british_army world war british_army world war fought largest costly war long history unlike french german armies units exclusively volunteers opposed beginning conflict furthermore british_army considerably smaller french german counterparts world war distinct british armies army small volunteer force soldiers half posted overseas garrison british_empire total included regular army territorial force formed british expeditionary force formed service france known old second army army formed volunteers destined action battle formed introduction conscription united_kingdom january end british_army reached maximum strength men field divisions vast majority british_army fought main theatre war western france belgium german empire units engaged italy austria-hungary bulgarian army units fought middle_east africa mainly ottoman_empire battalion fought alongside japanese army china siege war posed problems army commanders given prior largest formation serving general commanded operations division expansion british_army saw officers promoted brigade corps commander year army commanders cope new tactics weapons developed manoeuvre trench warfare infantry artillery learn work offensive defence learned combine forces defend line later war machine gun corps tank corps added order battle included new tactical doctrine men struggle supply problems shortage food disease damp rat infested conditions enemy action troops contend new diseases trench foot trench fever trench war ended british_army casualties result enemy action disease recorded killed missing wounded rush end war substantially decreased strength british_army peak men men organization british_army world war trace organisation increasing demands imperial expansion framework voluntary system recruitment regimental system defined reforms late 19th century british_army prepared primarily called empire matters ensuing colonial wars years 19th century army involved major conflict second boer war highlighted shortcomings tactics leadership administration report recommended radical reform creation army council general staff abolition office commander chief forces creation chief general staff reforms formally created expeditionary force seven divisions cavalry infantry reorganised volunteers new territorial force fourteen cavalry brigades fourteen infantry divisions changed old militia special reserve reinforce expeditionary force outbreak war august british regular army small professional force consisted regular troops organised regiments guards battalions battalions scots battalions irish battalion regiments line rifle brigade despite infantry regiment cavalry regiments artillery support arms line infantry regiments regular battalions served home provided drafts replacements stationed overseas prepared expeditionary force royal regiment middlesex regiment king royal rifle corps rifle brigade prince consort regular battalions served overseas half regular army infantry battalions cavalry regiments stationed overseas garrisons british_empire royal flying corps british_army outbreak war consisted aircraft regular army supported territorial force august forms reserves army reserve retired soldiers strong paid shillings week worth week terms attend training days year special reserve men form time similar territorial force special initial months time training paid regular soldier period weeks training year national reserve men register maintained territorial force county associations men military experience reserve obligation regulars reserves paper totalled force men men immediately available formed british expeditionary force sent continent consisted infantry divisions cavalry contrast french army troops infantry divisions german_army troops infantry divisions britain began war regular reserve infantry divisions war regular territorial army divisions including naval division royal_navy formed british infantry division consisted infantry brigades battalions machine guns battalion division field artillery brigades pounder guns field brigade eighteen heavy artillery battery pounder guns engineer field companies royal engineer signals company cavalry squadron company field army service corps horse drawn transport companies divisional headquarters support detachments single cavalry division assigned consisted cavalry regiments brigades armed rifles unlike french german counterparts armed shorter range cavalry division high allocation artillery compared foreign cavalry divisions pounder guns organised brigades machine guns regiment cavalry division equivalent weakened infantry brigades artillery infantry division cavalry divisions brigades serving france 1st 2nd 3rd divisions cavalry corps 1st 2nd indian cavalry divisions indian cavalry corps brigade indian cavalry corps contained british cavalry regiment course war composition infantry division gradually changed increased emphasis providing infantry divisions organic fire support british division consisted infantry brigades battalions battalions lewis machine guns making total weapons division additionally divisional machine gun battalion equipped vickers machine guns companies guns brigade division mortar battery mortars artillery changed composition batteries start war batteries guns brigade moved batteries guns brigade finally batteries guns brigade battery commanders way army change drastically course war reacting developments mobile war fought opening weeks static trench warfare cavalry represented army july represent infantry decrease army royal engineers increase british expeditionary force terms british_army role european war embark soldiers british expeditionary force consisted infantry divisions cavalry brigades arranged army corps corps command douglas corps command smith outset conflict british indian army called assistance august percent british officers initially sent france indian army percent ranks came british indian army german emperor kaiser famously dismissive issued order august english walk general french little army later years survivors regular army dubbed old end battles old regular british_army virtually wiped managed stop german advance october 7th division arrived france forming basis british iii corps cavalry grown corps divisions december expanded fielding army corps divided second armies regular army strength declined numbers territorial force volunteers field marshal new army end august raised new divisions march number divisions increased territorial force expanded raising second battalions forming new divisions supplemented peacetime strength divisions army formed july influx troops volunteers reorganisation fourth army reserve army fifth army formed recruitment conscription august men signed fight joined end september recruitment remained fairly steady early fell dramatically later years especially campaign resulted casualties prominent feature early months formation battalions lived worked joined trained allocated units policy drawing recruits local population ensured battalions suffered casualties towns villages communities britain suffer losses introduction conscription january battalions raised conscription single men introduced january months later extended men aged military service act march specified men ages liable called service army married widowed children served number reserved usually industrial included teachers legislation apply ireland despite status united_kingdom conscription crisis january conscription introduced million men volunteered service million end war end army reached peak strength million men women volunteered served non role end war enlisted served nurses queen imperial military nursing service aid nursing voluntary aid detachment army queen mary army auxiliary corps founded divided sections mechanical clerical miscellaneous stayed home served france commanders serving british officer british expeditionary force controlled formation larger division active operations commander chief appointed august field marshal john french active command cavalry division second boer war commander british corps douglas french remarked better suited position staff field command like french active command second