cold war cold war state political military tension world war powers western united_states nato allies powers eastern soviet_union satellite states historians fully agree dates common period year doctrine policy aid nations threatened soviet announced year soviet_union collapsed term cold large scale fighting directly sides major regional wars known wars supported sides cold war split temporary wartime alliance nazi_germany leaving soviet_union united_states profound economic political differences single party empire ruled dictatorship operating socialist economy state controlled press owning exclusively right establish govern communities democratic republic capitalist economy state free elections press freedom religion granted freedom expression freedom association citizens self proclaimed neutral arose non aligned movement founded egypt india indonesia yugoslavia faction rejected association american led west soviet controlled east engaged directly scale armed combat heavily armed preparation possible nuclear world war nuclear attack basis attack lead total destruction attacker doctrine mutually assured destruction mad aside development sides nuclear deployment conventional military forces struggle dominance expressed wars globe psychological warfare massive propaganda campaigns espionage rivalry sports events technological competitions space race phase cold war began years end second world war ussr consolidated control states eastern united_states began strategy global challenge soviet power extending military financial aid countries western_europe example supporting anti communist greek civil war creating nato alliance berlin blockade major crisis cold war victory communist chinese civil war outbreak korean war conflict expanded ussr usa competed influence latin_america states africa asia hungarian revolution stopped soviets expansion sparked crises crisis berlin crisis cuban missile crisis following cuban missile crisis new phase began saw sino soviet split relations communist sphere allies particularly france demonstrated greater independence action ussr crushed prague spring program czechoslovakia vietnam war ended defeat backed republic south vietnam prompting adjustments 1970s sides interested accommodations create stable predictable international system period saw strategic arms limitation talks opening relations people republic china strategic soviet_union collapsed end decade soviet war afghanistan beginning early 1980s period elevated tension soviet downing korean air lines flight able archer nato military exercises united_states increased diplomatic military economic pressures soviet_union time communist state suffering economic mid-1980s new soviet leader introduced reforms reorganization ended soviet involvement afghanistan pressures national independence grew stronger eastern_europe especially poland refused use soviet troops bolster warsaw pact regimes occurred past result wave revolutions peacefully exception romanian revolution communist regimes central eastern_europe communist_party soviet_union lost control banned following abortive coup attempt august turn led formal dissolution ussr december collapse communist regimes countries south united_states remained world cold war events left significant legacy referred popular culture especially media featuring themes espionage internationally successful james_bond movie franchise threat nuclear warfare origins term end world war english writer george cold war general term essay atomic bomb published october british newspaper contemplating world living shadow threat nuclear warfare looked james predictions world writing looking world drift decades anarchy slavery james theory discussed people considered ideological implications kind world view kind beliefs social structure probably prevail state permanent state cold war neighbours observer march wrote moscow conference december russia began cold war britain british_empire use term describe specific post war confrontation ussr united_states came speech bernard influential advisor democratic presidents april speech written journalist proclaimed let today midst cold war newspaper columnist walter gave term wide currency book cold war asked source term traced french term 1930s background disagreement historians starting point cold war historians trace origins period immediately following world war argue began october revolution russia took power stated new soviet_union surrounded hostile capitalist viewed diplomacy weapon soviet enemies divided beginning establishment called revolutionary abroad successor joseph viewed ussr socialist island stating present capitalist replaced socialist events second world war demonstrated mutual distrust suspicion western powers soviet_union apart general philosophical challenge communism posed capitalism western support anti white movement russian civil war soviet funding united_kingdom general strike causing britain break relations soviet_union declaration peaceful capitalist countries past allegations trial planned french led coup état american refusal recognize soviet_union moscow trials great purge allegations british french japanese nazi german espionage ussr generally world wars soviet_union initially signed non aggression pact germany german_army invaded soviet_union june japanese bombed pearl harbor december soviet_union allied powers formed alliance convenience britain signed formal alliance united_states informal agreement wartime united_states supplied britain soviets lend lease program remained highly suspicious believed british americans ensure soviets bore fighting nazi_germany according view western allies deliberately delayed opening second anti german order step moment shape peace settlement soviet perceptions west left strong tension hostility allied powers end world war wartime conferences post war europe allies disagreed european map look borders drawn following war held ideas establishment maintenance post war security western allies desired security system democratic governments established widely possible permitting countries peacefully resolve differences international organizations soviet_union sought dominate internal affairs countries bordered war created special training centers communists different countries set secret police forces loyal moscow soon red army took control soviet agents took control media especially radio quickly harassed banned independent civic institutions youth groups schools churches rival political parties sought continued peace britain united_states hoping focus internal reconstruction economic growth western allies divided vision new post war world roosevelt goals military victory europe asia achievement global american economic supremacy british_empire creation world peace organization global churchill mainly centered securing control mediterranean ensuring survival british_empire independence central eastern european countries soviets united_kingdom american view potential ally goals british approach appeared greatest threat agenda soviets occupying central eastern_europe advantage western leaders favors differences roosevelt churchill led separate deals soviets october churchill traveled moscow agreed divide balkans respective spheres influence roosevelt signed separate deal regard asia refused support churchill issues poland allied negotiations concerning post war balance took place conference february albeit conference failed reach firm consensus framework post war settlement europe april president roosevelt died succeeded harry turned advice elite group foreign policy intellectuals churchill opposed things soviets decision prop government soviet controlled rival polish government exile london relations soviets severed following allies victory soviets effectively occupied central eastern_europe strong western allied forces remained western_europe allied occupied germany soviet_union united_states britain france established zones occupation loose framework power control allied conference san_francisco established multi national united_nations maintenance world peace enforcement capacity security council effectively paralyzed individual members ability use veto power accordingly essentially converted inactive forum exchanging rhetoric soviets regarded exclusively propaganda conference