responsible concentration camps armed stole staff car drove main gate june belgian polish jew escaped polish boyfriend dressed stolen prisoner guard uniform later recaptured tortured executed july dressed uniform faked pass managed cross camp gate jewish girlfriend survived war revolt units aware witnesses killings eventually killed hide nazi crimes knew mean deaths iii staged uprising october following announcement selected transferred camp common nazi ruse murder prisoners attacked guards stones axes makeshift hand grenades set machine guns attack prisoners revolted managing escape compound rebellion suppressed nightfall ultimately guards killed burned alive prisoners oven killed hundreds prisoners escaped soon captured executed additional group participated revolt destroyed fighting group prisoners gas chamber spared chaos legacy decades liberation primary symbol holocaust historian attributes camp high death toll unusual combination industrial camp complex killing facility left far witnesses single purpose killing facilities united_nations general_assembly designated january date camp liberation international holocaust remembrance day speech anniversary liberation german chancellor described horrific chapter german history notable camp include man wrote concentration camps represented system existed state form reaction total lacking soviet_union cases public opinion foreign press churches feeling justice humanity years greater lesser extent acted brake camp restraint non existent power small absolute psychiatrist drew imprisonment composing man search meaning widely read works camp work book argues individuals find purpose great suffering sense purpose wrote imprisonment night works prominent spokesman ethnic violence awarded nobel peace prize camp survivor veil later elected president european parliament serving victims priest volunteered die starvation place stranger jewish convert catholicism later named saints roman_catholic_church state museum july polish government passed law establishing state memorial victims site camp exhibition opened displaying prisoner shots hair shoes taken murdered prisoners objects related killings added camp list world heritage sites museum drew visitors pope john paul performed mass train tracks leading camp june decades following visit controversies erupted group founding convent site large cross originally pope mass protesters objected saw site argued cross presence effectively recognized camp catholic victims september israeli air_force eagles performed fly ceremony camp flight led major general son holocaust survivors january survivors guests gathered giant tent entrance commemorate anniversary camp liberation attendees included president world jewish congress film director steven_spielberg world leaders polish president king alexander netherlands number remaining survivors decreases year attendance event unlikely surpassed future major took place israel concentration camp berlin moscow museum note visitors try artefacts strictly prohibited usually leads criminal charges example june british men convicted theft stealing buttons decorative glass found ground near area camp victims confiscated personal effects stored men years old received probation fined said similar happen twice year


kingdom hungary kingdom hungary came existence central europe stephen grand prince hungarians crowned king reinforced central authority forced subjects accept christianity written sources emphasize role played german italian knights process significant hungarian vocabulary agriculture religion state taken slavic languages civil wars pagan uprisings attempts holy roman emperors expand authority hungary new monarchy monarchy stabilized reigns rulers occupied croatia realms retained autonomous position successors especially iii andrew continued policy expansion balkan peninsula lands east mountains transforming kingdom major powers medieval europe rich lands silver gold salt deposits hungary preferred destination mainly german italian french colonists immigrants peasants settled villages merchants came arrival key role shaping urban lifestyle habits culture medieval hungary location kingdom crossroads international trade routes favored cultures gothic renaissance buildings literary works written latin prove predominantly roman catholic character culture orthodox non christian ethnic minority communities existed latin language legislation administration judiciary linguistic contributed survival including great variety slavic royal estates initially assured sovereign position royal lands gave rise emergence self conscious group lesser known royal servants forced andrew issue golden bull examples constitutional limits placed powers european monarch francis kingdom received major blow invasion groups settled central colonists arrived poland nearby countries erection fortresses promoted monarchs withdrawal led development semi autonomous provinces dominated powerful challenged authority andrew iii male descendant native dynasty death followed period anarchy central power established early background hungarians conquered basin turn 9th 10th centuries found predominantly slavic speaking population new homeland launched raids east italy regions europe raids halted future holy roman emperor defeated battle hungarians lived families organized clans formed tribes tribal confederation headed grand prince member family descending hungarians leader time land taking contemporary authors described hungarians ibn added cultivated land great number slavic languages prove hungarians adopted new techniques settled lifestyle central europe hungarians local ethnic groups reflected culture emerged century pagan hungarians demonstrated tolerant attitude christians jews muslims byzantine church successfully leaders baptized constantinople contrast grand prince received baptism according latin rite erected fortresses invited foreign warriors develop new army based heavy cavalry arranged marriage son stephen bavaria princess family holy roman emperors died son fight succession eldest member house assisted german heavy cavalry stephen emerged victor decisive battle applied royal crown pope granted request consent emperor iii kingdom king stephen stephen crowned king hungary december january consolidated rule series wars semi independent local rulers including maternal uncle proved kingdom military strength repelled invasion holy roman emperor natural obstacles stone earth timber provided defense kingdom borders wide zone known intentionally left defensive purposes early medieval fortresses hungary earth timber stephen views state administration summarized work known stating country language custom weak fragile emphasized advantages arrival foreigners guests stephen developed state similar contemporary western_europe counties basic units administration districts organized fortresses headed royal officials known counts stephen founded established monasteries prescribed tenth village build parish church earliest churches 10th century simple wood constructions royal built style stephen laws aimed adoption force christian way life especially protected christian marriage traditional customs decorated belts items pagan fashion disappeared started wear long coats wealthy men persisted silk decorated warrior girl wife consent parents decreed girl returned parents force shall pay abduction peace girl parents legal perspective hungarian society divided intermediate