north north ancient maya city guatemala architectural complex served royal centre activity years located near centre city studied maya architectural complexes excavations carried university pennsylvania directed shook william traces human activity site date approximately structures built complex underwent major redevelopment construction massive basal platform supported cluster temples followed addition row terrace south main platform number royal tombs excavated identified named kings including tombs ruled ruled ruled animal skull ruled early tomb north tentatively identified founder ruled large number stone monuments placed north 9th century included monuments sculpted texts royal portraits number monuments influence great city valley mexico development earliest traces working limestone bedrock basal platform date consisting deep cuts rock associated refuse domestic ceremonial activity structures north built end middle period late period late metre wide causeway built unite north complex southwest earliest dated architecture north built second century consisted low basal platform north smaller platforms immediately south pyramid complex formed later temples structures built remains earlier versions platforms identified underneath suffered extensive destruction prior building 2nd century version physical sequence reconstructed 1st century complex underwent major expansion time gradual shift focus major complex north marked new ceremonial centre city received royal far identified named rulers classic period classic period royal dynasty developed complex royal successive ruler new temples earlier structures pre existing architecture demolished new basal platform built supporting vaulted structures complex expanded southwards original basal platform addition row tall divided original architecture main plaza end 7th century king ordered construction new version temple possibly house remains father new building completely blocked entrance north ending role preferred burial ground kings king temple east plaza ending tradition rulers north period activity continued late end occupancy 10th 11th centuries mining north search jade grave goods elite tombs easier find located looted time structures north closes great plaza north basal platform north covers area acres measuring approximately metres stands metres bedrock foundation metres great plaza accessed number south period temples decorated brightly coloured ornamentation including giant masks flanking access early classic temple stood platform access flanked masks small summit shrine elaborate roof basal platform structures basal platform underwent consecutive construction phases early classic temple underwent phases construction structures basal platform date early classic period laid symmetrical arrangement course centuries forms greatest concentration pure early classic architecture construction methods distinct major late classic temples great plaza early classic construction involved complete finishing basal platform distinct architectural unit additional structures built temple structure located northwest corner basal platform looks north estimated date approximately temple structure forms pair temple located northeast corner basal platform looks north thought date temple structure south facing building located centrally north basal platform temple underwent principal phases construction earliest version structure built second version temple built version decorated giant masks final version temple dates 5th century temple extensively investigated archaeologists portions 5th century architecture stripped away expose earlier versions tomb temple looted point period temple structure partially restored dates middle 3rd century situated centre west basal platform facing east temple structure dates forms pair temple located east basal platform facing west temple explored archaeologists temple structure located southwest corner basal platform built underwent second early classic construction phase completely covered earlier version temple structure central building north located centrally south basal platform overlooking terrace earliest version structure dates approximately temple fully excavated restored tomb structure looted time period northern portion structure stood late tomb burial dated tentatively identified founder temple structure forms pair temple situated southeast corner basal platform archaeologists structure underwent early classic construction phases twin built building structure unusual building access east basal platform appears controlling access east terrace chamber originally contained benches walls width building completely blocked access forced visitors pass chamber presence passage blocked necessary route important temple built blocking main access great plaza structure built late early classic period 6th century terrace trio small early classic temples temples stand common platform east end terrace facing west likely platform purposely built support temples built simultaneously platform temples investigated possible early version central temple temple built decommissioned platform built cover early version followed construction new version plus additional flanking temples temple structure located east end terrace north facing west excavated base temple trio similar structures temples temple excavated roof collapsed fill chambers superstructure rubble trio temples temple display traces red paint basal platform temple stands metres high superstructure walls measure metres high building believed date early classic period temple structure east end terrace north trio similar structures roof collapsed filling summit chambers rubble temple estimated date early classic based stylistic comparison structures temples trio basal platform temple stands metres high superstructure walls measure metres high temple structure trio similar structures east end terrace temples temples trio summit superstructure chambers buried rubble resulting collapse roof temple believed date early classic height temple identical temples trio basal platform measuring metres high superstructure walls standing metres high temple structure stands immediately east temple partially investigated mid-1960s dates half 7th century temple shrine contained large chambers looted soon abandonment city 10th century archaeologists discovered tomb cut bedrock pyramid contained royal burial burial pyramid built tomb soon king burial consisted single construction phase temple structure metre high pyramid 5th century king centrally situated temples row structures facing great plaza thoroughly explored temples entire maya area course centuries temple underwent construction phases final phase development took place hiatus lasted construction phase temple served prototype temple great plaza final version temple dismantled archaeologists order arrive earlier stages construction temple structure pyramid built terrace north dates early classic period pyramid built tomb father topped shrine rooms situated archaeologists cut trench temple discovered tomb cut bedrock underneath previous versions temple built originally stood foot temple broken probably beginning late classic period dragged temple steps places masonry altar summit shrine shrine looted period altar broken time ceremonial fires burning sacrifices lit directly tomb late classic period indicative continued ancestor worship centuries king death temple structure tall late classic temple backing southwest corner basal platform westernmost row facing south great plaza explored archaeologists considered likely locations tomb 7th century king monuments great erected north 9th century total eighteen monuments sculpted texts royal portraits erected king celebrate ending reign erected base pyramid temple displays mix maya qualities deities cultures portrait king underworld jaguar god arm mexican helmet simplified version war unusually maya sculpture typically depicted frontal face profile erected celebrate ending erected base temple shrine found summit shrine temple underneath broken masonry altar monument originally erected base temple early classic period later broken probably beginning late classic remains interred temple shrine upper portion monument broken interred tomb temple dedicated bears images father depicted warrior sides monument sculpted long text dynasty found base temple dated depicts 5th century king holding style hand sides monument sculpted depictions father mother lady lengthy text details birth promotion junior rank accession throne brief description father reign altar buried fill final version temple immediately second version summit shrine badly damaged broken pieces majority sculpture depicting seated person away fragments buried way paired altar buried maintained relationship monuments existed originally public display altar crafted limestone site museum dated approximately burial tomb late 4th century king tomb consists large chamber carved bedrock beneath temple remains king interred wooden accompanied human sacrifices tomb contained large quantity grave goods including impressive array vessels decorated linked imagery drinking vessel bore writing drinking vessel son owl turtle shells sizes attached rack remains musical instrument similar small jade found sculpted form head snout skull king dyed red association king remains related element king means animal king way spirit companion burial royal tomb inserted destroying second version access temple individual interred tomb identified tomb proposed locations burial late 7th century king tomb cut bedrock temple south burial king appears hastily interred tomb prepared burial took place plaster walls grave goods flint pick accidentally left body king laid litter painted jaguar corpse laid covered layers marine shells burial elite status burial inserted rubble core temple final phase pyramid construction tomb contained painted dishes appear father grandfather preceded rulers city burial carved bedrock terrace central north south axis north directly temple identified tomb king remains king flanked juvenile human sacrifices child adolescent walls tomb coated painted indicating tomb sealed march year king died king interred bundled seated position remains lacked skull hands grave goods included vessels mixed local imported origin stone shell artefacts including stone accompanying large quantity jade artefacts including jade discs hundreds formed collar pairs great small groups form collar blades accompanied burial burial dates 1st century late enclosed platform primitive vault royal burial characterised shift ceremonial focus complex north tomb centrally located north south axis north later temple contained single male skeleton lacked skull founder linked tomb lies deep heart north deceased probably died battle body mutilated enemies recovered interred followers bones wrapped carefully form upright bundle missing head replaced small mask shell teeth eyes bearing pointed royal head wears emblem forehead rare lowland maya portrait king contents tomb spine shell vessels burial tomb tentatively identified founder dated interred metres east contain grave goods associated burial remains directly associated artefacts contained high status jade shell bone artefacts burial established new central axis point reference royal 8th century burial vaulted chamber cut bedrock temple tomb ruler nicknamed animal skull archaeologists ruled end 6th century remains king wrapped cloth dyed red tomb flooded soon sealed leaving thick layer mud dried preserve hollow forms king burial offerings long wooden artefacts away archaeologists filled plaster paris able reconstruct items tomb including large carved panels depicting king small throne decorated deity burial 6th century tomb king masonry tomb contained temple


