southern world war southern self governing colony united_kingdom entered world war britain shortly invasion poland war end southern races served armed forces overseas operating european theatre mediterranean middle_east theatre east africa burma territory important contribution war commonly held contribution empire air training scheme eats british commonwealth allied airmen trained southern flight schools colony operational casualties numbered killed wounded races southern diplomatic powers largely oversaw contributions manpower war effort responsible defence officers soldiers distributed small groups british south african forces attempt prevent high losses colony men served britain east africa mediterranean particularly broad dispersal occurred late servicemen operational areas country white minority african rifles black troops white officers providing main exception burma late non white soldiers white served east africa home southern tens thousands black men rural communities work later white owned farms world war prompted major changes southern financial military policy accelerated process territory participation eats brought major economic developments led post war immigration airmen contributing growth white population double pre war size war remained prominent national consciousness decades country modern government removed references world wars memorial monuments plaques public view white minority rule southern dead war today official commemoration overseas background world war broke southern african territory southern self governing colony united_kingdom years having gained responsible government unique british_empire commonwealth held extensive autonomous powers including defence foreign affairs lacking dominion status practice acted quasi dominion treated ways rest commonwealth southern white population minority black population little million residents coloured mixed indian ethnicity franchise non racial theory open contingent meeting financial educational qualifications practice black citizens electoral roll colony prime minister physician war veteran emigrated england held office territory contribution british cause world war large proportion white population troops raised scratch professional standing army start self government colony organised white regiment permanent defence force complemented locally partly paramilitary british south_africa police regiment comprised men including reserves country fielded black troops world war retained nucleus airmen existed form southern air_force august comprised squadron pilots hardy aircraft based airport near capital salisbury occupation czechoslovakia adolf_hitler nazi_germany march convinced war imminent seeking renew government mandate pass emergency measures called early election united party won increased majority rearranged cabinet war making minister justice robert minister defence territory proposed forces internal security defence british interests overseas self contained formations planned including reconnaissance unit opposed remembering catastrophic casualties suffered units newfoundland regiment south african brigade western world war argued heavy defeats white southern brigade cause losses effects country proposed instead concentrate training white leadership roles specialist units disperse colony men forces small groups ideas met approval salisbury london adopted southern automatically included british declaration war lack diplomatic powers stop colonial government attempting demonstrate loyalty legislative independence supportive parliamentary motions gestures southern parliament unanimously moved support britain event war special sitting august outbreak war britain declared war germany september following invasion poland southern issued declaration war immediately backed military war finish telling parliament conflict national survival southern britain mother country defeat leave little hope colony post war world said stand unanimously supported white populace coloured community world war recent memory sense patriotic duty enthusiasm war majority black population paid little attention outbreak war british expected italy african possessions join war germany soon began fortunately allies immediately occur squadron northern kenya having posted italian east african frontier britain request late august southern ground forces deployed abroad world war territorial troops captain standing posted september request colonial authorities guard possible uprising local german returned home month having seen little action white officers non commissioned officers left colony september october command units black west east continent joining royal west african frontier force nigeria gold coast neighbouring colonies deployment white officers command black troops africa met favour military leadership prevalent world war white volunteered forces readily large numbers come forward war weeks old somewhat ironically southern main problem manpower men strategically important mining stay home manpower controls introduced certain men civilian jobs accepted recruits days following outbreak war prompting commander group captain meredith contact air ministry london offer run flying school train squadrons accepted january southern government announced establishment independent air ministry oversee air training group southern contribution empire air training scheme eats set defence committee cabinet colony war effort early body comprised prime minister finance minister jacob lieutenant colonel lucas guest minister mines public works charge new air ministry colony whites serving overseas battle france salisbury passed legislation allowing authorities male british subject european ancestry aged half lived colony months minimum age reduced time training compulsory white males small number exceptions reserved southern country join eats start operating air school beating canada week absorbed british royal_air_force raf april squadron squadron raf raf subsequently designated squadrons squadron squadron manner similar article squadrons australia canada new_zealand africa mediterranean early deployments squadron based kenya start war expanded officers ranks march officers men southern sent overseas kenya attached east african formations king african rifles colony medical corps survey unit southern charted previously area bordering italian march june medical corps operated general hospital july company coloured indian descended transport drivers country having arrived january southern contingent north_africa middle_east draft regiment left april white force size left territory posted variety british units egypt palestine largest concentration soldiers north_africa belonged king royal rifle corps connections colony dated world war formed 1st battalion western desert company men southern signal corps present operating tandem british royal corps signals east africa italy joined war germany june opening east african campaign desert war north_africa led force corps based british horn africa north coast took clashes british italian forces exchanged fire italian irregular company dawn june days later bombers regia attacked squadron forward damaging aircraft italian forces entered british august overcame garrison advanced north east capital british force including platoon 2nd battalion black watch took positions hills overlooking road engaged italians battle amid heavy fighting italians gradually gains august commonwealth forces british retreated august making left flank rearguard august evacuated sea italians took city completed conquest british day later squadron embarked reconnaissance flights supported ground assaults italian desert outposts july august british brigades west_africa arrived reinforce kenya northern frontier early july partly nigeria regiment joined battalion gold coast regiment commanders attached relieved british forces east africa adopted doctrine mobile defence western desert north_africa units embarked long constant patrols guard wells deny water supplies italians british evacuated north forward position september expected attack soon italians attempted assault boosted considerably arrival south african brigades months commonwealth forces kenya expanded divisions end year squadron relieved south african airmen september squadron undertook regular reconnaissance dive bombing sorties october november southern anti tank battery arrived kenya october following period training received pounder guns joined turn new year squadron partially equipped january receiving squadron continued operating british forces kenya general including officers king african rifles nigeria gold coast regiments south african 1st infantry division advanced italian late january february starting occupation ports italians retreated interior squadron provided air support 4th 5th indian divisions lieutenant general william offensive attacking ground targets engaging italian fighters shot near february loss aboard days later italian fighters attacked group grounded aircraft western wrecked advance checked seven week battle february april squadron observed italian positions took bombing raids italians retreated surrendered squadron moved forward april embarked bombing sorties port day italian garrison capital surrendered 11th east africa division including forces surrounded remainder italian forces commanded italian duke mountain stronghold surrendered effectively ending war east africa squadron anti tank battery moved egypt join war western desert italian garrisons continued fight surrendered following battle november time partly commanded nigeria gold coast regiments remained patrolling rounding scattered italian units officers ranks southern remained kenya north_africa north_africa 11th 2nd 1st regiments contributed operation compass december february western desert force major general richard connor fighting offensive extremely successful allies suffering casualties killed wounded missing capturing strategic port italian soldiers germans reacted shore italian forces led strong counter offensive march april forced general allied withdrawal egypt german italian forces surrounded failed largely australian garrisoned city leading lengthy siege contingents 11th royal northumberland durham light infantry transferred kenya february join new southern reconnaissance regiment served east africa following year 1st moved regiment malta month withdrawn cairo form section handling high speed communications middle_east command general headquarters england 2nd black watch contingent took unsuccessful allied defence crete june joined garrison august squadron equipped hurricanes following month integral component long range desert group reconnaissance raiding unit formed north_africa operate enemy lines initially new unit british members joined november reorganised times year expanded end patrols patrols squadron vehicle bore place starting salisbury april based south eastern libya posted kilometres north east patrol hold gap guard possible axis attack north months lived near total isolation outside world exception coming july group airmen squadron celebrated rhodes day middle desert november british eighth army commanded general launched operation attempt relieve british corps led 7th armoured division desert rats form main body attack advancing west sweeping north westerly direction corps concurrently