groups existed legal capacity property sue sued bound monarch landlord guests freely living lands attached fortress castle warriors served army castle folk cultivated lands forged weapons rendered services pay special tax monarchs status peasants known exempt theoretically lacked legal personality practice property cultivated masters land tools kept percent harvest stephen laws charters suggest lived communities formed villages average village semi sunken timber corner villages named profession implying villagers required render specific service lords pagan revolts wars consolidation stephen survived son caused decade crisis stephen considered cousin unsuitable throne named sister son venetian peter heir blinded sons expelled peter succeeded uncle opposition peter preference foreign led rebellion ended deposition favor native lord samuel related royal family supported emperor henry iii peter returned expelled samuel second rule accepted emperor rule ended new rebellion occasion aimed restoration lords opposed destruction christian monarchy proposed crown andrew sons returned hungary defeated peter suppressed cooperation brother talented military commander ensured hungarians victory emperor henry iii attempted conquer kingdom times new civil war broke duke claimed crown sons accepted rule solomon andrew son initially young king cousins instance jointly defeated power conflict royal family caused new civil war lasted solomon favor cousins early king laws prescribed criminals laws regulated payment customs duties tolls forbade jews holding christian introduced laws aiming conversion local muslims known shall buy sell market violation buys stolen property shall buyer seller witnesses agreed sell shall lose thing price witnesses shall lose deal market agreement shall concluded judge toll witnesses purchased goods later appear stolen buyer shall escape penalty death brother law king croatia created opportunity claim croatia troops soon occupied croatia native resisted mounts croatia hungary remained closely connected centuries appointed nephew administer croatia younger son favored brother king thinking succession succeeded uncle received separate brother reign brothers relationship remained tense finally led infant son routed bands western defeated croatia late 14th century states crowned king croatia concluding agreement local probably document reflects actual status croatia proper incorporated hungary contrast region known mounts river closely connected hungary hungarian received land grants monarchs split towns accepted right elect bishops leaders remained croatia sovereign represented governors bearing title ban likewise royal official administered eastern kingdom like proved great legislator prescribed severe uncle ordered transactions christians jews writing laws concerning muslim subjects aimed conversion instance marry daughters christians presence jewish muslim merchants kingdom role trading routes leading constantinople local trade existed enabled collect traditional kind tax cash kingdom average population density people square kilometre sparsely populated streets districts romania point presence guests speaking western romance language place names refer german speaking colonists entire kingdom subjects early medieval hungarian monarchs peasants cultivated fertile lands moved lands exhausted wheat widely produced crop raw material home grown animal remained important sector agriculture produced fodder fishing hunting contributed peasants allowed hunt royal forests covered large territories kingdom expansion unsuccessful wars republic venice byzantine_empire neighboring states characterized reign son stephen succeeded father earliest mention connection young king war hungarian speaking lived scattered communities borders groups moved easternmost regions 12th century stephen died childless reign blind kingdom administered wife ordered massacre lords opposed husband rule alleged son king attempted seize throne received internal support son ascended throne adopted active foreign policy supported emperor promoted colonization border zones flemish german italian guests arrived great numbers settled region slovakia southern recruited muslim warriors serve army muslim traveler refers mountains contain lots silver gold points importance mining gold rank count trivial matter offended king happens accused court station midst puts chains forms punishment formal sentence asked prince peers opportunity defending granted accused prince held sufficient succeeded eldest son stephen iii stephen claimed crown emperor took advantage internal conflicts forced young king region serbia byzantines stephen iii set example development towns granting liberties guests including immunity jurisdiction local stephen iii died childless brother iii ascended throne contemporary list shows percent revenues derived annual renewal silver currency tolls ferries markets according list total income equivalent tonnes silver year number clearly exaggerated iii emphasized importance making records judicial proceedings reports later hungarian chronicles order use written petitions landowners started transactions writing led appearance called places cathedral chapters monasteries authorized issue deeds emergence employment educated staff students kingdom studied universities paris oxford aspects 12th century french culture detected iii kingdom palace built early gothic style names known legend romance alexander works culture popular hungarian according scholarly view master author chronicle hungarian land taking iii development estates realm age golden iii son successor face revolts stirred younger brother andrew furthermore venice armies fourth crusade took succeeded infant son iii young king died year uncle andrew mounted throne stating best measure royal grant distributed large parcels royal lands partisans living royal lands lost direct contact sovereign threatened legal status royal revenues decreased led introduction new taxes farming muslims jews andrew strongly influenced wife openly expressed preference german caused assassination group local lords new uprising broke king holy land crusade finally movement royal servants actually free directly sovereign obliged andrew issue golden bull summarized royal servants liberties including tax exemption provision authorized secular spiritual lords resist speak sovereign charge high treason golden bull prohibited employment muslims jews royal administration ban confirmed andrew urged issued golden bull new variant authorized archbishop case departure provisions non christians continued employed royal household archbishop robert placed kingdom andrew forced oath included promise respect privileged position dismiss jewish muslim officials growing non catholics demonstrated transfer orthodox monastery andrew attempts occupy neighboring son persuaded group accept andrew established new march known succeeded father attempt crown lands alienated predecessors created deep rift monarch lords sweeping westward king informed threat julian dominican monk visited hungarian speaking population years routed dominated western parts agreed accept supremacy people allowed settle great hungarian plain nomadic lifestyle caused conflicts local communities locals considered allies invasion khan commander armies invading eastern_europe demanded surrender fight king refused ordered barons assemble camp pest riot broke mob leader soon departed central