boer war senior staff officer cavalry division commanding brigade sized group columns commander british corps lieutenant general james noted died heart attack soon arriving france french wished appoint lieutenant general place french wishes instead appointed lieutenant general smith begun military career war officers survive battle built formidable reputation infantry commander campaign second boer war second boer war responsible number reforms notably forcing increase training cavalry met hostility french french dislike smith known army failed offensive battle french replaced commander remained command rest war famous role commander battle battle days offensive series victories leading german surrender succeeded command army general charles turn succeeded general henry september officer artillery background command british_army war general eventually appointed command corps december succeeded smith command second army commanded mounted infantry detachment second boer war started build reputation held command years gained overwhelming victory german_army battle generally recognised effective senior british commanders western general commander cavalry division later cavalry corps leadership noted retreat battle commanding infantry corps appointed command army western previously served war campaign second boer war given command egyptian expeditionary force oversaw conquest palestine syria replaced murray chief staff british expeditionary force france replaced army commander general julian began war commander 3rd cavalry division performing battle succeeded command cavalry corps sent dardanelles august command british corps planned highly successful evacuation allied troops majority equipment mediterranean expeditionary force withdrawal successfully completed january loss single man returned western given command canadian corps notable battle battle ridge april carried canadian corps british support general henry served staff advance served distinction second boer war earned reputation able british commanders took command british corps command fourth army plans allied offensive developed war noted willingness use innovative tactics employed battle combined attacks tanks artillery general commanded mounted infantry regiment distinction relief command destroyed attacking larger boer force joined command 3rd cavalry brigade promoted brigade corps command year given command 2nd cavalry division september 7th division april british corps july commanded corps battle appointed commander fifth army suffered heavy losses battle collapse fifth army widely viewed reason german breakthrough spring offensive dismissed commander march succeeded general william months war previously commanded australian corps appointment requiring combination tactical flair general george commanded british army general hamilton commanded ill fated gallipoli campaign previously seen service boer war campaign second boer war britain chief imperial general staff effectively professional commander british_army general james murray retained post early years war replaced general william strong supporter replaced general henry hughes wilson officer selection august officers british_army regular officers rest reserves number officers army increased november survivors officers granted commission war pre war officers came families military connections gentry public school education essential regular officers promoted ranks officer corps war consisted regular officers peacetime army officers granted permanent commissions war officers granted temporary commissions duration war territorial army officers commissioned peacetime officers commissioned ranks pre war regular territorial army temporary officers commissioned ranks duration war september lord announced looking volunteers regular provide officers expanding army volunteers came middle class largest group commercial clerical followed teachers students professional men march discovered men serving ranks members university public school officers training corps applied granted commissions apply commissioned direct commissioning largely ceased early new officers served ranks unit potential officers candidate selected officer promotion rapid commissioned second lieutenant serving regular army years rose rank spring promoted lieutenant colonel commanding officer 6th battalion royal east kent regiment rapid promotion war noticeably lowered age battalion commanding officers aged average age battalion commanding officer stage official policy men longer eligible command battalions trend reflected junior officers anthony adjutant battalion aged served brigade major brigade aged war provided opportunities advancement general staff especially early days senior officers recalled retirement found wanting advanced age serve lack fitness sent retirement year war leaving gap filled lower ranking officers criticism quality staff work war second boer war led sweeping changes staff college greatly expanded lord established staff college indian army officers nonetheless war broke august barely graduates staff month long staff courses introduced filled regimental officers completing training posted headquarters result staff work poor training experience slowly situation staff officers trained exclusively static trench warfare forced adapt demands semi open warfare course war british dominion officers rank brigadier general killed died active service wounded captured doctrine british official historian brigadier james edward recorded british_army best trained best equipped best organized british_army sent war reforms army recognising need change training training began individual training winter followed squadron company battery training spring regimental battalion brigade training summer division inter divisional exercises army manoeuvres late summer autumn common doctrine headquarters levels outlined field service pocket book introduced serving director staff studies war office second boer war alerted army dangers posed fire zones covered long range magazine fed rifles place volley firing frontal attacks greater emphasis advancing extended order use available cover use artillery support attack flank attacks fire movement army expected units advance far possible firing line opening fire conceal positions conserve ammunition attack successive waves closing enemy decisively cavalry practised reconnaissance fighting regularly january decision general staff conference cavalry taught infantry tactics attack defence cavalry major european power trained mounted cavalry charge action equipped rifles infantry short range cavalry issued tools prior outbreak war result experience gained second boer war infantry fire movement techniques inspired boer tactics established formal doctrine colonel charles charge school british rifle fire effective reports effect germans believed facing huge numbers machine guns army concentrated rifle practice days spent ranges dedicated improving obtaining rate fire effective rounds minute sergeant set record rounds target set seconds skill arms meeting 1st battalion black watch recorded class shots second class shots class shots ranges infantry practised squad section attacks fire cover orders officers soldiers able act initiative exercise war noted infantry wonderful use ground advances short rushes double invariably fires prone position weapons british_army armed short magazine lee iii iii featured bolt action large magazine capacity enabled trained fire aimed rounds minute world war accounts tell british troops german attackers subsequently reported encountered machine guns fact simply group trained armed heavy vickers machine gun proved reliable weapon battlefield feats endurance entering military mythology account tells action 100th company machine gun corps high wood august company vickers guns ordered sustained covering fire hours selected area away prevent german troops forming counterattack british attack progress companies infantry allocated ammunition rations water carriers gunners men worked belt filling machine non stop hours keeping supply round belts new barrels water including men drinking water contents guns cool hour