old occasionally archaeological site north east department guatemala kilometres north guatemala city kilometres junction rivers moderate sized ruined city maya civilization archaeological site tourist attraction named erroneously associated capital referred colonial records archaeological site identified capital kingdom distinguish ruins capital referred capital referred confusion identification site hindered study capital investigated assumption capital ruins described archaeological data associated history different site entirely doubts identification archaeological site raised robert realised supposed capital located linguistic area linguistic area settled new colonial settlement spanish long history fine production evidence production recovered archaeological investigations ruins considered distant colonial attacked invading spanish attacks heavily fortified city unsuccessful besieged city received reinforcements defeated open field battle spanish cavalry decisive capture prisoners allowed spanish discover location cave providing secret entrance city assault broke month long siege allowing spanish city surviving inhabitants moved settlement ordered city burned settled order provide capital safer attack hostile kingdom previous capital spite city fell domination city architecture spread number fortified groups ridge surrounded deep shows mixture styles time spanish conquest initially allied spanish joined general uprising spanish site abandoned conquest history historical identified old near modern town old capital maya kingdom founded defensive mountain location 12th century peak population early 16th century people sent small company conquer capital spanish approach inhabitants remained enclosed fortified city spanish attempted approach west narrow pass forced heavy losses launched second assault allies beaten received reinforcements possibly armies clashed open ground outside city battle chaotic lasted day finally decided spanish cavalry forcing reinforcements withdraw leaders reinforcements surrendered spanish days retreat revealed city secret entrance form cave leading nearby river allowing inhabitants come armed knowledge gained prisoners sent men cover exit cave launched assault west single file owing alternating soldiers bearing muskets companion arrows stones shield tactic allowed spanish break pass storm entrance city warriors fell disorder chaotic retreat city hunted victorious allies managed retreat neighbouring valley ambushed spanish cavalry posted block exit cave survivors captured brought city siege lasted month defensive strength city ordered burned moved inhabitants new colonial village archaeological site site known traditionally considered capital recent investigations instead identified ruins capital speaking maya suggested identification historical result confusion interpretation colonial records site apparently known variety names including meaning great stone cave children night estimated population approximately inhabitants close san source giving inhabitants ready access resource site open public small museum site declared protected archaeological zone ministerial accord ministry education june location ruins situated northeastern extreme department municipality san kilometre metre high ridge approximately kilometres point river flows river drains caribbean_sea ruins surrounded deep dropping sharply tributary river site kilometres guatemala city road history known rulers dates approximate led king moved capital inaccessible hostile neighbours spite defeated subject kingdom groups influence architectural styles groups architectural style appear fashion thick 13th century group underwent major including construction new retaining wall metre wide area old new walls creating expanded terrace construction group architecture owing possession possible served regional centre identified area san classic period sites appear continued use shortly spanish conquest lord rebelled possible initially allied spanish kingdom rebelled spanish known lords broke alliance took refuge site abandoned spanish conquest inhabitants moved spanish san area modern history german visited ruins published brief description ruins site map years later page pamphlet netherlands entitled die von guatemala labelled archaeological groups attendant structures american archaeologist smith visited ruins wrote chapter site archaeological reconnaissance central_america published institution washington excavations carried paris direction archaeologist certainly believed capital described colonial records site restored archaeological investigations suffered considerable damage guatemala earthquake resulted destruction restoration work damage repaired site description ruins consist groups containing remains major structures including temples palaces courts playing site excavated surface found abundant blades originally city main entrance western modern road cut ruins west similar route relatively short period occupation led unusual unity architectural styles city archaeological finds city including artefacts earlier versions later structures date years spanish conquest architecture built cases coated stone sculpture totally absent city example marker form head jaws human head emerging mouth originally buildings decorated painted poorly preserved fragments remain population estimate derived number residential remains suggests city approximately inhabitants architectural groups architecture divided number groups labelled archaeologists groups belonging groups fall outside city walls indicated addition group group group group group group group located northern end ridge group extended major work included building final versions platforms north involved building new retaining wall metres north east southeast filling area new old walls create greatly expanded terrace traces base old retaining wall dated 13th century indicating expansion group took place earlier pyramid principal structures group pyramid metres high measures metres base built cut stone stepped levels terminates pyramid faces west plaza access steps flanked smooth built fitted summit pyramid supports high platform formed base summit temple pyramid built structure platform levels upper terminated platform built edge retaining wall pyramid faces west pyramid access successive versions platform built previous earliest version sat early retaining wall second version final version larger built new retaining wall extended available area group platform north eastern group plaza faces south plaza accessed platform built earlier structure built early retaining wall earlier structure extended metres retaining wall final version extended metres west metres north levels terminating north metre wide bench extends base wall platform divides group plaza later addition group reorganisation group involved destruction earlier building platform excavated poorly reserved able reliably restored earlier version structure consists platform levels faces east principal architecture group upper level topped access flanked platform closes north group plaza platform levels base terminating walls platform faces south plaza platform accessed steps flanked steep ramps visible version platform covers remains earlier structure earlier building large platform north south orientation opposed east west orientation platform surviving parts investigated archaeologists consist north wall parts west facade north wall metres wide suggesting earlier platform large probably extended south far excavated earlier platform platform western extreme group plaza platform levels upper vertical platform faces east plaza access flanked terminating vertical platform built older version building earlier construction phase smaller destroyed order build final version restoration work carried archaeologists wall section facade left exposed found associated platform interred building structure small square altar middle eastern group plaza faces west steps platform east pyramid eastern group plaza faces northwest pyramid access platform finely paved terrace extending edge retaining wall platform east faces access set steps west group plaza separating retaining wall dropping sunken north south orientation entirely enclosed short sunken leads plaza south wall descends south wall southern end zone matching northern end zone provides access direction interior playing area measures metres north south playing alley metres wide benches walls built small stone slight slope common architecture walls topped vertical end zone walls completely vertical fragments recovered indicate partly coated structure residential structure southwest group plaza platform remains structure outline marked stones structure residential structure immediately northeast platform structures residential structures near platform north group plaza group group defines number structures lying outside walls group northeast northwest main group group group near centre site roughly group northeast group southwest main plaza group northern end group enclosed south double pyramid east platforms steps descends group retaining wall northeast corner double pyramid providing access route group north group steps divided flights descends group immediately south group plaza northern entrance directly plaza enclosed sunken common maya highlands late aligned north south transverse end zones forming capital shape entrances form end zones centre north south walls walls playing alley slightly sloped topped playing alley flanked low benches set east west walls end zones possess sloping walls walls built large stones playing area measures metres north south metres wide benches end zones measure metres east west originally coated painted variety colours little coating remains drain opening runoff east northern end zone drain continues platform outside retaining wall group archaeological investigation preserved marker found placed western bench original placement indicated hole upper wall second marker placed directly opposite found area wall collapsed prior excavations marker placed walls original guatemala city platform aligned northeast southwest faces northwest group plaza access flanked steep topped vertical platform descend group retaining wall group pyramid actually built single basal platform comprise important architectural unit group northern pyramid pair southern stepped levels face west plaza pyramid accessed single flanked wide small altar base nineteen steps stand metres high low platforms indicate temple buildings stood double form twin origin valley mexico indicates foreign influences city broken excavated fill pyramid plain monument broken parts section stood upper section lying monuments raised maya highlands characteristic classic period possible stands originally erected pyramid built excavated underneath rear pyramid drain near northeast corner pyramid carries runoff group plaza channels outside retaining wall area groups platform north group plaza platform consists single level set base possesses walls access centre south platform possessed low double terrace rear platform possesses stepped levels northern west group plaza lower level possesses single upper terrace flanked dividing platform provides broad view river valley west structure built earlier construction phase exposed upper portion wall restoration building rebuilt lower portion built stone originally taller final version platform cut reduced height new building pyramid enclosed southern portion west group plaza poorly preserved pyramid collapsed leaving lower walls archaeological investigation revealed final version pyramid build preceding version structure small rectangular structure south main group plaza north end east structure west structure likely altar shrine platform range structure west group consists basal platform supporting inward sloping walls terminate building faces east possesses access separated near vertical retaining wall group drops away neighbouring metres platform great number excavated base platform group group includes number structures outside walls group northwest northeast east group structure step pyramid sides steep cubic shape temple platform originally supported superstructure trace remains pyramid faces west accessed extremely steep steps faces directly massive metre high retaining wall group flanked wide form western facade temple platform structure restored structure restored south facing range structure access group group lies southwest group east group group arranged large structures possesses small east plaza larger area east main temple pyramid east plaza accessed narrow alley ran large low platform