town walls town walls medieval defensive structure town north wales walls constructed foundation edward alongside adjacent castle walls long include towers medieval project completed large numbers labourers brought england cost building walls came large sum period walls significantly damaged rebellion repaired considerable expense political changes 16th century reduced need maintain defences town today walls form world heritage site administered historians oliver robert describe defences remarkably intact walled circuit history 13th century english construction town area occupied romans built fort later welsh princes result long history depicted welsh saga site culturally politically significant medieval welsh english kings welsh princes control north wales conflict renewed 13th century leading edward intervening north wales second time reign edward invaded huge army pushing north westwards montgomery chester summer edward secured surrounding area king decided location centre new county capital north wales new castle walled town forming administrative centre edward plan colonial enterprise placing new town walls site symbolic act demonstrate english power walls town status capital north wales traditionally design defences thought inspired growth new planned towns created france english held period characterised straight streets defended combinations castles town walls recent research shown english town design played significant role shaping town plans case town plan walls adapted fit site norman castle site lay outside new town market place walls built time castle overall supervision master james saint george edward chief architect north wales richard engineer acted james deputy site later walter performed similar role responsible earlier work walls huge amounts labourers england task chester brought wales summer building season work walls progressed quickly albeit uneven bursts local houses demolished way fortifications stone walls gates probably finished cost building town walls large sum period grandson favourite edward appointed constable north wales responsibility security region revolted english rule undertook wide campaign north wales attacking town despite walls town overrun walls badly damaged castle largely unfinished easily taken set fire edward responded military force year retook ordered town walls fully repaired november cost 14th 18th centuries new town populated english settlers particularly nearby lancashire town walls designed encourage immigrants royal officials settle safety town prove successful settlement properties paying rent king making far prosperous neighbouring situation improve 14th century welsh prince rose rebellion english rule despite attempts town defences held ascension tudor dynasty english throne resulted change way wales administered welsh origin rule hostilities welsh english reducing need maintain castle walls restrictions welsh access town welsh finally allowed live inside local corporation undertook programme work new town walls changes walls period towers converted use administrative buildings altered accommodate modern offices 19th century town grew considerably prompted slate trade construction chester railway line result population pressure 20th century housing inside outside town walls places walls vanished view 20th century walls gradually acquired state houses demolished today walls managed welsh heritage organisation tourist attraction small wall walk open public walls require ongoing maintenance financial year example maintaining historic fabric walls castle cost terms walls declared world heritage site classed grade listed building hold scheduled monument status considered historians oliver robert remarkably intact walled circuit architecture town walls today present long circuit town hectares acres unusually preserved built limestone castle towers wall gap backed lacking walls inside towers originally included wooden bridges allow sections walls sealed attackers original entrances town west east gates west gate faced harbour known golden gate welsh medieval period evoked images imperial roman power primary gateway city constantinople originally defended modified additional gothic features 19th century east gate formed entrance town originally overlooking river river gatehouse contained offices period construction 13th century housing royal town hall finally offices finally removed 1960s little original gatehouse remains 18th 19th century building work base towers remains medieval newer entrances town creating additional walls include entrance market street north west corner walls 14th century chapel saint mary built defences fully circular tower walls west walls towers converted uses forms county offices having incorporated county 19th century royal welsh yacht club 19th century converted holiday home landmark trust


german boat bases occupied norway german boat bases occupied norway operated kriegsmarine german_navy converted naval bases norway submarine bases norwegian coastal cities available kriegsmarine invasion denmark norway april following conclusion norwegian campaign june occupying germans began transfer boats stationed germany norwegian port cities bergen trondheim initial planning boat began late starting organisation began construction bergen trondheim completed kriegsmarine generally boats stationed norway extend range operation north_atlantic arctic oceans norwegian bases housed boats took interception allied convoys crossing arctic ocean soviet_union following liberation france western allies boat activity norwegian ports increased french ports captured cut german boats located norwegian port cities german occupation norway kriegsmarine stationed boats country time members 11th boat flotilla boats fleet flotilla entire career known norway included 13th 14th german invasion norway germany invaded norway denmark april norway important germany reasons firstly base naval units harass allied shipping north_atlantic arctic oceans secondly secure shipments iron ore coming sweden port operation denmark fell day invasion recorded military history resistance invading german forces nonetheless southern half norway german control following german invasion france low countries allies forced evacuate leaving country germans occupy end war invasion led government norway based fascist national gathering party german use norwegian ports occupation nation naval ports turned boat bases harass allied shipping north_atlantic arctic oceans included bergen trondheim boats stationed norway times war members 11th boat flotilla boats fleet flotilla career known norway included 13th 14th bergen southern port bergen captured germans april day invasion germans immediately saw potential norwegian ports function bases operation kriegsmarine boats patrolling north_sea arctic ocean home 11th boat flotilla bergen norwegian port established boat base july end war boat patrols originated bergen bergen site type submarine left patrol war left port planning boat bunker bergen began late undertaken german military engineering group organisation coordinated building boat bunker bergen boat norwegian coast construction began completed seven dry docks wet docks seventh pen storing fuel torpedoes bunker roof metres thick metres metres area completed hold boats bergen remained quiet base years occupation experiencing large allied air attack boat base added new shipyard named boat base bergen grew liberation france western allies senior commanding officer boat operations west west moved france city large expansion program conducted base new anti aircraft guns set protect boat engineers technicians moved bergen accommodate increased technical requirements base named built time late british air attacks damaged boat bases bergen attacks bomb went straight roof pen damaging repair putting action remainder war base handed allies rest occupied norway german forces europe surrendered result intensive bombing city late bergen area worst damaged regions south norway conclusion war trondheim trondheim important boat base norway war home 13th flotilla sent boat patrols june end war list boats trondheim included following boat planned built trondheim provide additional repair facilities outside germany like bergen trondheim came control organisation kriegsmarine took charge completed end war feet long feet wide space hold seven boats construction began completed finished feet long feet wide capable holding boats

Fortifications and military installations


artillery fortification constructed henry_viii device plan response fears imminent invasion england france holy roman empire built kent strategic point river_thames operational storey shaped building built brick stone circular overlooking river gun platforms extending east west functioned conjunction fort river repaired deal threat spanish invasion dutch navy raided thames report recommended alterations defences leading gun platforms construction new larger new tavern fort alongside 1830s government decided rely entirely newer fort old demolished remains uncovered archaeological excavations 16th century background built consequence international tensions england france holy roman empire final years reign king henry_viii traditionally crown left coastal defences local lords communities taking modest role building maintaining fortifications france empire remained conflict maritime raids common actual invasion england unlikely modest defences based simple towers existed south west sussex coast impressive works north england general fortifications limited scale henry broke pope paul iii order long standing marriage wife catherine catherine aunt charles holy roman emperor took personal insult resulted france empire declaring alliance henry pope encouraging countries attack england invasion england appeared certain device henry issued order called device giving instructions defence realm time invasion construction forts english coastline programme work river_thames protected mutually reinforcing network south river east opposite bank fortifications strategically placed london newly constructed royal vulnerable attacks arriving thames estuary major maritime route percent england exports passing village adjacent town metres apart formed particularly important communications point river centre long ferry traffic passengers capital cross ferry river resulting local lined point invasion force able easily thames point sides estuary landings difficult construction designed clerk king works james master ordnance christopher robert serving project martin john acting local crown bought land fort space william uncertain building work cost earlier estimates suggested cost build including bricks quantities stone chalk lime timber labour needed work quickly completed fully operational approximately metres size storeys tall forming shape circular extending thames circular fort bulk building brick faced stone external walls metres thick walls ran alongside parallel river forming adjacent platforms mounting additional guns east platform described feet long feet wide rear overlooked higher ground hard defend fort initially commanded captain james crane garrison men including second command porter gunners soldiers time went gunners worked time fort living working town uncertain artillery pieces initially equipped known thames brass iron guns total use orders issued artillery pieces removed taken tower london historian victor smith casts doubt actually carried renewed threat invasion time spain spanish sailed separate invasion force prepared flanders threatening london earl leicester charge defences thames inspected found poor condition gun platforms unable bear weight cannons defences needed additional artillery gunpowder permanent garrison comprised gunners estimate summer suggested feet structural timber