defeat japan conference started late july germany surrender differences emerged future development germany rest central eastern_europe participants mounting language served confirm suspicions hostile intentions positions conference informed united_states possessed powerful new weapon aware americans working atomic bomb given soviets rival program place reacted news soviet leader said pleased news expressed hope weapon japan week end conference bombed hiroshima nagasaki shortly attacks protested officials offered soviets little real influence occupied japan beginnings eastern opening stages world war soviet_union laid foundation eastern invading countries soviet socialist agreement nazi_germany pact included eastern poland incorporated different estonia lithuania lithuanian eastern finland finnish eastern romania central eastern european territories liberated nazis occupied soviet armed forces added eastern converting satellite states east germany people republic poland people republic bulgaria people republic hungary socialist republic people republic romania people republic albania soviet style regimes arose reproduced soviet command economies adopted brutal methods employed joseph soviet secret police suppress real potential opposition asia red army overrun month war went occupy large korean territory located north 38th parallel consolidating control eastern led supervised establishment soviet style secret police systems supposed crush anti communist resistance independence emerged strategy matched dealing domestic pre war rivals removed power trial imprisoned instances executed british prime minister winston_churchill concerned given enormous size soviet forces deployed europe end war perception soviet leader joseph unreliable existed soviet threat western_europe preparing new war february george long telegram moscow helped articulate government increasingly hard line soviets basis strategy soviet_union duration cold war september soviet produced telegram sent soviet ambassador commissioned authored portrayed grip monopoly building military capability prepare conditions winning world supremacy new war september james delivered speech germany plan proposal partition post war germany warning soviets intended maintain military presence europe indefinitely admitted month later program win german people battle russia minds weeks release long telegram british prime minister winston_churchill delivered famous iron curtain speech missouri speech called anglo american alliance soviets accused establishing iron curtain stettin baltic adriatic beginnings cold war split september soviets created purpose enforce international communist movement political control soviet satellites coordination communist parties eastern faced embarrassing setback following june split obliged members expel yugoslavia remained communist adopted non aligned position doctrine president harry advisers urged immediate steps counter soviet_union influence citing efforts amid post war confusion collapse undermine encouraging rivalries war february british government announced longer afford finance greek military regime civil war communist led insurgents greek civil war american government response announcement adoption goal stop spread communism delivered speech called allocation million intervene war unveiled doctrine framed conflict contest free peoples regimes insurgents helped yugoslavia accused soviet_union greek effort expand soviet influence doctrine marked beginning defense foreign policy consensus republicans democrats focused weakened vietnam war ultimately persisted moderate conservative parties europe social democrats gave virtually support western alliance european american communists paid involved intelligence operations adhered moscow line dissent began appear critiques consensus politics came anti vietnam war activists nuclear freeze movement marshall plan coup état early britain france united_states unsuccessfully attempted reach agreement soviet_union plan economically self sufficient germany including detailed accounting industrial plants goods infrastructure removed soviets june accordance doctrine united_states enacted marshall plan pledge economic assistance european countries willing participate including soviet_union plan aim rebuild democratic economic systems europe counter perceived threats europe balance power communist parties seizing control revolutions elections plan stated european prosperity contingent german economic recovery month later signed national security act creating unified department defense central intelligence agency cia national security council main policy cold war believed economic integration west allow eastern countries escape soviet control trying buy pro alignment europe prevented eastern nations receiving marshall plan aid soviet_union alternative marshall plan purported involve soviet subsidies trade central eastern_europe known plan later january fearful germany vision post war germany include ability pose kind threat soviet_union early following reports strengthening elements soviet executed coup état czechoslovakia eastern state soviets permitted retain democratic structures public brutality coup shocked western powers event point set motion brief scare war occur swept away opposition marshall plan united_states congress twin policies doctrine marshall plan led economic military aid western_europe greece turkey assistance greek military won civil war leadership italian christian democrats defeated powerful communist socialist alliance elections time increased intelligence espionage activity eastern diplomatic berlin blockade united_states britain merged western german occupation zones january later addition france zone april economic rebuilding germany early representatives number western european governments united_states announced agreement merger western german areas federal governmental system addition accordance marshall plan began rebuild german economy including introduction new mark currency replace old currency soviets shortly instituted berlin blockade june major crises cold war preventing food materials supplies arriving west berlin united_states britain france canada australia new_zealand countries began massive berlin supplying west berlin food provisions soviets mounted public relations campaign policy change east berlin communists attempted disrupt berlin municipal elections elections held december produced turnout overwhelming victory non communist parties results effectively divided city east west versions self demonstrated urged international continue air_force pilot created operation supplied candy german children backed lifted blockade repeatedly proposed plan unify east west_germany single government chosen elections supervised united_nations new germany stay western military alliances proposal turned western powers sources dispute sincerity proposal nato beginnings radio free europe britain france united_states canada western european countries signed north_atlantic treaty april establishing north_atlantic treaty organization nato august soviet atomic device detonated following soviet participate german rebuilding effort set forth western european countries britain france spearheaded establishment west_germany western zones occupation april soviet_union proclaimed zone occupation germany german democratic republic october media eastern organ state completely reliant communist_party radio television organizations state owned print media usually owned political organizations local communist_party soviet propaganda philosophy attack capitalism claiming labor exploitation war inherent system broadcasts british broadcasting corporation voice america central eastern_europe major propaganda effort begun radio free europe radio liberty dedicated bringing peaceful demise communist system eastern radio free europe attempted achieve goals serving home radio station alternative controlled party dominated domestic press radio free europe product prominent architects america early cold war strategy especially believed cold war eventually fought political military means george american including john foster acknowledged cold war essence war ideas united_states acting cia funded long list projects counter communist appeal intellectuals europe developing world