high status residential structure climbed outside retaining wall group accessed east plaza high status residence platform east west plaza located platform enclosed north platforms pyramid principal structure group archaeological investigation uncovered versions pyramid built archaeologists restored pyramid way construction phases visible phase construction consisted platform cut blocks buried second construction phase consisted level stepped pyramid double west steps flanked separated ramps terminated masonry blocks pyramid stood metres high topped temple parts survive restored walls built packed earth coated section northern portion rear wall stands height metres wide bench built rear wall concave hollow floor designed burning roof temple likely final construction phase considerably larger preceding versions pyramid final form pyramid base measured metres levels possessed single place earlier flanked wide ramps lower portion ramps survive pyramid stood metres higher preceding version preserved parts earlier temple building upper platform largely collapsed trace remains final version temple superstructure second versions pyramid originally coated parts preserved new applied restoration work match original coating pyramid restored excavated guatemala earthquake caused considerable damage upper portion pyramid reduced rubble burial excavated wall earliest version pyramid associated offerings included number clay vessels necklace small gold bells copper axe earliest metal artefacts maya region dated terminal classic period presence metal artefacts associated earliest construction phase demonstrates short span site suggests construction phases succeeded relatively rapidly offerings deposited phases artificially deformed skull interred central axis final version platform faces pyramid borders group plaza platform long rectangular structure measuring metres north south east west occupies highest location structure platform levels total height metres lower prominent east lower level upper level upper level platform rear lower level possesses elaborate facade access separated ramps entire platform originally coated traces remain upper level traces outline walls stood leading archaeologists conclude residential structures stood platform built earlier shorter platform possessed facade composed thin likely platform provided restricted access pyramid number excavated base platform structure observation platform formed south east plaza faced southwards neighbouring valley platform shaped platform closes east northeast corner east plaza steps run entire length platform structure residential compound accessed alley running east plaza pyramid entrance opened alley situated southern portion compound surrounded east west north sides rooms alley south structure residential building city north range rooms backed directly immediately north group lower portion walls west room half north room stand west room square north room narrow probably extended entire width wear marks floor indicate door accessed north room west structure high quality indicates residence member city elite proximity large pyramid temple led archaeologist speculate house high priest structure small pyramid temple lower western section group built small stone faced west access flanked ramps structure earlier version built structure south facing platform built divides west plaza upper surface platform marked circle burnt clay formed burning structure platform closing southern half west west plaza structure platform lower group close pyramid group group small group east group immediately south group structure mound structure mound smaller structure group group dispersed group east group pyramid east group plaza pyramid stepped levels erected low base faces west plaza single access flanked sloping terminate vertical sections upper extremes pyramid fine cut stone poorly preserved southern partially collapsed surviving portions building allowed accurately restored archaeologists platform north group plaza archaeologists platform south group plaza subject archaeological investigation structure small altar centre group plaza platform south facing range structure great length access excavations uncovered number deposited wall structure example burial interred platform group group located west group group largely surrounded steep inhabitants city cut cliffs reinforced retaining wall archaeological investigations failed find access retaining wall group pyramid located east group plaza important building group pyramid construction phases oldest built natural metre high elevation found preserved excavations site early phase packed rounded provide second phase construction second version pyramid poorly preserved excavations uncovered fragments unable determine tow construction phases belonged final phase construction larger preceding versions building natural elevation stood pyramid stepped levels basal platform faced west access flanked ramps terminated projecting masonry blocks small altar excavated base pyramid stones found placed stones ball shaped club number excavated base southern pyramid structure range structure north group plaza subject archaeological investigation structure square altar middle group plaza faces pyramid structure platform located pyramid eastern group plaza faces west plaza access flanked ramps built small stone platform walls fine built cut carefully fitted portion upper platform paved stone bench ran entire length platform clay floor paving bench found burnt offering excavated central axis platform base consisted ring shaped clubs placed stone ball platform situated west group plaza roughly built irregularly sized poorly cut stones platform faces east pyramid access platform supported residences built bound clay evidenced imprint fragments clay wall recovered excavations platform covered groups group cluster small buildings trough supporting groups group west group mound main structure group slopes gradually away west easily lay outside strong retaining walls fortress appears observation platform covering western pass city retaining wall supported mound pass round earth platform mound supported group consists number small structures ridge north group group small group northeast group structure platform uses natural mound base group known group northernmost group group cluster small buildings immediately southwest group adjoining caves small caves found sides ridge supporting ruins city archaeological investigations revealed caves artificially modified antiquity cave situated group near bank river flows northwest ruins cave metres deep metres wide length metres high cave artificially widened heightened rain season ground city flows small cave cave ceremonial activities related presence spring fact walls formed green sacred maya associated water fertility ritual activities cave continued modern times ceremonial fires lit del cave bat located southern extreme site metres deep widest point metres wide cave metres high artificially widened permit access maya ceremonies late 20th century archaeologists found recent evidence activity offerings large quantity excavated bases buildings deceased cremated ashes collected sides holes represent eyes mouth deceased decorated motifs form highly decorations painted black red cream style maya labelled site identified maya custom cremated remains deceased restricted elite buried simple tombs outside city centre usually buried platform bases sides general practice highland maya represents tradition unique city found interred principal city approximately equal proportions interred platforms ceremonial architecture represented impossible individuals buried religious architecture differing roles buried secular architecture total excavated ruins destroyed earthquake leaving available study collection paris approximately thirty years artefacts repatriated guatemala contained cremated remains single adult appeared mature elderly adults remains young adults notably absent indicating elite warriors buried manner represented variety highland types analysis bone fragments cremated remains indicates entire body burnt special treatment skull offering skull excavated pyramid surviving skull fragments indicated practice artificial skull elite inhabitants city remains animal bones found mixed significant portion contents identifiable included deer bones number bird species particularly birds prey contained associated offerings


fort fort stood oldest military forts built british colonial government singapore fort gave today fort road stand grounds present park fort kind eastern island series defensive batteries fortifications southern coast singapore defended eastern approaches singapore harbour singapore town attacks poor structural design fort subsequently abandoned buried found traces moat near intact perimeter wall fort considered local archaeological experts singapore important archaeological finds true century fort date result group lobbying site national monument national heritage board stated plans gazette fort time history fort designed built henry edward colonial engineer architect singapore history museum road fort reflected british concerns european powers netherlands russia attack strategically located colony founded sir british east india company island fort fort fort built time fort guard western eastern entrances new harbour harbour fort sitting atop wet low lying plantation occupied area approximately hectares small elevated battery inch rifled muzzle loading guns facing sea shelters battery surrounded ditch measuring feet wide flanks local team contractors constructed fort months fort garrison included members singapore volunteer artillery held regular gun drills annual training camps fort works began upgrading existing gun batteries singapore gun battery replaced pair powerful longer range mark vii inch breech loading guns wash fort problems start fort nicknamed wash fort soft ground time guns fired range finding equipment shake need matters worse difficult find ammunition new inch guns common singapore site hindered supply reinforcement reduced effectiveness fort defensive position barely years upgrades completed suggested fort demolished debates fort colonial defence committee london local defence committee singapore nearly decade fort finally rendered obsolete abandoned guns removed instead destroying fort british thought simpler bury world war portion visible ground 1960s public park built atop fort fast growing suburbs late 1960s finally buried land east_coast took place memory soon forgotten ensuing decades outline wall visible dry spell prompted resident jack seek relevant authorities investigate origins despite public discussion interest generated discovery singapore government finally approached team archaeologists forgotten fort excavation possible community based project named raising history planting roots initiated citizens committee local residents schools community involvement program encourage ownership local heritage weeks raised corporate sponsors fund raising dinner held city mall september senior minister member parliament marine parade group representation constituency guest honour event long awaited excavation began september led handful archaeologists dedicated volunteers called southeast asian nearly metres volunteers uncovered significant remains fort pair infantry appear original plans perimeter moat inner appears superstructure experts singapore true fort protection considered singapore important archaeological finds archaeological dig fort site provided unique opportunity like minded participate actively remains old fort nearly months volunteers ranging school students working professionals days assisted archaeologists site discovering hand year old military fort museum biodiversity research natural history research unit national university singapore assisted analysis marine artefacts uncovered site bags samples deposited museum analysis preliminary site report dated later compiled submitted relevant authorities outlined research process preliminary findings variety volunteers list research team involved date excavation project fort ended south eastern nearly fully excavated indefinitely south western left untouched exposed fort remains december national parks board runs park protect elements future archaeologists discover dug pits breed fears fall deep holes remaining funds scholarships constituency students group lobbying site national monument incorporate fort remains featured park future date status pending waiting final decision preservation monuments board urban redevelopment authority