period guns fired short million rounds team reported fired close operation alleged gun working perfectly broken period lighter lewis gun adopted land aircraft use october lewis gun advantage faster build vickers far portable end world war lewis guns produced nearly western vickers gun ratio mortar rapidly developed clear type weapon needed provide artillery like fire support infantry weapon fully man capable firing reasonably powerful shells targets range rifle grenades finally mark tank british invention seen solution stalemate trench warfare mark range speed mph saw service september infantry tactics race sea manoeuvre warfare gave way trench warfare development british_army prepared expecting offensive mobile war army instructed troops defensive tactics failed obtain stocks barbed wire hand grenades trench mortars early years trench warfare normal infantry attack formation based battalion comprised companies battalion form waves company formed waves waves fighting elements battalions companies seventh contained battalion headquarters remaining company formed eighth ninth waves expected carry equipment forward tenth wave contained formation expected forward rate minutes man carried rifle bayonet gas mask ammunition hand grenades wire carrying addition carried extra ammunition barbed wire construction materials effect repairs captured lines fortifications experience led change tactics infantry longer advanced rigid lines formed series flexible waves cover darkness occupy shell holes cover near german line formed wave followed barrage german line hunt points resistance second main wave followed sections single file formed small groups reinforcements fourth wave expected defend captured territory waves expected advantage ground advance operating tanks platoon lewis gun section section specialised throwing hand grenades known bombs section compelled provide scouts carry reconnaissance duties platoon expected provide mutual fire support attack advance halting leap accepted lead platoon taking objective following passing objective lewis gunners provided fire support grenades clearing trenches battalion carried forward trench mortars provide fire support tank tactics tank designed break trench warfare use placed command infantry ordered attack given targets groups pairs assigned small groups troops served escort providing close defence enemy attacks tanks reached german lines engage machine gun troop concentrations way broke damaged enemy fire battle tank corps adopted new tactics tanks working advance triangle formation rear tanks providing cover infantry platoon tanks create gaps barbed wire accompanying infantry pass use armament suppress german strong points effectiveness tank infantry operation demonstrated battle major general george harper 51st highland division refused operate tanks decision compelled forward infantry support result destruction tanks german artillery sighted situation changed tank attacks tank tank company tanks objective section company remainder company following tank providing protection infantry platoon instructed advance making use available cover supported machine gun fire tanks came enemy strong point engage defenders forcing shelter leaving devices following infantry artillery tactics prior war artillery worked independently taught support infantry ensure successful attack heaviest artillery gun pounder heavy battery royal horse artillery employed pounder royal field artillery pounder gun situation changed artillery dominant force battlefield royal field artillery increased field brigades field brigades heavy siege artillery royal garrison artillery increased heavy siege batteries heavy siege batteries increase number batteries heavier guns armies needed find efficient method moving heavier guns proving difficult find number draught horses required war office ordered transformed mobility siege artillery army mounted variety surplus naval guns railway platforms provide mobile long range heavy artillery western artillery generally fired open sights visible targets largest unit accustomed firing single target artillery regiment brigade innovation brought adoption trench warfare barrage term battle trench warfare created need indirect fire use observers sophisticated artillery fire plans increasingly scientific approach gunnery use increasingly complicated calculations lay guns individual guns aimed fall shot coordinated form pattern case barrage pattern line barrage barrage lifted small yards moved forward slowly keeping pace infantry trained follow close moving wall fire close infantry commanders encouraged troops close barrage possible risk casualties friendly fire barrage maintain element surprise guns opening fire shortly assault troops moved useful enemy positions thoroughly depend identifying individual targets advance idea barrage infantry reach enemy positions defenders time recover emerge shelters man positions day battle barrage infantry allowing defenders recover emerge disastrous results attackers barrage demonstrated effectiveness year later battle weakness barrage infantry artillery schedule infantry commanders control tactical situation danger manoeuvre troops battlefield importance barrage traditional infantry tactics including reliance infantry firepower support movement forward forgotten infantry reached german trenches artillery shifted barrage standing barrage static barrage protect infantry counter attack consolidated position variant box barrage formed box sides box position prevent reinforcements brought line normally protect trench raids german unit type barrage barrage fired response german counterattack barrage brought firing signal pre arranged colour german barrage tended cut telephone lines pre registered barrage descend man land introduction tank artillery longer required aid infantry destroying obstacles machine gun positions instead artillery assisted german artillery counter battery fire british_army researchers lieutenant william lawrence developed sound ranging method determining location hostile artillery sound guns firing counter battery staff officer appointed corps counter battery effort reports sound ranging royal flying corps observers end war realised important effect barrage suppress enemy physical destruction short intense bombardment immediately followed infantry assault effective weeks grinding bombardment communications royal engineers signal service formed given responsibility communications included signal dispatch telegraph telephone later wireless communications army headquarters brigade battery level artillery war army primary methods communication signal dispatch employing runners horseback dogs carrier visual signalling telegraph telephone start war army small number wireless sets addition heavy unreliable operated trench wireless sets introduced easily intercepted listening germans civilian outset war found unreliable damp muddy conditions prevailed consequently field telephone designed device operated apart voice communication featured unit code key send receive coded messages facility proved useful midst bombardment exploding shells drowned voice communication connected lines sustained continual damage result shell fire movement troops lines generally buried redundant lines set place compensate primary types visual signalling flags lamps flags lamps lights open warfare visual signalling employing signal flags norm competent transmit words minute signal flags daylight signal lights night signal lights secured wooden case employed battery operated code key signalling techniques certain trench warfare operators methods forced expose enemy fire messages sent rear signal lights seen enemy forces replies messages readily spotted operators exposed enemy fire war army trained animals use trenches dogs carried messages horses dogs lay telephone telegraph cables carrier transported messages line carried tanks deliver messages attack war times sole means communication royal flying corps start war royal flying corps field commanded sir david henderson consisted squadrons observation balloon squadron squadron squadrons nos units aerial spotting september efficient