advance north west cut axis forces coast signalled garrison break south east advancing allied forces operation largely successful allies siege broken took raids axis rear areas operation axis convoys destroying axis aircraft pulling telegraph poles wires late operated closely newly formed special air service included patrols transported supported troops operations axis lines maintained constant road watch north coast libya axis road traffic tripoli main port travel east set watch post kilometres east italian marble arch monument teams men recorded axis vehicle troop movements shifts day night information relayed british commanders cairo advanced east january won major victory eighth army commanded lieutenant general battle june axis soon captured axis victory box british devised system isolated strongly fortified boxes manned brigade group formed line subsequent allied retreat southern anti tank battery lost men killed wounded missing captured advance stalled july eighth army headed general battle western egypt months later took operation aka operation unsuccessful attempt raid harbour raiding force headed lieutenant colonel david discovered italian reconnaissance unit prompting turn led impassable country local guide swiftly retreated attacked german bombers southern pilots played siege malta john greek ancestry joined multinational group allied airmen defending strategically important island late march april achieved aerial victories afternoon siege flying ace time withdrawal july awarded distinguished flying cross twice british finally delivered vital supplies malta august operation pedestal salisbury southern government coming pressure britain armed forces regional command decided late october join unified southern african command headed south_africa jan choice motivated combination strategic concerns apart considering south_africa appropriate partner geographical logistical cultural terms feared alternative joining british east africa command autonomous nature southern war effort possible constitutional implications shift deployment colony troops duly occurred rest war majority servicemen went field integrated south african formations prominently 6th armoured division decisive victory lieutenant general bernard montgomery eighth army germans italians second battle october november turned tide north african war strongly favour allies revive allied morale took battle 7th armoured division corps forming initial thrust southern sector anti tank battery major guy fought supporting australian 9th division corps fighting thompson post november took war hoping knock allied anti tank guns counter attacking germans concentrated intense artillery fire australian guns advancing tanks weakest point australian line australian pounders largely disabled bombardment guns remained operational gunners disabled seriously damaged compelling axis retreat held position relieved november officer seven ranks killed double number wounded actions thompson post sergeant received distinguished conduct medal won military cross military medal forefront allied column pursuing retreating axis forces advancing reaching november patrolled axis right flank withdrawn december tripoli fell eighth army january days later allied forces reached tunisia south eastern frontier italian german forces manned line series fortifications built french 1930s tunisia line constituted fronts tunisia campaign second north west british army american corps firmly established held morocco algeria following operation torch november gradually pushing axis forces von von won decisive victory americans battle mid february destroying tanks eighteenth army group formed british general alexander actions allied forces fronts eighth army montgomery spent february south eastern tunisia expecting imminent attack axis eighth army mustered anti tank gun egypt libya northumberland anti tank regiment including anti tank battery major duly advanced west reached march germans italians assaulted day failed progress abandoned attack evening gunners held reserve engagement attacked air 7th motor brigade moved libya early march squadron spent months iran iraq returned north_africa month future prime minister smith ranks hurricane pilot montgomery launched major assault line operation march anti tank battery operating 50th infantry division took allies advanced weather terrain prevented tanks guns moving forward allowing 15th division counter attack successfully flanking movement 2nd new_zealand division right german forces gap compelled axis withdrawal march anti tank gunners fought action africa kilometres south april took long march brought kilometres south west day british armour entered axis forces north_africa germans italians including generals surrendered week later time fallen remained eighth armies transferring south african 6th armoured division egypt making way home leave southern joined egypt officers ranks remained end campaign anti tank battery movements taken campaign returned egypt left hours today gunner wrote camped night identical spot camped june gave feeling look think missing southern represented campaign september november long range desert group withdrawn north african march mountain operations lebanon moved late september island north west south east coast south west turkey fall armistice italy allies concluded week september allies attempting capture islands bases german occupied balkans italian forces changed sides found infantry role acting mobile reserve italian troops germans swiftly expel allied forces launched heavy air assaults fighter support islands defence soon rest troops withdrawn october germans won battle german air assaults intensified late october dawn november germans attacked sea air ensuing battle point commanded captain position guns withdrew counter attacking point day held position days learned germans winning battle november decided holding point longer pointless ordered men split escape means possible assemble cairo half unit reached egypt italy largest concentration southern troops italian campaign group mainly southern reconnaissance regiment spread south african 6th armoured division 11th south african armoured brigade 6th division main components prince alfred guard regiment princess alice special service battalion squadron tanks 12th south african brigade comprised infantry rifles cape_town large contingent artillery batteries original anti tank battery newer unit field gunners year training egypt division sailed italy april landing end month taranto squadron flying month operate italy southern france 6th division moved north west taranto place eighth army alongside fifth army took fourth final allied assault battle second weeks helping force germans advanced north west valley join allied forces advance onwards rome small german force east italian capital june 6th division advanced north captured town doubled south west moved rome reached morning june squadron regiment unit squadron tanks entered city division vanguard german commander albert fought delaying action gradually withdrawing armies north allied columns pursuit 6th armoured division leading westerly eighth army centre mountainous terrain effective use anti tank weapons retreating germans allies superiority armour decisive slowed allied advance north banks june august time tank squadrons took allied victories end august german forces italy formed gothic line mountains 6th division come command fifth army difficulty tanks mountains led prince alfred guard temporarily adopting infantry role tank machine guns support fighting early september southern anti tank battery converted partially guns inch mortars south met fierce resistance 16th division helped push germans northwards river hoping repel allied advances germans took positions overlooking main roads city allied assaults mountain indian battalion royal repulsed larger attack dawn october provided company cape_town combat encountered italy advancing slope allied right flank fired directions suffered heavy casualties achieved objective held artillery batteries provided support assault line november portion occupied 6th armoured division extended kilometres heights river cape_town patrolled nightly village months tank crews including special service battalion temporarily reassigned infantry duties assist patrols seen snow adapted taking winter sports skiing time duty special service battalion received new heavily armed tanks november december february 6th division relieved american 1st armoured division moved kilometres north rest reorganisation anti tank battery refitted tank destroyers squadron took assaults german transport valley balkans greece battle new_zealand withdrew squadron long range desert group compelling squadrons patrols squadron composed squadron comprised british troops squadron officers men southern group reassigned middle_east command central mediterranean force early deployed peninsula south eastern italy new headquarters set near seaside town britain hoped germans commit divisions possible south eastern_europe important fronts closer germany june assigned operate western coast yugoslavia orders set observation posts report movements german ships undertake minor raids successes yugoslav partisans led allies small patrols yugoslavia albania contact partisan leaders arrange operation allied air forces patrols selected undertake missions august september yugoslav partisans subsequently indicated targets allied bombing missions success september members squadron captain undertook advanced reconnaissance peninsula southern greece landing way inland british 4th parachute battalion entered athens germans departed november spent november december helping greek forces garrison athens supporters communist greek people liberation army killed returned yugoslavia february operating germany held portions mainland certain strategic islands germans heavily mined southern adriatic attempting cover shipping moving night close shore day camouflage nets tasked patrol coast find ships report locations air_force bombing success remained yugoslavia rest war heightened german garrison war entered final phase operations especially hazardous particularly attempted extremely close quarters occasions patrols narrowly escaped discovery action patrols possibility germans listening communicating african language actions war april help partisans capture german held islands spring offensive italy forces italy retained formidable defensive positions northern march 6th division rejoined line early april shortly allies launched spring offensive operation units including took positions opposite sole pounder guns posted slightly forward positions squadron prince alfred guard moved special service battalion provided armoured support 13th south african brigade south launched assault german positions road april cape_town advance steep cliffs sole german minefield guarded peak officer commanding leading platoon second lieutenant took section men minefield summit later received distinguished service order hand hand fighting sole continued dawn germans withdrew rifles took cape_town took late april advancing heavy artillery fire summit clearing germans regiment lost killed wounded actions including killed wounded victory contributed general allied breakthrough area april 6th division armour moving fifth army vanguard american polish troops