cia sponsored domestic propaganda campaign called crusade freedom early 1950s worked west_germany secured membership nato government post unsuccessful proposal allow neutral germany prevent west_germany incorporation nato chinese civil war people liberation army defeated united_states backed nationalist government china soviet_union promptly created alliance newly formed people republic china according norwegian historian odd communists won civil war fewer military mistakes search powerful centralized government interest groups china party weakened war japan communists told different groups peasants exactly wanted hear cover chinese nationalism government retreated island taiwan confronted communist revolution china end american atomic monopoly administration quickly moved expand policy secret document national security council proposed reinforce pro western alliance systems quadruple spending defense united_states officials moved expand asia africa latin_america order counter revolutionary nationalist movements led communist parties financed ussr fighting restoration europe colonial south east asia early 1950s period known series alliances japan australia new_zealand thailand philippines notably united_states number long term military bases korean war significant impacts outbreak korean war june kim sung north korean people army invaded south_korea joseph planned prepared initiated invasion creating detailed war plans communicated north surprise security council backed defense south_korea soviets meetings protest taiwan communist china held permanent seat council force personnel south_korea united_states united_kingdom turkey canada colombia australia france south_africa philippines netherlands belgium new_zealand countries joined stop invasion effects korean war nato develop military structure public opinion countries involved great_britain divided war feared general war communist china nuclear war strong opposition war strained anglo american relations reasons british officials sought end conflict hoping unite korea united_nations auspices withdrawal foreign forces chinese north exhausted war prepared end late insisted continue fighting armistice approved july death north korean leader kim sung created highly centralized dictatorship continues date according unlimited power generating formidable cult personality south american backed ran significantly brutal deeply corrupt authoritarian regime overthrown south_korea fell year period military rule lasted establishment multi party system late 1980s crisis changes political leadership sides shifted dynamic cold war dwight inaugurated president january months administration american defense budget moved reduce military spending continuing fight cold war effectively death joseph soviet leader following deposition execution pushing aside rivals february shocked delegates 20th congress soviet communist_party denouncing crimes campaign declared way reform away policies acknowledge errors past november addressing western ambassadors reception polish embassy moscow famous like history bury expression shocking present later claimed talking nuclear war historically determined victory communism capitalism declared ussr west decade housing shortage disappear consumer goods abundant decades construction communist society ussr completed main secretary state john foster initiated new look strategy calling greater reliance nuclear weapons enemies wartime doctrine massive retaliation threatening severe response soviet aggression possessing nuclear superiority example allowed face soviet threats intervene middle_east crisis plans nuclear war late 1950s included systematic destruction major urban centers eastern china including moscow east berlin beijing civilian populations primary targets warsaw pact hungarian revolution death slightly relaxed tensions situation europe remained uneasy armed truce soviets created network mutual assistance treaties eastern established formal alliance warsaw pact hungarian revolution occurred shortly arranged removal hungary leader response popular uprising new regime formally disbanded secret police declared intention withdraw warsaw pact pledged establish free elections soviet army invaded thousands hungarians arrested imprisoned deported soviet_union approximately hungarians fled hungary chaos hungarian leader executed following secret trials openly repeatedly threatened west nuclear claimed soviet missile capabilities far superior united_states capable american european city rejected belief war declared new goal peaceful modified era soviet stance international class struggle meant opposing camps inevitable collision course communism triumph global war peace allow capitalism collapse giving soviets time boost military capabilities remained decades later new thinking peaceful end form class struggle events hungary produced ideological communist parties world particularly western_europe great decline membership western communist countries felt disillusioned brutal soviet response communist parties west recover effect hungarian revolution membership fact immediately recognized politician shortly revolution crushed said wound hungarian revolution inflicted communism completely healed america concentrated american strength abroad success liberal capitalism late 1960s battle men minds systems social organization kennedy spoke largely tensions henceforth based primarily objectives ideology berlin ultimatum european integration november unsuccessful attempt turn berlin independent free city giving united_states great_britain france month ultimatum withdraw troops sectors occupied west berlin transfer control western access rights east germans earlier explained berlin west time want west scream squeeze berlin nato formally rejected ultimatum mid december withdrew return geneva conference german question broadly 1950s beginning european integration fundamental product cold war promoted politically economically militarily later viewed fearful independent europe forge separate soviet_union use western competition world nationalist movements countries regions notably guatemala indonesia allied communist groups perceived west allied communists context united_states soviet_union increasingly competed influence world gained momentum 1950s early 1960s additionally soviets saw continuing losses imperial powers eventual victory ideology sides selling armaments gain influence united_states use central intelligence agency cia away string world governments support allied ones president cia implemented operation covert operation aimed overthrow iranian prime minister popularly elected non aligned middle eastern nemesis britain british owned anglo iranian oil company winston_churchill told united_states increasingly turning communism pro western assumed control monarch policies included banning communist party general suppression political dissent domestic security intelligence agency guatemala cia backed military coup ousted left wing president post government military headed repealed progressive land reform law returned property belonging united fruit company set national committee defense communism decreed law communism request united_states non aligned indonesian government faced major threat legitimacy beginning regional commanders began demand autonomy failed took action remove commanders february military commanders central colonel north colonel declared revolutionary government republic indonesia movement aimed regime joined civilian politicians party opposed growing influence communist indonesia party anti communist rhetoric rebels received arms funding covert aid cia allen lawrence pope american pilot shot bombing raid government held april central government responded launching airborne military invasions rebel strongholds end rebels militarily defeated remaining rebel bands surrendered august republic newly independent belgium june cia cultivated president joseph ordered dismissal elected prime minister cabinet september called dismissal instead ensuing crisis cia backed colonel quickly mobilized forces seize power military coup état british leftist people progressive party candidate won position chief minister administered election quickly forced resign power britain suspension dependent nation constitution embarrassed landslide