parts kingdom main army arrived northeastern passes mountains march royal troops met enemy forces river won decisive victory battle april battlefield fled austria duke frederick held ransom king family found refuge fortress occupied thoroughly plundered territories east river danube crossed river frozen early contemporary account abbot stated kingdom hungary existed years destroyed burnt church romania women church churches crimes women better silent beheaded nobles citizens soldiers field outside city destroyed arose corpses left place people hiding nearby forests came find food searching stones corpses suddenly returned living found left alive kingdom cease exist khan withdrew entire army informed death great khan march invasion famine followed catastrophic demographic consequences percent population died disappeared trading routes causing decline serbia ukraine traditional centers commerce local muslim communities disappeared indicating suffered especially heavy losses invasion withdrawal abandoned policy recovering crown lands instead granted large estates supporters urged construct stone mortar castles initiated new wave colonization resulted arrival number germans poles king invited settled plains danube group ancestors people settled kingdom time new villages appeared consisting timber houses built equal parcels land instance settlement network far scarcely inhabited forests western present day slovakia began develop disappeared new rural houses consisting living room kitchen built advanced agricultural techniques including heavy spread kingdom internal migration likewise instrumental development new domains emerging royal lands new granted personal freedom favorable financial conditions arrived estates enabled peasants decided improve position granted privileges dozen towns including slovakia pest threatening letters sent golden proved danger new invasion existed adopted foreign policy frederick austria died fighting hungarian troops son law annexed large territories kingdom southern conflicts elderly monarch heir stephen caused civil war son jointly confirmed liberties royal servants known time true legally differentiated held estates free obligation everybody nobles romanian nobles owed services lords exchange lands held growing number counties local nobility acquired right elect judges nobles represent official procedures idea hungarian nation community emerged period expressed simon chronicle written wealthiest forced lesser nobles join increased power barons clan captured stephen heir infant stephen died months later causing new civil war leading families attempted control central government young declared age assembly spiritual temporal lords representatives strengthen royal authority mother daughter preferred unpopular accused initiating second invasion invaders routed royal troops murdered holy declared kingdom vacant granted sister son charles crown prince kingdom naples majority hungarian lords chose andrew grandson andrew father legitimacy dubious andrew monarch oath liberties church nobility coronation regularly lords representatives assemblies known started develop legislative body kingdom autonomous provinces ruled powerful including matthew ignored king authority powerful croatian lord paul invite late charles son year old charles robert hungary young marching croatia andrew iii unexpectedly died january aftermath andrew iii death male line house extinct period anarchy began charles robert crowned king provisional crown lords bishops refused yield regarded symbol holy attempts control hungary elected king year old descended hungary female line young king consolidate position lords especially held domains southern region kingdom continued support charles robert left hungary summer inherited abandoned claim hungary favor iii duke bavaria grandson hungary crowned king regarded monarch captured forced leave hungary majority lords elected charles robert king diet october crowned king holy crown hungary archbishop required customary law august decade launched series military campaigns restore royal authority charles robert reunited kingdom death powerful lord enabled conquer large province northeast hungary


history constitution roman republic history constitution roman republic study ancient roman republic traces progression roman political development founding roman republic founding roman empire constitutional history roman republic divided phases phase began revolution roman kingdom final phase ended revolution roman republic created roman empire history republic constitutional evolution driven struggle aristocracy ordinary citizens roman aristocracy composed class citizens called latin citizens called latin phase political development aristocracy dominated state began seeking political rights second phase completely aristocracy aristocracy overthrown simply alterations roman law revolution violent phase saw emergence joint aristocracy dangerous military situation helped maintain internal stability republic fourth phase began shortly rome wars expansion ended wars factor ensured internal stability removed sought address economic enactment laws underlying problems ultimately caused organization society final phase began crossed river ended complete overthrow republic final revolution triggered wholesale reorganization constitution emergence roman empire era according legend roman kingdom founded ruled succession seven kings king ruled manner son raped named wife senator named committed suicide rape led conspiracy drove city expulsion roman republic founded chief conspirators senator elected roman consul chief executive story legend later romans created order explain past likely rome ruled series kings probably legends suggest overthrown quickly executive constitutional changes occurred immediately revolution probably extensive legends suggest important constitutional change probably concerned chief executive revolution king elected senators fathers life term leaders elected citizens annual term eventually called latin walk consul checked colleague limited term office opened prosecution abused powers office chief executive grade command powers old king powers exercised different old king immediate aftermath revolution roman senate roman assemblies nearly powerless monarchy years monarchy fathers admitted roman senate revolution depleted ranks senate group drafted fill old senate transitioned senate fathers men new senators vote authority fathers authority senators elected year city war soldiers refused march enemy instead hill quickly desperate end effect labor strike quickly agreed demands given right elect officials named new officials gave assistants early years republic allowed hold ordinary political office demanded right stand election senate refused grant right long resistance new demands senate sent commission greece study report legislation returned assembly chose men new code gave supreme governmental power rome years commission presidency transformed old customary law rome famous tables submitted assembly passed changes displayed forum read tables recognised certain rights gave representatives remained closed command authority granted select number military individuals called elected assembly senate power veto election attempts achieve political equality starting year series wars fought aristocracy enjoyed fruits resulting conquests army exhausted bitter demanded real concessions law passed law dealt economic