people people iron age man preserved archaeological study bodies northern europe written danish archaeologist published danish title translated english english archaeologist bruce published translated german published munich title die english people divided chapters devoted man second man best known iron age bodies discovered jutland denmark fourth chapters devoted wider context bodies denmark parts europe final chapters devoted wider exposition life death iron age denmark book received positive reviews barry nature american praised arguments writing style use illustrations alongside bruce translation subsequent decades received praise criticism specialists field lauded publicity brought subject rejected conclusions based insufficient evidence synopsis chapter man devoted body discovered fell jutland denmark discusses excavation corpse personal involvement operation outlining find removal national museum denmark copenhagen outlines manner head public display museum alongside discusses archaeological context man examining manner executed clothing contents meal second chapter entitled man deals eponymous body found located miles east like previous chapter discusses personal investigation body outlining discovery conservation context death burial chapter people denmark notes bodies found denmark proceeds provide number examples including woman bodies highlighting similarities exist noting discovered 19th early 20th centuries explains little known methods archaeological investigation conservation unavailable time chapter people countries explores similar bodies discovered neighbouring germany netherlands making reference project undertaken german archaeologist alfred lived title fifth chapter explores wider context life iron age denmark dealing issues class divisions houses final chapter death came looks place death iron age denmark outlining ordinary remains include contrasting methods dealing dead corpses left argues represent evidence widespread tradition human sacrifice devoted fertility goddess citing writings evidence reception academic reviews nature journal published review provided english archaeologist barry university southampton expresses disappointment work sees lack information daily life social structure iron age denmark feels compensated final chapter describes representing best building detective style fashion picture ritual behavior iron age praising use photographs brilliant refers attractive translation bruce considers overall effect provocative people labels splendid book detail fascination specialists wider readership interested university missouri wrote review people journal american began review describing background interest bodies highlighting married graduate students proceeds note book interest hoped use gossip intensely personal culturally ultra danish tone attributes attempts reach wider non academic audience praising use epic literature early iron age claims people represents best modern descriptions north era furthermore provides evidence support claims goes praise bruce translation believes slight tendency translate place names decision convert centimeters inches ending review notes alfred catalog bodies people represented starter means exhausted field wider reception academic paper discussing bodies published criticised jumping conclusions supported evidence book today actually pass muster responsible popular scholarship particular highlighted ascribed bodies iron age carbon dated proclaimed lady medieval ireland danish viking despite lack supporting evidence book bodies van der paid homage bodies describing highly accessible work bring publicity filled admiration work noted wished written years edited volume man stated book represented major contribution study bodies people interest study cultural artistic reception bodies noted interested reading copy primary school library near copenhagen proceeding describe book classic noted 21st century continued offer source book artistic expressions bodies proceeding explore influence noted artists writers basis learning bodies works dedicated successfully blended engaging narrative archaeological information profoundly influenced interaction fact fiction


known thames 10th century anglo saxon single edged knife found river_thames british museum london prestige weapon decorated elaborate patterns copper bronze silver wire blade known complete inscription letter anglo saxon alphabet letters thought alphabet magical function owner weapon smith forged anglo saxon viking swords knives inscriptions latin alphabet blades inscriptions handful finds inscription blade discovery henry found river_thames near early sold british museum exhibited society london worked department british museum described resembling examples rare england bears row characters gold weapon usually called thames term old attested history gregory tours meaning element uncertain recent scholarship prefers term long long type weapon description iron knife single cutting edge long tapering point length blade attached handle survived blade prestige weapon decorated faces geometric patterns created strips twisted copper brass silver wire grooves cut blade copper brass silver technique wire create decorative patterns inscriptions widely anglo saxon spear heads 9th 10th centuries found viking swords period sides deep median groove running length blade long rectangular panel bordered copper strips panel filled pattern silver copper meant simulate pattern panel bears inscriptions brass silver wire inscription left comprises letters anglo saxon alphabet inscription right separated design silver brass male personal assumed maker original owner blade inscription follows number interesting features inscription firstly order exactly match traditional sequence earlier letter alphabet letter anglo saxon preserved vienna nineteen correct order confused sequence match found source swapped regard order vienna later additions original letter alphabet order stable especially letter rare anglo saxon inscriptions occurs stone found dover secondly 16th small appears number unusual written unusual form single horizontal bar instead circle cross commonly found manuscript examples written unusual form attested inscriptions example shrine saint scholars believe borrowed letter anglo saxon similar shape vertical stem horizontal diagonal branch right hand sees evolution normal letter left branching stroke letter written unique form diagonal forming triangle crossing middle probably form written unusual form single vertical stem instead diagonal legs normally case form occurs occasionally inscriptions manuscript texts professor english university adelaide suggests represents simplified form standard written unusual form cross centre vertical stroke indicate designed inscription unfamiliar writing unusual errors difficulty wire form inscription follows unusual features inscription right strange designs look like letters able explain date finds europe range 7th 11th century earliest examples england 7th century graves isolated finds england believed date 9th 10th centuries dated 10th century similar kind known southern england london suffolk river_thames keen edge ferry county durham north england similar construction design come workshop suggests southern presumably origin inscription comprises original letters anglo saxon include additional letters use inscriptions time inscribed supports examples manuscript sources witness charter king kent granting pasture rights church andrew rochester kent dated spelled monk kent present witnessed charter king dated derives old english words meaning ring crown meaning translated significance significant rare example inscribed anglo saxon weapon specifically inscription unique example complete letter anglo saxon inscribed blades widespread tradition northern europe weapons particularly swords stanza poem teaches hero sword provide magical protection poem committed writing late 13th century preserve elements earlier date similar swords found lines old english poem roughly contemporary poem mentions practice carving sword owner practice confirmed 6th century sword kent 6th century silver mouth piece isle preserve inscriptions known example anglo saxon inscription weapon outside kent anglo saxon weapons isolated letters example anglo saxon war god earlier quotation found sword spear blade kent anglo saxon inscriptions weapons known extensive prominent inscription furthermore known anglo saxon weapon inscription blade sword cryptic inscription blade comprising cross formation certain examples europe sword knife blade inscription contrast inscriptions latin alphabet occur frequently viking swords example swords maker blade known period years basis quotation original owner certain viking anglo saxon weapons weapon maker engraved instead owner shown page professor anglo saxon university_of_cambridge considers possibilities smith forged swords dark ages maker engraved master wrote page adding master added extra magical power weapon original owner notes impressive piece equipment owner proud gave present distinguished fine gift bearing page concludes know possibility correct inscribed inscription identifies maker owner provides rare example letter anglo saxon alphabet examples earlier letter elder sixteen letter younger relatively common continental scandinavian inscriptions inscriptions historically later anglo saxon rare england examples anglo saxon known manuscript sources represents surviving inscription basic letter anglo saxon alphabet incomplete inscription sixteen letters occurs disc shaped head middle saxon pin suffolk seven letters inscribed head pin north yorkshire unclear purpose inscription served page suggests simply decorative magical significance notes carving letters swords form magical protection ancient practice 9th century lore probably decline kingdom kent owner commissioned archaic inscription prestige purposes fact errors order design letters suggests smith adding inscriptions weapons copied manuscript text


known archaeological site excavated near confluence snake rivers franklin county southeastern washington remarkable level preservation organic materials depth deposits apparent age associated native american human remains site discovered property site oldest human remains north_america time site point american english camps san_juan island national historic landmarks listed washington site submerged water protecting waters rising newly constructed lower monumental dam miles snake river failed hold water leaked protected area gravel soil creating lake west excavation existence site brought attention professor richard named john excavations site started auspices washington state university national_park_service continued returned site professor students dig trench turned human bones dating indicated human remains years old returned time professors including visiting professor poland members united_states geological survey found human animal remains bone tools april year washington senator warren public announcement finds site bill provided funds protect site failed president johnson signed executive order authorized funding army corps engineers build site protect imminent flooding caused construction lower monumental dam late year left dig leaving lead project lower monumental dam closed february days site completely underwater thick layers gravel accounted site flooded excavation team laid plastic topped gravel hopes able return dig future location site known today come threat erosion wakes vehicles lake army corps engineers considers site stable condition satisfactory threat rating findings site excavations site revealed evidence human occupation period lasted years area home humans long ago years ago people living site hunted game deer hunted smaller mammals gathered river excavation turned graves included carved shells spear points grave child held matching knives stone excavation turned upper layers found area stone tools found use hides mortars layers dated years ago large amounts shells belonging genus found imported west_coast united_states miles away majority shells holes indicating adorned addition known jefferson peace medals found associated recent human remains site evidently having given local native american leader presumably lewis clark expedition medal returned native american graves protection act regulations analyzing sequences site showed ecosystem immediately following retreat glaciers years ago gave way mixed forest pine spruce led current prairie ecosystem implications findings unlike archaeological finds human remains site able dated environmental geological archaeological methods human remains site oldest found washington time oldest set remains found north_america later work confirmed original dating site indicating human remains albeit oldest excavated new world finding useful confirming early chronology region confirming antiquity styles associated bone tools