electoral victory allegedly party british imprisoned leadership organization divisive engineering split colleagues won colonial elections despite britain shift view left wing soviet style communist time united_states pressured british independence alternative identified supported brought office worn communist guerrilla war vietnamese independence handed watershed defeat communist rebels battle french accepted negotiated abandonment colonial stake vietnam geneva conference peace signed leaving vietnam divided pro soviet administration north vietnam pro western administration south vietnam 17th parallel north united_states sent economic aid military advisers strengthen south vietnam pro western regime communist efforts emerging nations asia africa latin_america rejected pressure choose sides east west competition conference indonesia dozens world governments resolved stay cold war consensus reached culminated creation belgrade headquartered non aligned movement moscow policy establish ties india key neutral states independence movements world transformed post war order world african middle eastern nations rising nationalism asia latin_america sino soviet split period marked setbacks soviet_union notably breakdown sino soviet alliance beginning sino soviet split defended attacked death treated new soviet leader superficial accusing having lost revolutionary edge disturbed attitude nuclear war referred chinese leader throne desperate attempts sino soviet alliance considered useless denied proposal chinese soviet animosity communist propaganda war soviets focused bitter rivalry china leadership global communist movement historian argues sino soviet split key events cold war equal importance construction berlin wall cuban missile crisis second vietnam war sino american split helped determine framework second cold war general influenced course second vietnam war particular space race nuclear weapons united_states ussr pursued nuclear developed long range weapons strike territory august soviets successfully launched world intercontinental missile october launched earth satellite launch inaugurated space race culminated apollo moon landings astronaut frank later described battle cold war cuban revolution bay pigs invasion cuba july movement seized power january president unpopular regime denied arms administration diplomatic relations cuba united_states continued time fall president deliberately left capital avoid meeting cuba young revolutionary leader trip washington april leaving vice president richard_nixon conduct meeting place cuba began negotiating arms purchases eastern march january prior leaving office formally severed relations cuban government april administration newly elected american president john kennedy mounted unsuccessful cia organized ship borne invasion island las province failure publicly united_states responded publicly embracing soviet_union pledged provide support berlin crisis berlin crisis major incident cold war status berlin post world war germany early 1950s soviet approach restricting emigration movement emulated rest eastern hundreds thousands east germans annually emigrated west_germany system existed east west berlin occupying world war powers governed movement emigration resulted massive brain drain east germany west_germany younger educated professionals nearly east germany population migrated west_germany june soviet_union issued new ultimatum demanding withdrawal allied forces west berlin request rebuffed august east germany erected barbed wire barrier eventually expanded construction berlin wall effectively closing cuban missile crisis continuing seek ways following bay pigs invasion kennedy administration experimented ways overthrow cuban government significant hopes pinned covert program named cuban project devised kennedy administration february learned american plans cuba cuban project approved cia overthrow cuban government october possibly involving american military kennedy ordered operation assassinate preparations install soviet nuclear missiles cuba undertaken response alarmed kennedy considered reactions ultimately responded installation nuclear missiles cuba naval blockade presented ultimatum soviets backed confrontation soviet_union removed missiles return american pledge invade cuba later admitted agreed use nuclear weapons took granted nuclear war going disappear cuban missile crisis october november brought world closer nuclear war aftermath crisis led efforts nuclear arms race nuclear improving relations cold war arms control agreement treaty come force colleagues managed allowed peaceful retirement accused incompetence credited soviet agriculture bringing world brink nuclear war international embarrassment authorized construction berlin wall public humiliation confrontation course 1960s 1970s cold war participants struggled adjust new complicated pattern international relations world longer divided clearly opposed beginning post war period western_europe japan rapidly recovered destruction world war sustained strong economic growth 1950s 1960s capita approaching united_states eastern economies result oil crisis combined growing influence world organization petroleum countries non aligned movement powerful countries room assert independence showed resistant pressure moscow forced turn attention inward deal soviet_union deep seated domestic economic problems period soviet leaders embraced notion french nato withdrawal unity nato breached early history crisis occurring charles presidency france onwards protested united_states strong role organization perceived special relationship united_states united_kingdom memorandum sent president dwight prime minister september argued creation france equal united_states united_kingdom expansion nato coverage include geographical areas interest france notably french algeria france counter sought nato assistance considering response given unsatisfactory began development independent french nuclear withdrew nato military structures expelled nato troops french soil czechoslovakia invasion period political czechoslovakia called prague spring took place included action program described increasing freedom press freedom speech freedom movement economic emphasis consumer goods possibility government limiting power secret police potentially withdrawing warsaw pact answer prague spring soviet army warsaw pact allies invaded czechoslovakia invasion followed wave emigration including estimated initially fleeing total eventually reaching invasion sparked intense protests yugoslavia romania china western european communist parties doctrine september speech fifth congress polish united workers party month invasion czechoslovakia outlined doctrine claimed right violate sovereignty country attempting replace capitalism speech stated forces hostile socialism try turn development socialist country capitalism problem country concerned common problem concern socialist countries doctrine found origins failures states like poland hungary east germany facing declining standard living contrasting prosperity west_germany rest western_europe world johnson administration gained power assassination john kennedy took stance latin_america called doctrine brazilian military government president backing late april sent troops dominican_republic year occupation invasion operation power pack citing threat emergence cuban style revolution latin_america acted provisional president conservative president won presidential election non campaigning president juan activists dominican revolutionary party violently harassed dominican police armed forces indonesia anti communist general control state predecessor attempt establish new order military led mass killing estimated half million members indonesian communist_party leftist organizations escalating scale american intervention ongoing conflict south vietnamese government communist national liberation south vietnam insurgents opposing johnson deployed troops southeast_asia defeat north vietnamese allies vietnam war costly policy weakened economy ultimately culminated world saw defeat world powerful hands world nations north vietnam received soviet approval war effort soviet_union sent military advisors annual arms shipments worth million north vietnam war china sent troops annual arms