nicholas nicholas january american obtaining doctorate university california berkeley worked observatory remained brief period mit radiation laboratory world war time contributed astronomical knowledge spiral galaxy internal motions origin age size universe played significant role planning construction inch represented major improvement earlier inch spent years director peak national observatory retirement leadership inter american observatory developed world research equipped premier responsible construction meter peak named died ashes spread high ridge peak early life father engineer manufacturing company illinois mother olive despite attending college set high educational standards younger brother born brother birth family moved california area entered grade time moved remained graduation high school brief return illinois period presumably high school years parents divorced senior year fall secretary school science club set club visit observatory father permitted use car knight transport club members dirt gravel winding mountain road leading observatory visit observatory spend career visiting read astronomy books available local libraries time imagine making astronomy profession education began college fall university california berkeley studying degree mining took residence mother apartment avenue worked berkeley library help support generally university eventually elected beta honor societies mid term examinations second year achieved poor grades chemistry laboratory meeting dean discuss grades aware color blind prevented observing small color changes flame tests kept seeing small color changes adviser recommended change major able graduate mining engineer handicap mother encouraged study interested considered astronomy alternative mining asking professors astronomy department enjoyed work satisfactory wage content answers transferred college letters science major astronomy set degree requirements year studies basic physical sciences mathematics eventually discovered greatly enjoyed astronomy decided course graduate level study followed career research scientist graduating decided remain berkeley best astronomy graduate program day took hiatus pursuing advanced degree went work human computer mount wilson observatory assisted paul activity resulted papers mass orbit barnes shortly discovery returned berkeley pursue graduate studies thesis topic suggested count number unit area sky function position direct plates taken supplemented counts making inch inch wilson successfully completed thesis awarded phd degree complimented work significant results achieved lack accurate magnitude standards faint measured strong tendency cluster working thesis idea designing small fast believed conjunction facility competitive work larger wilson expected compete wilson inch instrument stars elliptical condensed relatively bright instead study extended low surface irregular thesis advisor william hammond wright head stellar program joseph moore encouraged develop device constructed observatory workshop proved efficient extended low surface objects particularly spectrum confirming expectations wright strong encouragement fused wilson heavy glass lenses absorb radiation observatory hoped join mount wilson team earning doctorate openings great depression instead began career afforded number resigning given year position observing assistant duties limited maintaining keeping instrument rooms clean following year senior joined berkeley department salary split young arthur june married los_angeles met years lived small apartment little astronomy village mount hamilton summit resided time newly built determine radial knots gas crab data previously published angular rate expansion able estimate distance consequently person recognize demonstrate crab remnant observed recorded classical nova walter instrumental counseling taking role previously filled arthur lawrence studied rotation nearby found matter faint observed detected way effect spent years researching way clusters found way half mass previously supposed observatory collaborated year project mount mount wilson big bang theory beginning universe wrote paper concluding age universe billion years times prior estimate half modern value size times larger thought world war united_states entered world war accepted position mit radiation laboratory cambridge massachusetts work radar development began work early cambridge time adult life resided outside california arizona climate massachusetts unlike california family accustomed middle arranged transfer wilson observatory offices wartime office scientific research development projects related aerial gunnery aerial photography bombing tactics progress unhappy management project feeling talents transferred february work development large rockets expert high speed photography analyze rocket spring transferred secret atomic bomb project required high speed photography visited los twice including time trinity test october war ended returned astronomical research inch world war important influence observatory future returned serving years assistant mount wilson felt strongly mount hamilton required larger proud ability achieve important results small inch size apparent mount wilson inch saw light opening inch dominion observatory mount wilson larger inch adept working small understood stand competing collected times light going worse inch completed observatory young faculty thought older faculty moore wright committed small tried harder obtain larger unknown observatory director william wright predecessor robert tried secret raise money larger replace inch tried private sources trying robert gordon university california president provide budget despite multiple attempts continued fail primarily great depression asked paul wilson succeed wright turned agitated refusal changed stance told find way raise money new war ended time promised secretly appointed shane director war ended plan large leaked september form university budget proposals wright joseph moore interim wartime director imagined inch inch based funds proposed budget sent letter representing younger staff members requested meeting discuss kind built met december los_angeles office spoke key need exceeding inches optical shop seen nearly completed inch glass disc initially planned flat auto test inch mirror urged use mirror size surprise agreed shane appointed chairman committee formed beginning plan new committee members included moore walter adams committee functioned primarily correspondence letter helped convince shane inches feasible instead inch helped bridge gap experienced team designers shane experienced university administrator professor adams executive officer inch project john august anderson shared experience drawings plans design committee march shane present committee decided basic parameters inch shane march joined shane wright moore present march meeting hamilton choose location build postwar research long period building inch continued use inch focused efforts utilizing extended low surface clusters completed pre war effort integrated clusters published work paper key demonstrating system way clusters shares slightly rotation found flattened disc matter young stars galaxy discovered type conducting research research performed included year collaboration formulated gather values northern brighter visual magnitude handled brighter tackled ones mount wilson inch work resulted paper authored rate expansion universe paper listed values determined measured wilson studied dynamics motion presented work structure way june university_of_michigan ann work demonstrated inner solid body rotation outer motion identified likely clusters including galaxy inch plate exposed provided sensitivity eyes reach visual magnitude inch later deteriorated point longer read new inch operational beginning immediately began left september year peak national observatory moved university california years progressing student second director peak national observatory financial support national science foundation universities formed consortium association universities research astronomy purpose create run research observatory american director chose site near foot peak oversaw building inch completed spring board decided suited job chose replace october previous administrative experience previously appointed consultant experience planning inch board president shane representing university california helped convince accept offer director oversaw building meter peak built retired completed point named nicholas honor involved expansion national observatory southern hemisphere eventually observatory metre victor identical peak saw light completed retirement retired age event honored held birthday retirement continued play active role organizations including overview committee died january complications caused diabetes ashes spread high ridge peak survived wife years children bruce ann grandchildren shane nicholas honors publications cited sources