represents series 30_rock cut buddhist caves located near district indian state cave famous hindu temple dedicated god set prominent western caves individually numbered caves face south numbered east west caves rest dwellings monks form dwellings cells rock cut water inscriptions layout caves general similar pattern shape generally sides long benches occupants use caves date 1st 3rd century shrine situated cave dated 1st century date conversion hindu shrine unknown caves arise buddhism names current literally means mountain cave derived meaning cave sanskrit meaning mountain stone appears hindu scripture association legend called mountain hill known hill hill ancient inscription calls place caves known caves geography located indian state district deserted location human settlement nearby located miles headquarters situated north west banks river flows approached originally trade route northern descending plains town dated years christ born circular hill caves raises plains ranges temple mountain buddhist caves cave temple architecture temple located cave largest excavation feet plains essentially buddhist dwelling monks meditation cells design hall cells varying dimensions rear wall hall large entered central door hall metres long metres wide metres high windows entrance hall treated assembly hall temple steps built stone masonry flights lead entrance steps believed represent sensual pleasures overcome pillars half pillars support projects relieved resting beams pillars octagonal shafts benches rest topped inverted compressed square plates inverted stepped pyramid finally crowned tigers elephants later period central cells rear wall combined breaking partition house image old entrance widened conversion temple smaller entrances hall entrances bear marks fixing wooden doors added conversion doors hall traces plaster paintings added conversion renewed later times possibly late 19th century bombay presidency records hall white washed paintings depicted childhood marriage preparations battle demons forth scenes hindu deities like krishna cells fitted wooden doors storage memorials added left wall conversion shape long pillar arched right pillar hand raised elbow open palm signifies blessing panels plain memorials sculpted worn hints subject husband funeral icon form called sanskrit interpreted mountain born son daughter mountain mountains features icon seen wall cave distinct temples temple faces south according local tradition deity faces north face visible mountain rulers tried vain locate face central icon covered brass wooden armour given gift armour present currently removed seen trunk turned left facing east eyes visible icon covered directly formed sculpted stone wall cave like temples central image believed self existent naturally occurring stone formation resembling elephant face legend according scripture arms white mount born purpose killing demon asked husband said supporter entire universe initiated son underwent years pleased blessed born son accordingly fourth lunar day bright fortnight hindu month day clay image came alive born later named gave remembers starting job successfully complete task years grew knew death hands sent demons like kill instead killed age architect god endowed weapons axe hook lotus little knocked egg tree emerged mounted assumed later killed army generals important temple worship revered temples collectively called believe order visiting temples pilgrimage irrelevant usually visited 6th temple caves including temple lie control archaeological survey india priest charge temple activities stay priests claim festivals celebrated temple pilgrims crowd temples monk dwellings cave cave divided parts middle room cell half cell bench right wall possibly pillars traces seen ceiling rock beam present pillars beam ribs rail pattern existed earth filled door small window left leads middle room middle room bench right wall middle room left half cell right cell half cell bench right wall left square window connecting cave door grooves fitting wooden frame leads cell bench right wall cave cave similar cave design pillars bench pillar rail pattern pillars rests rail patterned rock beam ceiling parts pillars broken beam project rock doorway grooves wooden frame leads middle room bench left wall position hall cell cell exchanged respect cave design bench cave cave open cell bench wall door leads cell seat left seat vertical bands caves seat cave cave open cell bench wall door leads cell bench right wall broken window left door right small hole wash feet entering cell cave cave located feet lower left cave divided parts middle hall seven cells varying size wall wall known seven cell dwelling pillars pot capitals period right broken trace base right pillar remain open court steps lead right court wall left door middle hall close broken ceiling single line inscription flanked buddhist beginning end translated gift seven cave guild corn dealers door windows sides middle hall cells bench bench built wall cells cave cave difficult reach dwelling consists cell half cell wall entered cell broken door small window hole half cell open bench cave cave located right cave entered cave hall period broken pillars hall larger central door windows door having grooves wooden frames purpose hall unknown speculated school study cave cave located higher level cave difficult reach broken open broken ceiling floor leads middle room broken door windows right wall hall seat cell left room seat door cell leads half cell seat traces painting seen ceiling outside left cave cave difficult reach broken hall left hall cell lower height hall hall doorway seat outside hall view seat cave bears traces paint cave cave small dwelling entered door cave open partly broken floor ceiling benches left right door middle room middle room small window left door seat right wall wall middle room left half cell seat cell door floor cave coating cement ceiling middle room bears painted concentric circles cave cave slightly higher level cave small dwelling open court steps lead right court bench right wall benches flanked plain sided pillar remnants survive right double crescent door leads middle room bench right wall seat left window left door wall middle room cell left bench bench half cell right seen ceiling traces painting cave cave small dwelling consisting cell doorway walls cave preserved ceiling half broken cave cave small dwelling slightly higher level cave cell bench right wall leads cell door walls ceiling broken cave cave comprises series small dwellings located row shared dwelling doorway flanked broken windows leading middle room room middle dwelling cell right half cell left window located left door cell cell traces painting half cell bench second dwelling middle room half cell left cell reached right half cell middle room bench half cell wall bench door leads half cell cell bench window right cell middle room doorway bench largest dwellings consists middle hall wall hall cells seat right rear walls runs bench right cell left cell window left doorway bench rear walls hall door bench broken holes fixing wooden pillars left cave cave inscription reads translated gift son inscription second reads translated gift wife wife cave cave dining hall wall doorway windows bench runs walls passage hall broken steps open court located left court cave cave cell wall bench runs left wall ceiling shows signs dressed stone wooden screen right wall end bench right small cell roof probably connected cave small cell bench right wall doorway cave cave cave small dwelling hard reach broken right passage left cell bench entire left wall cave cave approached small cave absence direct approach living space fairly large size inner cell door frame seating benches cut shallow spaces cell cave cave cave left dwelling unit bench entire length wall window hall smaller room entry door gives access long corridor wall inscription donor monastic order cave cave dwelling units long passage shallow seating provisions left wall door provides links rooms feet niche wall rooms gives clue purpose cave cave long cave difficult access leads seating arrangements door access passage benches seating cave cave longer cave small big rooms rooms seating arrangements display irregular excavations denoting poor condition rock probably stopped work cave cave plain cave located cave chapel cave cave cave main caves earliest examples plan similar caves smaller size pillars animal capitals shrine steps entrance shrine hall entered plain door measuring metres width metres height hall measures metres length metres width metres height row pillars central shrine located rear hall period pillars begin pyramid structure base followed sided shaft reversed pot capital plates pattern capital animal figures like lions elephants tigers parts pillar broken shrine sided pillars arranged curve consists drum dome projection wall support structure dome base buddhist carved hole carved fixing holes probably fix central wooden umbrella flags 2nd century flanked inscription wall translates gift chapel cave distinguished son modern near mumbai caves higher level excavation originally intended dwelling seat converted following discovery rock fault left bench cave cave flat roof pillars hall measures metres length metres width metres height pillars octagonal shape steps base metres diameter rim design surrounded cylindrical drum square pattern inverted stepped carved covers ceiling pillars consist octagonal shafts resting base stepped pedestal inverted inscription wall dates cave 2nd century inscription translates gift chapel cave given son grandson caves spur hill caves numbered face south south west cut hill slopes based unfinished conditions interpreted early caves details small shrine door unfinished irregular rock faces entrance decorated ornamentation depict shrine lotus flower patterns inaccessible cave rooms stone beds adjoining rooms incomplete shrine low relief adjoining caves chapel