iron spikes smaller pieces timber needed repairs plans seal river chain boom stretching fort bank eventually accomplished cost work carried defences possibly including raising earthworks establishing watch houses fears invasion persisted years charles howard lord high admiral expressed concerns effectiveness protecting thames 17th century survey showed pieces artillery ineffective gun platforms fort bad condition feet timber needed repairs little investment forthcoming james charles garrison pay fort need repairs estimated equipped brass iron brass guns needed naval units exchanged iron weapons civil war broke supporters king charles parliament controlled parliament placed command military governor oversaw fort control traffic entering london search spies charles_ii regained throne petitioned claimed restored command william ultimately successful defences repaired occasionally king hall dutch fleet raided thames june approach threat posed guns fort command sir john reality prepared war spent upgrading artillery sent tower london reinforce local guns infantry companies detached guard site risk attack ended signing peace july action shortly dutch raids sir john removed post apparently demanding payments ships passing complaint repeated later years subsequent captains 18th 19th centuries start 18th century complex building grown original pier dock alongside large house built king brother james duke york return england lines approximately guns stretching river garrison sergeant soldiers gunner loan fort longer mount guns instead acted magazine wider fortification able store barrels gunpowder terms peace number artillery pieces reduced survey reported good condition equipped guns amid rising concerns threat french invasion sir thomas page surveyed concluded guns closely packed easily fire river proposing larger fort built thames east problem new tavern fort constructed shortly eastern gun platform redesigned extended work volunteer militia companies established support equipped guns concerns continued raised guns fire 1830s decided focus investment new tavern forts fell use magazine briefly government store adjacent gun platforms sold building subsequently demolished 20th 21st centuries site excavated kent archaeological society parts original building site lies grounds royal hotel protected law scheduled monument


oliver battery oliver battery ruined artillery battery island isles built admiral sir robert blake invaded april years bombard neighbouring island mary held opposing royalist army forced surrender weeks later battery comprised triangle constructed earth rubble combined natural stone features site produced substantial crude fortification ruined owned cornwall history 17th century oliver battery built following english civil war isles supported charles conflict short period parliamentary control islands rebelled favour charles islands base royalist parliament concerned dutch hostile england counter piracy occupying islands gaining use england parliament sent sir robert blake charge naval task force retake islands blake arrived april set invading island taking harbour old amphibious assault april bypassed northern fortress king charles castle marched south intending use base taking neighbouring island mary approximately kilometres away blake reached near south end constructed artillery position battery guns overlooking channel island mary harbour mary pool hoping pressure surrender work carried rapidly april possibly site bronze age burial battery began firing guns exploded causing deaths bombardment soon mary agreed surrender weeks later 18th 21st centuries antiquarian william visited site thought defence named parliamentary leader oliver remarked construction irregular uneven suspected old pre dating civil war noted position allowed protect location believed parliamentary forces camp commented winds tides forced royalist ships entering leaving mary harbour sail close range guns owned cornwall protected scheduled monument law site surveyed cornwall unit english_heritage design oliver battery hill overlooking island mary south east triangular shape sides roughly metres metres metres length battery entered north western north east corner small building approximately metres metres store temporary gun magazine artillery pieces located south eastern corner battery gun platform metres diameter occupied highest fortification battery surrounded earth rubble bank incorporating natural stone metres metres wide metres high externally west south sides protected ditch typically metres wide metres deep historian mark considers fortification substantial relatively crude probably result speed building work carried hill battery rectangular earthworks metres metres metres metres traditionally thought royalist gun batteries pre dating construction oliver battery recent scholarship casts doubt suggesting instead remains hollow ways sand pits


airfield airfield airfield operation initially military airfield world war alternate destination airport civil flying taking place airfield closed following crash flying air display converted polo ground opened second world war emergency landing ground raf serving role mainly air observation post squadrons royal_air_force airfield finally closed location airfield located south western edge eastern edge parish boundary running site named considered market causeway airfield miles north nearby railway station lies parish history 1910s airfield established december airfield grass runway site measured north south east west total extended acres facilities included long grass runway aligned east west large house hall stood south airfield use officer accommodation royal aircraft factory aircraft squadron based november wireless school formed operated variety aircraft including royal aircraft factory attended school week long course wireless procedures school disbanded march hall offered sale september announced disposed royal_air_force considered emergency landing ground civil aircraft 1920s february notice airmen issued advising pilots emergency landings use war office telephone inform police arrival obtain passengers station june air mail flight netherlands united_kingdom departed hired letters board despite bad weather decided land pressed eventually forced land combination weather running low fuel taxi hired letters london installed november war office telephone notified having discontinued january september aircraft diverted february airfield use emergency landing ground illuminated illumination london paris airfield coloured lamps connected indicate wind strength green wind white moderate wind red indicate strong wind june forced land owing poor weather conditions lane attempting flight belgrade yugoslavia bringing photographs royal wedding king alexander princess maria publication daily_mirror photographs taken london road july diverted gale aircraft belonged des des express aircraft overnight hangar large accommodate gust mph recorded runway lights installed telephone available airmen august wells air held site originally chosen field mile outside wells deemed unsuitable obstacles surrounding decided continue civil armstrong squadron raf based nearby raf hill attended promote proposed wells flying club president sir robert reported airfield rented club sir robert entertained sir december called way visit east kent flying club 1930s home counties aircraft services based exhibited car wells causing severe traffic congestion number people visiting town home counties aircraft service ltd registered later year october waters manager home counties aircraft service ltd formed surrey club based airfield served alternative destination imperial runway long purpose alternate destination caused delays passengers customs facilities february page diverted customs facilities existed passengers way minutes opposed hour longer delay practice having customs officer attend daily basis instigated discontinued february october german french diverted london operated air travel ltd agents air travel ltd employing staff march aircraft engines worked air travel ltd increased capital january year marked south eastern corner controlled zone came effect conditions bad visibility july charles departed airfield berlin luftwaffe airfield closed civil aircraft invited berlin press imposed orders adolf_hitler speech club berlin reported der result lease land airfield closed july air travel ltd moved land converted use polo ground polo club civil aircraft based include iii models airfield occupied royal_air_force erected cleared area obstacles intended use area emergency landing ground erected airfield perimeter march june airfield elementary flying training school raf relief landing ground hall use officers quarters tennis courts limits battle britain october flown damaged squadron raf flown peter wheels landing raf landed minutes later short fuel dragged german aircraft face fist fight developed contestants swearing german fight broken arrival warden policeman soldier forced hand iron cross instead took aid kit taken away raf prisoner war august squadron raf deployed raf raf based days returned raf august time squadron operating september squadron raf deployed raf bringing aircraft squadron departed august returned september january presented squadron memory scottish aviation pioneer presented squadron day law memory son squadron departed june squadron operated raf preserved royal_air_force museum june squadron relocated normandy squadron squadron moved day squadron left like squadron followed france august july boeing flying fortress bombardment squadron emergency wheels landing raf aircraft returning raf raid saint france crew aircraft landed resident recalled aircraft later repaired flown light load taking advantage favourable winds official records aircraft written december personnel based numbered officers ranks february squadron raf deployed flew march squadron transferred netherlands july douglas fighter squadron crashed landing raf aircraft written raf closed control tower demolished 1970s demolished hangar survived blew storm civil accidents incidents august aircraft flown thomas wells flight crashed landing subsequently convicted flying aircraft flying valid pilot licence fined october air union crashed following flight fire killing seven people board pilot trying emergency landing flight fire civil recorded verdict accidental death seven victims air union crashed encountering heavy flight flying crashed held killing pilot result accident air commodore secretary air league called flying grounded pending