patrick moore sir patrick alfred moore march december english amateur attained prominent status field writer researcher radio commentator television presenter moore president british astronomical association founder president society popular astronomy spa author books astronomy presenter world longest running television series original presenter bbc sky night amateur known specialist moon observation creating catalogue rapid popular instantly figure british television moore self taught player pianist accomplished composer amateur cricketer chess player addition popular science books wrote numerous works fiction moore opponent fox hunting outspoken critic european_union supporter independence party served chairman short lived anti immigration united country party served royal_air_force world war married children early life moore born middlesex march charles moore died née white died family moved subsequently east spent childhood youth marked heart problems left poor health educated home private developed interest astronomy age joined british astronomical association age invited run small observatory east age mentor ran observatory killed road accident age began wearing told right eye weaker left years later began wearing set world war moore joined home guard east father elected platoon commander despite autobiography lied age join royal_air_force age records enlisted royal_air_force volunteer reserve december age called service july 2nd class basic training raf bases england went canada british commonwealth air training plan completed training raf new_brunswick navigator pilot time canada met albert wright leave new_york returning england june commissioned pilot officer posted raf navigator crew vickers wellington bomber engaged maritime patrolling bombing missions mainland europe end hostilities moore adjutant area meteorological officer finally october rank flying officer war significant influence life said romance ended fiancée nurse killed london bomb struck ambulance moore subsequently remarked married second best good liked wife family autobiography said years thought death saw entire german nation sinking sea relied help push said radio_times magazine care war germans try given chance good dead moore said exceptionally close mother talented artist shared home decorated paintings little friendly aliens produced sent annually christmas cards moore wrote foreword mother book moore space career astronomy war moore rejected grant study university_of_cambridge citing wish stand feet wrote book guide moon later retitled patrick moore moon published year later wrote book published teacher house school green second book translation work french moore spoke fluent french second original science book guide planets penned work fiction master moon numerous young adult fiction space adventure books including late 1970s series scott space adventure wrote adult novel titled ancient lights wish published teaching set inch home kept old age developed particular interest far moon small visible earth result moon moon specialist subject life claimed discovered named mare eastern sea later conceded german credited discovery feature observed times observations began moore described short lived glowing areas lunar surface gave lunar phenomena television appearance debate existence flying following reported sightings 1950s moore argued lord ufo proponents invited present live astronomy programme said greatest difficulty finding appropriate theme tune opening jean chosen programme existence programme originally named star map sky night chosen radio_times april moore presented episode programme pitched casual viewers professional format remained consistent inception moore presented monthly episode july suffered near fatal bout food poisoning caused eating contaminated egg replaced episode chris moore appears world records book world longest serving presenter having presented programme programme broadcast moore home prevented travelling studios years received lucrative offers programme networks rejected held gentlemen agreement bbc highlight series russians allowed moore photographic results probe live air successful transmission probe ran technical difficulties time moore famously large fly episodes live moore continue regardless invited visit soviet_union met man journey outer space episode sky night september moore attempt broadcast live direct view planet resulted comedy episode cloud obscured sky appointed director newly constructed northern_ireland post held stay outside england short partly beginning troubles dispute moore wanted involvement appointed county secretary scout movement resigned informed catholics admitted developing moore travelled japan secure mars helped redevelopment republic ireland key figure development museum astronomy bath june returned england settling resigning post nasa apollo programme presenting apollo mission said great moments human history broadcast interrupted children programme presenter apollo apollo missions cliff james bbc television coverage moon landing missions moore remember words eagle landed moment bbc lost tapes broadcast recording reveals studio team quiet landing sequence leaving nasa commentary clear seconds contact says touched seconds says eagle landed seconds explains upcoming stay stay decision nasa announces stay seconds contact seconds recorded sequence ends real time comment moore broadcast live recording ends polls studio team comment reaction moore participated coverage apollo missions elected member international astronomical union having twice edited union general_assembly attempted establish international union amateur failed lack interest 1970s 80s reported voyager pioneer programs nasa headquarters time increasingly annoyed conspiracy reporters asked questions waste money space research said asked type questions know dealing idiot question annoyed difference astronomy despite point responding letters delivered house sent variety standard replies letters asking basic questions conspiracy proponents hunting despite fame telephone number listed telephone happy members public observatory compiled catalogue astronomical objects moore named honour february presented special episode sky night approach later said bbc better funded horizon team complete programme january tornado destroyed moore garden observatory subsequently rebuilt moore campaigned unsuccessfully closure royal observatory moore favourite episodes sky night dealt said nature match glory total eclipse sun moore bbc presenter total eclipse england view team cornwall obscured cloud moore patron south downs science centre opened april 50th anniversary semi spoof edition programme broadcast bbc moore depicted time lord featured special guests amateur jon moore presenting sky night brian special edition sky night broadcast bbc commemorate programme 50th anniversary party moore garden attended amateur professional moore celebrated record breaking episode sky night home sussex march presented help special guests professor brian cox jon lord royal reported january effects old spinal injury longer able operate able present sky night home died aged december home west sussex december reported science museum london acquired large collection patrick moore objects manuscripts memorabilia including sky night scripts observation books years manuscripts astronomy fiction books inch reflecting activism political beliefs moore known conservative political views 1970s chairman anti immigration united country party position held party absorbed new britain party campaigned politician british general election agreed french germans trusted moore gave political campaigning deciding moore campaigned behalf douglas constituency voter years supporter patron independence party death briefly supported liberal party 1950s condemned liberal democrats saying believed alter position radically happily join socialist workers party win extra votes admired official monster party briefly financial advisor wrote autobiography constitutional monarchy headed prince best political system world moore critic iraq war said world safer place ronald_reagan white_house patron british weights measures association declaring english british wish integrate anybody stated admiration controversial moore devoted entire chapter weak arm law autobiography denouncing modern british society particularly hunting policemen sentencing policy race relations act sex discrimination act thought police politically correct brigade wrote mainly responsible spreading aids garden home adam eve adam steve interview radio_times asserted bbc ruined women commenting trouble bbc run women shows soap operas cooking kitchen sink plays wouldn golden days response bbc described moore best loved figures remarked views love june appearance room banished female news readers room accused dinosaur remind ruled earth long time moore cited opposition fox hunting blood sports capital punishment claims ultra right wing views vegetarian held deep contempt people kill merely animal lover supporting animal welfare charities particularly cats protection particular affinity cats stated house house interests popular culture long running television career eccentric moore widely recognised popular public figure good effect april day spoof bbc radio moore announced lifetime astronomical event meant listeners jump exact moment experience temporary sensation bbc received telephone calls listeners alleging experienced sensation key figure establishment international event initially held moore appeared television radio shows including minute playing role television character professed know know video gaming issue video game challenges answered questions tips host diamond claimed moore understand said managed record contributions single takes moore keen amateur actor appearing local plays appeared self roles episodes wise broadcast kenneth days death minor role fourth radio series guide galaxy lead role radio sci bbc 20th century fox radio play independence day things moore fills navigator appeared celebrity knockout blank face music appeared television film prop space suit expressed appreciation science fiction television series doctor star trek stated stopped watching went making women commanders kind thing despite subsequently cameo appearance doctor episode eleventh hour matt smith debut eleventh doctor 1960s moore approached doctor story editor davis act scientific advisor series help accuracy stories position ultimately taken kit keen amateur chess player moore carried pocket set vice president sussex junior chess association presented sussex junior david best young chess player award television britain brilliant moore represented sussex youth moore enthusiastic amateur cricketer playing cricket club played lord charity team bowler unorthodox action accomplished leg spin bowler number batsman poor fielder jacket notes book myths men said included chess plays peculiar leg spin cricket played golf won pro competition southampton forced moore keen pianist accomplished player having played instrument age composed substantial corpus works including moore ballet dream written music performed royal command performance performed duet guest got news accompanied closing theme tune pianist accompanied albert playing swan saint violin recording performed solo rendition sex pistols anarchy royal variety performance enjoy popular music played modern rock songs artists muse pink floyd interview journalist explained ear songs universally awful encountering health problems extensive traveller visited seven continents including antarctica said favourite countries iceland norway march hospitalised fitted cardiac spoke favour anniversary help language friend queen guitarist brian occasional guest sky night bought moore home rent day provide financial security moore chris wrote book bang complete history universe february moore completed robin comprehensive patrick moore data book astronomy cambridge_university press identified author book published called flying mars attributed intended money making venture practical joke ufo believers moore admitted involvement joined flat earth society ironic joke moore believed person met aviator wright man space man moon armstrong march bbc radio broadcast minute play based life moore far moore sean starring tom moore mother honours appointments moore elected fellow royal astronomical society awarded society jackson medal appointed officer order british_empire promoted commander order honorary president east sussex astronomical society position held death services science broadcasting appointed honorary fellow royal society amateur achieve distinction june appointed honorary vice president society history astronomy buzz presented british academy film television arts bafta award services television patron boys grammar school south devon moore long association university leicester department physics astronomy awarded honorary doctor science degree distinguished honorary fellowship highest award university saving public observatory closure moore accepted position honorary president astronomical association position held death film television appearances