plight law required election consul year opening probably cause concession created opened senate legislative assemblies shortly founding republic assembly principle roman assembly elected laws passed trials occurred enacted law guaranteed process rights roman citizen condemned citizen evoke right appealed condemnation assembly precursor corpus time assembled informal assembly original council organized basis clan remained dependent patrons law passed efforts allowed organize tribe assembly tribal assembly politically independent period king nominated serve assistants overthrow monarchy retained authority recorded began elected tribal assembly presided magistrate instance joint tribal assembly probably enormous gain able vote joint assembly rome magistrate elected joint assembly jurisdiction time indirectly acquired authority 4th century series reforms passed ultimately required law passed council force law gave presided council positive character time laws passed person veto acts senate assemblies modification law allowed acts council force law eventually final law series passed law removed check senate power conflict orders decades following passage law required election consul year series laws passed ultimately granted political equality era came complete end passage law era marked significant external developments rome chief rivals year battle romans defeated combined armies battle followed complete submission romans emergence rome mistress italy created opened eventually won admission addition opened acquired facto right hold roman dictatorship roman censorship created hold office saw appointment dictator facilitated passage law required election censor year term elected significant laws passed laws illegal hold office given point time law required interval years pass magistrate seek reelection office result laws military situation quickly time period rome expanding italy beginning steps italy necessary military commanders hold office years time problem resolved creation pro offices individual term office ended command effect magistrate term ended extended usually held title constitutional device harmony underlying genius roman constitution frequent usage eventually paved way empire addition years senators grew increasingly close senate realized need use officials accomplish desired goals win senators gave great deal power began feel senate senators grew closer senators able secure members families time stepping stone higher office law new aristocracy era kingdom roman king appointed new senators overthrow kingdom acquired power middle 4th century council enacted gave power appoint new senators roman codified commonplace practice required censor appoint newly elected magistrate senate point holding significant number offices number senators probably increased quickly likelihood simply matter time came dominate senate new system newly elected awarded automatic membership senate remained difficult unknown family enter senate factors difficult individuals unknown families elected high office particular presence long standing nobility appealed deeply rooted roman respect past ultimately new aristocracy emerged replaced old nobility dominance long standing nobility ultimately forced wage long struggle political power new nobility fundamentally different old nobility old nobility existed force law allowed stand high office ultimately overthrown laws changed new nobility existed organization society overthrown revolution failure conflict orders conflict orders finally coming end achieved political equality small number families achieved standing old aristocratic families new plight average old time period plight constant state war rome wars provided employment income glory average sense patriotism resulted wars eliminated real threat unrest required election censor years contained provision time bill passed assembly council tribal assembly assembly law senators gave approval approval came form authority fathers authority senators modified process requiring passed law voted assemblies law voted known modification irrelevant economic condition average poor result final hill end dictator named appointed passed law called law ended requirement passed bill considered council tribal assembly requirement changed assembly importance law removed senate final check council principal popular assembly viewed final triumph democracy aristocracy senate control council ultimate significance law fact robbed final weapon result ultimate control state fell shoulders democracy shoulders new aristocracy supremacy new nobility great accomplishment law deprived final weapon new aristocracy replaced old aristocracy great political question earlier era resolved important political changes occurred entire era dominated foreign wars eliminated need address flaws current political system patriotism suppressed desire reforms era created new problems began realized near end 2nd century example nature rome military commanders changed roman soldiers earlier eras fought short wars returned farms generals thing soldiers came view generals fellow citizen soldiers wars longer larger scale period saw growing affinity average citizen general generals acquired power held senate enacted law rome theoretically democracy landowners concerned reality rome remained critical laws enacted roman senate effect democracy satisfied possession power care actually use senate supreme era era dominated foreign policy upwards citizens eligible vote individuals lived great distance rome calling short period time impossible foreign affairs questions required quick answers senators capable quick action thousands questions complex questions earlier era average citizen adequately informed issues senators contrast usually experienced fact income sources independent political roles easier involve policy questions extended periods time senators senate bound strong sense given point time senate senior members facilitated creation bond presiding consul senior members addition consul chosen senate usually held similar ideals fellow senators annual term ended returned ranks unlikely stand fellow senators enactment law appointed new senators enactment law appointed new senators caused senate independent presiding consul addition law required appointed senate process appointed new members senate objective enhanced prestige senate aristocracy final decades era saw economic situation long military campaigns forced citizens leave farms caused farms fall state disrepair situation worse second war fought romans italy romans adopted strategy attrition guerrilla warfare response soldiers returned battlefield sell farms pay debts landed aristocracy quickly bought farms discounted prices wars brought rome great surplus inexpensive slave labor landed staff new farms soon masses unemployed began flood rome ranks legislative assemblies time aristocracy extremely rich italian towns sided second war towns ultimately punished opened cheap farmland destruction rome great commercial rival opportunities profit available new territories tax collection private individuals extremely profitable spent time exploiting new opportunities profit rome conquering new east highly developed opened world luxury romans point romans known simple life wealth eastern available time era followed sums spent precedent prior roman history laws enacted stem tide laws effect attempts equally futile end era rome unemployed began filling ranks assemblies