perfected use wireless communication ridge aerial photography attempted effective following year august general hugh replaced henderson british use air power evolved war reconnaissance force fighting force attempted gain command air trenches carry bombing raids targets line early aircraft inferior german rivals april known bloody april lost aircraft late introduction able compete successfully control air august general jan presented report war council concerning future air power given potential devastation enemy lands destruction industrial targets centres population vast scale recommended new air service formed level army royal_navy formation new service use utilised men machines royal naval air service ending inter service rivalries times adversely affected aircraft april amalgamated form new service royal_air_force raf raf control equally new air ministry photographic images taken interpreted personnel planes carry available war starting personnel raf combat aircraft personnel beginning corps royal engineers august royal engineers consisted officers men regular army reserves date grown total arrived france engineer field companies attached infantry division increased companies september division signals company responsible communications corps division brigade headquarters royal engineer companies formed response german blowing small mines december british detonated hill february mining increasingly battle ridge battle september july day battle known crater created companies eventually formed employed digging cable trenches offensive defensive mining end war engineers directly responsible maintaining buildings designing infantry line fortifications artillery positions wireless signalling equipment railways roads water supply bridges transport operated railways inland waterways machine gun corps september machine gun corps formed provide heavy machine gun teams proposal war office formation single specialist machine gun company infantry brigade goal achieved withdrawing guns gun teams battalions created october consisted infantry machine gun companies cavalry machine gun squadrons motor machine gun batteries trenches corps guns deployed field fire proved devastating defensive weapon attacking infantry indirect fire support role fired heads flanks advancing infantry german trenches stop reinforcements supplies getting tank corps tank corps formed heavy section machine gun corps tanks time action battle september intention crush barbed wire infantry cross trenches exploit breakthrough german lines november renamed heavy branch june tank corps originally formed companies heavy branch designated company sections tanks male female versions artillery machine guns tank held company reserve november company reformed battalion companies plans increase corps battalions tank battalion complement officers men tanks primarily western offensive war tanks battle tanks started attack german collapsed midday british advanced miles german line battle saw value tank appreciated heavy light battalions tanks included assault mark backed tanks designed carry forward supplies armour infantry end day attack penetrated german line prisoners taken september british_army army world men served tank corps end war detachment mark tanks sent southern palestine early saw action turkish forces army service corps army service corps operated transport system deliver men ammunition men start war corps increased size november addition command indian egyptian chinese chinese labour corps native labourers carriers stores men provided mechanical transport companies army service labour companies august delivered bread increased november royal army medical corps royal army medical corps supplied doctors casualty evacuation field hospitals army corps assisted work voluntary help british red_cross john ambulance friends ambulance unit person awarded victoria_cross twice war doctor captain bar strictly member bearer lance corporal william bar bar decorated rank war life trenches end war western reached stalemate trench lines extended belgian coast swiss frontier september length british line stretched soldiers reserve line trenches days time relieved trenches typical line sector fire trench support trench reserve trench joined communication trenches trenches varied depth usually feet deep areas high water table wall built allow defenders stand upright fire trenches provided fire step occupants return fire attack trench lined prevent men sinking mud cut walls gave shelter elements british_army usually reserved officers senior men expected sleep wet weather lived tents trench soldiers constant danger artillery shells mortar bombs bullets war progressed faced aerial attack sectors saw little activity war making life comparatively easy sectors perpetual state violent activity quiet sectors amassed daily casualties artillery fire disease harsh conditions trenches wet muddy constant company rats fed bodies carried disease troops suffered trench foot trench fever trench contract winter months heat exhaustion summer men frequently wet extremely muddy dry dusty food usually cooked line trenches smoke draw enemy fire hot food carried communication trenches clumsy arriving late daily routine daily routine life trenches began morning stand hour dawn ordered man positions guard dawn raid germans stand time men breakfast perform complete assign daily men attended cleaning rifles equipment filling repairing trenches digging daily tasks completed men duty find place sleep constant sheer effort trying stay alive sleep common soldiers turns duty watching enemy movements line constantly observation daylight movement restricted dusk stand night fallen cover darkness troops attended vital maintenance resupply rations water brought line fresh units swapped places troops moving rear rest trench raiding carried construction parties formed repair trenches fortifications parties sent repair renew barbed wire man land hour dawn stand moving line set procedure division moving line informed moving forward battalion commanders taken forward areas sections occupied troops battalion transport officers taken headquarters division relieving observe methods drawing rations ammunition manner supplied troops detachments divisional artillery group forward attached artillery batteries division relieving days later infantry battalions destined line sent forward specialists lewis gun teams grenade officer machine gun officer company commanders trench stores settle trench routine battalions moved overnight battalions line artillery guns position leaving theirs taken batteries relieved discipline legal authority army ultimately political authority glorious revolution crown technically permitted standing army united_kingdom derives existence army act passed parliament year years late 1950s house_of_commons took responsibilities seriously letter position shell shock read house_of_commons march disciplinary regulations world war derived army act offences severely dealt active service principle looting carried death penalty lesser offences lesser offences dealt commanding officers petty offences company commander men fined confined barracks fatigue duty battalion commanding officer detention order days field punishment ranks officers senior dealt court martial trivial offences enlisted men lose leave field punishment replaced abolished home active service military prisons man fixed object large wheel awarded cases equivalent man practice repeat offenders unpleasant depending weather units locking man shed throwing cases australian troops releasing british troops found tied units regarded necessary offences meant man fixed place striking inferior offence uncommon units officers turn blind eye keeping discipline violence courts martial men committed offences tried field general court martial resulting execution despite courts book shot dawn says men receive hearing release records showed fact strict rules procedure duty uncover facts unlike general court martial peacetime legally qualified judge advocate advise court start court martial officer usually officer legal experience civilian life present accused entitled object composition