william william october english mathematician served professor astronomy geometry university_of_cambridge years born north riding yorkshire attended trinity college cambridge graduated bachelor_of_arts senior smith year elected fellow trinity college ordained minister received master arts granted vicar near erected observatory best known remarks supposed error elements work nautical important reference navigation period obituary claimed professor applied completely master daughter married andrew line grandfather great grandfather notable legal dynasty early life born village near richmond north riding yorkshire england son william august born hannah june educated free grammar school learned latin fluent greek english language mathematics school charitable trust free context school meant free authority save crown admitted trinity college cambridge_university november age trinity time richest college cambridge students class charged lower fees obtained free food lodging assistance period study exchange performing work colleges eighteenth century fully integrated members community likely employed fellow companions servants expected wait table scholars eighteenth century servants term private tutor john pond later royal elected scholar scholarship trinity john henry role seen teaching acting role conferred bachelor_of_arts graduated senior awarded smith prize year examinations trinity written latin career early career appointed peak district annual essentially senior elected fellow trinity college according peter time richer living like gentlemen ordained minister received master arts entailed presiding oral examinations necessary awarded responsible introduction high flown time extending double usual length hour minutes sent tradition according argues way getting act making acts flourish appointed university assistant tutor resigned married margaret college permitted marry chair appointed professor astronomy geometry succession john smith position annual salary initially later rising cambridge astronomical chairs seen theoretical experimental tenure mathematical chair seen prize means securing leisure best merely offering position man pursue duties described holding great reputation sole duty required examine students annually smith prize including john adam george william 7th duke time cambridge saddle difficult dispute judgement controlled cambridge studies completely middle ages early nineteenth century cambridge discipline mathematics heart mathematics teaching exemplified cambridge generation began georgian era drew close george successfully introduced new french mathematics simon joseph louis senate house examinations reported introduction papers excited remark wood angry threatened protest french mathematics struggle intellectual difference newton rational mechanics experimental philosophy excellent continued sit led board established cambridge observatory encounter criticism tenure whilst university far known delivered single lecture despite chair holder deliver lectures year predecessor given lectures excuse astronomical chair cambridge established gave lectures 1820s longer acceptable consider chairs received criticism living original thomas duties successor chair george promised duty manner predecessor struggled attend lectures pure mathematics lectures practical astronomy attended translation dean years later meant largely absent chair severely criticised retaining fellow royal society admitted fellow royal society april nominated royal anthony shepherd richard farmer william wales president joseph banks friends charles samuel thomas frequently saw submissions publications overlooked submitted papers society honour having carefully lodged archives society world general members society derive benefit deposited centre earth delivered papers royal society published philosophical transactions delivered method finding latitude place means altitudes sun time observations described containing valuable remarks criticised subject great importance philosophical magazine work method examining divisions astronomical instruments wrote instrument trusted previous examination argument influence scientists henry described ingenious examination edinburgh encyclopedia method described ingenious requires great labour time inferior accuracy efficiency adopted errors primary divisions circular instruments criticised greatly ing method duke delivered remarks supposed error elements royal society published philosophical transactions eventually published independently defended greek mathematician charge levied louis sage defence applauded british critic perfectly sound espoused worth elements work considered reflect highest honour human intellect board elected board nominated chair remained board dissolved board governmental body charged scheme prizes intended encourage solve problem finding sea vital accurate navigation published set tables use nautical finding latitude published board whilst considered practical use seamen described nautical magazine attempt solve problems nautical astronomy uniform system board awarded tables intended replace tables accurate john harrison generally available 1820s onwards rendering lunar distance method create tables edward criticised errors work scientific member board eighteen men according ultimately responsible form contents nautical difficult years select group equally eminent field notable strong attendance record quarterly meetings missing single meeting record members non attendance meetings resulted paid annual salary easy method lunar distance account figure earth nautical board dissolved unsuccessfully attempted convince george aid campaign restoration new edition nautical tables published posthumously taylor later concluded works value art navigation personal life february granted vicar great near years teaching work lived erected private observatory transported cambridge originally belonged newton monthly magazine included list notable private england spent thirty years life occupied studies pursuits connected advancement astronomy arrived trees planted grounds form initials year created park opposite similar backs cambridge built replica trinity college bridge stream opened springs form lake ice skating winter september married margaret june january church west north riding yorkshire margaret eldest daughter lord manor home village robert henry marsh john bell royal society fellowship closest friends keen supporter george career chief supporter whig john 1st baron parliamentary bid purchased coat arms brother thomas lived gentleman farmer record holding cattle point credited best herd country great acted chief constable west parish church memorial dedicated thomas memorial dedicated mother brothers death december reported late weak state health died suddenly october home obituary gentleman magazine reported constitution broken early life years period weakness suffering physical strength unequal workings active mind professor applied completely master excellent man left widow daughters eldest margaret younger died june margaret married andrew church line grandfather great grandfather


swan swan july december american discovered relation period variable stars graduate college started working harvard college observatory computer examining photographic plates order measure catalog stars received little recognition lifetime discovery allowed measure distance earth explained discovery straight line readily drawn series points corresponding showing simple relation periods death period relation shifts measured fellow observatory determine universe expanding law early years education swan daughter church minister george wife swan born lancaster massachusetts descendant john english tailor settled massachusetts bay colony early seventeenth century family spelled early massachusetts records attended college graduated college called society collegiate instruction women bachelor degree studied broad curriculum including classical greek fine arts philosophy geometry wasn fourth year college took course astronomy earned traveled america europe time lost hearing career began working harvard college observatory women human computers hired edward charles measure catalog stars appeared observatory photographic plate collection early 1900s women allowed operate independent means initially pay later received hour work reportedly hard working minded little given pursuits devoted family church career assigned study variable stars varies time according science writer variable stars interest years studying plates doubt thought significant discovery eventually change astronomy noted thousands variable stars images clouds published results annals astronomical observatory harvard college noting showed pattern brighter ones appeared longer periods study confirmed greater longer periods relationship close predictable assumption cloud approximately