fact longer away rome easier vote principle legislative assembly council individual voted tribe ancestors belonged newly unemployed belonged thirty rural tribes urban tribes unemployed soon acquired political power council highly populist angry aristocracy exacerbated class tensions economic state usually led vote candidate offered candidate games bribes magnificent fact usually issues didn matter usually sold votes highest problem major reforms ultimately passed particular requirement votes secret ballot new culture emerging look populist leader relief prior era saw great military successes great economic failures patriotism kept seeking new reforms military situation stabilized fewer soldiers needed conjunction new slaves imported abroad unemployment situation flood unemployed citizens rome assemblies populist created increasingly aggressive democracy new era began ended crossed river elected attempted enact law distributed land rome citizens stood lose enormous money opposed proposal submitted law council law vetoed named marcus council theory representative people acts wishes people genius roman constitutional theory carried logical end theory removed constitutional restraints popular state absolute control temporary popular majority theory ultimately found logical end future democratic empire military populist law enacted murdered stood reelection years followed death politically inactive important development growing strength democratic opposition aristocracy brother elected ultimate goal weaken senate strengthen democratic forces enacted law knights upper middle class citizens jury courts instead senators passed grain law greatly provincial governors senators knights hand stood profit greatly grain reforms result managed turn powerful class non senators senate past senate eliminated political rivals establishing special judicial commissions passing ultimate decree senate devices allowed senate bypass ordinary process rights citizens outlawed judicial commissions declared unconstitutional proposed law granted citizenship rights rome italian allies selfish democracy rome guarded privileged status deserted proposal stood reelection term defeated murdered democracy finally realized weak senate constitutional reforms years later new power emerged asia roman army sent power king defeated objections consul consul year ordered senate assume command war member democratic party command war member aristocratic party brought army italy marched rome fled supporters fled murdered angry passed law intended permanently weaken returned war gone soon took control city record proud reelected consul times observing required year interval democracy advancing elected individuals office popular legislation soon peace returned rome overcame resistance captured city supporters slaughtered supporters supporter year old son law named ultimately spared observed violent results radical reforms particular naturally conservative visionary sought strengthen aristocracy senate appointed roman dictator enacted series constitutional reforms resigned dictatorship retired died year later thought firmly established aristocratic rule career illustrated fatal weaknesses constitution ultimately army senate dictated fortunes state senate sent uprising spain returned rome having completed mission time marcus slave revolt italy return found party fiercely attacking constitution attempted forge agreement party elected consul components constitution promise aided presence armies outside gates rome helped persuade elect soon elected dismantled constitution returned victorious asia senate refused arrangements soldiers effect powerless returned governorship spain found easy arrangement established private agreement known agreement arrangements asia ratified soldiers given land elected consul serve governor years promised future consul colleague marcus extreme submitted laws promised roman senate senate rejected laws submitted assemblies attempted enactment laws violent illegal means ensure passage given command promised governorship provinces appointment begin march consul wish leave senate hands politicians crushed spirit senate deprived dangerous leaders sent mission cyprus likely ruin reputation facilitated election dangerous secured passage laws coming attack law banned use auspices device council second law certain clubs semi political nature armed gangs passed laws banished grounds deprived conspirators process rights executed mere decree senate proved incompetent hoped city armed gangs agitated degree able secure passage law recalled exile triumph senate allied senate decided land laws passed veterans forced renewal promised term governor extended years daughter wife julia soon died year later killed invasion empire events severed remaining bond beginning summer wave political corruption violence swept rome chaos reached climax january murdered gang war addition civil unrest caused calendar neglected calendar required annual adjustments prevent drift relative spring correct calendar month inserted end february elected sole consul month elevation extraordinary power straw dead looking excuse crush establish master state january agent named presented ultimatum senate ultimatum rejected senate passed resolution declared lay arms july year acting effect declaring enemy republic january senate passed suspended civil government declared analogous martial law effect powers army composed largely crossed river veteran army marched rome rapid advance forced senate abandon rome greece entered city unopposed period transition era began crossed ended returned rome battle divided distinct units dividing line units assassination march constitutional standpoint clear dividing line periods forces supported early period allied mark constitutional means held power assassination hold power assassination constitutional standpoint makes difference holds title roman dictator constitutional perspective years formed single unit constitutional evolution prior century accelerated rapid pace rome completed transition city state network capital world empire constitutional reforms early career seen chaotic dysfunctional roman republic republican machinery broken weight central government powerless provinces transformed independent absolute control governors army replaced constitution means political goals crossing river assassination established new constitution intended accomplish separate goals wanted suppress armed resistance provinces bring order empire second wanted create strong central government rome finally wanted entire empire single cohesive unit held dictatorship alternated powers state rested dictatorship fundamentally different dictatorship early middle republic held office life months held certain judicial powers ordinary held given permanent powers person allowed veto roman senate allowed dominate council elected council hoped prevent election oppose gave title morals office new powers identical hold powers technically checks ordinary subject powers fill senate partisans set precedent imperial successors followed requiring senate titles honors coins bore likeness given right speak senate meetings increased number elected year created large pool experienced allowed reward supporters took steps transform italy province tightly link provinces empire single cohesive unit process entire roman empire single unit maintaining network unequal ultimately completed successor emperor returned rome