coastal defences coastal defences network defunct coastal batteries inter linked tunnels designed built british colonial authorities nineteenth century protect city tasmania attack enemy warships nineteenth century port town vital supply stop international shipping trade major freight hub british_empire considered vital colony protected permanent defensive positions constructed region prior australian federation island tasmania colony british_empire war britain enemies european rivals france later russia british established colony sydney port jackson new_south_wales soon began consider island tasmania potential site useful second colony island cut mainland australia isolated geographically making ideal colony rich timber resource useful royal_navy british authorities decided tasmania establish permanent settlement island time known van land primarily prevent french period tensions great_britain france remained high nations fighting french revolutionary wars soon engaging napoleonic wars british settlement van land begun september cove river eastern shore arrival lieutenant governor david collins february saw decision relocate settlement sullivan cove western shore river days settlement establishment collins decided new colony need protection french send warships river threaten fledgling colony crude dug elevated position near centre sullivan cove area franklin square ships cannons placed inside seven years muddy serve defensive position growing town governor toured town settlement alarmed poor state defences general colony planning new grid pattern streets laid new administrative buildings built commissioned building barracks opened oldest continually occupied barracks australia suggested construction permanent fortifications following advice new location comprising area acres selected eastern end battery point southern sullivan cove construction began series new defensive installations battery new battery completed location battery point near present named battery honour henry 1st earl time master general ordnance battery guns projected forward ships guns replaced pounders town firing positions protecting entrance cove completion battery soon attracted heavy criticism serve members royal artillery felt inadequate critic said described battery poor mud fort engineers reported gun carriages danger men firing guns new timber sent harbour safer records showed gun upgraded year galleries improved large metre long sections timber heavy bolts bars colony began grow larger british units sent serve settlement town contingents commander royal engineers named captain roger arrived ordnance department arrived assessed fortifications wrote report felt colony virtually devised ambitious plan inner harbour river network heavily armed fortified batteries located point battery point bluff eastern shore envisaged forts having firing arc cover entire approach sullivan cove making impossible ships enter docks attack town scale plan enormous small colony population approximately 1830s meant cost considering period british_empire enjoyed relative peace exception border conflicts india despite funding problems work convict labour began battery enhanced expanded new site located slightly battery point location battery construction commenced station built signal mast constructed battery allowing communication ships entering mouth river relay system masts way port arthur peninsula modern suburb battery point takes battery original built located nearby oldest building battery point oldest buildings standing tasmania prince wales battery albert battery new battery named prince wales battery completed year new inch muzzle loading cannons lifted position enhancing firepower colony defences despite significant firepower poor location firing angles new fortress soon obvious powder magazine fitted layout fortifications continued prince wales batteries south sullivan cove queen battery north outbreak war russian_empire fear attack invasion russian warships imperial_russian_navy known sail south pacific led calls review town defences commission called found strengthening needed problems prince wales battery decided battery albert battery originally called prince albert battery prince albert queen_victoria prince consort constructed hill prince wales battery colony van land granted responsible self government colonial office renamed tasmania colonial office began pressure newly formed local government responsibility self defence colony result calls colonial government began establish volunteer local militia forces force established town artillery company command captain smith wiltshire regiment began assume responsibility fortifications royal artillery increasingly withdrawn departed withdrawal british forces tasmania prior defence proposals paper published outlined need greater defensive fortifications suggested need proposed batteries south town river improvements ship armaments meant existing fortifications provided covering fire range approximately yards allow enemy ships ship outside range defenders guns able bombard town left colony virtually imperial_russian_navy warships africa arrived january britain empire fought russians years previously war colony virtually russians goodwill mission hostile intent colony easily fallen result visit caused great deal debate state colony defences highlighted state decay existing fortresses reached commission carried decided prince wales albert batteries inadequate defence town condemned dismantled sites handed city_council use public space subterranean prince wales magazine remains stonework removed reused construction battery south following entrance old magazine soon popular place children play night underground magazine rooms meeting place men drink play cards closed kept permanently locked council day park prince wales albert batteries located remains popular public park named princes park honour men served batteries reminder heritage site iron gate entrance underground magazine rooms seen base park queen battery major roger recommendations site north eastern town additional fortification site located exactly underneath present site war memorial queens domain constructed opened year queen battery named honour queen_victoria throne time fort construction envisaged forts command prominent point overlooking entrance cove plans developed battery set delays funding problems completed imminent withdrawal british forces major review defences carried decided current system inadequate cope advances naval ordnance new forts positioned tree point bluff queen battery assume apex position triangular coverage entrance cove royal artillery withdraw years handbook containing range tables created staff sergeant suggested repel vessel knots river men approximately minutes fire rounds guns available existing forts despite operational position time served effective defence queen battery remained operation 1920s excavation site revealed hot shot oven uncovered metal parts rolling shot preserved oven archaeological trenches later filled request returned services league hot shot intended fired wooden ships cause gunpowder fired anger battery following condemnation prince wales albert batteries decided institute plans alteration defensive strategy entrance cove drawn triangle fortresses queen battery apex new batteries battery named princess princess wales battery eastern shore adequate task construction began new fortifications time new permanent field artillery unit southern volunteer artillery equipped breech loading pound pound guns field carriages raised following battery point batteries stonework relocated battery battery site public park commanding views river original construction accessible battery presence russian warships river condemning battery point batteries development batteries design fort pentagon shape fitted point bluff cliff ditch tunnels underground chambers cut solid stone faced masonry firing ports fitted stone allow rifle fire aspect fort case attempted infantry assault faced sides fort firing positions facing direction meant position safely assault fort infantry sheer cliffs bluff access iron opened open metres deep turn led tunnels underground magazines stores lamp room loading galleries loading galleries ingenious allowed guns muzzle loaded shells dragged belt directly muzzle gun downward position construction battery begun excavations began dug september according plans colonel peter royal engineer placed charge overseeing construction defences australian colonies work intermittent funding problems delays patrick placed charge construction behalf public works department supervision staff officer work completed following year arrival massive inch cannons england construction cost time labourers earned average wage shillings day guns fired shells weighing thanks excellent range accuracy smaller pounder guns added projectiles excellent accuracy range year machine gun mounted facing entrance gate fort shots fired february later year dry mound deepened wet moat added coarse work covered broken bottle glass set mortar fences constructed moat november local boy fell moat drowned batteries manned detachments southern volunteer artillery permanent artillery tasmania joined new federation australia city fortifications passed commonwealth control fort remained operational 1920s fired shot anger guns buried obsolete city_council took site use public park scenery preservation board acquired site site turned historical site guns dug display site operated national parks wildlife service major tourist attraction fort direction point outbreak world war department defence acquired land near south arm close mouth river eastern shore sister september land purely training ground mock battles locals fought day night war preparations evolved commonwealth decided port require degree defence protect state vital industry crucial war effort major mark commanding officer new defences known fort direction end construction fortified inch vii gun small room control building completed soon set naval signals war hour watch maintained day site usually manned royal australian navy personnel record ship entering river kept guns regularly training exercises hostile action enemy vessels guns fired anger liberty ship entering mouth river failed obey instructions issued naval command hill fort shell accurately fired bow immediately resulted liberty ship opposite western shore river constructed inch gun house men constructed location complicated underground tunnel command structure local residents recall barbed wire surrounding site war site commissioning nearby goat bluff location underground tunnel systems enemy action affect happened august submarine launched japanese spy plane flew submarine great bay south east_coast tasmania flying northward river surveying returning mother submarine detected flight plane high altitude fire aircraft available intercept event anti aircraft guns positioned nearby hills japanese returned tasmania war


fort fort star fort island malta built 18th century order saint john reign grand master named british military took fort remained use fort severely damaged world war restored good condition fort located north west commands harbour anchorage creek fort example baroque architecture designed functionality aesthetics mind fort malta tentative list world heritage sites knights fortifications malta history background failed proposals 16th century harbour major city centre harbour island originally known known island fort overlooked city shortly construction order saint john realised potential vulnerability city defences early proposed small fort built prevent enemy taking island building batteries threat highlighted spanish military engineer proposal build fortification island italian military engineer proposed roughly fort dutch style fortification proposal criticized order engineers proposal drawn flemish military engineer proposal consisted fort surrounded ditch proposals time knight jacob team french engineers different plans including building coastal battery plans included building fort combining fort battery defence island construction eventually final design agreed incorporated work charles order military engineer new fort square shape fort financed named portuguese grand master set foundation fund responsible maintenance garrison fort stone laid september work progressed rapidly gateway complete ditch excavated chapel barracks magazines completed fort active military establishment died buried fort chapel battery added near point battery funded foundation considered fort intended prevent enemy bombarding fort northern flank decommissioned following construction fort construction fort partially funded foundation french occupation fort saw use french invasion malta june french revolutionary wars time commanded portuguese knight garrisoned volunteer light infantry regiment men militia fort surrendered grand master officially napoleon french garrison men took fort june subsequent uprising insurrection french insurgents built batteries bombard fort attacked fort number occasions french