distances earth apparent measured photographic plates distance clouds probably nearly distance earth periods apparently associated actual light determined mass density surface discovery produced studying variable stars recorded harvard photographic plates known period relationship law period directly related star average optical power star visible spectrum words straight line readily drawn series points corresponding showing simple relation periods developed continued harvard standard photographic measurements scale orders stars initially analyzed plates construct scale accepted international committee photographic influence period relationship standard astronomy allowing scientists distances remote stellar observations useful year reported results determined distance way distance accurately determined soon detected notably important evidence spiral actually independent located far outside way discovery forever change picture universe prompted sun center galaxy great debate galaxy center universe accomplishments american established universe expanding possible groundbreaking research provided key determine size inserted lock provided observations allowed turned wrote david matthew clark book measuring credit said deserved nobel prize work swedish academy sciences tried nominate prize learn died cancer years earlier nobel prize awarded posthumously paid week discovery way accurately measure distances inter scale paved way modern astronomy understanding structure scale universe illness death worked sporadically time harvard sidelined health problems family obligations illness contracted graduation college rendered increasingly deaf took director observatory head stellar end year succumbed cancer buried family plot cambridge cemetery cambridge massachusetts sitting gentle hill writes george johnson biography spot marked tall monument marble pedestal sits globe uncle darwin family buried plaque siblings mounted monument nearby graves henry william james achievements astronomy member beta american association university women american astronomical society american association advancement science honorary member american association variable star observers early death seen tragedy colleagues reasons went scientific achievements obituary colleague bailey noted happy faculty worthy possessed nature sunshine life beautiful meaning awards honors crater moon named honor deaf men women worked unaware death years prior swedish mathematician considered nobel prize physics wrote requesting information work offering send monograph replied let know died suggested true credit belonged interpretation findings nominated nobel prize awarded posthumously books plays wrote play silent sky followed journey acceptance harvard death george johnson wrote biography miss stars showcases women progress science story swan robert wrote biography look pioneering woman younger audience ideal year olds look robert additional resources


coal ball coal ball type varying shape imperfect sphere flat lying irregular slab coal balls formed early period swamps coal despite actually coal coal ball owes similar origins similar shape actual coal coal balls preserve remarkable record microscopic tissue structure swamp plants completely destroyed unique preservation plants makes valuable scientists cut coal balls research geological past english scientists joseph edward william scientific description coal balls england initial research coal balls carried europe north american coal balls discovered identified coal balls found countries leading discovery hundreds species genera coal balls found coal north_america north american coal balls widespread europe oldest known coal balls date stage found germany territory czechoslovakia introduction scientific world formation scientific description coal balls sir joseph edward william reported examples coal yorkshire lancashire england european scientists early research coal balls north_america found iowa coal connection european coal balls adolf coal ball found gilbert drew parallel work renewed interest coal balls 1930s drawn europe illinois basin search theories theory drift theory attempt explain formation coal balls subject speculation supporters theory believe close present location organic matter accumulated near shortly burial underwent minerals organic matter formed internal cast water high dissolved mineral content buried plant matter dissolved mineral matter precipitated caused containing plant material form preserve rounded stone prevented preserved eventually coal ball majority coal balls found coal locations compressed sufficiently render material coal marie david watson analysed coal ball samples decided coal balls formed stressed importance interaction believing necessary formation coal balls supporters theory believe watson discovery plant stem extending multiple coal balls shows coal balls formed stating drift theory fails explain watson observation cite fragile pieces organic material projecting outside coal balls drift theory correct projections destroyed large coal balls large able transported place drift theory holds organic material form near present location asserts material coal ball transported location means flood storm supporters drift theory believed presence marine animals coal balls proved material transported marine non marine environment edward stating theory good evidence believed formation coal balls transported material likely coal balls included material formed transport open water contents coal balls coal non useless fuel coal balls calcium rich life forms containing calcium minerals including appear coal balls albeit lesser quantities coal balls usually size man fist sizes vary greatly ranging feet diameter coal balls found smaller coal balls commonly contain masses organic matter stages analysed coal ball found lack coniferous wood noted discovered plant matter appear arranged fell plants produced coal balls usually preserve leaves plants analysed north american coal balls discovery marine organisms led classification coal balls types normal known floral containing plant matter containing animal fossils mixed containing plant animal material mixed coal balls divided plant animal material distinctly separated lacking separation preservation quality preservation coal balls varies preservation point able cellular structures coal balls contain preserved root hairs spores described perfectly preserved containing plant plant found worthless organic matter having deteriorated coal ball coal balls preserved contents useful geographical distribution vegetation example providing evidence ukrainian plants tropical belt research coal balls led discovery genera species main factors determine quality preserved material coal ball mineral constituents speed burial process degree compression undergoing generally coal balls resulting remains quick burial little decay pressure better preserved plant remains coal balls differing signs decay collapse coal balls containing quantities iron far lower preservation coal balls calcium earned iron title chief curse coal ball hunter distribution coal balls found england later parts world including australia belgium netherlands czechoslovakia germany ukraine china spain encountered north_america geographically widespread compared europe united_states coal balls found kansas illinois basin region oldest coal balls early end stage discovered germany czechoslovakia ages generally range upper coal balls vary age later end roughly later roughly european coal balls generally early end stage coal coal balls completely surrounded coal found randomly scattered isolated groups usually upper half occurrence coal extremely sporadic regular coal found contain coal balls found contain coal balls miners avoid area entirely methods thin early procedure material contained coal balls process required cutting coal ball diamond saw thin section slide placed microscope examination process machine large time needed poor quality samples produced thin gave way convenient method thin section technique superseded common liquid technique technique obtained cutting surface coal ball diamond saw grinding cut surface glass plate smooth finish cut surface acid acid mineral matter coal ball leaving projecting layer plant cells applying piece placed coal ball cells preserved coal ball drying removed coal ball razor obtained stained low stain observed microscope extracted millimetres coal ball method time contain iron addressed problem liquid technique separate organic material preserved coal ball minerals including iron allows retain quality longer time revisions begin grinding surface coal ball smooth finish process essentially heating making multiple applications solutions coal ball subsequent application greater concentration allow wax completely coal ball acid applied coal ball following process merges liquid technique ray powder coal balls rays sent sample examine structure reveals information structure chemical composition physical properties examined material scattered intensity ray pattern observed analysed measurements consisting incident scattered angle energy