panel officers connected case enjoyed poor relationship accused present case defended officer prisoner friend chose prisoners friends common war went officer convened court martial sit junior officer voted chance superior opinion courts explicitly intended encouraged higher authority example certain offences practice court ability accused defend varied widely pleaded guilty chose present defence witnesses cases offence blatant little defence forward eighty cent courts martial returned guilty verdict vast majority cases offences absence leave common offence terms imprisonment suspended discourage soldiers committing offence escape lines convicted man chance earn good conduct officers tried cent found guilty common offence cent cases officers executed officer likely receive severe cent cases severe blow career cent cases stripped commission brought total social disgrace barred employment crown working local council officer private different unit executions death sentence passed unanimously confirmed writing officers verdict passed chain command man battalion brigade commander tended comment record senior generals tended concerned type offence state discipline unit judge advocate general checked records irregularities final confirmation commander chief relevant theatre men sentenced death men actually executed vast majority largest reasons execution murder men probably hanged civilian law time convictions mutiny rare man shot disturbances men shot previous suspended sentence sentences suspended death sentence man sentenced death twice felt time precisely soldiers combat afraid example needed men deserted line soldiers felt left mates deserved shot historian writes virtually evidence soldiers thought death penalty writes soldiers death penalty thought justified normally meant absence days evidence indicate intent returning wearing civilian clothes failing report key deployment executed normally boys average age mid twenties percent trouble thirty percent regulars percent volunteers percent irish canadian new_zealand volunteers percent suggesting bulk army late war executed men records survive hard comment reasons men suggested policy percent death sentences deliberate mercy application military law designed small regular army recruited elements society field away line executed arrested united_kingdom served line war executed men families usually told white lies authorities families received buried graves dead soldiers death abolished objections house_of_lords lords distinguished british commanders world war calls restoration world war vetoed political grounds contrast men sentenced death falling asleep duty theatres world war executed usually posted pairs awake served example found sitting asleep suggesting australians seven percent british expeditionary force percent australian times likely imprisoned british soldier asked permission shoot australians government refused british discipline world war especially severe compared armies time russians italians french admitted executions germans figures reliable armies problems discipline shell shock time stress disorder known shell shock initially thought caused concussion damage membranes brain beginning recognised defence classified war injury concerns soldiers accused offences tried falsely claim shell shock defence historian writes case soldier medical staff certified suffering shell shock actually executed appear cases men alleged shell shock claim denied actually executed suggestions modern executed men suffered shell shock historian pointed great deal chance soldier claim shell shock taken seriously gives examples soldiers given medical examinations specific references shell shock uncommon records usually refer turns bad nerves etc trauma poorly understood time examined documents lost witnesses dead books sake example shot dawn openly intended start campaign campaign rejected february evidence procedural error correctly convicted according law time felt right impose modern values past case rejected detailed year review found white cases black cases handful grey cases medical evidence ignored called decisions reversed government men given recognised victims world war sentences overturned impossible length time examine evidence case discipline pointed accounts figures men shot spot officers face enemy royal military police unpopular time police unpopular young men big cities large job maintaining discipline march keeping roads running smoothly collecting battle march retreat rounded sent fighting units royal military police fought occasion headquarters areas threatened enemy advance soldiers told tales men refused fight shot military police reliable hand accounts exist happening occasional examples men making unwanted homosexual advances homosexuality criminal military civil law escape lines crime rare evidence men turning blind eye homosexual relationships positive motivation men motivated positive means new medals instituted military cross created december warrant officers officers captain military medal enlisted men march regret men carry cash bounty like distinguished conduct medal order british_empire grade instituted medals bravery awarded week ensure man lived long receive race meetings concert parties including drag acts good drag queens great demand trips seaside football matches organised men entertained unofficial publications including times insight views ordinary soldiers junior officers overt patriotism rare politicians prime minister opponent war later labour prime minister western command field marshal sir john french began deploy france days declaration war encounter germans came august allies began great retreat involved battle small role halting german advance participating counter offensive september followed period known race sea flanders ended marked beginning long struggle british casualties fighting october november dead wounded missing said pre war professional army died battle army arrived france infantry end battle suffered casualties infantry trench warfare prevailed junior partner western fought series small battles times coordinated larger french like battle associated shell crisis battle ridge battle battle june april germans launched second battle employing poison gas time western capturing high ground september british_army grown new army divisions entering line battle army launched major attack battle newly developed chemical weapons time resulting failure marked end field marshal french december general sir douglas replaced commander chief british_army dominated battle started july day remains day history british_army soldiers killed nearly wounded little gain real success south imaginative tactics helped french 18th eastern division 30th division took objectives including 7th division captured 36th division seized forced withdraw lack progress followed nearly months attrition fourth army general henry fifth army general advanced average cost casualties february german_army began withdraw line formidable defences elements british_army assaulted battle april battle british prime minister david lloyd george placed orders new french commander chief robert planned major french army offensive champagne battle officially ended british troops significant advances unable achieve major breakthrough point having failed deliver breakthrough embarked favoured plan launch offensive flanders successful preliminary operation general second army seized ridge south battle began july endured british dominion troops war battlefield reduced november ridge captured time british_army sustained casualties british_army ended battle demonstrated potential tanks operating army commander general julian planned ambitious breakthrough achieved unprecedented advanced day lacked reserves continue consolidate german counter offensive succeeded lost ground final year war started disaster ended triumph march german general launched spring offensive main weight blow operation michael fell british fifth army general forced retreat response crisis facing allies french general ferdinand supreme commander allied forces western placing strategic direction german attack came south battle river