shipments worth million chile socialist party candidate won presidential election elected president country americas cia targeted removal operated undermine support domestically contributed period unrest culminating general coup état september consolidated power military dictator reforms economy rolled leftist opponents killed detained camps middle_east remained source contention egypt received bulk arms economic assistance ussr troublesome client reluctant soviet_union feeling obliged assist day war advisers technicians war attrition pilots aircraft pro western israel despite beginning egyptian shift pro soviet pro american orientation egypt new leader rumors imminent soviet intervention behalf war brought massive american threatened wreck pre egypt largest recipient soviet aid middle_east soviets successful establishing close relations communist south nationalist governments algeria iraq indirect soviet assistance palestinian israeli palestinian conflict included support palestine liberation organization according historian charles iraqi coup upset sponsored security system established cold war middle_east appeared enemy baghdad regime potential ally united_states cia iranian government finance arm rebels second iraqi war weaken iraq africa army officers led carried coup creating socialist democratic republic soviet_union vowed support years later pro american emperor overthrown coup radical group army officers led pro soviet built relations soviets fighting broke war lost soviet support turned club group pro american intelligence agencies including iran egypt saudi_arabia support weapons military supported cuban soldiers soviet military advisors armaments carter remained neutral conflict insisting violating sovereignty carter initiated military cooperation portuguese revolution authoritarian returned portugal multi party system facilitated independence portuguese colonies east africa rebels waged multi faction independence war portuguese rule decade civil war replaced anti colonial struggle fighting erupted communist people movement liberation backed soviets national liberation backed united_states people republic china government united_states government south_africa african governments supported faction national union total independence consult soviets advance cuban government sent number combat troops fight alongside foreign mercenaries south african armoured column deployed support bolstered cuban personnel soviet assistance eventually gained upper hand vietnam war north vietnam invaded occupied parts use military bases contributed violence civil war pro american government insurgents documents uncovered soviet archives reveal north vietnamese invasion launched request negotiations south vietnamese forces responded actions bombing campaign ground effects disputed historians leadership pot eventually kill million killing fields population roughly million martin described atrocities genocide cold war era vietnam deposed pot installed war suffer chinese attack sino american result sino soviet split tensions chinese soviet border reached peak united_states president richard_nixon decided use conflict shift balance power west cold war chinese sought improved relations americans order gain advantage soviets february nixon announced stunning china traveling beijing meeting time ussr achieved rough nuclear united_states vietnam war weakened america influence world cooled relations western_europe indirect conflict cold war powers continued late 1960s early 1970s tensions beginning ease nixon following china visit nixon met soviet leaders including moscow strategic arms limitation talks resulted landmark arms control treaties salt comprehensive limitation pact signed anti missile treaty banned development systems designed intercept incoming missiles aimed limit development costly anti missiles nuclear missiles nixon proclaimed new era peaceful established groundbreaking new policy cooperation attempted revive soviet economy declining heavy military expenditures sides agreed strengthen economic ties including agreements increased trade result meetings replace hostility cold war countries live mutually developments coincided west german chancellor agreements concluded stabilize situation europe culminating signed conference security operation europe late 1970s deterioration relations 1970s led continued distinguished soviet personalities criticising soviet leadership harsh terms indirect conflict continued period world particularly political crises middle_east chile president jimmy carter tried place limit arms race salt agreement efforts undermined events year including iranian revolution backed revolution ousted pro regimes retaliation soviet intervention afghanistan december second cold war term second cold war refers period intensive cold war tensions conflicts late 1970s early 1980s tensions greatly increased major powers sides says reagan went fight second cold war supporting world cox says intensity second cold war great duration short soviet war afghanistan april communist people democratic_party afghanistan seized power afghanistan revolution months opponents communist government launched uprising eastern afghanistan quickly expanded civil war waged guerrilla government forces seven insurgents received military training weapons neighboring pakistan china weapons dollars united_states united_kingdom saudi_arabia soviet_union sent thousands military advisers support government increasing friction competing factions dominant moderate resulted dismissal cabinet members arrest military officers pretext coup united_states started covert program assist september president muhammad assassinated coup orchestrated fellow member assumed presidency soviets assassinated soviet special forces december soviet organized government led inclusive factions filled vacuum soviet troops deployed stabilize afghanistan substantial numbers soviet government expect fighting afghanistan result soviets directly involved domestic war afghanistan carter responded soviet intervention withdrawing salt treaty senate imposing grain technology shipments ussr demanding significant increase military spending announced united_states boycott moscow summer olympics described soviet threat peace second world war reagan january years prior president ronald_reagan stated conversation richard allen basic expectation relation cold war idea american policy soviet_union simple simplistic said win lose think ronald_reagan defeated jimmy carter presidential election increase military spending confront soviets reagan new british prime minister margaret denounced soviet_union ideology reagan labeled soviet_union evil empire predicted communism left ash history early reagan anti communist position developed stance known new reagan doctrine addition formulated additional right existing communist governments continuing carter policy supporting islamic opponents soviet_union soviet backed government afghanistan cia sought weaken soviet_union promoting political islam majority muslim central asian soviet_union additionally cia encouraged anti communist pakistan train muslims world participate soviet_union polish solidarity movement martial law pope john paul provided moral focus anti communism visit native poland stimulated religious nationalist resurgence centered solidarity movement opposition led attempted assassination years later december poland reacted crisis imposing period martial law reagan imposed economic sanctions poland response advised soviet leaders intervene poland fell control solidarity fear lead heavy economic sanctions representing soviet economy soviet military economic issues moscow built military consumed percent soviet_union gross national product expense consumer goods investment civilian sectors soviet spending arms race cold war commitments caused exacerbated deep seated structural problems soviet system saw decade economic late years soviet investment defense sector driven military necessity large interests massive party state dependent sector power privileges soviet armed forces largest world terms numbers types weapons possessed number troops ranks sheer size military industrial base advantages held soviet military concealed areas eastern dramatically west early 1980s ussr built military arsenal army surpassing