massive formation early middle marine sediments zone forms basement rock western oregon washington southern tip vancouver island fragmented crescent corresponds geographically coast range volcanic province coast range distinguished slightly younger erupted continent differ chemical composition characteristic mantle derived erupted spreading ridge plates oceanic crust younger characteristic derived zone change composition reflects change marine continental evident millions years ago attributed north american continent theories proposed account volume diversity approximately rotation evidence insufficient determine origin question remains open north american continent approximately million years ago contemporaneous initiation bend hawaiian emperor chain major event associated reorganization earth plates believed caused shift zone termination uplifting rocky_mountains major changes volcanic activity western north_america discovery rock exposed places periphery olympic mountains folding black hills hills southwestern washington formations faults central southern oregon variously named formation vancouver island crescent formation black hills hills washington river formation oregon map river washington oregon considered post covered younger volcanic deposits discovery began arnold description naming small exposure north olympic peninsula near port crescent exposure small recognized likely buried younger deposits recognition similar rock exposed formation generally applied early middle olympic peninsula lowland formation southern tip vancouver island described series reports recognized crescent formation juan recognized included western washington oregon coast range far south mountains river described baldwin near river oregon related formations southern oregon described reports 1960s coined describe extent formations extent map shows black near surface extent pink detected upper crust studies exposed contacts older pre north american basement near oregon thrust formations mountains discussed river fault southern end vancouver island pushed pre pacific rim formation beneath contact rest continent concealed younger deposits especially cascade range contact olympic mountains actually contact underlying oceanic sediments olympics exposed erosion deposits location near surface contact crescent formation pre basement continent termed coast range boundary fault largely uncertain river fault extends southeast past victoria cross juan possibly connecting southeast striking southern island fault extends mountain fault zone kilometers east seattle believed western edge pre basement gravity data indicates latitude crescent formation near surface extends east seattle south near mount similar situation fault zone believed eastern edge crescent formation pre continental basement near mount separating marine formation known southern washington conductor possible deposited fragment oldest parts likely nature location contact formations unknown central oregon forms platform older defunct western rest younger high east believed rest sediments accumulated basin continent southern oregon thrust mountains southern oregon blue mountain near contact exposed wild fault late formation thrust formation coast southern oregon western edge fault strike slip fault split missing piece head gulf alaska north boundary believed come ashore near columbia river way crescent formation olympic mountains map reflect bending result crushed vancouver island attributed loss deposits originally olympics prior resembling dome western end removed actual thickness estimates thickness vary oregon appears extend possibly trough juan plate edge continent slipping sediments accumulated trough crescent washington believed thinner little western eastern ends juan possibly thick composition formations characterized marine volcanic layers continental origin lying oceanic crust usually capped layer deposited suggests formations initially deposited oceanic environment possibly island arc olympic peninsula blue mountain unit base crescent formation includes sediments including large continental origin showing continent close sediments eroded pre rock vancouver island northern cascade range southern end sediments derived mountains sand formation composition corresponding rock idaho age eruption placed roughly late mid specific dates difficult obtain somewhat variable early potassium dating duncan gave dates million years ago northern southern ends date river near center suggestive spreading ridge previously noted strong models formed researchers found younger dates crescent removing age symmetry recent dating based lead shows narrower range ages south north size massive miles kilometers long half likely depth original deposits kilometers thick minimal thickness feet estimated nearly cubic miles rock total volume great greater better known columbia river recognizing feet thickness feet centers estimated volume excess cubic miles duncan estimated cubic miles exceeds volume continental rift zones flood provinces recent estimate volume million cubic lava retains imprint earth magnetic field recording oriented measurements fields oregon coast range following presumed continent alternately formation clockwise strong age rock half degrees rotation million years evidence map mountains columbia river rotated clockwise single coherent block pivot northern end southern end question attracted considerable attention evidence favoring northern pivot key piece evidence crescent formation laid sediments blue mountain unit derived continent including million years old requires crescent formation formed close continent model forming continental margin olympic owl zone features unknown age significance southern end mountains joined near idaho central idaho evidence comes sand formation formation sand composition rock idaho sand snake columbia rivers appears transported far source implies formation closer idaho deposited subsequently rotated away surveys region continues rotate likely result extension basin range province flow southern edge juan plate north columbia river matters complicated southwestern washington half rotation seen rocks similar age oregon basis believing crescent broken formed different oceanic plates undergone different history second washington variation rotation led speculation crescent broken blocks east olympics measured statistical error bounds zero north near port rotation slightly counter clockwise vancouver island counter clockwise evidence shows tip island bent presumably result collision northwestern tip olympic peninsula shows counter clockwise rotation degrees raises question shape crescent formation loss material center olympic mountains reflects bending origin origin determined lacks definite answer theories developed details theories depend remained enigmatic following notable models models formed general types formation offshore possibly like hawaiian emperor chain spreading ridge like iceland continent formation near continental margin result extension slab window current models away continental edge northern pivot studies origins generally focused accounting principal observations large described output cubic miles exceeding volume continental rift zones flood provinces accounting observed volumes requires enhanced source models presence slab windows resulted possibly resurrection spreading ridge relation spreading ridge important element models location determined simpson cox models seeking explain observed clockwise noting appeared rotated rigid block simpson cox proposed models rotation southern pivot contact mountains problems especially northern end sediments continent found base crescent formation showing near continent beginning second model subsequently refined hammond originally adjacent olympic continent rotated northern pivot near olympic peninsula sediments close contact start requires moved originally conflicts understanding moved age rotation formation central oregon largely cleared study formation illustrated reconstruction offshore model captured island chain early widely cited paper duncan drawing features fairly new theory plate shore type models featured set determined ages younger center river older ends age progression strongly suggested pattern seen spreading ridges older rock carried away sides new rock duncan considered models involving ridge favoring presumably spreading ridge iceland generate chain islands islands continent underlying oceanic crust study criticized multiple grounds particularly ages duncan noted measurement northern ages affected loss low grade bias respect position demonstrated recent study showed basis river followed representative initial phase recent dating shows trend south north age progression range original ages problem rate spreading time produce chain longer observed far away continent explain derived sediments objection somewhat newer ages smaller range ages models models forming near continental margin current models away continent formation models consider caused wells proposed leaked transform faults perpendicular spreading ridge changes direction plates size location region attributed proximity transform theory largely rejected likely plate motion model based shown faulty wells alternately suggested margin continent pushed away continent formed idea developed suggested initiated change plate direction effects ridge migrated continental margin effect formation slab window slab gap allow increased slab windows spreading ridges recognized early development plate theory little consideration ensuing effects 1980s came realization ridge reach form rock close gap continued spreading lead widening gap window plate increased flow implications shown taylor following pioneering work subsequently identified fan shaped wake distinctive left widening slab window northeastern washington idaho showed subsequent alaska oregon terms ridge slab window slab window single ridge rise multiple slab windows provide adequate having mantle suggested initiated slab window mantle slab windows feature main difference slab windows form spreading ridge implies formation continental margin manner second class models gulf alaska model origin account interactions plate boundaries north_america early studies plagued locations boundaries particularly spreading ridge head gulf alaska alaska panhandle ages compositions corresponding suggesting ridge offshore time offshore washington resolved assuming eastern plate broken away form resurrection plate new resurrection spreading ridge running gulf alaska island ridge reaching washington plate western canada rapid disappeared entirely ridge scenario permits rapid transport north blocks lying southeast head gulf alaska evidence indicates formed latitude corresponding oregon northern california similarly certain island believed river river complex vancouver island subsequently transported northward elements prince william formed far offshore close slab window laid oceanic plate plate crescent likely adjoining resurrection plate previously broken away plate previously broken away plate cases mass drawn zone possibly ran washington approximately position olympic big continent called docking akin collision peripheral structures folded crushed main structures deformed come contact parts pushed parts playing million years extent north_america given definite date studies date added significance start change direction pacific plate seen bend hawaiian emperor chain change pacific_northwest resurrection plate british_columbia initiation north striking right lateral straight creek fault likely resulted strain accumulated jammed existing zone halting plate terminated uplifting rocky_mountains triggered sweep wave large volume swept western north_america undoubtedly affected enigmatic controversial arc stretching southeastern british_columbia idaho roughly parallel olympic details unknown having ceased existing zone eventually west current zone new zone river reached surface initiating rise ancestral cascade range significant events occurred including cessation river resulting crescent formation thrust vancouver island end strike slip motion straight creek fault reflect movement relative north_america broader scale change absolute direction pacific plate marked end bend hawaiian emperor chain change convergence plate north american plate waned force continent regime shifted deposition sand idaho formation southern oregon continued late interrupted continent began rotating away initiated unknown wells suggested continent tore away previously suggested change rate plates effects slab window passage ridge resurrection ridge