entered april south advanced north west river special service battalion squadron moving forward alongside cape_town prince alfred guard took numerous engagements retreating german rearguard suffered fatalities 6th division crossed near april week began advance venice aiming cut retreat elements german fourteenth army south advanced crossed early april kilometres north venice retreating german forces time disarray advance 11th south african armoured brigade took prisoners german divisions april 6th division joined british american forces south cut germans escape route italy german forces italy surrendered 6th division moving north west time announcement near milan days later 6th division held victory parade guns tanks vehicles kilometres north milan separated vehicles parade spent june occupation troops returning home britain norway western_europe southern fighting contributions britain western_europe primarily air larger allied forces pilots allied airmen trained colony flying schools participated defence britain war strategic bombing germany operations provided raf flying ace norwegian campaign april june squadron leader hull later year allied airmen battle britain included pilots southern birth hull pilot officer john flight lieutenant john hull lost lives raf squadrons nos operated england war squadron fighter squadron based duration initially nominally manned mixture british commonwealth personnel received airmen colony gradually virtually august initially flying switched early took motto word skies went action june fought battle britain squadron duties included patrolling protecting convoys sweeping northern france belgian dutch coasts escorting bombing raids france rhine squadron based lincolnshire east_coast heavy bomber unit group raf bomber command line unlike squadrons designated squadron majority despite efforts initially equipped raf squadron convert end played prominent attack man diesel factory april march squadron took allied bombing cities northern italy including genoa milan targets germany wilhelmshaven cologne berlin early squadron took ground attack operations channel northern france operating raf devon squadron escorted allied bombers embarking returning raids protecting german fighters larger petrol tanks fitted increase range squadron visited prime minister sir month preparation imminent allied invasion normandy aircraft took fighter bomber role flying sorties channel twice day participating bombing bridges roads railways like apart southern airmen serving raf britain colony sparsely represented normandy landings june day men colony served aboard cruisers destroyers engaged german shore batteries small number southern normandy 6th airborne division operation took amphibious landings squadron allied force flew beaches landings supporting infantry later day took sorties assist holding north squadron remained start provided air support advancing allied armies france low countries finally germany european winter months based antwerp late march fighters formed force tasked protecting descending allied field marshal montgomery crossing rhine april squadron operated northern netherlands squadron embarked bombing raids targets far away east prussia towns cities closer berlin dresden leipzig bombing operation raid hitler residence near bavaria april germany surrendered ending war europe squadron units selected evacuate british prisoners war home continent burma southern main contribution burma campaign terms manpower african rifles regiment black troops led white officers joined end colony significant contribution commonwealth forces command element burma providing white officers west_africa west_africa 11th east africa divisions units nigeria gold coast sierra kenya northern african battalion burma white officers attached led modelled native regiment world war formed command lieutenant colonel black soldiers nicknamed mountain volunteers regiment came surprise white expected stronger martial traditions provide men originally comprising battalion expanded battalions late accommodate rush new recruits following news 1st battalion deployed overseas steps organise battalions black southern abandoned conviction colony overall military commander brigadier day important preserve fair balance black white troops raising men long case trained kenya december september transferred ceylon 22nd east africa infantry brigade alongside 1st 3rd northern regiment december months training jungle warfare components brigade joined burma campaign command 15th indian corps brigade spent months supporting 25th indian division north western burma advancing peninsula january taking stages battle island landing island february fortified positions contact japanese forces widespread belief developed japanese troops burma british_army african soldiers partly deliberate spread black troops travelled country entirely notion eat people soldier psychological effect men reported japanese soldiers picking comrades bodies midst battle running away march 22nd brigade ordered south west_africa division tasked clearing area japanese troops 22nd brigade deployed flank guard sweeping ultimately road intended cut japanese units north delta south key battles fought patrolled area march april involved contacts april assembled point overlooking shelled japanese artillery mortars dug atop high features south morning april days patrols took lead battle half hour bombing artillery bombardment japanese positions elements companies charged slopes routed japanese garrison taking hills seven men killed action wounded company officer injured officer recalled battles april extremely intense spent building quarters training marching late june went truck monsoon conditions took toll operations making logistics particularly difficult slow men found found knee deep mud slipping surface early july patrolled repeatedly engaging parties japanese forcing hills japanese commanders burma surrendered allied troops continue patrolling handle japanese know believe japanese forces south east asia formally surrendered singapore september active allied operations region greatly diminished spent half year guarding japanese prisoners burma leaving home march arrived salisbury southern theatres addition main deployments southern servicemen served theatres war sailors royal south african merchant navies ships parts world including indian_ocean arctic pacific squadron operated iran iraq guarding oil wells supporting british tenth army closer home southern military contributed preliminary planning work allied invasion madagascar landed diego invading forces remained long french garrison agreed armistice november left island october home air training group colony participation empire air training scheme described war history southern undoubtedly southern greatest single contribution allied victory assertion robert blake history air training group air vice marshal sir meredith eventually operated requiring huge national effort build maintain staff scheme peak fifth white population involved management skills resources allowed territory larger contribution allied war effort simply sent manpower field southern regarded ideal location air training number reasons far hostilities firmly pro british excellent weather year british air ministry resolved training colony amid urgency late eats took long time going canada eats group formed start training airmen turned fully qualified pilots time november programme originally called initial training wing schools expanded flying schools school bomb air gunners air firing bombing ranges reserve landing grounds constructed landing instruction prevent congestion main later war dedicated air station designated training instructors small administrative units established south_africa cape_town port elizabeth handle incoming equipment arrivals departures personnel complete pilot course initially lasted months split months elementary intermediate advanced instruction ground subjects taught fly hours qualify end war period shortened week speed output trained pilots british came world diversity training surprising impressive reported officer british south african new_zealand australian canadian american men yugoslavia greece free france poland czechoslovakia kenya fiji isles malta southern commonwealth air training scheme fine sir james ross british air ministry reported knowledge qualification know air staff london regular flow trained pilots observers course course month month home service african rifles based north east salisbury apart contingent sent south guard italian prisoners way regiment main role garrison duties colony air corps unit black volunteer troops white command guarded air bases provided manpower non armed labour perceived possibly japan attempt invasion southern africa madagascar led consolidation rural whites southern commando time intended basis guerrilla style resistance movement white british south_africa police officers military service led black male white female taking higher responsibilities recruited black accommodate growth urban black population war going black white personnel blacks whites led higher appreciation black senior policemen public police remained segregated black received uniforms similar white counterparts nominal distinction proper british south_africa native police force force black personnel traditionally regarded members abolished women white southern women served war auxiliary female units far greater numbers world war southern government set women services women volunteers women auxiliary air service women auxiliary military service women auxiliary police service southern served domestically organisations went east africa aid nursing run ministry defence recruited trained female personnel respectively came air defence according official statement announcing formation services purpose substitute women men necessary military air forces southern recruitment women services began june volunteers married women wives military men air military services offered wide variety positions addition jobs like women served drivers stores workshops women air service skilled work checking flying instruments testing parts minor repairs women auxiliary police service served officers stations streets members southern white female population join forces contributed war ways women worked munitions factories engineering workshops salisbury women national service league thousands women joined war started revived role white women played world war sending colony servicemen overseas parcels containing warm clothes newspapers razor blades soap food minor tobacco novels efforts troops morale domestic politics outbreak war invited leader opposition labour_party harry davies join coalition government davies accepted consulting party caucus contemporaries labour promptly split labour factions reconciled briefly threatened heated dispute labour led party economic impact labour southern economy grew considerably war despite concurrent rise war expenditure pay expansion military air training scheme expenditure war grew financial year total southern expenditure air training scheme sums tiny compared incurred larger nations enormous scaled white population accounted colony economic output annual costs air training scheme far exceeded pre war national budget southern second largest gold producer world south_africa colony gold output