bombardment september company french troops fort attempted silence gun position san repelled insurgents british rule malta british fort officially taken british military september late 19th century facing dismantled way gun later significant alterations anthony gunpowder magazine demolished way battery pounder guns british military finally decommissioned fort guns remained military establishment included list fort saw use world war battery inch heavy anti aircraft guns deployed guns mounted concrete gun deployed fort fort suffered considerable damage barracks chapel result aerial bombing war fort eventually decommissioned recent history decommissioned fort abandoned fell state disrepair parts royal malta yacht club acquired fort club house yacht club remained acquired new premises august development company began restoration work fort phase project included restoration reconstruction ruined chapel completed second phase including restoration outer fortifications approved malta environment planning authority restoration fort nearby fort cost total million layout fort built shape square corner giving shape star fort called helen anthony john notre dame helen anthony located facing originally gunpowder magazines dismantled 19th century magazine anthony demolished way pounder gun magazine helen intact curtain wall linking contains main gate protected known john notre dame located fort protected low curtain wall protected largely rock located inside fort contains rebuilt chapel anthony blocks buildings statue grand master stood square removed 19th century relocated later relocated ghost story fort supposedly haunted black knight wears armour order john resembles grand master 1940s knight began appear thin air near ruins chapel anthony bombed world war reportedly seen english men fort rubble ruined chapel began cleared reported knight supervising work beneath chapel opened found remains knights buried scattered restored bones black knight stopped appearing second time black knight reportedly began appear popular culture fort featured fiction book mystery fort charles fort served location shooting climactic scene ninth episode series game fort filming films risen assassin creed fort visible film hours secret soldiers


worcester city walls worcester city walls sequence defensive structures built city worcester england 1st 17th centuries walls built worcester constructed romans early walls lasted fall empire defences encouraged early christian foundations establish worcester troubled 6th 7th centuries anglo expanded worcester forming new walled planned city called utilised southern stretches old roman walls pushed north larger area anglo saxon city walls maintained share taxes local market streets agreement reinforced royal charter norman conquest england 11th century bailey castle constructed south city norman rulers continued use older walls despite city having expanded defences north south east years anarchy worcester successfully attacked times war new city wall built improve city defences new walls completed early 13th century constructed stone main gates maintained good condition 17th century english civil war old medieval walls reinforced modern outlying fort called worcester changed hands times conflict war ended newer fortifications dismantled 18th century older medieval stone walls sold destroyed 20th century parts survived post war 1950s 1960s construction work 1970s revealed previously hidden stretches wall 21st century plans drawn improve conservation maintenance historic monument history 1st 7th centuries defensive walls worcester built roman conquest britain settlement existed site iron age evidence walls built roman town probably preceded construction roman fort located south modern city protected river west relatively historical details archaeological evidence period archaeological investigations roman town walls suggest wooden protected foot wide ditch roman towns walls enclosed rectangular town protecting settlement grid like network streets decline roman empire brought end roman rule britain start 5th century town old roman walls worcester continued occupied remaining prominent military feature new christian religious foundations established worcester period attracted large security roman defences offered troubled period 7th century worcester cathedral built old roman walls 8th 11th centuries anglo saxon period worcester capital kingdom later formed wider kingdom worcester defences reorganised bishop involved creating fortified anglo saxon town worcester took form planned settlement extending old roman defences forming street running wall east archaeological evidence suggests feet walls total documentary evidence document written shortly creation walls suggests feet long accounted changes course river 10th century walls incorporated old roman fortifications south south east city appear included defensive ditch supporting wooden creation walls recorded charter witnessed king alfred lays responsibilities nobles involved notes walls paid share taxes new market new streets local lords took responsibility building wall unusually period built royal lands 10th century documents suggest aristocratic living worcester owned maintained buildings walls suggest linked responsibilities defending settlement 10th 11th centuries worcester spread north original walls south east form worcester attacked royal army tax dispute led death king men despite defensive walls city successfully taken burnt 11th 16th centuries william defeated english army battle hastings norman forces advanced west reinforce occupation built bailey castle south city taking advantage shape existing walls remaining walls continued norman period city spread reducing effectiveness late period civil war broke england called anarchy rival factions king stephen empress contested kingdom proved key war attack worcester occurred late army gloucestershire assaulted city attempt castle south city gloucester forces entered north looting burning worcester base stephen forces period joining empress faction response stephen stormed burnt city attacked shortly end conflict accounts appears worcester lacked substantial walls period second half 12th century new city wall began built worcester work probably continuing early century acres hectares design tracked flow natural streams north east use castle south defences walls constructed sandstone appear surrounded flat water filled ditch feet wide new walls cut existing parts city required demolition numerous existing buildings lay way new defences cut outlying districts street inside walled city main gates built walls north gate martin gate gate protected paired circular towers use smaller gates built gate civil war broke england forces loyal king john rebel barons supported course prince louis france gas known barons war worcester sided rebels july city attacked forces command earl chester attempted storm castle north city eventually gained access fine imposed city threat walls destroyed money paid worcester walls clearly played military role period symbolically important city played controlling civic access enforcing city laws method paying construction maintenance city walls tax called usually levied permission king particular goods imported city worcester raised support work walls main phases worcester attacked second barons war records suggest payments repair damage caused attack late 14th century built western walls city close launching boats worcester grant occurred henry allowed city use stones castle repair walls defend city anticipation attack wars roses english towns cities medieval period progressed housing began city walls worcester 17th 19th centuries start 17th century worcester city walls intact recorded john speed famous map city english civil war broke followers king charles parliament worcester began war royalist control rapidly taken parliament changing hands following battle worcester remained royalist rest war besieged finally surrendered war prolonged conflict britain involve use artillery gunpowder prominent war occurring period worcester strategically important region war walled towns cities like worcester defended passing armies particularly significant military perspective design military fortifications progressed significantly continent owing largely thirty years war older medieval stone walls military utility typically needed reinforcement modern earthworks truly effective new ideas applied city defences england cases circuit forts built city cases entirely new city wall comprising modern built worcester walls considered start war chosen solution directly reinforce existing medieval wall new earthworks form new defences buildings outside old city walls cleared large attached north east sides city fort royal hill built outside gate south linked walls walkway ditch protecting new earthworks relatively shallow feet deep combined high probably protected stakes firing platform defended reinforced walls manned soldiers employed robert earl essex prince subsequently adult men women worcester work walls threatening death penalty attend reinforced defences able withstand artillery surrender mainly result shortage food collapse wider royalist position south west england following fighting english civil war broke royalist forces command charles_ii advanced far worcester army reinforce walls await reinforcements relative safety parliamentary forces oliver attacked early september ensuing battle worcester saw royalist forces pushed steadily city fort royal successfully stormed guns turned city men began forcing way city west south east evening city fallen collapse marked end civil war aftermath fortifications destroyed parliament medieval walls gates spared 18th century local residents built summer houses walls largely intact years city town walls england began demolished way new developments worcester proved exception end century walls gates sold destroyed gate probably demolished early 19th century tracts wall survived concealed buildings new constructions today remains worcester city walls largely ignored second world war limited archaeological excavations began work continued 1960s picked pace 1970s creation city walls road worcester uncovered parts wall hidden view civil war earthworks fort royal hill visible overlooking city result mixed history remains walls owned different organisations subject different legal protection parts walls protected grade listed buildings scheduled monuments walls lack legal recognition multiple ownership different parts city walls contributed english_heritage considered approach conservation response conservation plan created worcester city_council proposing walls despite mixed ownership managed single historic monument advising sections repaired plan awaiting approval english_heritage