hawaii hawaii volcanic located near namesake hawaiian islands northern pacific_ocean known heavily studied world hawaii responsible creation hawaiian emperor chain chain kilometres long active dormant extinct having ground beneath waves erosion chain extends south island edge trench near eastern edge russia created geological activity plate boundaries hawaii located far plate boundaries classic theory proposed john wilson proposes single fixed mantle builds cut source movement pacific plate increasingly inactive eventually sea level millions years according theory nearly bend emperor hawaiian segments chain meet caused sudden shift movement pacific plate fresh investigations led proposal mobile theory suggesting mobile fixed million year old bend caused shift motion plate ancient recognize increasing age state north progressed fishing expeditions islands volatile state hawaiian constant battle sea major element hawaiian mythology embodied deity arrival europeans island james dwight directed formal geological study confirming relationship long observed natives marked founding hawaiian volcano observatory thomas initiating continuous scientific observation islands 1970s mapping project initiated gain information complex geology hawaii showing wide deep based studies shown chamber approximately million years activity produced estimated rock chain rate drift slowly increased time causing time individual volcano active decrease million years million year old detroit million year old hand volume increased year overall caused trend active quickly closely spaced near overlap forming island ancient oldest emperor spaced far apart theories plates generally focus plate boundaries hawaii kilometers nearest plate boundary studying canadian wilson proposed theory explain zones far regular conditions theory come wide acceptance wilson stationary theory wilson proposed small long lasting exceptionally hot areas exist earth surface heat centers create active mantle turn sustain long lasting volcanic activity mid plate builds peaks rise relatively sea floor initially later fully fledged volcanic islands plate cause local plate case hawaii pacific plate slowly slide carrying affecting hundreds thousands years supply volcano slowly cut eventually going extinct longer active erosion volcano slowly beneath waves cycle continues new volcanic center volcanic island arises process continues mantle collapses cycle growth strings millions years leaving trail volcanic islands ocean floor according wilson theory hawaiian progressively older increasingly eroded easily oldest rock main hawaiian islands million years old deeply eroded rock island comparatively young million years age new lava constantly present center consequence theory chain length orientation serves record direction speed pacific plate movement major feature hawaiian trail sudden bend million year old section length according wilson theory evidence major change plate direction initiated pacific plate western boundary theory recently challenged bend attributed movement believe originate major boundaries deep earth shallow interface lower mantle upper layer lower non layer deeper double prime layer approximately kilometres thick immediately core mantle boundary mantle initiate interface warmer lower layer heats portion cooler upper layer heated portion upper layer dense thermal expansion rise surface taylor instability mantle reaches base heats produces melt makes way surface erupted lava arguments validity theory generally center steady age progression hawaiian islands nearby features similar bend trail marshall islands chain located south pacific following age progressed trend southeast northwest fixed relative positions studies hawaii increased temperatures core mantle boundary mantle shallow theory hypothesis melting form simply result extension allows pre existing melt rise surface melting called theory pre mantle source unusually hot feature confirmed observation case emperor hawaiian chain pacific plate boundary system different emperor chain began form evidence chain started spreading ridge pacific ridge trench melt extraction migrated ridge plate interior leaving trail migration occurred plate extending order accommodate stress long lived region melt escape sustained seismic support hypothesis notwithstanding numerous papers published citing evidence region proposed different places high angles different directions thousands kilometers big island reliable image mantle extending core mantle boundary obtained moving theory heavily challenged element wilson theory fixed relative plates drill samples collected scientists far suggest drifted time relatively rapid pace centimeters year late cretaceous early eras comparison mid-atlantic ridge spreads rate year study published peter stock found relative atlantic_ocean interpreted result relative motions north american pacific plates ocean drilling program merged integrated ocean drilling program international research effort study world funded month expedition aboard research vessel resolution collect lava samples submerged emperor project detroit far northwest end chain oldest section lava samples tested suggested mobile hawaiian shift motion cause bend lead scientist john told national geographic hawaii bend classic example large plate change motion quickly find hawaii emperor bend entered introductory geological textbook catches eye despite large shift change direction recorded magnetic fracture zone plate continental collision occurred fast produce pronounced bend chain test bend result change direction pacific plate scientists analyzed lava samples determine formed age determined dating radioactive potassium researchers estimated formed period million million years ago team determined formed analyzing rock magnetic mineral hot lava volcanic eruption tiny grains align earth magnetic field lock place rock researchers able verify latitudes formed measuring grains orientation concluded hawaiian drifted southward history million years ago southward motion greatly slowed stopping entirely history study ancient hawaiian possibility hawaiian islands older moved northwest suspected ancient long europeans arrived noticed differences erosion soil formation vegetation allowing islands northwest older southeast hawaii idea handed generations legend fiery hawaiian goddess born female spirit like hawaiian gods descended supreme beings earth mother sky father according myth originally lived older sister goddess sea attacked husband fled southeast island forced flee moved southeast finally hawaii lives crater summit safe slopes volcano high mighty waves reach mythical flight alludes eternal struggle volcanic islands ocean waves consistent evidence ages islands decreasing southeast modern studies earliest recorded observers scottish scientists james david douglas reaching proved took attempts ascend douglas died slopes united_states exploring expedition spent months studying islands american james dwight expedition lieutenant charles spent time leading team hundreds hauled summit measure gravity stayed missionary provide decades hand observations published short paper remained interested origin hawaiian islands directed depth study confirmed islands age increased distance southeastern island observing differences degree erosion suggested island chains pacific showed similar general increase age southeast northwest concluded hawaiian chain consisted volcanic strands located distinct parallel curving pathways coined terms prominent trends trend includes west trend includes west proposed alignment hawaiian islands reflected localized volcanic activity major zone great theory served working hypothesis subsequent studies mid-20th century work followed expedition refined expanded ideas notably established island hawaii actually counted originally regarded flank vent refined observations credited naming type noted distinction stimulated expedition returned published accounts expedition american journal science published detailed manuscript day remained definitive guide hawaiian decades saw publication large volumes extensively quoted earlier works circulation thomas founded hawaiian volcano observatory facility taken national oceanic atmospheric administration united_states geological survey marked start continuous volcano observation hawaii island century period thorough investigation marked contributions scientists complete evolutionary model formulated time advances enabled study previously limited areas observation improved rock dating methods submarine volcanic stages 1970s hawaiian mapped ship based synthetic system data filled holes ship based measurements japan agency marine earth science technology mapped hawaii detail studied ocean floor making world best studied marine features project collaboration agencies utilized manned remotely operated underwater vehicles samples core samples scanning system collected data characteristics position hawaii seismic estimated wide recent high resolution local indicate lower mantle mantle pond material evidenced large low velocity zone upper mantle low seismic velocity zones indicate mantle material narrow low velocity column extending downward hawaii connects large low velocity zone boundary core mantle north showing certain degree south mantle flow