expanded greatly 1930s remained territory main source income war operations diverted strategic minerals prominently southern main sources allies south_africa world largest producer canada soviet_union end war mines turning million tonnes year addition tonnes gold output reached peak levels subsided southern exported tin provided coal copper mines northern southern government encouraged private enterprise form secondary industries exploit colony natural resources increase production set state industries attempt spark growth establishment prompted minor economic boom caused primary direct demand placed southern black population early stages war programme labour build government assigned labour district native commissioners territory turn called local chiefs provide workers tribal leaders decided required report district native commissioner work system known locally according charles van synonymous concepts ranging contract labour slavery relatively widespread company rule fallen use 1930s tribal communities room workers received pay provisions salary month compared generally received white owned farms met widespread opposition men run away join work parties hundreds thousands according kenneth crossed south_africa avoid suspected finishing work drafted fight overseas rumours effect chief native commissioner distributed circular november instructing commissioners clear drafted men required labour voluntary employment increased sharply indigenous blacks labourers white farmers complained lack manpower severe drought season led food shortage colony prompting passing june compulsory native labour act unemployed black males years age work white owned farms announcing act minister native affairs addition defence justice commented principle ordinary circumstances war necessary act required work months month pay rose agreed stay months conscription labour contributed rise country overall agricultural yield negative impact production men drafted work fled avoid scheme continued act repeal central food production committee set early organised labourers attempted help white farmers grow crops production grew potato harvest doubled crop grew end war production colony important cash crop tobacco high war averaging million pounds million annually number cattle slaughtered beef industry increased head head vegetable food production committee main initiatives proved great success allowing export products previously transit southern provided goods eastern group supply council body set build war india british colonies east goal reducing supplies shipped officer brigadier cook group deputy controller general southern contributed large quantities timber leather goods soap building materials camps polish refugees thousands axis people described enemy aliens held southern conflict mainly italians germans handful iraq levant colony furthermore hosted nearly refugees poland britain delegated responsibility investigation enemy aliens central africa southern government set system criminal investigation department identified potential body called camps corps oversaw camps held southern sent britain authorities empire camps set waves general camp opened north east salisbury october camp south city opened following year housing germans resident camps inmates fourth fifth camps set near fort victoria accommodate roughly italians camps corps reliance elderly called friendly aliens staff new camps led poor living conditions dozens escapes government commission quality camps reported second wave camps far worse quality wave polish refugees housed dedicated settlements set towns apart south east salisbury similar camps kenya northern south_africa polish settlements southern run jointly local authorities polish salisbury polish government exile london provided funding transport europe picked sharply war came close october polish refugees remained colonial officials reluctant let poles stay indefinitely asserting culturally british communist connections sympathies remained showed little leave southern ultimately allowed polish refugees settle permanently war end war statistics commonwealth allied nations southern sent delegation soldiers airmen seamen london grand victory parade june colony contingent led colonel long marched south_africa newfoundland southern colour guard comprised white officer black african rifles royal visit southern april king george accorded prefix royal regiment recognition contributions world wars agreed colonel chief southern contributed manpower allied cause world war proportional white population british dominion colony according figures compiled war history southern southern served armed forces conflict commissioned officers broken race gender black men white men white women coloured indian men served outside territory black men white men white women coloured indian men according official figures black southern labour estimates worked according jackson work british_empire second world war air training group instructed allied pilots gunners ground crew overall eats output total southern officers ranks served raf war officers ratings joined royal_navy officers ratings southern mustered south african navy vast majority rest served southern territorial forces british south african army colony men women received decorations war whites received black troops won coloured indian decorated army officers won decorations ranks received air_force officers ranks respectively won decorations decorated southern naval personnel officers seven decorated women held commissioned rank southern mentioned despatches war records southern fatalities enemy action world war airmen ground troops seamen female personnel wounded soldiers airmen sailors legacy air training group widely accepted colony main contribution world war proved important history words commander air vice marshal sir meredith led great economic development large wave immigration war instructors staff contributed swelling southern white population double pre war size raf training operations country stepped considerably war project formally ended march strengthening ties south_africa continued following war countries underwent considerable southern south_africa operated customs agreement export import duties waived decade immediately following called moment southern economy took secure office end war remained prime minister decade oversaw colony federation northern retired southern contributed commonwealth counter operations 1950s early 1960s including emergency similar actions cyprus operation kuwait amid wind change federation failed commonwealth realm collapsed years later following prolonged dispute britain terms sovereignty white government southern following northern independence issued declaration independence government counting world war veterans including prime minister smith attempted emphasise prior war record britain behalf declaring independence armistice day november local time subsequent isolation government banned post authorities taking annual armistice day service london smith government organised laying ceremony veterans world war malaya held key positions security forces bush war 1970s country recognised independence robert administration pulled monuments plaques making reference dead second world wars white minority rule modern state stands view partly rooted association memorials commemorating british south_africa company dead wars servicemen killed bush war nation involvement world wars consequence colonial rule white community black majority southern dead world wars today official commemoration overseas


battle chinese farm battle chinese farm took place october october egyptian army israel defense forces war fought peninsula north great bitter lake east suez_canal near egyptian agricultural research station farm featured specialized japanese machinery israeli soldiers japanese characters equipment chinese leading area labeled chinese farm israeli military maps battle began launched operation men attempting establish corridor canal allow bridges laid crossing accordingly attacked egyptian forces chinese farm determined egyptian resistance progress extremely slow suffered heavy losses repeatedly reinforced armor unable managing seize important second day suffering lack infantry brought night october tasked clearing anti tank defenses armor pinned heavy egyptian fire drew egyptian attention long equipment canal armored forces later attempted restore defenses initial armored attack october initially succeeded pushed israeli armored battle lasting entire day seriously depleted continuous fighting relinquished control routes canal opening battle remembered costly brutal battles war background october egypt launched operation intending cross suez_canal establish opposite bank peninsula occupied israel coordinated syrian assault heights crossing achieved tactical surprise success israeli reserves unsuccessful october fighting come dug hoped wear attrition remaining range ground surface air missiles provided air cover west bank canal focused directing main efforts battered forces israeli failures led replacement chief israeli southern command major general bar retained aide situation changed face protests senior commanders ordered offensive seize strategic mountain passes hoping relieve israeli pressure resulting offensive ill planned ill executed culminating heavy egyptian losses achieving objectives gave initiative launch october immediately following egyptian offensive israeli chief staff david presented general outlines crossing operation suez_canal israeli cabinet meeting emphasized military political gains operation expected collapse occur egyptian forces east bank supply routes threatened received unanimous support cabinet later day bar headed meeting attended senior main division commanders theatre major generals bar informed israeli officers decision begin crossing operation night october assigned duties responsibilities division commanders operation according plan set israeli crossing operation hebrew men designated crossing point lay near northern end great bitter lake suez_canal open principal route secure corridor stretching kilometers north crossing site known yard armor cross canal establish kilometer deep bridges laid operational morning october cross west bank attack south west end goal reaching cutting egyptian divisions east bank southern command allotted hours setting hours israeli forces reach expected israeli control october latest soon shown execution operation men planning schedules time frame highly optimistic extremely unrealistic order battle major general armored division critical tasks opening corridors laying bridges division included armored brigade colonel 14th armored brigade brigade commanded colonel major general armored division tasked crossing canal achieving tanks division included colonel armored brigade colonel armored brigade armored brigade brigade transferred division course battle armored division initially launch attacks draw attention operations division hold secure corridor egyptian forces area formed southern flank second field army units 21st armored division commanded brigadier general 16th infantry division commanded brigadier general addition division commander commanded forces division included 21st division unit included 1st armored brigade colonel 14th armored brigade colonel 18th brigade colonel