united_states soon soviet invasion afghanistan president carter began massively building united_states military buildup accelerated reagan administration increased military spending percent percent largest peacetime defense buildup united_states history tensions continued intensifying early 1980s reagan revived program canceled carter administration produced installed cruise missiles europe announced experimental strategic defense initiative dubbed star wars media defense program shoot missiles mid flight background buildup tensions soviet_union united_states deployment soviet pioneer missiles targeting western_europe nato decided impetus carter presidency deploy cruise missiles europe primarily west_germany deployment placed missiles minutes striking distance moscow reagan military buildup soviet_union respond building military enormous military expenses inefficient planned manufacturing agriculture heavy burden soviet economy time saudi_arabia increased oil production non nations increasing production developments contributed 1980s oil affected soviet_union oil main source soviet export revenues issues command economics oil price decreases large military expenditures gradually brought soviet economy september soviet_union shot korean air lines flight boeing people aboard including sitting congressman larry mcdonald violated soviet past west_coast island near island act reagan characterized massacre act increased support military deployment overseen reagan stood place later reagan able archer exercise november realistic simulation coordinated nato nuclear release dangerous moment cuban missile crisis soviet leadership feared nuclear attack imminent american domestic public concerns intervening foreign conflicts persisted end vietnam war reagan administration emphasized use quick low cost counter tactics intervene foreign conflicts reagan administration intervened civil war invaded bombed libya backed central american anti communist seeking overthrow soviet aligned government nicaragua reagan libya popular united_states backing rebels controversy soviets incurred high costs foreign convinced soviet war afghanistan brief muslim aided china britain saudi_arabia pakistan waged fierce resistance invasion sent nearly troops support puppet regime afghanistan leading outside observers dub war soviets vietnam moscow afghanistan far disastrous soviets vietnam americans conflict coincided period internal decay domestic crisis soviet system senior state department official predicted outcome early invasion resulted domestic crisis soviet system law caught soviet system energy simply maintaining improving seeing period foreign movement time internal decay final years reforms time comparatively youthful general secretary soviet economy faced sharp fall foreign currency earnings result downward slide oil prices 1980s issues prompted investigate measures revive ailing state start led conclusion deeper structural changes necessary june announced agenda economic reform called restructuring relaxed production system allowed private ownership businesses paved way foreign investment measures intended country resources costly cold war military commitments productive areas civilian sector despite initial skepticism west new soviet leader proved committed reversing soviet_union deteriorating economic condition instead continuing arms race west partly way fight internal opposition party reforms simultaneously introduced increased freedom press transparency state institutions intended reduce corruption communist_party moderate abuse power central committee enabled increased contact soviet citizens western world particularly united_states contributing accelerating nations relations response military political concessions reagan agreed renew talks economic issues scaling arms race held november geneva switzerland stage men accompanied interpreter agreed principle reduce country nuclear arsenal percent second summit held iceland talks went focus shifted reagan proposed strategic defense initiative wanted eliminated reagan refused negotiations failed summit led breakthrough signing intermediate range nuclear forces treaty treaty eliminated nuclear armed ground launched cruise missiles ranges kilometers miles infrastructure east west tensions rapidly subsided mid late 1980s culminating final summit moscow george bush signed start arms control treaty following year apparent soviets oil gas subsidies cost maintaining massive troops levels represented substantial economic drain addition security advantage zone recognised irrelevant soviets officially declared longer intervene affairs allied states central eastern_europe soviet forces withdrew afghanistan german alternative scenario berlin wall came common european home concept began shape december reagan successor george bush declared cold war malta summit year later rivals partners gulf war iraq east europe breaks away soviet alliance system brink collapse deprived soviet military support communist leaders warsaw pact states losing power organizations poland solidarity movement rapidly gained ground strong popular bases communist governments poland hungary negotiate organizing competitive elections czechoslovakia east germany mass protests entrenched communist leaders communist regimes bulgaria romania case result violent uprising attitudes changed secretary state james baker suggested american government opposed soviet intervention romania behalf opposition prevent tidal wave change culminated fall berlin wall november collapse european communist governments ended iron curtain divide europe revolutionary wave swept central eastern_europe peacefully soviet style communist states east germany poland hungary czechoslovakia bulgaria romania eastern country communist regime violently execute head state soviet break away ussr weakened bonds held soviet_union february dissolution ussr communist_party forced surrender year old monopoly state power time freedom press dissent allowed question increasingly led union component declare autonomy moscow baltic states withdrawing union entirely soviet dissolution attitude central eastern_europe initially extend soviet territory bush maintain friendly relations condemned january killings lithuania privately warning economic ties frozen violence continued ussr fatally weakened failed coup growing number soviet particularly russia threatened ussr commonwealth independent states created december viewed successor entity soviet_union according russia leaders purpose allow divorce soviet comparable loose confederation ussr declared officially dissolved december aftermath dissolution soviet_union russia drastically cut military spending restructuring economy left millions unemployed capitalist reforms culminated recession early 1990s severe great depression experienced united_states germany cold war continues influence world affairs post cold war world considered united_states sole remaining cold war defined political role united_states world war united_states military alliances countries troops stationed abroad europe thirds west_germany asia mainly japan south_korea cold war marked peacetime military industrial complexes especially united_states large scale military funding science complexes origins found early 19th century considerably cold war cumulative military expenditures entire cold war amounted estimated nearly americans lost lives korean vietnam wars soviet casualties difficult estimate share gross national product financial cost soviet_union higher incurred united_states addition loss life soldiers millions died wars globe notably southeast_asia wars subsidies local conflicts ended cold war interstate wars ethnic wars revolutionary wars refugee displaced persons crises declined sharply post cold war years left cold war numbers stations radio stations thought broadcast covert messages heard today aftermath cold war conflict easily erased economic social tensions exploited fuel cold war competition parts world remain acute breakdown state control number areas ruled communist governments produced new civil ethnic conflicts particularly yugoslavia central eastern_europe end cold war era economic growth increase number liberal parts world afghanistan independence accompanied state failure popular culture cold war united_states