decay series data shown actively flowing region melt zone wide base upper mantle consistent measurements temperature indirect studies found chamber located kilometers underground matches estimated depth cretaceous period rock oceanic indicate acts lid melting arresting ascent lava original temperature found ways testing melting point lava adjusting lava deterioration tests confirm temperature comparison estimated temperature mid ocean ridge surface heat flow hawaiian swell order far continental united_states range unexpected classic model hot mantle shown display highly variable surface heat variable fluid flow earth crust fluid flow removes heat crust measured heat flow lower true total surface heat low heat hawaiian swell indicates supported crust upper hot dense mantle causes surface rise mechanism known dynamic topography movement hawaiian drift northwest rate centimeters year migrated south kilometers relative emperor chain studies support conclusion based changes earth magnetic field picture rocks time showing formed higher latitudes present day hawaii prior bend migrated estimated centimeters year rate movement changed time bend centimeters year ocean drilling program provided current knowledge drift expedition tested samples determine original latitude characteristics speed drift pattern total successive volcano spends time actively attached large difference youngest oldest emperor hawaiian indicates velocity increasing example oldest volcano hawaii island million years old erupted years ago period years oldest detroit experienced million years volcanic activity oldest volcano chain edge trench formed million years ago current velocity destroyed million years pacific plate plate unknown chain plate older older destroyed plate margin possible collision near trench changed velocity pacific plate explaining chain bend relationship features investigated composition changed significantly according analysis emperor active million years oldest lava dated cretaceous period followed million years activity hawaiian segment chain totaling million years data demonstrate vertical present early stages later stages systematic increase drastically time bend created constructed entirely similar composition rocks present small quantities occur older prominently detroit characteristic explosive produce spectacular dangerous pacific basin margins fall categories hawaiian called hawaiian type hawaiian lava forms long streams glowing rock flowing slope covering acres land replacing ocean new land eruption frequency scale significant evidence lava flow rates increasing million years far higher year average million years higher comparison average production rate mid ocean ridge kilometers ridge rate emperor chain averaged cubic kilometers year rate zero initial million years life average lava production rate hawaiian chain greater year total produced estimated cubic kilometers lava cover california layer kilometers thick distance individual drifting north faster spending time active far greater modern volume generated closely spaced overlap forming island ancient emperor separated kilometers kilometers topography detailed analysis hawaiian emperor chain reveals center high elevation falls distance rapid decrease elevation highest ratio topography height southeastern chain falling distance particularly intersection murray fracture zones likely explanation region zones susceptible chain possible explanation strength swells time robert colleagues identified swell behavior suggested cause mantle later work pointed caused lower normal seismic activity beneath swell lack detected heat flow caused scientists suggest dynamic topography cause motion hot mantle supports high surface topography islands understanding hawaiian swell important implications study island formation inner earth million year history hawaii created extinct active dormant organized general categories hawaiian archipelago comprises state hawaii location modern volcanic activity northwestern hawaiian islands consist coral extinct islands islands emperor eroded subsided sea flat topped volcanic characteristics hawaiian characterized frequent rift large size thousands cubic kilometers volume rough shape rift zones prominent feature account seemingly random volcanic structure tallest mountain hawaii chain rises meters mean sea level measured base world tallest mountain meters mount rises meters sea level hawaii surrounded found unconnected erupted continuously minor volcanic cone attraction tourists alike landslides hawaiian islands large number landslides sourced volcanic collapse mapping revealed large landslides island flanks length longest long volume debris flows broad categories mass movement slopes slowly catastrophic debris fragment volcanic slopes volcanic debris past slopes caused massive earthquakes fractured volcanic scattered debris hundreds miles away source tend deeply rooted moving rock deep inside volcano forced forward mass newly ejected volcanic material forward slowly surge forward caused largest hawaii historical earthquakes debris thinner longer defined volcanic head terrain base rapidly moving carried blocks tens kilometers away disturbing local water column causing evidence events exists form marine deposits high slopes hawaiian marred slopes emperor detroit evolution construction hawaiian follow established life cycle growth erosion new volcano forms lava output gradually increases height activity peak volcano years old rapidly decline eventually goes dormant eventually extinct erosion volcano life cycle consists stages stage submarine stage currently represented solely stage volcano builds height increasingly frequent sea pressure prevents explosive cold water quickly lava producing lava typical underwater volcanic activity slowly grows goes shield stages forms mature features submerged summit eventually surface lava ocean water battle control volcano enters explosive stage development exemplified explosive steam stage produces volcanic ash result waves lava conflict lava sea influences hawaiian mythology volcano enters tall escape water volcano puts water height roughly years explosive lava released stage includes currently active hawaiian phase hawaiian lava slow relatively easy predict tracks likely run maintains tourist site viewing lava phase volcano enters series stages involving erosion eventually pacific plate moves tropics reef dies away extinct volcano estimated barren worldwide emperor dead volcano


pronunciation spring characterized intermittent discharge water ejected accompanied steam formation particular conditions exist places earth fairly rare phenomenon generally field sites located near active volcanic areas effect proximity generally surface water works way average depth metres contacts hot rocks resultant boiling water results effect hot water steam surface vent explosion thousand known exist worldwide erupted national park wyoming united_states average active given year activity change cease ongoing mineral deposition exchange functions nearby hot springs earthquake influences human intervention jet like referred observed outer solar system low ambient pressures consist liquid easily visible particles dust ice carried aloft gas water jets observed near south pole saturn moon nitrogen observed neptune moon signs carbon dioxide southern polar ice cap mars cases instead driven energy rely solar heating solid state greenhouse effect word comes spring iceland turn comes old norse form function temporary geological features generally associated volcanic areas water resulting pressure forces column steam water surface internal formation specifically requires combination conditions usually found volcanic terrain intense heat heat needed formation comes needs near surface earth fact need heat higher normally found near earth surface reason associated volcanic areas pressures encountered areas water heated boiling point water higher normal atmospheric pressures water water ejected travel underground deep earth crust system order heated water form system required includes reservoir hold water heated generally aligned faults system system spaces system essential building pressure eruption activity like hot spring activity caused surface water gradually ground meets rock heated heated water rises surface convection fractured rocks differ non hot springs subterranean structure consist small vent surface connected narrow tubes lead underground water pressure tight rock fills water column channel convective cooling water reservoir impossible cooler water presses water beneath unlike lid pressure allowing water reservoir remain liquid temperatures standard pressure boiling point ultimately temperatures near rise point boiling begins steam bubbles rise column burst vent water reducing weight column pressure water underneath release pressure water flashes steam boiling violently column resulting expanding steam hot water vent rocks nearby region produce material called dioxide dissolved rocks gets deposited walls system surface deposits channels carrying water surface pressure tight allows pressure carried way leaked loose gravel soil normally fields eventually water remaining boiling point eruption ends heated begins reservoir cycle begins duration time successive vary greatly iceland seconds minutes grand united_states minutes hours general types fountain pools water typically series intense violent bursts cone including usually steady jets seconds minutes old faithful best known national park example cone grand tallest predictable earth iceland taller predictable national park example fountain volcanic areas world hot springs mud main reason rarity multiple intense forces occur simultaneously exist example necessary conditions exist rock structure loose channels rapidly destroy nascent result form places volcanic rock hot water forms mineral deposits called inside systems slender time deposits strengthen channel walls rock tightly enabling persist mentioned previous section fragile phenomena conditions change dormant extinct destroyed simply people throwing debris ceased power plants great iceland periods activity long dormant periods artificially induced special occasions addition water biology specific colours derive fact despite apparently harsh conditions life found hot habitats form known survive 1960s research