muslim 16th division included 16th infantry brigade commanded colonel infantry 3rd brigades location battle deployment forces main roads led road road connected artillery road running north south kilometers east canal road running north south directly east canal junction fell near great bitter lake kilometers south fort bar line located second road ran north connected artillery road provided direct route yard junction fell fort fortification consisted meters apart captured october small assault force fort evacuated combat october importance fortifications lay control junctions forts designated zone kilometers long second armies believed area need defending adjacent great bitter lake natural obstacle lay outside range egyptian left local egyptian commander chose extend defenses southwards egyptian occupy defend forts greatly assist operation men north junction village prior day war village site agricultural project agricultural station incorporated irrigation ditches specialized japanese machinery came israeli occupation israeli soldiers japanese characters chinese ones leading location labeled chinese farm military maps north north west chinese farm hill mass known israeli missouri operation chinese farm fell designated 16th infantry division 16th infantry brigade occupied defended locations initial canal crossing brigade rest division faced attack brigade october achieved initial gains repelled end day located 16th division october 21st armored division units positioned center north 14th brigade involved crossing 1st brigade participated egyptian offensive october result lost half operational tank strength aftermath efforts replace armored losses hampered frequent artillery air strikes october tanks egyptian split brigades 1st armored brigade 14th armored brigade 18th brigade despite heavy losses egyptian forces outnumbered force early morning october moved division positions north concentration area west preparation crossing division central sector arrival crossing equipment bridges october headquarters kilometers east canal israeli plan initial maneuvers receiving orders late october bar headed headquarters prepare operation division incorporated brigade colonel 14th armored brigade brigade commanded colonel attached division brigade commanded colonel matt planned brigade attack east egyptian attention away tasked transporting pre constructed roller bridge crossing area tank battalions attached colonel given critical tasks accordingly brigade heavily reinforced incorporate armored infantry battalions addition division reconnaissance battalion commanded lieutenant colonel brigade conduct turning maneuver october south road sand dunes reach fort heading north occupy fort brigade split clear roads seize chinese farm occupying crossing area awaiting matt brigade matt brigade containing additional tank company armored battalion south west reach fort continue yard cross canal rubber tanks matt brigade began moving october turning eastwards heavy congestion roads brigade progress slow little midnight brigade left moved westward yard area meters long meters wide surrounded protective sand walls site long war brigade planned entering previously discovered gap opposition leaving combined force canal sent tanks north west secure flank projected crossing site clear roads follow equipment seized fortifications resistance informed forts control clear turn informed southern command successes sending wave israeli commanders delighted operation begun smoothly battle matt informed crossing area clear egyptian forces caution ordered tank company deploy junction confront egyptian movements crossing site meters south crossroads entire company wiped ambushed egyptian infantry 16th brigade company commander killed men casualties unbeknownst matt israeli artillery batteries opened fire landing site west bank delivering tons shells ordnance fact opposite bank completely clear egyptian troops crossing finally got underway hours schedule crossed battalion thirty tanks sent raiding parties attacking egyptian west bank securing kilometer deep facing resistance armored brigade began attack 16th division october striking center east fire preparation repulsed expected succeeded purpose 16th division southern flank came increasing israeli attack assumed israeli objective roll second army right flank open corridor west bank israeli forces cross canal hours remained general impression egyptian commanders reacted accordingly discovered true intentions earlier certainly able defeat israeli operation light greater strength forces reserves near area east west banks suez_canal junction prepared cross informed closed egyptian infantry units soon passing sent armored battalion clear road committed remaining armored battalions push northwards secure chinese farm infantry battalion forming right flank 16th brigade position defend crossroads initially sent armored battalions northward israeli tanks neared infantry battalion met heavy fire anti tank weapons lost tanks engagement seven israeli tanks managed break battalion westernmost position advance northwards ordered tank hunting squads groups equipped rockets grenades deploy destroy tanks broke sent tank company reinforce infantry battalion night moved remaining forces north canal bank bypassing 16th brigade positions soon found center huge administrative area vehicle park brigade command supply bases egyptian 16th 21st divisions base located near canal assumption location israeli attacks expected come east defenses strongest south weakest sides immediately opened fire inadvertently leading destruction supply trucks sam launchers managed organize counterattack units 21st division battalion 14th brigade battalion company 18th brigade tanks repelled sustained significant losses vastly overwhelming opposing forces brigadier general commanding 16th infantry division planned contain israeli attack south having 18th brigade occupy defenses north chinese farm directly 16th infantry brigade organic tank battalion designated division reserve 1st armored brigade moved southward occupy positions lateral road canal right flank 18th brigade brigade arrival engaged israeli armor brigade egyptian armor destroyed tanks half tracks sorties egyptian destroyed israeli tanks ground attack missions village 1st brigade countered flanking attempt left tank battalion attack destroying tanks engagements october 21st division managed destroy israeli tanks subjected frequent israeli air strikes artillery 1st brigade accounted kills suffering fewer losses battalions commanded major reinforced company sized remnants 40th tank battalion commanded captain previous battalion commander wounded ordered seize junction sent tank company ahead initially reported egyptian units dispatched infantry unit half tracks junction reaching discovered tank company destroyed killed soon vehicles began came heavy fire stopping advance unit commander reported casualties ordered remainder battalion aid pinned men attempts rescue infantry failed egyptian battalion defending junction directed heavy firepower area aided brigade artillery egyptian defenders managed catch prepared killing zone troops lacked cover threatened forces managed escape area vehicles infantry half track unit sent crossroads remained pinned sent tank company rescue tanks advanced chinese farm south neared farm village anti tank artillery fire forced company retreat kept pleading send additional support unaware facing superior egyptian forces entering administrative bases egyptian 16th 21st divisions help coming unit commander men carry wounded attempted leave battlefield sections heavy machine guns providing cover force slowly way lines group egyptian tanks intercepted wiped israeli force despite remained determined seize junction giving task division reconnaissance battalion attached brigade achieve surprise battalion attack west preparing attacks south east attacked lieutenant colonel killed barely thirty meters egyptian positions disrupting battalion assault sustained losses managed retreat soon tank company attacked crossroads october withdrew losing tanks october brigade begun operation tanks lost hours fighting leaving remaining seizing crossing site accomplished easily stiff resistance prevented achieving remaining objectives opening routes canal securing corridor force drop tanks noon division suffered killed wounded night help secure corridor supplied tank battalions numbers tanks hearing reports heavy fighting taking place junction chinese farm suggested withdrawing matt brigade operation voiced concerns threatened noted attempts open corridor bridges failed rejected suggestion stating knew advance going happen started crossing operation crossed let follow bitter end bar concurred decided press suggestion situation informed bridges laid closed routes leading stated high hopes egyptian resistance overcome bridges laid morning told matt brigade crossed west bank encountering resistance southern command intentions withdrawing brigade bridge laying delayed shortly dawn conducted reconnaissance battlefield saw set strong blocking position defending junction composed egyptian tanks situated hull positions dry irrigation ditches chinese farm infantry 16th brigade right flank battalion support rifles manually guided missiles discovered mined sides road lost tanks decided change tactics personally commanded 40th armored battalions reinforcing tanks salvaged repaired previous night fighting attack west direction canal hitting egyptian positions flank tank company infantry company attacked south north forces engaged long range picking defensive positions alternate fire movement advance crossroads defending infantry battalion exhausted continuous fighting suffering severe lack ammunition soon withdrew allowing seize junction meantime difficulties reported southern command section roller bridge towed brigade damaged engineers needed hours repair requested additional forces help secure corridor noting stiff resistance facing brigade report prompted bar alert prepare open corridor division argued division cross canal proceed operation waiting bridges bar rejected suggestion secure corridor canal israeli forces west bank threatened subsequently bar ordered israeli forces equipment cross west bank bridges laid receiving reinforcements focused clearing road left battalion tanks junction western chinese farm prepared attack armored battalions provided concentrated section road defended egyptian battalion forming left flank 16th infantry brigade battalions attacked north east west egyptian battalion managed halt advance aided fire tanks anti tank weapons slopes missouri hill north west chinese farm causing break attack attempt left brigade desperate situation tanks remaining running short ammunition supplies requested authorization withdraw brigade fort forces regain combat effectiveness israeli reinforcement unexpected egyptian resistance forced israeli southern command change plans visiting advance command post noted disappointed handed task moving bridge canal prepare clear roads deploy bridges informed new orders tasked capturing chinese farm egyptian positions near farm canal needing forces suggested capture farm cleared routes canal later meeting bar reiterated statement forces cross bridges laid added situation withdrawn division concentrated south standing cross canal dawn october