british_army fell issued famous order day backs wall believing justice cause fight end major german offensive falling mainly french finally halted june august general fourth army launched battle marked start days offensive final allied offensive western following weeks armies went offensive flanders fighting continued right armistice germany came effect november final offensive captured prisoners guns prisoners guns taken french belgian american armies combined campaigns ireland easter rising rebellion staged ireland easter week mounted irish republicans aims ending british rule ireland establishing irish republic organised military council irish republican brotherhood rising lasted april members irish volunteers joined smaller irish citizen army members seized key locations dublin proclaimed irish republic independent britain army reinforcements moved dublin april rebels facing soldiers rising suppressed seven days fighting leaders court executed easter rising casualties killed wounded missing dublin significant action north dublin military casualties dead wounded missing irish dublin police forces killed wounded non civilians died new opened request greek government intending support serbian forces oppose bulgaria troops british army arrived october late prevent serbian army retreating albania greece french british russian troops arrived known allied army orient allied army east overall command french general objective destroying bulgarian army french british launched new offensive april significant success stalemate ensued movement known europe biggest camp allies germans situation lasted september british greek armies command general george attacked lake sector bulgarian army retreat signed armistice september italy italy joined war allies declaring war austria-hungary germany august british_army involvement italian campaign start late troops sent help prevent defeat italian october battle second italian army collapsed italians forced retreat river reinforced british french divisions western complete supporting arms commanded general reinforced italians successfully managed halt austro hungarian advance battle river allied counter attack october austro hungarian army collapsed taking heavy losses battle armistice signed shortly november china british_army involved known siege 2nd battalion south wales landed china support japanese forces capture german port british strong task force included mixed british indian brigade troops battleship hms triumph bombardment port started october november japanese 18th division 29th infantry brigade british indian brigade stormed captured garrison troops east africa witnessed commencement east african campaign von elusive german african forces british operations africa carried african units king african rifles south african indian army units british force led turn general smith south african general jan british general arthur force composed units 27th brigade british indian army 2nd battalion loyal regiment north lancashire command german forces von remained undefeated surrendered november days armistice europe casualty rate british empire troops excluding dead wounded troops died diseases enemy action illness accounted total casualties gallipoli turkey entered war german october acts close dardanelles straits allies april following failure royal_navy attempt capture dardanelles british forces landed gallipoli peninsula command general hamilton main british attacks second battles series attacks turkish defences aimed capturing original objectives april failed achieve objectives august landing bay landing reinforced arrival 10th division new army 53rd 54th line territorial divisions 2nd mounted division 29th division moved push final british attempt offensive came august attacks hill hill control hills united fronts battle achieved success fighting hill ceased august battle heights battle peninsula effectively january allies withdrawn estimates casualties vary enormously allied troops involved campaign wounded died dead british british force fighting principally drawn british indian army solely british formation 13th western division objective secure royal_navy oil supply persia november british indian force led general sir john nixon invaded november entered initial invasion followed disastrous defeat british turks siege december april entire garrison british indian troops surrendered british reorganised raised number available troops british eventually regained momentum general frederick stanley commander new offensive began december february fell joint british indian force baghdad captured march week capture baghdad general issued proclamation baghdad contained famous line armies come cities lands enemies lieutenant general sir william marshall succeeded following death cholera november continued river war october british captured oil fields development led collapse turkish forces armistice turkey signed october campaign british indian casualties caused died dead disease palestine palestine campaign criticism policy static defence suez_canal employed infantry divisions mounted brigades turkish offensive divisions sent western british_army palestine subsequently included 10th 42nd 52nd 53rd 54th 60th 75th divisions british formed mounted division australian mounted division mounted divisions imperial corps brigade mounted troops formed desert column force known egyptian expeditionary force command general sir murray cairo murray steady progress turkish forces defeated battles repulsed second battle defeat second battle prompted war office change command june murray replaced general sir campaign reorganised forces conventional lines included desert mounted corps lieutenant general sir harry corps lieutenant general sir corps lieutenant general edward october defeated turkish forces battle battle ridge succeeded causing ottoman seventh eighth armies withdraw jerusalem respectively led capture jerusalem december february april australian mounted troops took raids east jordan river near salt village palestine west raids unsuccessful encouraged turkish commanders believe main british effort launched jordan fact launched coastal plain greatly weakened time crisis france led 52nd divisions western breaking mounted division replacement british infantry remaining divisions indian troops september forces won decisive offensive precipitated armistice ottoman_empire signed october total allied casualties palestine campaign killed dead british persia following russian collapsed leaving central asia india open turkish army war office responded plan send force hand picked british officers organise remaining russian forces civilians ready fight turkish forces force known commander major general charles inspiration titular character novel arrived august hoped raise army christian georgian armenian people supported russians historically feared turks success task proved ability fighting arabs late november response growing threat pro turkish islamic arab sect known composite british body known western frontier force sent desert command british indian army officer major general alexander wallace series sharp battles arabs ensued december january western desert force major general william occupied february march british seamen hms held rescued contingent armoured cars led duke westminster aftermath british_army world war largest military force britain field point western british expeditionary force ended war strongest fighting force experienced united_states_army morale better shape french army cost victory high official final corrected casualty figures british_army including territorial force issued march losses period august september included killed action died wounds died causes missing minus released prisoners war net total dead missing casualty figures indicated wounded fighting end british_army dispatched troops russia allied intervention russian civil war followed anglo irish war january anglo war war followed conflict british forces involved fighting occupation duties men followed end war year reduced british_army men november years signing armistice figure fallen men year rule introduced august stipulated british armed forces draft estimates assumption british_empire engaged great war years winston_churchill chancellor successfully urged cabinet rule self force specifically cuts defence spending result rule falling million million million british_army tried learn lessons world war adopt pre war doctrine 1920s 1930s general staff tried establish small professional army formed experimental force lack identified threat main function reverted garrison duties british_empire