chinese pinyin dynasty tomb site located county province china northwest capital built additional construction tombs complex house remains members house imperial family dynasty includes emperor wife throne china governing female emperor renowned dynasty stone statues located ground mural paintings subterranean walls tombs main mound underground tomb emperor smaller attendant tombs presently attendant tombs excavated archaeologists belonging members imperial family chancellor general left guard history following death emperor complex completed death interred joint burial emperor july dynasty tombs son crown prince grandson prince posthumously honored crown prince granddaughter lady posthumously honored princess inscribed date burial allowing historians accurately date structures artwork tombs fact dynasty practice records person rank dates death burial consistent tombs imperial family high_court officials old book new book record son emperor father brother victims political provided honorable including princes princess mentioned attendant tombs royal family members excavated belonging chancellor general left guard attendant tombs mentioned opened excavated 1960s early 1970s march organized petition chinese government efforts finally emperor tomb location located mount north river sea level grounds flanked leopard valley east sand canyon west tomb located tomb structures subterranean southern peaks called hills resemblance shape hills towers erected hills form sort gateway main mound northern peak tallest burial place halfway northern peak builders site dug long wide tunnel rock mountain leads inner tomb chambers located deep mountain complex originally enclosed walls remains discovered today including inner wall inner wall thick total perimeter area corner parts outer wall discovered dynasty hundreds residential houses surrounded inhabited families maintained grounds buildings remains houses discovered building foundation timber offering hall situated south gate inner wall discovered spirit way leading spirit way flanked sides stone statues like later tombs song dynasty dynasty tombs statues include horses winged horses horses lions officials foreign envoys khan western turks presented court kingdom sent carved dated traditional chinese modelled body historian states artistic emphasis exotic foreign tribute sign greatness china chinese emperor foreigners sent places came asserts statues foreign diplomats sculpted represents far reaching power international standing dynasty statues represent actual foreign diplomats present emperor funeral historian angela howard notes spirit ways auxiliary tombs statues smaller lesser quality fewer number main spirit way leading emperor burial statues flanking sets octagonal stone pillars meant ward evil spirits tall dedicated emperor located path written inscription commemorating achievements flanked written inscriptions additional main erected emperor mid dynasty tombs tomb chambers emperor empress located deep mount trend set emperor burial mount emperors dynasty natural mountains serving tombs members imperial family allowed tombs located natural mountains tombs officials nobles featured man tomb chambers totally underground wrote children emperors allowed tombs shape truncated high ranking officials lesser tomb conical conical tombs officials allowed wall surrounding gate positioned south permitted attendant tombs far excavated feature truncated pyramid underground chambers approached declining diagonal ramps ground level entrances vertical shafts ramps tombs allowed goods lowered ramps main hall underground tombs leads sided brick laden burial chambers connected short corridor chambers feature ceilings tomb features real fully stone doors tomb trend apparent han western common time northern dynasty stylistic stone door tomb closely resembles stone doors tomb unlike dynasty tombs treasures imperial tombs stolen grave fact tomb found thousand items gold copper iron colored pottery altogether tombs tomb articles unearthed archaeologists attendant tombs raided grave found tomb horses decoration supporting armed armored soldiers horsemen playing blowing waving spur horses sculptures found tomb included civil officials warriors tomb guardian meter height murals tombs far excavated decorated mural paintings feature multiple shaft entrances arched chambers historian mary states tomb murals subterranean halls tombs representative anonymous professional tomb renowned court painters primarily art asserts tomb murals needed references sparse description offered era documents painting celebrated painters dynasty record famous painters successive asserts painting skill portraying animation spirit art critique associated renowned dynasty painters like achieved anonymous dynasty tomb painters writes palace guard seated prince tomb especially outstanding respect relative differences age achieved evident robust guard officer stands attention displays attitude respectful self assurance seated pair deeply conversation important feature murals tomb representation architecture numerous examples existing stone brick towers architectural historians examine remaining wooden halls survived 8th 9th centuries rammed earth foundations great palaces capital survived mural scenes timber architecture tomb suggested historians representative eastern palace residence crown prince dynasty according historian murals tomb represent buildings capital number underground chambers ventilation shafts compartments air wells seen indications number main halls rooms corridors residences tomb occupants alive underground hall descending ramp approaching tomb chambers entrance chamber feature murals multiple bodied gate towers similar foundations surveyed ann honorary fellow durham university provides chronicle chinese emperors following pictures tomb murals


cave cave rock shelter site park county wyoming united_states near eastern entrance national park site adjacent concurrent routes left bank north fork river altitude feet national forest mouth cave approximately feet wide extends approximately feet volcanic cliff north fork lies left bank river mouth small stream opposite mouth creek largest known cave north fork believed carved river flow reason diversion away unknown cave occupied discovered resident gene smith studied excavated buffalo bill historical center site includes unusual amounts materials hide feathers wood buried remains named researchers joe dated cave notable depth cultural deposits extending feet depth particular continuity deposits deposits classified occupation levels represent seasonal use site annual basis extending period late prehistoric period geology referred cave cave actually broad shallow vertical cliff owes depth overall size stability parent rock roof feet river rock floor feet river time discovered entirely filled cliff composed period volcanic ash mixed larger rock fragments volcanic origin similar cut mouth creek cave fill accumulated years appears originated nearby debris fans formed material flowed channels neighboring cliffs apart depth consistent nature cave characterized extreme pointed shape cliff prevents rain rock cave vertical joints rock investigation investigation cave led robert marked foot grid permanent reference mark elevation marked wall initial investigation focused establishing layers cave floor established excavation proceeded layer layer excavations cave floor foot levels following established reference grid digging hand artifact bearing layers layers devoid artifacts excavated disposed embankment site previously disturbed hunters dug feet deep pit turned productive zone excavation hunters appear stopped encountered rock covered proved human burial site end portion site excavated depth feet upper cultural zones layers removed site season layers removed zones excavated deeply layers removed central area time clear excavation proceed depth site disposal considerable quantity excavated debris need addressed brought remove sections fill line shelter season directed results cave investigations published science results excavation cave yielded nearly continuous succession artifacts span period years artifacts disposed manner permitted dating relative terms dating establish absolute scale proved relating dating excavations rocky mountain region particular stone points found cave set standard classifying stone spear heads region point define cultural commercial relationships peoples american west carbon dating indicate cave occupied near end later occupancy spanned followed cooler climate earliest layers cave yielded stone blades dating layers contained artifacts defined layers layer parallel oblique points appeared layer roughly corresponding cultural evidence continuous layers produced leaf shaped points interpreted corresponding style points implies inhabitants cave era big game hunters great plains adapted mountain environment layer dated new type point appeared points implied arrival group eastern nebraska western iowa replacing previous group moved north presence points suggests connection site northeastern iowa dated early archaic period transition coincided climatic shift points recovered layers imply return previous inhabitants moved central plateau layer dated layer dated layers represent presence people culture increasingly definitive artifacts present layer onward including layer yielded gray flat pottery manufacture layer notable source body adult male covered fur feather recovered layer dated dating thousand animal bones discovered cave large majority bones identified researchers university texas able determine biological origins thousand bones sites region significant numbers sheep deer genus identified particular interest larger number sheep deer eighty sheep deer identified prevalence sheep deer highly unusual sites region deer equally plentiful areas cave located led researchers propose site home base hunters operate higher altitudes wide range artifacts discovered site caused cave seen highly significant site study rocky mountain cave significance recognized national_park_service placement national_register_of_historic_places


cyrus cylinder cyrus cylinder persian cyrus charter persian ancient clay cylinder broken fragments written declaration script persia king cyrus great dates 6th century bce discovered ruins modern iraq currently possessed british museum sponsored expedition discovered cylinder created foundation deposit following persian conquest neo empire invaded cyrus incorporated persian empire text cylinder praises cyrus sets portrays king line kings king defeated deposed cyrus denounced people low born origins contrasted cyrus heritage victorious cyrus portrayed having chosen chief god restore peace order text states cyrus welcomed people new ruler entered city peace appeals protect help cyrus son cyrus citizens improved lives repatriated displaced people restored temples cult region concludes description cyrus repaired city wall found similar inscription placed earlier king cylinder text traditionally seen biblical scholars evidence cyrus policy jewish people following captivity act book attributes cyrus text refers restoration cult deported peoples interpretation disputed text identifies makes mention jews jerusalem cylinder called oldest known charter symbol universal human rights view rejected misunderstanding cylinder generic nature typical statement new monarch beginning reign director british museum stated cylinder attempt know running society state different new kind adopted national symbol iran imperial state display commemorate years iranian monarchy discovery british archaeologist discovered cyrus cylinder march lengthy programme excavations carried british museum placed foundation deposit foundations city main temple expedition followed earlier dig carried british archaeologist henry excavated area found little importance britain ambassador ottoman_empire ruled time helped assistant dig obtain decree ottoman sultan continue earlier excavations valid year second liberal terms issued granted years october promise extension required sultan decree authorised pack dispatch england found provided representative sultan instructed present dig examine objects uncovered permission secured initiated large scale excavation sites behalf trustees british museum undertook excavations distinct phases phase returned england bring finds raise funds work cyrus cylinder found second expeditions began departure london october arrived home town november travelled baghdad reached january february march supervised excavations number sites including soon uncovered number important buildings including temple major shrine chief god identity fully confirmed german archaeologist robert excavation found large number business documents written clay buried temple foundations discovered cyrus cylinder gave conflicting accounts discoveries wrote memoirs land cylinder found mound southern end near village letter sent november samuel birch keeper oriental british museum wrote cylinder cyrus found tell ibn ali pieces inscribed left baghdad left baghdad april returning departing journey london lasted june discovery announced public sir henry president royal society meeting society november described interesting historical records character brought light erroneously described coming ancient city