raised senate membership roman assemblies continued meet submitted candidates assemblies election bills assemblies enactment caused assemblies powerless unable oppose minimize risk general attempt challenge passed law subjected governors term limits near end life began prepare war empire absence rome limit ability install passed law allowed appoint effect transformed representatives people representatives dictator robbed popular assemblies remaining influence assassination second assassinated march motives conspirators personal political ultimate assassins dissatisfied recognition received conspirators senators angry fact deprived senate power prestige angry received honors given honors rumors going king transfer seat government alexandria grievances held vague plan vague fact motives vague idea assassination obvious subsequent course events assassination mark master horse formed alliance adopted son great nephew marcus formed alliance known second held powers nearly identical powers held constitution senate assemblies remained powerless conspirators defeated battle powerless went egypt seek glory east remained rome eventually fought battle defeated naval battle committed suicide returned rome master state offered powers held senate refused ratified status master state roman emperor transition roman republic roman empire complete

History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic


ireland british general charles 1st appointed june serve lord lieutenant ireland commander chief ireland highest civil military posts kingdom ireland held offices specific instructions authority deal irish rebellion broken took steps ensure justice consistently applied captured rebels personally reviewing significant number court cases directed military operations french revolutionary force landed bay august aftermath rebellion political climate regard ireland dominated idea union irish british kingdoms personal union sovereignty king george iii necessary improve conditions ireland favoured union believed require catholic emancipation granting basic civil rights predominantly roman catholic irish population create lasting peace instrumental achieving passage act union irish parliament prime minister william unable convince king merits catholic emancipation difference opinion led fall government resigned replaced earl background charles 1st british general civil administrator diplomat early career primarily military nature including series known campaigns war american independence culminated surrender followed period service commander chief governor general india oversaw consolidation british power southern india primarily expense kingdom introduced administrative reforms long term consequences returned england militarily engaged french revolutionary wars sent ultimately fruitless diplomatic mission stop fighting appointed master ordnance post held kingdom ireland time personal union kingdom great_britain rule king george iii separate political administrative institutions members parliament ireland elected roman catholic property owners majority catholics previous century progressively stripped rights king george represented civil affairs lord lieutenant ireland ruled consultation council military affairs commander chief demands american war independence forced king george withdraw troops ireland service north_america bolster forces supportive king raised militia companies called irish volunteers replace departing regulars protestant leaders irish parliament including henry flood henry support volunteers convinced british parliament pass series acts known collectively constitution giving irish parliament significant political independence unlike english flood proponents catholic emancipation leadership irish parliament overturned number restrictions rights catholics continued unable vote hold elected offices french revolution broke early catholics middle class united form society united successfully extracted additional rights protestant resistance idea catholic suffrage overwhelming numerical majority radical elements favouring irish independence found leader tone went france support revolutionaries led aborted attempt invade ireland failed invasion led government earl round leaders united attempt catholic populace use tactics possible passage insurrection act giving administration broad police powers suspension corpus october mid commander chief general lake organised british troops irish volunteers elements growing rebellion actions brutal flames rebellion lake actions effective dublin rebel leaders successfully orchestrated simultaneous start widespread hostilities news rebellion reached london days later taking british cabinet surprise lord assured home secretary duke portland rebellion unlikely letter written weeks earlier predicting protracted bloody struggle sent family safety england william confidence appointment lord suggested position commander chief early unhappy lake heavy handed leadership refused initial offer position lord lieutenant felt diminish effectiveness march suggested replaced lord lieutenant suggested offered posts arrangement similar position held india aware discussions later proposals agreed idea discussions early june june king george council approved appointment posts june arrived dublin command discussions went general lake directed response rebellion day landed rebellion broken british victory large rebel force hill rebellion irish remnants british military loyal militia remnants rebellion counties atrocities violence left mark wrote life lord lieutenant ireland comes idea perfect misery achieve great object consolidating british_empire shall sufficiently early july issued proclamation offering amnesty rebels laid arms took oath crown cracked arbitrary courts martial held field requiring review sentences dublin ireland received treatment areas disturbed requirement lord chief secretary reported numbers tried executed lord lieutenant review principal stronghold rebels mountains army began construction road facilitate operations military road survives today road dublin negotiated parliament passage bill offering amnesty rebels idea vigorously opposed protestant controlled irish parliament london time bill passed received royal signature october contained numerous exceptions meaning role significance rebellion likely eligible bill enacted late significant benefit offered financial compensation losses incurred loyalists terms significantly abused claims excess actual losses policy furthermore disliked politically influential complicated later activities finish putting rebellion create peace needed troops promised regulars militia prior appointment regular troops arrive ireland virtual garrison september militia companies flooded june irish parliament passed bill introduced regulate use english militia companies rebel subjected courts martial dominated disliked rebel leaders tried treason july sentenced hang prompted large number prisoners tried petition exchange operation agreed principle stem flow blood ongoing countryside concern rebellion renewed french assistance arrived cases carried spite opposition ultimately succeeded having rebels banished primarily scotland according lord chief secretary personally reviewed court cases sentencing death french invasion french support irish independence waned death main proponents driving force invasion attempt napoleon considered invasion great_britain late early dropped idea february