division advanced canal movement hampered massive traffic jams roads leading canal realized closed ordered tank battalion turning maneuver desert reach arrived contacted explaining difficult situation requested battalion placed command accepted turn authorized request pull replacing brigade tank battalion receiving new orders moved division occupy series positions opposite 16th brigade armored brigades placed reserve force southern command left flank infantry battalion blocking repelled israeli tanks attacking westwards thwarted efforts clear road realized infantry support breaking egyptian positions prove costly southern command notified soon receive 35th brigade transported helicopters gulf kilometers east canal brigade way canal buses greatly delayed traffic road expected unit arrive dusk brigade commander colonel arrived rest brigade soon arrived transported helicopters buses come complete effort met command post briefly explained situation short discussion laid plan tasked clearing began moving battalion lieutenant colonel advance acting sense urgency decided action awaiting sufficient intelligence performing adequate reconnaissance egyptian defenses unit lacked artillery observers wait arrive agreed request fire support division command net brigade acting armor support time battalion reached area closest distance wider kilometers came contact left flank battalion positioned battalion directed effective artillery fire receiving heavy machine gun small arms fire entrenched egyptian infantry attempted assault machine gun positions places advancing meters egyptian lines companies spread repeatedly failed reach defenses israeli artillery fire ineffective egyptian infantry able suppress movement flanking attempts company platoon commanders killed wounded ordered narrow brigade focus clearing instead lead battalion heavy fire impossible maneuver dawn nearing realized bridge brought canal remaining hours dark entire day pass bridge laid canal daylight sustain casualties sent half track company half hour later company reported reached crossing site encountering resistance egyptian battalion fighting focused attention ignoring activity took risky decision sending canal cleared road wreckage debris reached fort turning northwards finally reaching crossing site bridge construction started immediately military engineers division dawn requested approval withdraw brigade having far unsuccessful reaching egyptian lines denied request approving wounded bar visited command post realized gravity situation armored battalion tasked covering unable locate released red smoke position spotted smoke directing accurate artillery fire inflicting casualties tanks assaulted defenses suffered losses fell evident withdrawal accomplished open half tracks brought extract wounded fire finally withdrew cover friendly tanks hours combat suffered heavy casualties killed wounded state suffered seventy casualties went action hastily proper intelligence enemy defenses armored losses sustained withdrawal heavy egyptian withdrawal israeli armored brigades principally continued engaging 16th brigade withdrawn concentrated air artillery attacks 21st division units estimated upwards israeli tanks attacking positions october 21st division received orders israeli armor vicinity village capture fort larger egyptian effort seal israeli penetration destroy west bank 18th brigade defensive positions stripped tank battalion 14th brigade defending parts egyptian tasked 1st brigade execute attack remaining tanks conducted air artillery strike area minutes attack commenced egyptian tanks managed destroy israeli armor near village reached northern fort face heavy resistance soon repelled israeli ground fire supported air strikes israeli tanks managed advance significantly armored battle continued saw fashion time 1st brigade restored original lines attack 18th brigade infantry battalions failed heavy losses tanks allocated brigade israeli armor occupied irrigation ditches farm entrenched significantly enhanced defensive position egyptian attacks directed israeli corridor failed heavy losses 1st brigade tanks remaining losing tanks prompted second army command transfer battalion tanks october 2nd infantry division north reinforce tank numbers 16th division battalion moved south large number israeli aircraft attacked formation forcing undertake maneuvers turning eastwards desert terrain avoiding losses battalion attached 21st division reported dire situation forces october 16th brigade heavy combat consecutive days ammunition scarce brigade heavily outnumbered losses including destruction artillery units received orders 16th division headquarters retreat brigade abandoned chinese farms positions reinforced lines 18th brigade north night october finally opened roads israeli forces ensuring operation proceed missouri remained egyptian hands posing threat israeli corridor canal aftermath october bridge fully assembled opening israeli bridge canal roller bridge laid soon dawn october afternoon division crossed west bank followed division supported reach failure united_nations cutting infantry divisions egyptian field army crossed division simultaneously trying defend expand israeli corridor suez_canal attacking northwards west bank attempt similarly cut second army efforts unable reach battle attempts seize critical positions expand israeli corridor east bank saw little success ultimately israeli victory battle chinese farm especially infamous legacy israeli participants remembered brutal battles war heavy losses incurred battle ended visited area battlefield accompanied said look valley death minister taken great destruction people later war battle scenes seen sight reality paintings worst war movies vast field slaughter stretching far eye provide poignant account aftermath hand hand battle armor taken place coming close egyptian jewish dead lying soldiers jumped burning tanks died picture capture horror scene encompass happened losses suffered battle severe israeli units suffered heavy casualties men equipment armored losses night battle comparable egyptian armored losses disastrous october offensive numbers egyptian armored forces 16th division severely october 21st armored division tanks remaining original tanks available start battle counting tanks received reinforcements 16th infantry division tanks remaining organic tank battalion attrition served egypt war strategy inflicting maximum casualties perspective initiative passed battle notable participants participants battle lieutenant commanded infantry battalion 16th infantry brigade engaged armor october later night october decorated battle commanded armored battalion battle personally led armored effort israeli men later serve ministers defense respective nations encounter capacity


irish marine world war irish marine world war continued essential overseas trade conflict period referred long watch irish irish merchant shipping saw vital imports continued arrive exports mainly food supplies great_britain delivered irish ships sailed unarmed usually identifying bright lights painting irish large letters sides decks nonetheless percent seamen serving irish ships perished victims war attacked sides predominantly axis powers allied convoys stop pick survivors irish ships answered signals stopped rescue survivors belonged irish ships rescued seamen outbreak world war known emergency ireland declared neutrality isolated shipping neglected irish war independence foreign ships ireland trade hitherto depended available neutral american ships enter war zone saint patrick day address prime minister lamented country effectively blockaded activities lack ships ireland net food excess shipped britain irish marine ensured irish agricultural exports reached britain british coal arrived ireland foods wheat fruits tea imported ireland depended mainly british petroleum initially irish ships sailed british convoys light experience chose sail relying neutral markings german respect neutrality varied friendly tragic cross channel trade ireland britain national perspectives important irish trade route irish ships crossed atlantic route defined allies line rock azores line latitude north ships lisbon run imported wheat fruits spain portugal goods americas followed line west allied convoys gibraltar west men time serving irish ships war background following independence state encouragement develop marine new leaders turn backs sea ignore fact island year fleet declined merchant fleet consisted ships number dropped year start world war fleet numbered ships imports carried irish vessels reasons decline consequence war independence policy self economic depression lack investment government neglect foreign ships ireland hitherto depended withdrawn period april june seven ships visited country war independence civil war followed left country near economic collapse destruction industry infrastructure industries relocated abroad cheaper transport sea ireland poor road rail networks advantage commercial opportunity new coasters acquired 1930s intended irish ports ships hostilities began small coasters lost particularly lisbon run voyage intended prime minister advocated policy self foreign imports discouraged important status symbol modern world country produce goods self sufficient global economic depression early 1930s impacted ireland partial recovery following civil war industry protected barriers established anglo irish trade war need extra sea capacity readily met british foreign ships foreign ships preserving home_fleet banks reluctant lend irish industry preferring british government state support industries extend shipping government established turf development board turf ireland primary source fuel emergency years imported coal short supply civil servants department warned consequences war fuel ignored warning earlier ports tribunal initiated tribunal received abundant evidence inefficient extravagant management submitted report recommendations implemented war tribunal observed public generally fear appreciate importance vickers subsidiary vickers ireland november dublin dockyard ceased operation september ireland country surrounded water sea vital importance point british wartime restrictions shipping place historian evans argued failure establish irish marine 1930s irish supply problems second world war response minister industry commerce later minister supplies sought address issues infant industries developed 1930s protective barrier origin term jews helped jewish set manufacturing businesses industries proved valuable war years reduced need imports example million pairs shoes imported fallen quarter million pairs gross industrial output rose million million industrial employment government established industrial credit corporation finance industry life required hold reserves ireland capital available industry promptly providers closed lodging business irish assurance private enterprises established included grain ltd animal feed ltd fuel ltd oil ltd timber ltd tea ltd industry encouraged plans irish national build oil vickers repair yard dublin port reopened dublin port docks board repaired british irish ships semi state enterprises established including irish shipping purchased vessels leased war declared outbreak second world war ireland declared neutrality total irish ships outbreak world war purchased leased