edinburgh town walls town walls edinburgh scotland 12th century form wall probably existed foundation royal building recorded century king wall constructed 16th century extensive wall erected following scots defeat battle extended wall early 17th century walls number gates known ports important port stood halfway royal mile gave access time separate walls proved successful defensive structures easily breached occasion served means controlling trade goods history town walls edinburgh served better role trade barrier defensive mid 18th century walls defensive trade purposes demolition sections wall began port pulled demolition continued 19th century today number sections successive walls survive ports remain background edinburgh formally established royal king david scotland gave town privilege holding market ability raise money goods coming sale probable form boundary constructed time timber ditch stone wall north edinburgh lay formed early 15th century depression princes street gardens laid natural defence augmented steep slope northern edge old town edinburgh castle rocky defended western approach walls needed primarily south east sides early records mention west gate south gate port tower built beneath north wall castle protecting castle water supply defending approach south shore king wall king wall recorded title deed refers wall property boundary king james issued charter permitting edinburgh defend town follows royal charter april king james iii ordered demolition houses built outside king wall efforts strengthen defences edinburgh scottish towns medieval stone walls perth towns earth walls wall ran south royal mile slope castle hill west far modern mary street east turned cross royal mile king wall enclosed space larger kilometres alignment wall irregular existing property boundaries walls reinforced form defence early wall ports upper bow bow vicinity victoria street bow royal mile near fountain close located near metres west later structure addition gates provided example gray close wall king james led invasion northern england support french alliance september scots met english battle heavily defeated king james killed field english invasion widely expected edinburgh resolved build new town wall new wall opportunity control smuggling town council accordingly decided extend wall south areas construction began following year completed work started western end final section stretch incorporating new port cost work scots metres wall plus wall known generally metres thick metres high wall began south castle running south west end west port located continued watch tower survives south west extent wall ran east wrapping port port located vicinity national museum scotland continuing east wall passed field old college stands ran street turning north monastery port located foot wall ran line mary street formed strengthening existing walls new port stood royal mile wall continued north replaced railway station terminating new port wall enclosed area hectares acres remained limit 18th century contained area population ports wall anti clockwise castle west port built west end modern street west port today giving access port port society port built street close society brewers port field port head horse near field giving access easter port gate port near monastery access east port royal mile new port andrew port foot beneath modern north bridge giving access north number small heads limbs executed criminals regularly displayed ports ports took form large fortified gateway repairs recorded drawing shows wide arched gate flanked round towers gateway towers rebuilt central clock tower added gateway topped octagonal stone structure repaired early 17th century military action expected english invasion 16th century turbulent period scotland earl led english force scotland war rough having captured men command sir christopher morris blew open port artillery town burned following days walls suburbs left house disturbances took place troubled reign mary queen scots aftermath protestant lords congregation marched edinburgh catholic french regent mary guise able control town difficulty despite guards posted city gate following forced queen mary scotland nobility divided supporters infant king james represented series edinburgh held queen william town besieged regent forces james douglas 4th earl repairs walls nearby houses pulled improve defences siege gun employed batter houses outside wall unable withdrew defences strengthened september advance second siege began october stage cent edinburgh inhabitants remained city regent seven guns manage breach wall inner defences strong assault october siege lifted blockade town continued july truce agreed retreated castle handed town regent party siege edinburgh castle continued finally reduced battery guns shipped england wall town council bought acres land west enclosed wall land subsequently sold charitable george trust occupied george school rubble built wall ran south tower place turned east running far street returned north port wall wall named master mason john later history demolition 17th century king wall completely absorbed later buildings briefly mentioned extent roll town survey limited sections appear james gordon map mason john wright carpenter john scott strengthened walls constructed artillery built captain response rising year captain john edinburgh mob led british government london impose sanctions town captain town guard convicted murder following shooting spectators public hanging following mob broke jail executed initial demand house_of_lords demolition port resisted town fine house_of_commons town threatened rising company volunteer citizens raised defence city mathematics professor advised improvements walls prince charlie troops approached town walls morning september group cameron rushed port gates opened edinburgh captured fight began soon withdrawal threat wall place demolished traffic survived removed west port port removed new town construction smuggling goods city walls punished complaints guards widely circulated old college university edinburgh constructed royal museum scotland constructed built sections wall port road laid 1840s resulting loss section wall construction works advocates library parliament house fragments uncovered attributed king wall sections increasingly neglected town wall collapsed large portion wall feet high feet thick embankment built fell high street road week later dean guild ordered removal feet stretch wall location lightning strike appears cause collapse feet stretch wall surviving fragments remains edinburgh earliest little king wall survives parts probably incorporated later buildings section court south royal mile represent eastern wall exposed identified recognised fortified wall initially labourers working renovation restoration old oliver publishers subsequently confirmed archaeologists planners demolished height metres lack openings suggest defensive purpose castle north identified king wall archaeological excavations site occupied hotel south royal mile uncovered fragment wall thought likely king wall evidence house adjacent demolished 15th century presumably response james iii order sections wall survive north south street north wall runs alongside green steps incorporated later buildings including mission line granite paving marks line wall uncovered construction work remaining town walls survives tower known comprises remaining walls total length metres pierced 19th century window sections wall seen adorned 16th 17th century junction road street line narrow gap later buildings mark line wall longest section street originally enclosed monastery corner wall blocked probably entrance demolished site marked outline brass blocks junction royal mile mary street remaining sections wall runs place tower forms west boundary george school wall place demolished traffic remaining section forming south wall inscription building corner place street reads site town wall 17th century wall earlier wall stood spot majority surviving sections listed buildings sections protected scheduled ancient monuments wall green walls place wall place walls form edinburgh old town world heritage site location