fort fort fort malta built order saint john fort occupies known point north shore bay commanding entrance grand harbour fort saint largest fort malta tentative list world heritage sites knights fortifications malta fort saw use french invasion malta subsequent insurrection ended british hands site mutiny military hospital 19th century saw use world war parts destroyed aerial bombardment decommissioned 1960s fort industrial purposes today fort remains intact dilapidated state filming location tank cleaning facility rule background fort stands easternmost peninsula east grand harbour originally known point slaves tried fort hanged peninsula known point great siege malta ottomans built artillery battery peninsula order bombard fort january italian knight financed construction tower point tower officially called san commonly known tower locals tower round built prevent escape slaves island semi circular battery known battery san battery later built tower tower battery protected sea filled ditch remained standing destroyed waves storm february today rock ditch battery remains proposed fort abandoned new fort constructed point new fort called fort manned garrison old fort drew plans proposed fort implemented construction modifications fears ottoman attack rose fall following year grand master invited military engineer house improve malta fortifications designed new fort built despite criticism order decision eventually approved knight donated construct fort named honour stone laid june initial stages construction supervised fort received skeleton garrison june incomplete flemish engineer proposed changes design fort recommendations implemented barracks chapel buildings fort constructed fort officially declared complete armed french engineers jacob charles criticized small size fort deemed ineffective proposed number alterations including repairing existing constructing fort proposed construction canal separating fort mainland repairs proposed implemented canal built lack funds fort bad state century maintenance work armed eighty cannon including pounders making heavily armed fort malta parts fort rebuilt direction fort prison prior construction facility french occupation fort saw use french invasion malta june french revolutionary wars time commanded garrisoned volunteer light infantry regiment fort repelled french attacks surrendering grand master officially napoleon subsequent uprising blockade fort remained french hands continually fired insurgents san battery located metres away british rule fort continued active military installation british period scene mutiny soldiers regiment revolted shut fort despite attempts negotiation eventually blew main gunpowder magazine causing extensive damage fort process mutiny loyal troops condemned death court martial damaged parts fort repaired rebuilt original design new magazine built replace destroyed mutiny fort temporary naval hospital late 1820s early 1830s hospital opened cholera epidemic patients contracted disease transferred died days buried nearby cemetery cholera epidemic broke fort manned men sir john fox inspected malta fortifications considered 1850s artillery higher calibre introduced fort guns replaced number times following decades completely overhauled 1900s new gun torpedo station installed 1930s concrete fire control towers built installed fort active defence malta world war july guns helped repel italian attack grand harbour april gate governor house destroyed german aerial bombardment war fort commissioned hms naval barracks gate rebuilt design slightly different original governor house reconstructed mainly financial reasons admiralty transferred control fort government malta recent history industrial use fort handed government initially abandoned later container depot raw material arriving malta ditch near left filled breached way new road fort ditch tank cleaning farm malta depot known tank cleaning facilities treats liquid waste ships arriving grand harbour removes oil chemicals prior releasing waste sea facility currently management waste ltd area fort eventually industrial park known industrial estate fort industrial estate demolished way malta filming location fort leased malta film commission extensively location films recent years huge sets built walls films films fort stood rome alexandria respectively fort filming assassin creed miniseries helen partially filmed fort set dubbed roman road built retained films season hbo adaptation george martin game parts fort represent red present condition today fort remains largely intact dilapidated state built prone coastal erosion walls collapsed sea restoration unit ministry resources infrastructure removed restored attached fort walls restore entire fort democratic alternative suggested campus proposed american university malta split fort nearby fort saint fort san proposal implemented campus split dock point public access fort layout fort irregular plan following coastline peninsula built fort consists land facing sea trace facing bay grand harbour land land consists following linked curtain walls known left northern end land damaged mutiny magazine blown francis known central centre land contains traverse covered john known right southern end land land contains casemates barracks land protected following form entire land near left land heavily damaged action half structure having collapsed triangular francis left contains inch breech loading gun leading land extensive modifications structures british surrounded ditch sea facing open sea following curtain walls linked forming point battery originally contained dismantled way directing station torpedo system gun inch ton gun located face curtain curtain wall containing battery containing british gun magazines fire control tower curtain curtain wall containing expense magazine ammunition intended immediate use stored flat faced containing british gun magazines fire control tower curtain wall near containing magazines port curtain wall collapsed sea small containing gun magazine gun crew shelters fire control tower curtain curtain wall land containing gun magazines gun crew shelters shallow rock ditch extends harbour trace bay trace high walls fort main gate located governor house demolished chapel nicholas located fort close main gate fort contained exist anymore rock ditch battery seen northern end tip peninsula british built torpedo station near trace late 19th century popular culture fort featured book soldier joe centres mutiny


battery white battery white artillery battery constructed american_civil_war built defend bay south_carolina coast battery strongly situated constructed manned captured resistance final months war battery listed national_register_of_historic_places located private land open public island fortifications outbreak civil war government south_carolina concerned possibility attack sea georgetown county shortly december passage ordinance aide camp governor francis urged aid erection batteries protect defend entrance bay river area offered target union forces bay sheltered anchorage large entire united_states_navy city georgetown bay largest south_carolina coast north charleston georgetown county produced nearly half rice grown united_states amounting million pounds tonnes georgetown exported rice port world production shipping disrupted moving black rivers flow bay channels river mouths lie bay rice production damage local economy confederacy ability feed armies general ordered development coastal defenses south_carolina including batteries situated islands flanking mouth bay north island south island cat island federal capture port royal november lent urgency construction improvement works robert lee newly appointed commander department south_carolina georgia east florida colonel arthur charge district included georgetown counties island fortifications tested major union attack served useful purpose dealing grounded ships confederate federal protecting entrance bay maintaining confederate possession islands withdrawal matters changed early march year lee recalled richmond military advisor president jefferson davis replaced general john ordered withdrawal troops artillery positions georgetown apparently order concentrate limited manpower shorter defensive lines union naval forces quick advantage new vulnerability uss uss noted island forts landed troops occupy north island principal local union base war destroyed fortifications south cat islands sailed miles river raided mill carried slaves settled north island freed slaves formed nucleus colony grew thousand removed port royal fear confederate raids leading recapture massacre federal forces attempt seize territory rivers expeditions limited draft vessels conducted number raids damaged facilities seized rice released slaves raids severely disrupted region economy rice production particular suffered depended labor force skilled slaves performing carefully timed tasks refused artillery men georgetown area maintaining resources necessary protection charleston superiors ordered construct new fortifications bay union controlled islands necessary find sites bay august visited area selected bluff point sites new batteries battery white later august promoted lieutenant general sent department mississippi east louisiana eventually surrender replaced department south_carolina georgia assumed command september new commander supported fortification bay october assured governor ordered construction battery pieces artillery bluff november wrote colonel james battery armed completed sent new regiment state reserves general james command georgetown district pleased troops artillery given new regiment noted arrived battery arms ammunition reserves service days time effective soldiers armed given fairly light guns wanted suitable defending battery bay incursions ironclads despite men weaponry new battery proved effective november union entered bay began firing bluff works second south_carolina artillery set guns fortification responded minutes federal vessels forced retire february reported bluff fortification named battery white occupied men guns small force stop federal incursions rivers bay rice production georgetown area recover raids destroyed physical plant carried slaves created uncertainty return near production battery continued lose manpower despite ongoing calls troops guns october body confederate german artillery reached uss reported great discontent troops desert strongly guarded reported guns battery captain concluded bay defended render aid prospective capture november ordered bring forces mount pleasant north charleston company german artillery left defend georgetown district end january small crew commanded lieutenant remained battery white january early february union forces general william moved northward georgia south_carolina february defeated confederate force battle rivers bridge clearing state charleston marched columbia entered february day charleston evacuated 18th surrendered charleston union naval forces admiral john moved coast georgetown thought useful point communication land forces february told captain uss battery white soon evacuated fired rounds battery response party sent ashore found battery abandoned guns sloop war uss uss continued bay landed party marines possession georgetown city formally surrendered february soon inspected battery impressed fortification wrote situated designed laid defend bombardment attack landing parties guns bore channel inch banded rifled pounders pounders banded rifled pounders pound flanked ditch rear defended formidable ditch pound end fort numerous traverses magazines approach beach battery right flank covered pound pound works sufficiently manned wrote required good troops work sinking uss harvest moon fall union fleet effectively closed bay blockade runners accordingly confederate command elected lay mines time known torpedoes bay eighteen mines constructed georgetown captain thomas west stephen placed strategically bay early january union georgetown warned forces existence mines channel approaching battery white sent boats sweep devices efforts according report said ridicule torpedoes little precautions deemed necessary resorted probably taken care weight attached existence things morning march flagship wheel steamer uss harvest moon sailed georgetown battery white intended inspect route vessel struck mines blew large hole killing sailor boat quickly sank half water battery white century civil war grounds battery white stood isle plantation late 19th century extensive landscaping undertaken plantation united daughters confederacy erected memorial stone site plantation gardens including battery opened public remained 1970s plantation developed complex portions acre complex fortifications lost construction owners elected preserve battery white acre area encompassing battery nominated national_register_of_historic_places site opened public battery earthworks preserved powder magazines deteriorated owing collapse earth following decay wooden interior mounted point bay battery guns placed georgetown pound gun mounted national_guard cannon displayed constitution park georgetown waterfront harvest moon salvaged gradually sunk deeper mud bay mid-1960s deck lay estimated feet mud georgetown group attempted salvage restore vessel tourist attraction navy formally abandoned rendering eligible private salvage attempt failed lack funds ship boiler stack visible low tide