notes newly discovered clay cylinder cyrus great published society journal following year including partial translation text description cyrus cylinder barrel shaped cylinder baked clay measuring centimetres centimetres maximum diameter created stages cone shaped core clay large grey stone built extra layers clay cylindrical shape fine surface slip clay added outer layer text inscribed excavated fragments having apparently broken apart antiquity today exists main fragments known reunited main body cylinder discovered fragment underwent restoration fired plaster filling added smaller fragment section measuring centimetres centimetres fragment acquired yale_university dealer published text fragment apparently broken main body cylinder original excavations removed excavations retrieved waste confirmed cylinder paul richard university definitively identified yale_university lent fragment british museum temporarily practice indefinitely exchange suitable tablet british museum collection cylinder clearly post dates cyrus great conquest date creation unclear commonly said date early cyrus reign time british museum puts cylinder date origin text surviving inscription cyrus cylinder consists lines text written script lines fragment remainder fragment number lines start end text badly damaged words text written extremely formulaic style divided distinct parts lines introduction previous king cyrus god lines detailing cyrus royal titles peaceful entry lines cyrus policy restoring lines prayer behalf cyrus son lines declaration cyrus enabled people live peace increased offerings gods lines details building activities ordered cyrus beginning text partly broken surviving content character deposed king lists alleged crimes charging temples gods forced labor populace according proclamation result offenses god abandoned sought king called forth cyrus enter new ruler mind fear king gods came end evil city day people brought ruin relief inspected checked countries seeking upright king choice took hand cyrus king city called proclaiming aloud midway text writer switches person narrative voice cyrus addressing reader directly list titles given persian style cyrus king world great king powerful king king king king quarters earth son great king king great king king perpetual seed reign love joy concern describes pious deeds performed conquest restored peace cities sacred freeing inhabitants brought relief dilapidated housing putting end main complaints repaired ruined temples cities conquered restored returned sacred images inhabitants taken near end inscription cyrus highlights restoration city wall saying saw inscription king preceded remainder missing presumably describes cyrus gateway mentioned partial supplanted complete identification fragment available german english editions text cyrus cylinder available online incorporating fragments false translation text things abolition slavery right self determination minimum wage asylum promoted internet making claims found real cylinder refers god false translation widely circulated claim cyrus supposedly stated country shall decide wants leadership iranian nobel peace prize winner acceptance speech described cyrus emperor proclaimed pinnacle power years ago reign people wish similarly speech united_states president george bush referred cyrus declaring people right worship god freedom statement text cylinder associated fragments british museum announced january inscribed clay fragments museum collection identified tablet inscribed text cyrus cylinder fragments come small site near identification professor university birmingham curator charge museum department middle_east horse bone bearing inscriptions apparently derived cyrus cylinder discovered china second bone inscribed unknown text bones acquired beijing palace museum origin unclear reflect proclamation format leather clay derived cyrus cylinder text reason original symbols copied suggests indicate text original cylinder sent persian empire copied bone inscription point interpretations persian tradition propaganda according british museum cyrus cylinder reflects long tradition early millennium kings began reigns reforms cyrus declaration stresses legitimacy king conspicuous statement respect religious political traditions british museum scholars period describe instrument ancient propaganda text royal building inscription genre equivalent old persian literature illustrates cyrus opted local traditions symbols conquest control elements text drawn long standing themes rule preceding king proclaimed abandoned gods new king gained power divine gods new king rights predecessor addressing welfare people gods rebuilt restored offerings gods increased gods sought repairs city manner earlier rightful kings continuity emphasized text cylinder asserts virtue cyrus gods fearing king traditional type hand constantly deposed king deeds ancestry portraying destroyer people note creates problem monarch chooses claim legitimacy symbolic capital predecessors cylinder royal authority association reason rulers greater use royal tradition cylinder refers king predecessor native ruler cylinder continuous tradition wide variety symbolic items including animal sacrifices stone cylinders figures newly crowned kings public beginning reigns form deposited foundations public buildings contained messages number purposes building value commemoration ruler builder magical building invocation divine protection cylinder intended seen burial text inscribed public purposes archive copies kept important inscriptions cylinder text likewise copied january british museum announced collection found inscribed text cyrus cylinder according museum text cylinder probably proclamation widely distributed persian empire similarities royal inscriptions cyrus cylinder bears striking similarities older royal inscriptions notable examples cylinder seized throne annals conquered years later faced problems legitimacy cyrus conquered declares chosen personally ensured victory took power performed sacred rites restored sacred states found royal inscription placed temple foundations earlier king left honored claims appear cyrus cylinder years later king defeated exiled taking annals describe took duties sovereign gods maintaining temples privileges urban elite cyrus cylinder makes exactly points cyrus deposed predecessor king commissioned foundation texts clay cylinders cylinder british museum follows basic formula text cylinder indicates strong continuity centuries tradition established rhetoric advanced puts cylinder reflects pressure citizens able bring bear new royal context reign defeated predecessor automatically described bad divine defeated course acts inevitably familiarity long established suggests cylinder authored priests working behest cyrus compared work time verse account ruler enemy priests cyrus presented works point stressing cyrus qualifications king line kings contrast non royal ancestry described cylinder merely insignificant verse account similar cyrus cylinder inscription texts dubbed example literary dependence direct dependence mutual dependence common source characterised historian smith propaganda cyrus agents shortly cyrus conquest prepare way lord viewpoint disputed simon university_of_cambridge puts cyrus cylinder verse account event compositions reuse existing literary themes need explained product pre conquest persian propaganda german historian identified line cylinder saved city oppression line tablet epic creation builds suggests reference represents cyrus takeover moment ultimate restoration political religious institutions cosmic order universe analysis cylinder claims cyrus cylinder consistent persian propaganda deposed king rule contrast cylinder depiction illegitimate ruler ruined country reign largely peaceful recognised legitimate king undertook variety building projects military campaigns claim king universe corners earth paul interpreted moon god sin outright moon god king continued rich offerings greater devotion sin unacceptable elite came north introduced foreign gods went lengthy self imposed exile said prevented celebration vital new year festival cyrus conquest resisted supporters battle demonstrated comments doubtful fall cyrus awaited population desperate cyrus takeover king appear welcomed population historian fried says little evidence high ranking priests period collaborators inscription goes describe cyrus returning original statues gods brought city persian invasion restored normal order satisfaction alludes temples restored deported groups returned imply empire wide programme restoration instead refers specific areas border region persia including sites devastated earlier military campaigns cylinder indicates cyrus sought acquire loyalty ravaged regions funding reconstruction return temple properties displaced populations unclear actually changed ground archaeological evidence rebuilding repairing temples cyrus reign text presents cyrus entering peacefully welcomed population presents implicit contrast previous notably rulers invaded plundered 12th century thing years cyrus conquered region massacre conquered people common practice explicitly highlighted victory statements cyrus cylinder presents different message notes portrays cyrus takeover moment convergence persian history natural disaster salvation cylinder account cyrus conquest clearly tell story mention earlier conflict max describes skilled work history text battle cyrus forces defeated apparently army explain week gap reported chronicle persian entry surrender temple fried suggests siege stand temple defenders priests fate cylinder chronicle makes mention speculates killed expelled replaced pro persian members elite hill claim wholly peaceful takeover acclaimed people standard rhetoric obscure facts describing claim armies welcomed great imperial fantasies bruce lincoln professor university_of_chicago notes population repeatedly revolted persian rule cyrus son rebels sought restore national independence line native kings indication favourably disposed cylinder suggests policy subject people described cylinder traditionally viewed expression tolerance scale previously unknown policies cyrus nations contrasted treated subject peoples harshly permitted previously deported sponsored reconstruction religious buildings cyrus depicted positively western tradition sources old testament bible greek writers particularly influential renaissance cyrus model successful ruler modern historians argue cyrus behavior driven needs persian empire expression personal tolerance empire large centrally directed cyrus followed policy existing territorial units implement system government shown cyrus won praise gratitude spared policy described cylinder biblical historian puts expression conservative support local regions serve political interests empire biblical historian comments matter economy simpler cost obtain spontaneous collaboration subjects local level impose sovereignty force biblical interpretations bible records jews exiled returned homeland settled rebuild temple following cyrus book provides narrative account rebuilding project scholars linked particular passage cylinder old testament account der far region sacred centers abandoned long time returned images gods resided places let eternal gathered inhabitants returned dwellings passage interpreted reference policy instituted cyrus allowing exiled peoples jews return original cylinder inscription linked reproduction book texts claimed issued cyrus concerning jews reconstruction temple jerusalem hebrew substantially different content tone leading historians argue post hoc question authenticity remains unresolved widely believed reflect sort persian royal policy albeit terms given text biblical dispute authenticity biblical prompted interest passage cyrus cylinder specifically concerning question indicates cyrus general policy subject peoples restoring text cylinder specific listing places neighboring regions describe general release return exiled communities focuses return deities home cities establishment local religious norms reversing alleged neglect theme describes literary device cyrus opposed suggests cyrus simply adopted policy earlier rulers