soviet_union invested heavily propaganda designed influence hearts minds people world especially motion pictures cold war popular topic reflected extensively entertainment media continuing present numerous cold war themed feature films novels television media sleeper agents living door action drama series americans set early 1980s ranked metacritic annual best new shows list second season time movies like crimson tide shown entirety educate college students cold war historiography soon term cold war popularized refer post war tensions united_states soviet_union interpreting course origins conflict source heated controversy historians political scientists journalists particular historians sharply disagreed responsible breakdown soviet relations second world war conflict inevitable avoided historians disagreed exactly cold war sources conflict patterns action reaction sides explanations origins conflict academic discussions complex diverse general schools thought subject identified historians commonly speak differing approaches study cold war orthodox accounts post orthodox accounts place responsibility cold war soviet_union expansion europe writers place responsibility breakdown post war peace united_states citing range efforts confront soviet_union end world war post events cold war nuanced attempt balanced determining occurred cold war historiography cold war broad categories


battle battle russian french fought september battle fought napoleonic wars french invasion russia fighting involved troops left casualties making deadliest day napoleonic wars napoleon launched attack russian army driving initial positions failing gain decisive victory armies exhausted battle russians withdrew field following day represented russian effort stopping french advance moscow fell week later french clear way forcing alexander russian army decisively defeated resulting ultimate defeat french invasion following retreat moscow october series russian beginning campaign nobility grew alarmed advancing french troops forced dismiss army commander appointed replacement final attempt save moscow russians stand near village west town fortified positions waited french attack russian right wing occupied ideal defensive terrain french tried press russian left battle highlight fighting bloody struggle large near village french managed capture late day gradually forcing rest russian army pull russians suffered terrible casualties fighting losing army french losses heavy logistical difficulties napoleon encountered campaign exhaustion french forces lack information condition russian army persuaded napoleon remain battlefield army instead ordering kind vigorous pursuit reminiscent previous campaigns napoleon imperial guard unit battlefield saw fighting available swing action moment notice refusing commit guard historians believe lost chance destroy russian army win campaign capture moscow proved victory russians intention negotiating napoleon peace french evacuated russia spiritual capital october conducted difficult retreat ended december point remainder largely historical reports battle differed significantly depending originated supporters french russian fighting senior officers army led conflicting accounts disagreements roles particular officers background napoleon invasion russia french began invasion russia june response emperor alexander proclaimed patriotic war prepared face french according plan german general von russian troops command count michael face region remaining troops general launch attack french southern flank rear plan soon proved fatal mistake enormous separate crush russian armies time furthermore participation alexander commander caused chaos russian army russian forces polish frontier obliged fall face swift french advance napoleon advanced hoping catch russian army open french army positioned extended overland campaign nearest supply base french supply lines vulnerable light cavalry guerrilla forces french attacked seriously depleted french supply columns central french force napoleon direct command crossed men time battle reduced starvation disease nonetheless prospect decisive battle lured napoleon deeper russia stretched supply lines subordinates repeatedly prevented russian commander committing forces battle fellow generals russian court viewed constant retreat reluctance fight consequently removed command replaced prince august year old general seen contemporaries equal napoleon possessed ability muster good defence favoured russian scottish descent officers subordinate accept uniting army august arrived greet army taking army organized strong rearguard command general ordered army prepare battle understood decision retreat correct russian troops accept retreat battle occur order preserve morale soldiers new commander managed establish defensive position armies kilometres moscow ordered retreat august time ratio french russian forces time fight arrived defensive line established best available position moscow near village field open natural obstacles protect russian center left flank chosen protection provided river blocked moscow roads simply better locations starting september strengthened line earthworks including center right line open arrow shaped named left battle initial russian position stretched south new highway napoleon expected route advance anchored left erected mound near village russian generals soon realized left wing exposed vulnerable russian line moved position remained manned stating fortification manned simply delay advance french forces historian reports observation point determine course french advance historians reported fortification threaten french right flank despite effective reach guns period chief staff russian 1st army related memoirs russian left shifting position french army arrived sooner expected battle delaying effort shield russian left construction purpose disputed historians day conflict began september king french forces met russians massive cavalry clash russians eventually retreating flank threatened fighting resumed day retreated fourth corps arrived threatening flank russians withdrew pitched battle ensued king led cavalry corps second cavalry corps supported division louis infantry corps simultaneously prince infantry attacked position south fighting heavy fierce russians refused retreat personally ordered french captured cost french russian casualties small destroyed covered dead dying sides unexpected french advance west fall threw russian formation disarray left flank defensive position collapsed russian forces withdrew east constructing makeshift position centered village left flank russian position flanking attack opposing forces series reforms russian army begun creating regiments battalions battalion having companies defeats led important additional reforms continuous fighting course wars france sweden ottoman_empire allowed time fully implemented absorbed divisional system introduced corps established prussian influence seen organizational setup time russian army changed greatly force met french russian forces present battle included infantry battalions cavalry squadrons regiments artillery batteries artillery pieces total russians fielded troops russian area participate battle battle militia units broken provide reinforcements depleted regular infantry battalions russian artillery pieces held reserve committed battle according historian alexander french army remained finest army day good margin legacy french king fusion formations french revolution napoleon reforms transformed military machine dominated europe corps french army fact mini army capable independent action french forces included battalions infantry squadrons cavalry artillery pieces totaling troops french imperial guard consisted infantry battalions cavalry squadrons artillery pieces total troops committed action battle position ground taken left wing presented particular advantages gentle slope feet high strips wood formed confused difficult party advantage ground best position right wing avail defects left position strongly indicated left flank french object operation admit forces attracted right russian position consisted series disconnected earthworks running arc river right tributary steep banks added defense village left thick woods interspersed russian left center