history great wall china history great wall china began fortifications built states spring autumn states periods connected emperor china protect newly founded dynasty incursions inner asia walls built rammed earth constructed forced labour ran coast southern later adopted different policies northern frontier defense han northern particularly rebuilt manned expanded walls rarely followed routes han extended fortifications west built kilometres new walls million men wall building efforts conversely song build frontier walls instead opting solutions inner asian threat like military campaigning diplomacy useful raids points history great wall failed stop enemies including marched gates pass replaced ardent wall building rulers china great wall china visible today largely dates dynasty rebuilt wall stone brick extending line challenging terrain sections remain relatively good condition renovated damaged destroyed ideological reasons building materials lost time long object fascination foreigners wall revered national symbol popular tourist destination geographical considerations conflict chinese need great wall arose stemmed differences geography marks extent settled agriculture dividing fertile fields china south semi arid inner asia north climates topography regions led distinct modes societal development according model august soils possible chinese develop agriculture early allowed expand lower reaches yellow river valley extensive increasing scale required collective labour managed form bureaucracy scholar came fore track income expenses walled cities grew reasons defence ease administration kept invaders ensured citizens remained cities combined feudal states eventually united empire likewise according model walls cities time went lined borders feudal states eventually chinese empire provide protection raids northern societies inner asia climate favoured pastoral economy stood stark contrast chinese mode development animal migratory nature communities afford stationary evolved according influential owen lifestyle proved incompatible chinese economic model population grew pastoral agriculture support population tribal alliances needed maintained material rewards needs turn settled societies grains metal tools luxury goods produce denied trade settled peoples resort raiding conquest potential nomadic main areas inner asia caused concern northern china north northeast northwest china chief concern earliest times home country enemies including desert accounts thirds area divided main northern southern grazing lands pushed pastoral fringes southern inner pressure brought contact china barring intermittent passes valleys major corridor pass north china plain remained shielded mountains defence breached china flat terrain offered protection cities plain including imperial capitals beijing heading west mountains range ends yellow river circles northwards upstream area known loop technically capable agriculture yellow river formed theoretical natural boundary north border far difficult maintain lands south yellow river desert plateau provided natural barriers approach river valley called cradle chinese civilization ancient capital lay control remained extremely important rulers china potential influence security china proper region strategic importance combined led place walls home agricultural lands river valley location northern mountains relegated relative periphery chinese concern chinese state control weak points history fell control forest peoples area including crucial route links north china plain narrow coastal strip land sea mountains called pass literally mountain sea pass pass gained importance later capital set beijing mere kilometres away addition pass handful mountain passes provide access china mountains chief chinese considered region consists amalgamation dry barely suitable agriculture influence powers waned central asian oasis kingdoms nomadic clans like able form states threatened china times china proper connected area corridor narrow string bounded desert north high plateau south addition considerations frontier defence corridor formed important silk road trade route china economic interest control stretch land great wall western terminus corridor pass han times pass dynasty pre imperial china 7th century mentions wall built northern invaders found poem dated seventh century recorded classic poetry poem tells king identified king western dynasty commanded general build wall northern regions fend base power region regarded tribes attacks aimed early capital region probably reason king response campaign recorded great victory years later branch people responded summons running defences laying waste capital event killed king successor king forced court capital east later known year later eastern dynasty importantly fall western power states acknowledged nominal rule eastern dynasty marked bloody interstate anarchy smaller states annexed larger states constant war rulers came feel need erect walls protect borders earliest reference wall state wall metres excavated southern province modern era state fortified borders 7th century extant portions province christened great wall state built walls western completed eastern extant western wall found non chinese peoples built walls state walls intended defend state walls northern states connected united chinese states state easternmost northern states began erect walls general drove people thousand reign king wall stretched peninsula northern possibly bringing western terminus near walls wall erected south defend southwest present day beijing ran parallel river dozen miles walls north built king groundbreaking introduction nomadic cavalry army chinese warfare gave initial advantage opponents attacked tribes north waged war state annexed process constructed northernmost fortified frontier deep nomadic territory walls dated 1960s king reign southern long wall northern encompassing pass second line loop extending east ancient fortress banner northernmost line southern slopes mountains extending east passing north originally state western fringe chinese political sphere grew formidable power later parts states period aggressively expanded directions north state built walls protect aggression unable stop eating territories yang forced walled area west yellow river king took forts northern offensive king died widow queen acted regent succeeding sons deemed young govern reign king queen apparently entered illicit relations king gave birth sons later tricked killed king following coup army marched territory queen orders annihilated remnants came possess region point built wall new territories defend true north incorporating walls result estimated total kilometres walls including extended southern bank yellow river banner close border time walls known literally long walls translated great wall constructed earth parts built stones natural barriers like rivers defence walls erected long fortified lines laid exist addition wall defensive system included garrisons beacon towers inside wall outside regular intervals terms defence walls generally effective cavalry shock tactics doubts early walls actually defensive nature points northern frontier walls built far north included traditionally nomadic lands defensive walls indicate northward expansions northern states desire safeguard recent territorial acquisitions theory supported discovery nomadic artifacts walls suggesting presence pre existing conquered societies entirely possible western scholars like suggest nomadic aggression chinese coming centuries partly caused chinese period dynasty state completed conquest states united china emperor china conquests combined reforms started yang 4th century transformed china loose confederation feudal states authoritarian empire transformation able command far greater assembly labourers public works prior feudal kingdoms unification achieved found possession large professional army internal enemies fight find new use soon conquests year emperor sent famed general region drive settled risen fallen marginal states northern frontier campaign nature pressing nomadic menace faced time aim ambiguous territories clearly define northern borders chased away introduced families newly conquered territories wall configurations changed reflect new borders general erected walls northern loop yellow river effectively linking border walls concurrent building frontier wall destruction walls china divide state contrary outer walls built stabilize newly united china inner walls threatened unity empire following year ordered new fortifications built yellow river west work continued north work completed probably signalled imperial tour inspection construction direct road connecting capital result series long walls running details construction found official histories construction conditions especially difficult long stretches mountains semi desert great wall traversed sparse populations areas winter climate walls rammed earth bulk building material found transportation additional supplies labour remained difficult reasons named cambridge history china man work scene actual construction dozens needed build approaching roads transport supplies supported han dynasty statesman description project land arid crops grown time young men drafted forced haul boats barges loaded baggage trains upstream sustain steady supply food fodder commencing departure point man animal carry thirty kilograms food supply time arrived destination merely delivered dan kilograms supply populace tired weary started dissipate widowed seniors desperately trying escape derelict state died away home people started revolt settlement north continued death ordered commit suicide succession conspiracy killing expressed regret walls beginning reaching built walls dug thousand inevitable broke earth veins way offense settlements north abandoned moved loop empire consumed widespread rebellion public discontent owen concluded project relied military power enforce agriculture land suited resulting anti historical attempting mutually exclusive forms development simultaneously doomed fail han dynasty peasant bang emerged victorious han contention followed rebellion toppled dynasty proclaimed emperor han dynasty known emperor han unable address problem region military means emperor forced exchange peace han offered tributes marry chiefs diplomatic marriages known terms specified great wall determined states period state wall short stretch wall south pass serve line party venture son emperor clarified agreement suggesting held authority north wall han emperor held authority south author records grand historian describes result agreement peace friendship downwards grew friendly han coming going long wall chinese records respect agreement cavalry numbering han territory despite chinese minds policy ran contrary world order like person hanging upside statesman puts sentiments manifested han court form pro war faction advocated reversal han policy reign emperor han felt comfortable war attempt army ambush battle era style broken han war went swing han war progressed favour han wall maintained extended lines general invaded contested region far fortifications set way lands north restored spur defences