conflict lost irish registered ships flying red ensign united_kingdom merchant navy required law fly red ensign steamship company ships travelled outbreak hostilities choices forced irish government ordered irish ships fly british ships irish register scottish owned christian shipping irish registered order advantage irish whale whale factory ships pressed british naval service owners transferred british registry ships described british choose registered belonging actually owned kelly belfast crew addresses loyalist areas belfast years sailed belfast steamship company operated belfast liverpool route british ports flew flag protection mines struck approaching liverpool sank passengers crew board hours later rescued injured died later ferries scotia irish registered sailed red ensign british crews taken hoisted went strike refused sail ships transferred british registry red ensign restored scotia sunk evacuation loss crew troops fortunate escape night december german bomber lights extinguished bombs fell nearby railway station ferries operated route sailed red ensign thirty lives lost saint patrick bombed sunk british irish steam company ships british registry irish registry cargo exports main export agricultural produce britain world war ireland food production increased meet britain needs pattern repeated second world war acres increased acres fell start trade war fallen acres trade war ireland britain started britain imposed tax irish products cattle irish republic cattle northern_ireland cattle smuggled border cattle exported way department supplies favour smuggling urged stop britain anxious secure irish food supplies world war survival war spur series agreements cattle coal pact anglo irish trade agreement ended dispute terms favourable ireland cattle coal pact british set central authority purchase cattle john prices set war attractive war progressed open market prices rose dramatically cattle northern_ireland better price smuggling practised trade war resumed answer demand food world war area increased acres acres studies inconclusive vital irish food exports britain difficulties accounting effect smuggling statistics wartime censorship ireland food production increasing british food imports falling example imported tons food august tons august second world war ireland net food irish people enjoyed high diet nonetheless poor experienced real food donated war refugees spain nation need import certain foods fruits tea wheat nearly half ireland wheat imported canada domestic food production relied imported imported animal feeding tons imported tons arrived similarly million tons animal feed imported falling million quantities imports ireland surplus food foods grown ireland climate unsuitable small plots wheat cultivated series orders compulsory enacted threat fields wheat land confiscated acres wheat planted increased acres remained imports required clashes customs commonplace infamous battle took place border revenue crews intercepted men loads smuggled flour unwilling bounty boots stones ensuing struggle flour destroyed revenue people injured early allies restricted wheat deliveries ireland return irish threatened export beer great annoyance david gray united_states ambassador ireland ireland received tons wheat gray complained waste vital necessity americans regard best luxury worst poison coal imports supplies oil ceased production town gas manufactured imported coal adversely affected regulations brought limiting use enforced man britain relaxed restrictions july plans build oil dublin event completed nonetheless seven oil built bremen germany ltd feet long capable carrying tons irish register britain asked ireland reply irish policy vessels instead offering transfer british register transferred 6th war declared 3rd days transfer september flying irish sunk spite captain william irish said sorry sink carrying petrol england considered germans encounter irish shelled fishing crew lost entire fleet lost war boat encounters issued standing order boats september defined neutral friendly powers neutral included ireland particular order concluded ireland navigation territorial waters warships threat prohibition strictly observed consideration proper preservation neutrality signed orders protect irish ships wolf commander mildly mistake eager captain sinking irish oak sank lisbon run commander recorded war diary flying british irish flag supplement order found scuttled read political reasons irish ships times irish convoys attacked blockade zone seen special obligation determine neutrality blockade zone encounters boats pleasant march irish willow stopped signalled send master ship papers hailed belfast legally british subject considered chief officer harry crew rowed boat said year old captain elderly boat added saint patrick day morning treated conning tower given bottle bring irish willow later irish willow performed dangerous rescue british sailors empire breeze march commanded stopped irish rough seas prevented crew pulling alongside submarine present papers interview conducted shouting course conversation chief officer patrick gave home address asked strike pub near harbour strike started march lasted years convoys irish british authorities operated ships combined purchases wheat sugar animal feeds petrol start war irish ships joined convoys protected royal_navy advantages protection cheaper insurance advantages borne experience chose sail ability ships cargo crew significant impact shipping insurance irish ships long watch problematic important aspect irish ships usually didn travel convoy lloyd london charged higher premium ships convoy example insurance problems faced concerns crew city ship joined convoy lives crew ship suffered collision dutch thames sank crew rescued hms transferred rescue ship castle castle bombed days later city survivors died families life insurance claims refused time death crew city passengers castle later irish government introduced compensation scheme seamen lost injured irish ships irish shipping opened marine insurance subsidiary handsome profit steamship company ships nightmare convoy left liverpool august merchant ships neutral country ships facilities master british convoy commodore ship liner objected convoy visible enemy night apparently vain attempt visible vice admiral convoy commodore positioned irish ships centre convoy august separate attacks norwegian destroyer bath drawn away convoy sunk minutes later sank british merchant ship rescued survivors hours later sank commodore ship british cargo ship days later sank flower class corvette hms rescued survivors merchant ships naval escorts lives lost convoy surviving merchant ships reached gibraltar retreated neutral portugal described bitter act surrender come way lisbon crew went strike resolved extra life pay crew irish waiting lisbon remnants crew irish resolved sail home city dublin brought survivors joined convoy ships convoy lost experiences inability royal_navy protect merchant ships profound effect irish ships sailing allied convoys ship owners advice masters decided sail vessels british convoys early months practice ceased captain william henderson irish returning voyage reported german bombers probably considerable time inspected closely didn incident given crew great confidence protection afforded neutral markings trade routes british routes cross channel trade accounted ireland trade ships ranged age built years start war built important vessels ireland britain livestock carriers initially germany respected neutrality irish vessels attack head paying compensation losses came mines direct attacks suffered fate inspected british naval control service struck magnetic drowning seven cattle destroying vessels august germany required ireland cease food exports britain august germany declared large area britain scene operations believed attacks irish ships bombing reinforce message lord broadcast german threatened bombed export cattle britain continued july george bombed nonetheless trade continued attack german ultimatum schooner lock ryan returning bombed german aircraft fortunately lock ryan cargo china clay absorbed blast badly damaged survived germany acknowledged attack refused pay compensation damage blockaded area irish offered free passage terms rejected attacks ships cross channel trade irish ships lost figure small compared allied losses represents larger proportion small irish fleet restrictions reporting attacks ships frank government minister responsibilities included censorship reverted policy intention let germany know irish public know don like british proposal william irish berlin told germany ireland refusing british protesting attacks irish ships neutral ships irish deliberate attacks cross channel shipping ceased november attacks routes mines constant danger trade november roosevelt signed fourth neutrality act forbidding american ships entering war zone defined line drawn spain iceland intended ireland shipped portugal irish route known trade lisbon run setting sail ireland ships carry agricultural products united_kingdom discharge cargo load fuel pick british export coal carry portugal portugal usually lisbon irish ships loaded waiting american cargo agricultural machinery cargo delayed lost sea war case irish captains load cargo opportunity bring ireland wheat occasions purchased cargo coal fortunate cargo coal unidentified aircraft attacked cannon fire shells lodged coal piercing hull britain denied involvement coal discharged shell fragments british manufacture found attackers polish squadron raf fortunate vanished waters trace lisbon run undertaken small coastal trading vessels commonly called coasters designed deep sea navigation small having low frequently foot ships designed sight land able quickly harbour weather turned foul irish marine emergency gross register tons grt feet long attacked sides rescued sides rescue german sailors given size dramatic january british authorities required irish ships visit british port obtain visit proved fatal added miles voyage ship given free passage allied patrols fuel searched irish ships lisbon run carried exports spain portugal atlantic routes british ships traded ireland britain destinations served irish neutral ships philip baker churchill parliamentary secretary able tell british parliament united_kingdom allied ship lost carrying cargo goods ocean voyage added high proportion imports overseas sources exports sent overseas carried ships neutral register trade great_britain mutual benefit countries risks british seamen involves small economic depression steamship company sold ocean going ships ireland ocean going ships outbreak hostilities ireland ship designed cross atlantic british ships available american ships travel portugal ireland depended succession ships norway greece argentina finland usually carrying wheat ireland lost soon nations longer neutral ireland acquire fleet irish shipping formed irish irish shipping ship acquired spain abandoned crew ships acquired palestine panama yugoslavia chile irish government minister frank negotiated oil burning united_states maritime commission reserve fleet lost boats irish oak sunk controversial circumstances crew irish pine lost sunk ships estonia irish ports estonia annexed soviet_union crews refused return new ships sold irish shipping abandoned bay december salvaged fort irish navy purchased renamed irish beech italian ship trapped dublin outbreak war fall italian chartered repaired renamed irish cedar war returned naples cargo food gift ireland war ravaged italy irish bought june years old required extensive repairs fit scrap yard british yard bid won contract work completed november irish government paid purchase repairs british ministry war transport renamed empire don returned irish shipping irish shipping fleet imported atlantic tons wheat tons coal tons tons tobacco tons tons timber tons cargo figures shipping companies survived war hostilities speech nation said men marine faced ocean bring essential supplies nation profoundly grateful area dublin long maritime tradition housing redeveloped 1970s streets named ships lost road grove road road pine road road road road english emergency service medal marine service awarded served months longer irish registered ship emergency september plaque irish erected commemorate crews lost neutral irish registered vessels significant gesture british friends recognising debt honour owed lost lives second world war national memorial england dublin annual commemoration held sunday november commemoration held fourth sunday november offices white star line belfast commemoration held second sunday publications