seeing poor condition navy napoleon instead chose begin expedition malta egypt shortly irish rebellion erupted tone irish france managed extract assistance french directly involve military matters unexpected arrival august french troops bay county area seen rebellious activity fleet ships sailed early august carrying general jean french troops plan included troops sail brest landed relatively quickly raised poorly disciplined recruits join began moving south news landing reached dublin days later fearing presence encourage renewed uprisings stepped direct military matters general lake oversee defences appeared heading orders avoid confrontation sufficient strength morning august lake force routed races fleeing defenders ended miles went day reinforcements bolster forces reduced garrisons dublin significantly despite building force estimated concerned quality forces included militia reliability combat uncertain deal behaviour actions violence locals early stages campaign prompted issue orders threatening immediate execution soldiers caught stealing called officers assist stopping behavior troops general knew significantly arrival brest fleet rebellion raise men led lake chase seeking gain support rapidly moved north detached lake follow monitored movements kept positions dublin failed gain significant local support eventually trapped forces brief battle september surrendered fleet brest carrying tone sailed late attempted escape british naval ships attempt return france fleet captured tone brought dublin chains according account ordered number irish supporters killed lottery pieces paper marked death placed hat prisoners drew hat immediately led drew marked papers criticised slow pace went large number troops capture relatively modest french army supporters pointed french force captured subsequent uprising general john moore countered criticisms noting suspected shannon dublin objects movements guarding time prevented showed judgment service aftermath aftermath rebellion came believe british policy ireland flawed job lord lieutenant promote measures benefit entire population view brought conflict protestant irish parliament political establishment london agreement ireland united great_britain ireland suffering food shortages exacerbated crop failures shortage capacity offered bounty food portland home secretary objected steps including banning spirits considered arranging imports grain america attempting act recently deceased bishop establishment university proposed establishment university modelled trinity college dublin portland opposed arguing manner describe require university ireland needed university union protestant ireland previously petitioned union great_britain early 18th century principally overcome london essentially colonial treatment country included trade restrictions detrimental irish merchants businessmen subject arose times irish british political circles william decided time matter consideration time went dublin british politicians saw immediate aftermath rebellion particularly moment press matter king george wrote officials use present moment terror convince irish political interests previously opposed support idea protestant stood lose great deal union seats parliament significant source power relatively small number families necessarily reduced consequence counter assault power base sought use power lord lieutenant grant government jobs patronage essentially buy votes irish parliament vote existence task describe program wholesale found extremely unpleasant early setback believed terms union include catholic emancipation rights restored early catholics denied offices rights establishments dublin london including king cabinet opposed leading write mode adopted hatred catholics government letter home secretary wrote trust grace majesty ministers account consent clause shall united parliament exclusion catholics including lord chancellor lord favoured union opposed catholic emancipation trust hope fairly inclined bring union forward doctrine emancipation king george appointment wrote clearly understand granted catholics farther efforts include support emancipation clearly negative repercussions protestant wrote silly conduct total self lost question union wrote rendered object disgust prevented assistance ahead raising support union november rebellion died included firing government officials opposed union giving jobs supporters offering small number overcome rumours generated early drafts details union appeared protestant interests december trade groups representing lawyers merchants came idea principal objection fewer seats available irish representation united parliament resulting loss power seats retained saw trouble ahead warning portland unlikely pass january irish british met heard substantially similar address favour union delivered london king dublin lord lieutenant irish house_of_commons clear signal agreed sentiments speech votes optimistic prospects passage informed portland despair success measure future period opposition convinced turns points personal interest fixed principle union building support aftermath speech poor reception effectively promised build support union portland wrote hope unnecessary assure decisions depend receiving support majesty servants basis assurances developed plan convince interests controlled parliament support union found task occupied year extremely occupation unpleasant nature negotiating corrupt people heaven hate hour engaging dirty work supported reflection union british_empire dissolved task somewhat pleasant arrival son short visit july opponents particularly difficult deal controlled seats irish parliament managed convince militia regiment sign petition february opposing union military authority suspend command news reached london stripped privileges king george formally stripped colonel commission easily bought promises patronage worked support catholics able promises concerning rights high level resistance idea debate union began irish parliament january peers upper house concerned irish union resisted promised king phase irish issuing british instead march parliament passed resolutions indicating support union formally introduced act union bill passed june gave royal august union effect january included provisions catholic rights lord chancellor wrote satisfied man best selected crisis political opponents declared union accomplished corrupt government officials alleged spent million treasury funds achieve union henry son wrote union act power corruption accusation picked 19th century historians persisted 20th century historiography historian patrick observes methods government employed unusual time observes old fashioned nationalist simplistic hold act union carried mainly corrupt methods employed government delivering promises irish parliament embarked goodwill tour island generally received went unpleasant man governed country years martial law anticipating little trouble delivering promises london list sixteen names granted home secretary delayed refused threatened resign reputation matter promise given thought good bargain public progress business seen cause alter opinion bound honor stand sacrifice happy service king country honor supported quest pressure london cabinet succeeded portland informed cabinet respond favourably following months new issued requested cabinet royal support extend persistent requests catholic rights gave signs eventually resign action taken come support able sway king gave anti catholic speech january response requested king permission resign issue king george accepted resignation february resigned agreeing remain office successor arrived replace successor earl arrived dublin days later delayed bad weather arrived returned london legacy work union position catholic emancipation unsuccessful time politically influential unable king issue emancipation views played role change position issue lord edward early critic emancipation rendered passage according commentator question time political movements emancipation continued henry later daniel campaigns catholic rights 1820s led catholic relief act engaged king diplomatic efforts europe led british diplomatic team negotiations napoleon resulted treaty offered second tour duty india difficult sea voyage died india long arriving buried india