biology appeared scientists generally convinced life survive maximum upper limit survival structure key cellular proteins acid dna destroyed optimal temperature bacteria placed lower average observations proved actually possible life exist high temperatures bacteria prefer temperatures higher boiling point water dozens bacteria known prefer temperatures whilst grow better temperatures high heat stable retain activity high temperatures source tools important medicine example manufacturing use heat stable products example produced discovered important fact bacteria exist stretches imagination life bodies solar system major fields distribution rare requiring combination water heat combination exists places earth national park largest containing thousands hot springs approximately home half world total number basins located wyoming usa small portions montana idaho includes world tallest active basin renowned old faithful lion castle grand giant fan mortar riverside upper basin contains nearly valley russia valley russian located peninsula russia field second largest concentration world area discovered explored approximately exist area hot water springs perpetual area formed vigorous volcanic activity peculiar way important feature angles exist world fields june massive influenced thirds valley reported thermal lake forming valley days later waters observed somewhat exposing submerged features field largest buried slide recently observed active chile comes word oven located high valleys surrounded active chile south_america metres mean sea level valley home approximately present largest field southern hemisphere destruction new_zealand largest field world feature height low tallest metres high steam columns metres high average eruption height millimetres volcanic zone new_zealand volcanic zone located new_zealand north island kilometres long wide lies zone earth crust mount marks southwestern end submarine volcano white island considered northeastern limit zone destroyed developments hydroelectric reservoir dozen exist beginning 20th century largest known existed zone began erupted periodically years landslide changed local water table typically reach metres known reached metres recent scientific work indicates earth crust zone little kilometres thick beneath lies film wide long iceland high rate volcanic activity iceland home famous world hot springs distributed island located known existed dozen areas island great erupted 14th century gave rise word dormant earthquake year caused begin occurring times day ceased 20th century usually following earthquakes happen time time man improvements spring forced soap special occasions earthquakes june subsequently giant time currently regularly nearby minutes height metres extinct dormant fields large fields nevada springs destroyed installation nearby power plants plants drilling reduced available heat lowered local water table point activity longer sustained new_zealand destroyed humans century new_zealand dormant extinct natural means main remaining field thirds flooded hydroelectric dam field lost power plant spa field lost river level deliberately altered 1950s field destroyed mount eruption types different nature compared normal steam driven differ style eruption cause makes true referred water pressure artificial number places activity wells fitted allow like artificial tapped natural systems called artificial technically known wells true little old faithful california example late 19th century according john book guide man search water actually simply opened dead cold water cold water similar hot water counterparts bubbles drive eruption instead steam cold water laden water lies confined water trapped strata water escape strata weak regions like faults joints wells provides escape water reach surface magnitude frequency depend factors depth concentrations yield etc column water pressure remains water small bubbles pressure decreases formation bubbles expand expansion water causes eruption cold water look similar steam driven counterparts laden water white best known probably crystal near green river utah cold water germany born slovakia perpetual natural hot spring water constantly stopping incorrectly called periodic nature considered true activities electricity generation heating tourism reserves found world fields iceland commercially viable locations world 1920s hot water directed heat grow food cultivated iceland climate steam hot water heating homes iceland department energy actively promoted development energy known resource area near california variety research programs loan guarantee program department law assess potential environmental impacts development bodies solar system jet like termed meaning cold observed believed occur unlike earth represent dust ice particles liquid like water ice particles smaller amounts components carbon dioxide nitrogen observed associated tiger stripes south polar region saturn moon mechanism generated remains uncertain believed powered tidal heating resulting mean motion resonance moon jets believed source saturn ring december space detected water south polar region thought water space caused similar processes occurring mars similar solar heating driven jets carbon dioxide believed south polar cap mars spring directly observed leave evidence form dark spots lighter fans atop dry ice representing sand dust carried aloft spider like pattern grooves created ice rushing gas great surprises voyager neptune discovery like moon noticed dark rising surface material represent invisible jets nitrogen dust observed located close point indicating solar heating drives thought surface probably consists semi transparent layer frozen nitrogen darker substrate creates kind solid greenhouse effect heating nitrogen ice surface pressure breaks surface start eruption voyager images southern hemisphere streaks dark material laid activity


seattle fault seattle fault zone multiple shallow east west thrust faults cross sound lowland seattle state washington vicinity interstate highway seattle fault recognized significant seismic hazard set reports showed years ago scene major earthquake magnitude event entered native american oral legend extensive research shown seattle fault regional system faults notable earthquake suspected mapping marine terrace restoration point foreground picture seattle fault existence likely hazard definitely established set reports published science reports looked timing abrupt restoration point point distant right picture deposits sound lake rock multiple landslides lake washington determined happened years ago likely earthquake magnitude greater seattle fault earthquake thousand years ago local native legends preserved association powerful supernatural spirit noted shaking rushes water trace seattle fault including spirit boulder called near ferry dock west seattle geology seattle fault structural boundary millions years old early crescent formation south seattle seattle basin bedrock buried miles relatively softer lighter strata younger harbor formations resulted miles wide zone complex main south thrust faults blind reaching surface generally difficult locate generally heavy vegetation development principal strands identified location determined high resolution seismic reflection surveys northernmost strand lies nearly interstate lake central section fault zone crosses apparent location olympic shows marked variation location strands underlying structure nature significance understood fault extends approximately miles near fall city east appears terminated south island fault hood canal west shown map matters unclear discussion sound faults question western termination northern edge seattle fault southern edge model seattle faults depth form wedge approximately north south oriented compression ultimately derives plate model interprets seattle sheet rock forced ramp subsequent work suggests structure seattle fault vary east west models applicable different sections later model north sheet forming wedge formations seattle basin underlying bedrock seattle fault believed date million years ago late time strike slip movement north striking straight creek fault east ceased appears straight creek fault stuck north south force accommodated strike slip motion transferred crust lowland subsequently folded blocks jammed associated seattle fault identified based mapping generally shown complex realized details seattle fault including rate remain resolved study sediments lake washington found evidence seven large earthquakes years surface rarely observed area topography vegetation rare exception seen park south point site west seattle fault prominent rise north fault hazard seattle fault related fault source earthquake hazard lowland faults near surface continental crust south island fault near studied fault near historically suspected generating earthquakes magnitude earthquake originate miles sound zone juan plate deep energy dissipated powerful great events magnitude earthquake entire zone cape vancouver island slips seattle faults probably earthquake threat populous seattle area study bridge vulnerability estimated magnitude earthquake seattle fault damage approximately bridges seattle area magnitude event damage bridges western washington study found failure bridges minimum damage event billion lost business revenue subsequent washington department transportation city seattle likely reduce damage key bridges concern earthquake seattle fault masonry buildings city seattle estimated thousand concentrated capitol hill pioneer square international district recent work indicates seattle fault generate types earthquakes pose considerable hazard seattle metropolitan region earthquake believed instance past years type causes regional type localized shallower damaging events believed occurred past years west end fault history central eastern segments known calculations based fault length studies seattle fault generate damaging magnitude earthquake addition extensive damage structures structures built fill seattle pioneer square area industrial area waterfront computer modeling shown earthquakes cause feet inches high bay modeling shows industrial areas commencement bay miles south low lying areas river delta concern severe prolonged event cause failure river main port facilities seattle located harbor island commencement bay