Irish Mercantile Marine during World War II


battle battle battle iraqi city following city capture islamic state iraq levant loyalists northern iraq offensive battle took place june early june took control number cities northern iraq including symbolic significance hometown administrative center iraqi government responded june launching air assault operation recapture city initial attack reinforced ground assault june fighting continued june battle victory government forces retreating june defeat coincided declaration worldwide june iraqi government attempt retake city july defeated responded attacking nearby camp july remained control second battle march april background december clashes involving tribal militias iraqi security forces islamic state iraq levant broke western iraq january successfully took control bringing province control early june insurgents began advancing central northern parts iraq june fell devastating defeat given iraqi troops city facing approximately fighters iraqi army soldiers refused fight fled june captured following day killed thousand iraqi air_force cadets camp miles northwest battle june iraqi government forces launched airborne assault commando helicopters flown stadium university helicopters shot crash landed stadium conduct emergency landing suffering mechanical failure crew second helicopter included pilot captured insurgents fierce fighting ensued university compound army positioned tall buildings university complex early hours assault helicopter struck city hospital compound day sporadic clashes continued university iranian trained dispatched managed seize control tall buildings university area june helicopter conducted dawn air strikes insurgents attacking troops university campus point city coming continuous air strikes days included barrel bombs ground offensive launched day attempt capture city column troops started north reached edge city according column directed camp air base initial claims government sources capturing fact remained control heavy fighting continued rage city outskirts night evening helicopters struck gathering people preparing wedding ceremony village east killing civilians day troops pulled away nearby town south city attempt meeting stiff resistance fighting continued near university air base reportedly come army control day battles iraqi army helicopter shot city crashed near market army sent tanks join fighting university iraqi army spokesman claimed killed previous hours government forces control university claims independently confirmed later fierce clashes reported area kilometers city center reportedly advance stopped kilometers south day declared worldwide june government forces attempted air base link troops university failed encountering heavy resistance area military spokesman said government forces soon push capture south army managed recapture town fighting army spokesman claimed killed isis fighters aftermath july iraqi army spokesman claimed military regained control town birthplace near later day battlefield commanders contradicted stated fighting continuing town perimeter time troops retreated university complex july military launched new assault soldiers quickly entered city reportedly retreating seized city hospital following iraqi government preparing declare victory battle city sprung ambush suicide bombers reportedly windows groups soldiers government troops retreated city sunset kilometers south constant mortar sniper fire security force vehicles seen abandoned burnt soldiers killed fighting july insurgents launched assault camp estimated government soldiers iranian iraqi besieged following failed attempt send reinforcements air base assault included suicide bombers quickly managed reach runway point iraqi special forces joined battle base bombarded night morning according sources final pocket government troops collapsed government forces killed executed captured insurgents killed iraqi forces attempted save base aircraft flying according helicopters destroyed ground shot armored vehicles destroyed iraqi army denied alleged capture base soldiers line reporting control soldiers killed helicopter destroyed damaged resident reported continued fighting base days later military reported iraqi special forces secured base united_states participated battle iraqi washington_post wrote iranian groups accused coalition bombarding pro government headquarters city response embassy baghdad issued statement denying allegations


action february action february minor naval engagement napoleonic wars british_royal_navy squadron chased captured french frigate caribbean_sea mission carry trade goods des near guadeloupe france succession french warships sent early months effort break british blockade french caribbean destroying economies morale islands having landed supplies return cargo intended improve economic situation guadeloupe needed oceanic trade patrolling british warships sighted virgin islands february chased north atlantic_ocean days frigates hms hms able bring action contested running engagement badly damaged suffered heavy casualties surrendering numerically superior british force later commissioned royal_navy remained caribbean year capture french convoy guadeloupe recaptured destroyed british subsequently intercepted defeated convoy turn background napoleonic wars years old british_royal_navy dominant sea blockaded home ports british squadrons french warships merchant ships transports unable sail result french colonies west_indies largely cut france colonies closely blockaded result ability trade independently severely curtailed resulting economic collapse severe food shortages social unrest messages warning deteriorating situation colonies sent summer particularly islands martinique guadeloupe response supplies sent france small convoys individual frigates autumn british blockading ships intercepted communications island relayed information admiralty london ordered vice admiral sir alexander assemble force invade french colonies reinforcements supplies reach majority french attempts reach caribbean ended failure ships intercepted bay reached caribbean defeated ships squadron focused preparations invasion martinique planned february ships reached islands safely gun frigates guadeloupe martinique february martinique attack distracting available british ships blockade guadeloupe taking advantage temporary absence enemy shipping slipped des south guadeloupe february sailed north french captain jean dropped military food supplies taken board large quantities trade goods sale france effort revive guadeloupe economy battle february days leaving des spotted passing close virgin islands small british hms hms signalled approaching ship halt prepare boarding ignoring orders smaller ships continued northwards passing virgin islands closely followed unable fell far night morning february virgin northwest close open fire long range shots failing damage large frigate responded ineffective broadside gunfire attracted ships afternoon joined british frigate hms captain hugh chase continued second night french frigate making significant gains unable escape completely february sails appeared southeast set course cut french frigate british frigate hms captain george scott brig hms driver enemies sides recognised hope escape lay defeating swift victory enable pursuit east travelling westwards atlantic rapidly closing new arrivals opened fire immediately responded slower french vessel respond drawing close frigates exchanged point blank range minutes heavier weight french ship soon told scott lieutenant severely wounded masts badly damaged unable french frigate hull badly masts lightly damaged fell badly wounded exchange command passed lieutenant jean attempted pull away battered adversary small brig driver placed intervene captain charles failed engage larger frigate rapidly approaching west outnumbered close captain william approach larger french ship fire causing damage sails prevent escape taking tow brig kept scott frigate chase sufficient repairs complete sailing independently driver finally came close open fire extreme range refused sail closer despite urgent signals close french ship open fire arrived presence finally convincing enter action surrounded enemy ships sails effort escape north strain manoeuvre causing main masts collapse flight resistance impossible surrendered aftermath officers board french frigate refused tender formal surrender officer insisted caused entirety damage british historians debated opinion william james agreed assessment opined scott surrendering french officers damage ship suffered battle edward serving officer caribbean time gives credit victory detailed account james later criticised battered taken tow halifax nova_scotia repaired later commissioned royal_navy prisoners landed nova_scotia including died wounds soon french lost approximately casualties british losses seven killed wounded wounded man wounded driver british commanders crews praised actions battle exception driver james later histories heavily criticised noted reluctance engage enemy contrast william commander commended maintaining combat larger frigate possible decades later admiralty recognized battle naval general service medal awarded application british participants living month following capture guadeloupe french colony caribbean attack martinique fell british february spanish forces continued siege santo domingo french attempts resupply islands major expedition defeated guadeloupe april elements force reached island defeated captured june july british forces distracted ongoing santo domingo focus campaign moved north second major expedition arrived december significant british forces returned leeward_islands final invasion guadeloupe influx british reinforcements late hms december cruising east antigua surprised squadron french frigates outnumbered surrounded fought hard eventually forced surrender captain john mortally wounded reduced sinking condition engagement set fire abandoned ships intercepted days later guadeloupe defeated destroyed returned france landing supplies