skull tower skull tower serbian pronounced tower composed largely human located city serbia battle fought serbian uprising serbian revolution serbian revolutionaries attacked turkish forces hill near captured turks fired pistol powder magazine killing serbian rebels turkish soldiers vicinity afterward turkish ordered tower killed serbian revolutionaries tower feet high originally contained embedded sides fourteen rows following turkish withdrawal tower chapel built chapel renovated bust added following year skull tower chapel declared cultural monuments exceptional importance came protection socialist republic serbia renovation chapel occurred remain tower said belong enclosed glass container seen symbol independence serbs tower mentioned writings french romantic poet english travel writer alexander william centuries following construction popular tourist attraction visited people annually history background time ottoman_empire turkish forces known create tower structures enemies order create terror opponents serbian uprising serbian revolution ottoman rule erupted leader serbian revolutionaries led commander serbian attacked large turkish force hill located close city owing lack coordination commanders revolutionaries failed receive support serbian rebel detachments numerically superior turks lost thousands troops numerous attacks serbs eventually overwhelmed serbian lines knowing men captured took fired gun powder magazine resulting explosion killed surviving revolutionaries turkish soldiers vicinity construction battle turkish ordered heads men skinned stuffed sent ottoman sultan returned turks built skull tower warning future generations intending revolt ottoman_empire tower stands feet high originally consisted embedded sides fourteen rows ensuing years fell tower walls taken away burial relatives thinking identify deceased family members taken hunters ottomans withdrew tower protect elements chapel designed architect built tower donations serbia plaque dedicated near chapel reads serbian chapel renovated bust added following year skull tower chapel declared cultural monuments exceptional importance came protection socialist republic serbia renovation chapel occurred remain tower said belong rests glass container significance portrayal balkan culture centuries following construction tower symbol serbian independence pilgrimage site serbs considered visited places serbia tourists visiting annually early 1830s french romantic poet wrote tower visiting time ottoman_empire saying saw large tower rising midst plain white marble eyes monument discovered walls supposed built marble white stone composed regular rows human rain sun cemented little sand lime formed entirely arch sheltered heat sun places portions hair hanging like moss breath wind mountain breeze blowing fresh penetrated sounded like eyes heart greeted remains brave men cut heads cornerstone independence homeland serbs monument teach children value independence people showing real price fathers pay british traveler alexander william described skull tower building ottoman serbia saying impressed simple architect conception struck exquisite beauty exhibition military museum belgrade contains replica tower prior dissolution yugoslavia tens thousands yugoslavia visited original books journals websites


stamp french dutch series postage stamps issued belgium stamps depicted king prominent type derives legally usable july produced result series national reforms postal system belgium based success similar british reforms denominations design issued simultaneously brown blue stamps allowed postal costs pre paid receiver led sharp increase volume mail quickly superseded new types proved extremely influential inspired series commemorative stamps background heavily influenced example british postal system issued stamp penny black belgian government supported inauguration belgian equivalent existing system postage costs paid receiver discouraged people receiving sending letters idea postage stamps allow pay advance officially sanctioned des modifications des law bringing modifications postal system december radical liberal future prime minister served minister public works debate reform postage belgium occurred time widespread postage reform influenced british example france bavaria second act sur law postal reform signed april second law set detailed terms launch postal system june officially requested new minister public works act new laws stamps july postage stamps launched produced denominations design brown stamp send letter distance kilometres blue ordinary national mail successful design variety options produced jacob stamps officially described ministerial notice small representing portrait king indication value printed paper reverse coated thin layer stamps depicted wearing military uniform highly visible printed method inscribed postage stamp value numbers stamps face value french language text dutch language version produced like british stamps carry country origin intended use belgium stamp designed charles based king official portrait painted artist composition jacob john henry robinson instead cut sheets hand stamp carried crossed attach envelope stamp contained application examples produced distinguish minor variations series slight colour variations exist described grey brown brown variations dark blue blue noted colour variations brown examples commanding highest premium collectors double printed error stamps known operation stamps sold post offices country issued sale sales started june use legal july lack infrastructure post boxes particularly rural areas letters given directly person delivered post offices sent use stamps cancelled heavy circular black ink stamp like british equivalent number centre different post office country effects legacy introduction postage stamp daily delivery allowed large increase volume mail carried million letters carried year creation stamps led structural expansion national postage system counted post offices success initial series inspired introduction new varieties different designs denominations october new types replaced design called type featuring portrait circular window issue new red produced overseas mail rumoured time like design time believed gave aspect officially superseded remained legally valid july following death stamps bearing nearly identical impression laid paper distinguished slightly different dimensions impressions date subsequently subject commemorative stamps featured design stamps issued belgium 100th anniversary belgian postal service published commemorative series