education medieval scotland education medieval scotland includes forms education modern borders scotland departure romans britain fifth century establishment renaissance late fifteenth century early sixteenth century sources scottish education survived medieval era early middle ages scotland oral society verbal literary education indications education system similar ireland details known establishment christianity sixth century brought latin scotland scholarly written language monasteries served major knowledge education running schools high middle ages new sources education arose song grammar schools designed train priests music latin grammar respectively number size schools expanded rapidly end middle ages main small towns grammar schools educational provision probably weaker rural areas petty reading schools rural areas providing elementary education development private tuition families lords wealthy developed household schools girls noble families taught end fifteenth century edinburgh schools girls documentary evidence schools different kinds reformation education act decreed sons barons substance attend grammar schools learn resulted increase literacy cent nobility end period wished attend university travel england continent students identified twelfth century major intellectual figures produced scotland system included john walter william john situation transformed founding john college college added followed foundations glasgow king college initially institutions designed training increasingly began challenge clerical monopoly administrative posts government law provided basic degrees wanting study advanced degrees common european scholars needed universities countries period scottish universities largely latin curriculum designed clergy civil canon lawyers end fifteenth century influence teaching greek evident education monasteries early middle ages scotland overwhelmingly oral society education verbal literary fuller sources ireland period suggest acted poets musicians historians attached court lord king passed knowledge generation scottish court twelfth century highly regarded order took functions continue act similar role highlands islands eighteenth century trained schools run dynasty lord isles existed scotland larger number ireland suppressed seventeenth century work written survives recorded sixteenth century evidence formal schooling largely preserved place names establishment christianity sixth century brought latin scotland scholarly written language monasteries served major knowledge education running schools providing small educated overwhelmingly male elite essential create read documents largely society literary life revolved texts copying manuscripts libraries great importance monastic communities exceptional demonstrates monks mainstream european christian culture schools high middle ages new sources education arose choir grammar schools designed train priests emphasis respectively music latin grammar reorganisation church began reign david gave church structure meaning seats perth received schools usually monastic patrons early examples grammar schools include high school glasgow high school usually attached collegiate church newly created authority cathedral schools diocese new religious orders major feature scottish monastic life period brought new educational possibilities need train larger numbers monks foundations probably schools charity schools funds provide type educate young boys enter abbey secular employed monasteries including abbey sweetheart abbey opened doors wider range students teach sons gentlemen seat bishop site major foundation grammar school song school foundation collegiate churches secular priests reformation necessitated training large numbers taught music grammar dominican noted educational achievements usually located urban centres probably teaching grammar glasgow number size schools expanded rapidly end middle ages grammar schools found main small towns educational provision probably weaker rural areas petty reading schools provided elementary education development private tuition families lords wealthy developed household schools neighbours sons household known happened schools exclusively aimed boys girls noble families taught end fifteenth century edinburgh schools girls described schools probably indicates major functions reading taught schools students probably taught lay women documentary evidence schools different kinds reformation schools clergy acted religious foundations hospitals private supplement merge extent education controlled different branches church end period increasing lay interest resulted conflict cathedral chancellor appointed lay graduate married man appointed similar post perth education began widen training clergy particularly lay lawyers began emerge profession emphasis future ruling class duties growing inspired emphasis education passing education act thought steered parliament keeper seal william bishop decreed sons barons substance attend grammar schools learn resulted increase literacy largely concentrated male wealthy elite cent nobility end period universities end eleventh century universities founded europe developing semi autonomous centres learning teaching theology mathematics law medicine fifteenth century scots wished attend university travel england oxford cambridge continent students identified twelfth century destinations paris important cologne vienna travelling scholars important intellectual figure john studied oxford cambridge paris probably died cologne major influence late medieval religious thought outbreak wars independence occasional exceptions safe conduct english universities closed scots continental universities significant scottish scholars teachers continental universities paris included john died walter died william early continued movement universities produced school scottish paris early sixteenth century john member probably studied scottish grammar school cambridge moving paris situation transformed founding john college henry bishop petitioned anti pope later stages great western scotland remaining supporters argued scottish scholars universities persecuted loyalty anti pope college added great followed university glasgow founded king college papal foundations nicholas alexander respectively college added deliberately modelled paris glasgow adopted statues university like increasing influence partly early educated paris initially institutions designed training increasingly began challenge clerical monopoly administrative posts government law provided basic degrees wanting study advanced degrees common european scholars needed universities countries result scottish scholars continued visit continent returned english universities reopened scots late fifteenth century fifteenth century beginning northern italy universities strongly influenced thinking emphasis classical authors questioning accepted established thinking teaching new subjects particularly medium greek language period scottish universities largely latin curriculum designed clergy civil common lawyers teach greek fundamental new scholarship focusing putting largely faith works aristotle authority challenged renaissance end fifteenth century influence evident major figure teacher cologne later tutor young james iii served royal secretary historian born studied paris returned principal new university returned scotland principal university glasgow transferred college scotland students included john george international contacts helped integrate scotland wider european scholarly world important ways new ideas brought scottish intellectual life sixteenth century