giving privileges cities key strategic politically sensitive regions general policy historian early judaism written religious policy different basic practice promoting local gods cyrus seen jerusalem situated strategic location egypt worth political reasons successors generally supported indigenous subject territories expression legitimacy rulers favour conversely persian kings destroy peoples rebelled happened following revolt historian noted revolt devastated lower asia obviously soon returned trading activities evidently permission reconstruction required given circumstances destruction cylinder text describe general policy return mention sanctuary outside biblical historian bob concludes jews jerusalem peter ross argues cylinder manifesto general policy indigenous empire comments purely context cylinder provides proof cyrus return jewish rebuilding temple jerusalem links lack references jews surviving texts indication regarded great importance german scholar widely held traditional view noting scholars read sentences text cylinder confirmation old testament passages steps taken cyrus erection jerusalem temple interpretation according scholars strict belief instructions effect actually provided cyrus cylinder human rights cylinder gained new prominence late 1960s iran called world charter human rights cylinder key symbol political ideology regarded commentators charter human rights despite disagreement historians scholars iranian government view cyrus cylinder dubbed declaration human rights iranian government reading prominently advanced book white revolution iran identified cyrus key figure government ideology associated government wrote history empire began famous declaration cyrus advocacy humane principles justice liberty considered remarkable documents history mankind described cyrus ruler history subjects freedom opinion basic rights opened united_nations conference human rights saying cyrus cylinder precursor modern universal declaration human rights new year speech declared cyrus great year grand commemoration held celebrate years persian monarchy serve showcase modern iran contributions iran world civilization recognized main theme commemoration monarchy iran political system iran famous monarchs persia past cyrus particular looked period moment national past best serve model slogan imperial society hoped create cyrus cylinder adopted symbol commemoration iranian magazines journals published numerous articles ancient persian history british museum loaned original cylinder iranian government duration festivities display monument tower year celebrations commenced october culminated week later spectacular parade tomb cyrus october sister princess presented united_nations secretary general replica cylinder princess asserted heritage cyrus heritage human understanding tolerance courage compassion human liberty secretary general accepted gift linking cylinder efforts united_nations general_assembly address question respect human rights armed conflict replica cylinder kept united_nations headquarters new_york_city second floor hallway united_nations continues promote cylinder ancient declaration human rights scholarly views interpretation cylinder charter human rights described historians dismissed misunderstanding characterized political propaganda devised regime german historian comments portrayal cyrus champion human rights image humane persia describe aim iranian nation regime counter growing influence islamic creating alternative narrative rooted ancient persian past writing immediate aftermath anniversary british museum walker comments essential character cyrus cylinder general declaration human rights religious simply building inscription tradition commemorating cyrus restoration city worship previously neglected professors history ancient near east bill arnold comment belongs foundation deposit inscriptions kind provide unusual human rights declaration claimed lloyd jones university edinburgh notes text suggests concept human rights comments comparison scholars british museum similar texts showed rulers ancient iraq making comparable succeeding throne cyrus museum tasks resist object meaning appropriation political agenda cylinder clearly linked history iran real sense iranian document larger history ancient near east jewish historians writers human rights supported interpretation cyrus cylinder human rights charter american philosopher believes concept human rights 20th century concept describes cyrus earliest known advocate religious tolerance suggests ideas led development human rights limited cultural tradition iranian lawyer argues viewing cylinder merely instrument royal rule cyrus issued document granted rights height power popular opposition visible external threat force hand iranian prime minister writing early 20th century characterizes cylinder discuss ing human rights way unique era dealing ways protect honor prestige religious beliefs nations dependent iran days exhibition history cyrus cylinder displayed british museum formal acquisition loaned times twice iran october conjunction year persian monarchy september december spain march june united_states travelling exhibition march october distributed following british museum national museum iran sold commercially british museum ownership cyrus cylinder cause controversy iran artifact obtained legally excavated iranian soil ottoman territory modern iraq loaned iranian press campaigned transfer iranian ownership cylinder brought london difficulty british museum board trustees subsequently decided undesirable loan cylinder iran british museum mounted major exhibition persian empire forgotten empire world ancient persia held collaboration iranian government loaned british museum number iconic artefacts exchange undertaking cyrus cylinder loaned national museum iran return planned loan cylinder postponed october following june iranian presidential election british museum assured situation country suitable response iranian government threatened end cooperation british museum cylinder loaned following months deadline postponed despite appeals iranian government cylinder eventually display september month period exhibition popular attracting people days people time closed january opening iranian president islamic republican ancient persian commentators inside outside iran criticised overt appeal religious nationalism november bbc announced united_states tour cylinder headline british museum ancient bill rights cylinder museum director declared cylinder referred bill human rights shared widely possible british museum announced news press release saying declaration human rights tour cities united_states according british museum website cylinder exhibition tour started march included washington arthur gallery museum fine arts houston metropolitan museum art new_york asian art museum san_francisco culminated paul museum los_angeles october cylinder thirty associated objects british museum collection including pair gold treasure seal exhibition titled cyrus cylinder ancient persia new beginning prince wales museum mumbai india december february organised british museum prince wales museum partnership sir trust sir trust trust set community descendants persian hold cyrus great regard scholars consider follower books journals media articles sources editions translations article item held british museum object reference


church church greek ancient byzantine church constantinople istanbul turkey built dedicated saint intended assertion imperial lineage decorated building largest church city construction introduced large scale use persian decorative elements inaugurated new architectural type perfected later little known church history construction building survived 11th century fell decay architectural elements removed reused constantinople cities built ottoman period site church rediscovered excavations 1960s area directly opposite istanbul metropolitan municipality city hall preserved archaeological site open visitors sculptures removed istanbul archaeological museum history church commissioned descendant western emperors constructed reign meant replace earlier church built wife great grandmother skull saint new church thought largest constantinople building nephew heir line inscribed walls church preserved entirety compares past emperors constantine monumental builder claims surpassed solomon temple proportions new church allegedly based building constituted direct challenge prestige authority low born reigning dynasty reasons massive scale reconstruction years later light rivalry coincidence completed said cried solomon surpassed thee importance allusions questioned scholars church statement imperial prestige old roman aristocracy descended championed reign emperor aspect evidenced tale recorded gregory tours shortly accession called aged contribute large fortune state treasury time gold melted fashioned plates adorned interior roof newly built church preserving emperor church survived 11th century abandoned plundered sculptures architectural elements byzantines sack city pieces reused monastery christ modern mosque pieces capitals spread places far venice barcelona vienna including called pillars acre mark venice site church quarter ancient gradually occupied houses mosque ottoman period area leveled construction intersection roads excavations began brick pieces marble sculpture discovered fragments monumental church fragments conjunction references approximate location church byzantine texts concerning imperial avenue allowed secure identification site extensively excavated archaeologists direction istanbul archaeological museum roy michael harrison oaks institute area directly opposite istanbul metropolitan municipality city hall preserved archaeological site open visitors sculptures removed istanbul archaeological museum description despite architectural prominence little known church history precise architecture information church original appearance derived honour family inscribed pieces parts church claims church laid replica ancient jewish temple precise proportions given bible temple solomon royal unit measure model richard martin harrison site chief reconstructed church roughly square long sides central nave fronted preceded large length north remains building identified church palace oval building center indicates position strong foundations building indicate according harrison presence dome bringing estimated height building area altar sufficiently excavated shape remains unknown possible presence dome universally accepted major importance mean churches saints combined traditional dome know interior featured storeys galleries based harrison existence pair storey composed pier northern southern sides spaces western bay covered barrel cross interior decoration rich walls decorated marble roof featured depiction baptism constantine great fragments ivory gold colored glass originally marble sculptures found site fragments deliberate temple reinforced motifs palm trees church decoration notable characteristic attested art architecture extensive use persian decorative motifs running leaves geometric patterns persian motifs increasingly popular 6th century decoration exceptional find relief plaques bearing images christ virgin mary images rare destruction human representations 8th 9th centuries largest decorative marble remains site niche head pieces massive pieces marble consist concave segment large frontal carved center tail proud runs carving surrounding filled leaves inscription letters raised high surrounded realistic detail involved individual leaf remarkable leaf visible veins edges leaves torn artist took time layer design pulling leaves forward carving background giving sense depth martin harrison notes artist eye use constant measure indicated marks minute irregularities slight bends work area originally painted vibrant colors primary colors blues colors difficult find power decorative aspect structure background letters bright blue associated goddess royalty antiquity renewal rebirth christians adorned carved painted blues gold eyes remaining bird head pieces green glass pupils held chains suspend connor suggests location lamp believable use chains