protecting territory addition rebuilding walls believe han erected thousands kilometres walls inner emperor reign fortifications include beacon stations forts constructed combination earth stone loop sporadic non continuous han great wall followed northern edge corridor cities leading lake basin terminating places pass north yang pass south vicinity pass westerly han chinese fortifications west western terminus great wall pass kilometres east garrisons wall supported civilian farming military agricultural colonies known line fortifications han government able maintain settlements communications western regions central asia generally secure attacks north campaigns nomadic peoples west exhausted imperial treasury policies reverted favour peace emperor successors peace largely respected han throne minister beginning brief year known dynasty despite high tensions resulting deployment men great wall major fighting broke minor raids instead popular discontent led ultimately scale rebellion civil war ended clan throne beginning eastern han dynasty emperor initiated projects consolidate control frontier regions defense works established east pass line fortifications beacon fires stretching county present day valley river county result raids west river valley orders given series walls constructed defences river southward course yellow river region imperial capital constructions defensive nature marked shift offensive walls preceding emperor rulers states early northern china undergone drastic change line imperial frontier followed advanced positions conquered emperor rear defences indicated roughly modern dynasty great wall region northern upper river basin abandoned left control rest frontier remained somewhat intact end han dynasty manuscripts discovered indicating military establishment northwest maintained eastern han period period dynasty following end han dynasty china states briefly reunited western dynasty ambiguous accounts rebuilding wall walls apparently offered resistance uprising nomadic tribes evicted chinese court northern china followed succession short lived states northern china known sixteen kingdoms consolidated led northern dynasty northern economically dependent agriculture emperors conscious decision adopt chinese customs including passive methods frontier defence defence line kilometres long built resist path roughly followed old wall county province county inner men work building inner wall passing south capital ending near eastern bank yellow river walls formed basis double layered wall system protected beijing thousand years later dynasty northern collapsed civil insurrection eventually succeeded northern northern faced threat north built kilometres wall sea pass course year million men mobilized build pass extend wall kilometres eastern banks yellow river secondary wall built inside main walls built quickly local earth stones formed natural barriers stretches stone earth wall stand today measuring metres wide bases metres high average northern conquered northern repairs existing walls route walls followed later wall west includes reconstructed walls recent times reddish remnants gave rise nickname red wall took power northern reuniting china founding emperor emperor carried considerable wall construction defend new walls proved insufficient avoided riding west raid emperor sought close gap putting walls mountains inner men recorded involved construction emperor son emperor yang continued build walls sent million men build wall near protect newly refurbished eastern capital wall survives day inner metres high towers rising double history estimates people died building wall adding number casualties caused emperor yang projects including aforementioned redesign grand canal ill fated campaigns economy strained populace dynasty erupted rebellion ended assassination emperor yang dynasty frontier policy dynasty reversed wall building activities previous occupied northern china century extensive wall building took place years soon establishment dynasty reign emperor threat north prompted court officials suggest drafting labourers repair aging great wall suggestion walls built vain emperor yang people labor construct great wall order defend turks end use instead building walls claimed need merely establish dust border settle accordingly sent talented generals like mobile armies frontier fortifications limited series walled garrisons named cities accepting surrender actually bases launch attacks result military strategy grew largest chinese destroying eastern acquiring territory stretching way records era emperor reign general built wall kilometres north present day county remains unclear erected new walls reinforced existing northern walls great wall ruins features prominently poetry known frontier verse written scholar officials assigned frontier emphasizing poets loneliness longing home posts frontier verses characterized imagery landscapes including ruins neglected great wall direct product frontier policy song conquest northern walls dynasty ended northern frontier area remained han chinese hands establishment dynasty period non han conquest ruled north dynasty succeeding dynasty east western west built walls north succeeded getting appointed tribes north laying foundations officially dynasty supported rebel revolt later destroyed leader second son convinced found new dynasty later received crucial border region known sixteen return sixteen possessed passes fortifications controlled access plains northern china including main great wall line settling transitional area agricultural lands semi like predecessors northern started use chinese methods defence walls built central north county banks river rose overthrow masters established dynasty continued wall building activities extensive work begun wall construction took place emperor later reign successor emperor long period wall building populace provoked controversy reign high official recommended work wall indefinitely suspended recent drought noting begun flattened bullying people defence works simply exhaust chancellor convinced emperor walls merits based optimistic cost estimate initial walls million strings cash work frontier secure half present number soldiers needed defend means year save million strings cash benefits construction continued work created extensive systems walls consisted kilometres outer wall kilometres network inner walls north northeast beijing formed roughly elliptical web fortifications kilometres length kilometres diameter walls inner metres width beacon towers outward facing platforms protruding wall features set walls apart predecessors west took control region established western dynasty traditionally known building walls uncovered kilometres walls province western territory analysis showed constructed walls tall metres places discovered metres taller originally built mud desert section dark blocks suggesting rocks nearby extinct transported construction site archaeologists found traces human activity stretch wall suggests wall location incomplete ready use old great walls song boundary lines han chinese power tumultuous post era represented song dynasty completed unification chinese states conquest turning north victory song eliminated northern han ultimate successors later unable sixteen dynasty result song military aggression relations song remained tense hostile song war great wall gap named southern wall states period crossed river territory great wall gap saw action song fortress built intermittent wars song lasted january truce called led treaty agreement things required song pay tribute recognized song equals song border course clearly defined series subsequent agreements stretches old great walls including northern inner wall near mountain range border song northwest song conflict western occupied song considered chinese land lost dynasty song utilized walls built reign king states period making song western border topography area sharp distinct song defences east border general deemed old wall insufficient slow cavalry attack deep trench dug alongside trench metres width depth proved effective defence caught song guard filled trench cross old wall later turned trench song removing bridges trapping retreating army battle fortress despite war western song settled land disputes referring prior agreements soon dynasty dynasty sacked song capital song wars causing song court flee south river half centuries great wall played role han chinese onset 13th century leader khan vassal rose dynasty ensuing conquest dynasty nomadic invaders avoided direct attacks fortifications instead simply rode walls effective example tactic substantial fortress inflicted terrible defeat armies battle took advantage lingering resentment defenders garrisons walls preferred surrender fight major engagement note main great wall line heavily defended pass instead laying siege general lured defenders ambush charged opened gates khan besieged captured sacked capital modern day beijing dynasty eventually collapsed following siege western fallen southern song resisted dynasty established khan grandson khan foreign dynasty rule china despite head empire khan rule china free threat dynasty faced challenges rival title great khan rebellious north khan dealt threats military economic sanctions established garrisons frontier lake basin far west east khan emperors add great wall ornate cloud platform pass venetian traveller polo wrote experiences china reign khan mention great wall dynasty early walls emperor ousted led dynasty china dynasty fled numerous campaigns problem remained early reign set outer garrisons close inner line forts suitable defence inner line forerunner great wall forces encountered setbacks emphasis defence adopted suggestion establish garrisons passes strategic points beijing area positions set years death manned sea beijing positions linear defence regional walls feature heavily offensive tactics remained overarching policy time capital relocated south beijing north partly better manage situation defenses concentrated beijing stone earth began replace rammed earth strategic passes wall erected protect han settlers possible threat expansion wall provided protection region attacks northeast outer defenses gradually moved inward sacrificing vital transitional zone despite withdrawal military remained strong position crisis caused collapse early security system half campaigning chinese army perished conflict captured emperor military shattered chinese military impressed given pause beginning dynasty caused defensive deterioration military position transitional zone gave rise nomadic raids territory including crucial region level unprecedented dynasty founding decades offensive strategy policy decision build major walls agreed acceptable compromise proposed constructing wall region august december court emperor approve plan victory battle red salt lake invasions long complete wall project wall combined effort stretched present day northwestern province town county northeastern total kilometres long length strong points posts beacon fire towers defences men enlisted effort completed months cost million silver defence system proved initial worth large group raiders trapped double lines fortifications suffered defeat generals seen strategy wall building people border areas century wall seen expansion extensive defence system contained defence lines wall called great border secondary border built yang following success walls proposed construction wall extend yellow river bend pass present day county near capital beijing running distance kilometres project received approval political enemies cost forced scrap project retire year years resignation political struggle prevented major wall constructions scale comparable project wall construction continued regardless court politics time walls underwent extension repair 16th century brick stone started replace earth wall building material offered better protection change material gave rise number necessary accommodations regard logistics inevitably drastic increase costs instead able draw local resources building projects required brick transportation routes deliver bricks work site hired local proved inadequate level brick constructions required work originally man month earth required men stone walls western reaches adequately fortified avoided walls riding east invade present day province major garrisons guarding corridor beijing walls built defence lines left northern early deteriorated point purposes inner line capital main line defence embarked defensive building program scale unprecedented chinese history troops deployed outer line new walls beacon towers constructed fortifications restored extended lines firearms artillery mounted walls towers time defence signalling purposes project completion announced sixth month height portion great wall totalled kilometres wall sections doubled lines wall outer frontier protected wall called outer border extended kilometres yellow river edge pass inner border province inner border wall ran southeast pass kilometres ending pass river wall ran pass followed yellow river southwards kilometres wall shifted attacks away newly strengthened sector protected areas west province target riding west yellow river loop westernmost fortress china pass saw substantial walls starting border walls built corridor low wall split northern section passed met western edge yellow river loop connecting walls southern section passed continued northeast origins exact route called loop clear beijing pass having refused request trade khan invaded region despite attempts double fortified line garrison attack instead continuing operate area wall relatively lightly defended northeast beijing khan passed defences raided suburbs beijing according contemporary source raid took lives additional people prisoners response raid focus northern defences shifted region defence commands breach took place later year dry stone walls area abbreviated replaced stone mortar allowed chinese build easily defended slopes facilitated construction features effectiveness new walls demonstrated failed raid raiders expecting repeat events surprised higher wall stiff chinese resistance tan successful generals coastal pirates reassigned manage defense commands step defences capital region ambitious energetic management brick built great wall included large scale use hollow wall point previous towers great wall solid small shelter elements arrows towers built onwards hollow brick structures allowing soldiers interior space live store food water weapons shelter arrows khan eventually peace china opened border cities trade need raid coupled tan efforts secure frontier brought period relative peace border minor raids happened time time profits trade prompting close gaps frontier beijing areas difficult terrain considered impassable walled leading known stone faced great wall dramatic landscapes tourists today wall construction continued demise dynasty decades led fall dynasty court great wall deal simultaneous internal rebellions invasions addition conquest raided great wall time rebels led gathering strength early months declared founder marched capital route roughly followed line great wall order heavily fortified garrisons crucial defences pass surrendered fight emperor hanged april army entered beijing point largest remaining fighting force north china pass great wall meets sea defender army decided surrender opened gates having entered great wall defeated battle pass seized beijing june eventually defeated rebel founded dynasty remaining resistance establishing rule china dynasty opinions wall role dynasty downfall mixed historians arthur julia critical wall building exercise light ultimate failure protecting china compared great wall failed line french world war independent scholar david notes wall complex foreign policy received blame obvious policy dynasty great wall defence line northern questionable dynasty territory encompassed vast areas inside outside wall china proper control instead great wall means limit han chinese movement case considered sacred homeland ruling parts wall repaired serve control han chinese movement alongside newly erected willow culturally wall symbolic role line society suppressed keen weaken han propagated result special attention paid great wall mid dynasty started interest structure western appreciation wall existence wall asia circulated middle_east west europeans arrived china sea late antiquity historian mentioned walls land country romans believed eastern end silk road legend tribes said locked alexander great walls steel later arab writers travellers din ibn erroneously identify great wall china walls alexander indicated arabs heard china great wall earlier periods china history associated wall legend tale found way soon europeans reached china early 16th century accounts great wall started europe european eyes century work treatise china regions offered early discussion great wall noted wall leagues length bee leagues early account written bishop juan reported wall leagues long suggested leagues man rest natural rock formations jesuit priest mentioned great wall diary noting existence tremendous wall miles long formed northern defences empire europeans witnessed great wall early recorded instance european actually entering china great wall came portuguese jesuit brother reached northwestern pass india deposition russian embassy mission offers early account based hand encounter great wall mentions course journey embassy travelled alongside great wall days early european accounts modest closely contemporary chinese understanding wall great wall began shape recognizable today foreign accounts wall slid published jesuit described elaborate stretches great wall fortifications northern frontier furthermore erroneously identified wall wall built 3rd century wall antiquity size compounded china father provided pictures great wall imagined european illustrator accounts missionaries china contributed eighteenth century mythical china exaggerated great wall feature prominently french philosopher example frequently wrote great wall feelings admiration condemnation monument fear embassy passed great wall way emperor annual imperial hunt embassy members john later founder royal geographical society calculated stone wall equivalent dwelling houses england scotland earth equator twice illustrations great wall lieutenant henry william parish mission reproduced influential works thomas china series views exposure works brought foreign visitors great wall china opened borders result nation defeat wars mid-19th century hands britain western powers pass near beijing old dragon head great wall meets sea pass proved popular destinations wall later 19th century turn contributed propagation great wall myth examples myth growth false widespread belief great wall china visible moon mars modern china present revolution forced emperor ended china imperial dynasty revolutionaries headed sun concerned creating modern sense national identity chaotic post imperial era contrast chinese academics tried counter west fantastic version great wall sun held view wall preserved chinese race chinese culture developed expand south foreign endorsement father modern china started transform great wall national symbol chinese consciousness transformation hampered conflicting views nationalism regard nascent new china failure new republic china traditional chinese culture new culture movement fourth movement 1920s aimed china future trajectory past naturally great wall china came attack symbol past example influential writer period harshly criticized mighty great wall short essay reality served purpose countless workers labour death vain surrounds sino japanese conflict gave great wall new lease life eyes chinese defence great wall equipped chinese soldiers held double number japanese troops months cover great wall chinese times armed able beat japanese advance support aerial bombardment chinese forces eventually overrun subsequent truce stipulated great wall zone separating china newly created japanese puppet state determined defence great wall symbol chinese patriotism chinese people chinese communist leader picked symbol poetry long march escaping prosecution near end trek wrote poem mount contains known line carved stone great wall present day fail reach great wall true men noteworthy reference great wall song march volunteers words came stanza han poem entitled great wall song originally anti japanese movie children troubled times enjoyed continued popularity china selected provisional national anthem people republic china establishment scholar turned laid modern proposal repair great wall years later renovated section opened public establishment great wall staple stop foreign dignitaries come china beginning prime minister notably american president richard_nixon historic visit china date visited stretch great wall stretches fare cultural revolution hundreds kilometres great wall damaged wars century eroded wind rain deliberately destroyed red guards regarded olds new china machines dynamite wall materials construction china opened 1980s leader initiated love china restore great wall campaign repair preserve great wall great wall designated world heritage site tourism years restoration methods left sections great wall near beijing looking like hollywood set words national geographic news prominent stretches great wall attention new_york based world monuments fund great wall list world endangered sites chinese government began enact laws protect great wall historiography china individuals attempt multi history great wall 17th century scholar recently 1930s 1940s produced studies extant literary records date mapped courses early border walls efforts based solely written records contain obscure place names elusive literary references rise modern contributed study great wall existing research efforts picture great wall history wall sites dating period extant great wall western scholarship great wall recently affected derived traditional accounts wall brought reports wall west european scholars polo mentioned presumably perennial great wall travels 17th century scholars reasoned wall built dynasty polo departure view soon replaced argued polo account venetian merchant come china south come contact wall father mistaken claim wall lasted right present time injury destruction time accepted fact 18th century scholars operated belief great wall continually defended china border thousand years example 18th century joseph assigned importance walls advanced theory construction forced migrate west europe known ultimately contributed decline roman empire attempted general statements chinese society foreign policy based conception perennial great wall took wall represent chinese society economy owen supposed great wall demonstrated need divide nomadic way life agricultural communities china john wall played world order despite significance great wall scholarly treatment wall remained 20th century joseph compiling section walls science china lack travelers description great wall studies based modern scholarship far chinese western languages arthur published influential great wall history myth challenged notion great wall maintained antiquity dismissing modern myth approach prompted examination wall western scholarship authoritative text language devoted great wall reason according new_yorker journalist peter great wall fits study political institutions favoured chinese historians excavation tombs favoured chinese void left filled independent research great wall enthusiasts reporter self funded scholar david