french deployment control french forces difficult aiding defenders russian center defended massive open backed mounting pounder cannons clear field fire way banks stream strongly concerned french new road positions moscow placed powerful 1st army right positions strong virtually french 2nd army expected hold left fall russian left flank change initial despite repeated pleas generals forces action began defensive offensive battle russians heavy artillery wasted right wing attacked french artillery help win battle toll attempts cover mistakes deployment later attempts historians compound issue complained toll narrow deep losses incurred artillery fire russian position kilometres long 1st army right 2nd army left area operations predicted napoleon command french forces errors similar russian adversary deploying forces failing exploit weaknesses russian line despite marshal suggestion maneuver weak russian left emperor instead ordered corps directly forward teeth defense flanking maneuver left weak fifth corps prince initial french attack aimed seizing russian positions collectively known arrow head shaped open backed earthworks left stream positions helped support russian left terrain advantages desired construction officer noting ditches shallow open ground making easy enter wide exposing infantry inside supported artillery village elevation dominated battle began opening gun french grand battery russian center sent division southernmost division left exited woods far bank hit russian cannon fire wounded french continued assault seeing confusion personally led 57th line regiment terrible forward horse shot fell hard general reported dead general arrived replace find alive leading 57th forward led 61st line regiment forward wounded 22nd time career gained control prince quickly led counterattack threw french positions marshal lead charge 24th regiment retook turned aid ignoring altogether credit responded quickly sending guard regiments battalions pounder cannon best pace bolster colonel toll moved guard reserve units forward early hours confused fighting french russian units moved forward smoke smashed artillery fire napoleonic standards infantry difficulty maneuvering corpses masses wounded advanced cavalry attack infantry confronted 2nd division supported infantry french carried seven assaults time beaten fierce close combat instances personally leading final attempt push french completely got hit leg splinters hours insisted staying field observe decisive cavalry attack counter punch drove seek cover allied infantry reinforcements sent torn pieces french artillery leaving division control russian forward position dust smoke confusion exhaustion combined french commanders field russians fallen confusion taking 2nd army command structure fell apart evacuated battlefield report hit quickly spread caused morale collapse napoleon sick cold far action observe going refused send subordinates reinforcements hesitant release reserve imperial guard far france attacks prince advanced corps rushing village capturing russian guard advancing columns rapidly lost shortly clearing faced fresh russian assault columns retreated village general posted prevent russians division crossed north stream remainder forces crossed bridges south placing stream russians deployed artillery began push russians divisions advanced furious artillery support changed hands forced personally rally routed regiment ordered action general brought forward horse artillery batteries began blast open ended 3rd battalion regiment regiments brought rushed bayonet eliminate brigade russian reinforcements assault returned russian control artillery continued pound russian support columns set artillery positioned heights countered moving prussian general right support defense french responded sending forward general commander imperial guard artillery brought forth artillery pieces imperial guard artillery park took command horse artillery pieces cavalry corps tour cavalry corps artillery opening massive artillery barrage brought troops attacking french brigade described walk hell height battle subordinates making decisions according colonel von famous work war russian commander trance death general chief artillery russian cannon sat useless heights rear ordered battle french artillery havoc russians raid northern flank morning battle patrols don discovered ford river extreme russian right northern flank seeing ground clear enemy forces saw opportunity french left flank enemy rear sent aides ask permission operation aide lucky encounter colonel von toll member staff suggested general cavalry corps added operation volunteered present plan commander chief went gave permission clear plan objectives drawn manoeuvre interpreted set having guns total infantry support moved southwest south moved west eventually arrived rear corps midday getting orders conduct assault sudden appearance masses enemy cavalry close supply train emperor headquarters caused panic prompted immediately cancel attack pull entire corps westwards deal situation russian cavalry commanders tried break french infantry find vicinity having infantry poorly coordinated russian attacks came unable achieve moved lines action perceived failure russian general staff turned action importance outcome battle delayed attack corps critical hours hours russians able situation realize terrible state 2nd army send reinforcements line retreat corps left french cavalry corps fill gap fire greatly reducing combat effectiveness delay contradicted military principle emperor stated times ground recover time raid contributed napoleon later decision commit imperial guard battle final attack napoleon renewed assault divisions launched massive frontal attack light cavalry division left reserve cavalry corps right russian sides 24th division sent battle russian fought motto moscow french troops approached close cannons fire use fight foes general ordered division lead assault watched assault preparations countered moving forces french artillery began bombarding assembling force gathered led attack opening met death charge stopped cold russian general led saxon polish cavalry squadrons officers command actually forced horses confusion allowing french cavalry infantry position battle ended sides exhausted artillery work fell 24th division troops russian died right cannons general captured french dead russian troops corpses including fall meaning russian troops successfully moved rear destroyed despite suffering heavy losses spite losing areas battlefield russian formation prevented collapsing french gain cost large casualties napoleon ordered troops retreat starting line russians previous positions area operations village village southern end russian positions lay old road perceived potential weak point defense march road turn entire position despite concerns area rough country covered heavy brush suited deploying light infantry forest dense ground russian deployed numbers russian general troops half militia armed axes ready deployment men trained eager fight attempt realized troops artillery forest opposition reverse eastward deployed 1st division line backing 3rd division battalion columns regiments called away help defend attack regiments deployed woods weakening position polish contingent contested village capture attempt ejected french forces general jean led join attack captured set fire departing russians village capture russians poles continued skirmish rest day progress heavy greatly hindered efforts eventually came near cutting rest russian forces general sent help form von support hope real progress poles lost napoleon refusal commit guard hours heroic resistance russian army dire straits french forces exhausted necessary stamina necessary carry assault enemy line crucial chief staff general daniel rode straight emperor headquarters according general wrote account campaign told russian line breached road russian line visible hole french attack pierced enormous crowd vehicles hastily retreating final push decide fate russian army war generals marshal louis joined told emperor thought time come guard committed battle given russian defense aware cost lives thousands thought presence prestigious unit bolster morale entire army final decisive push notable exception marshal commander guard cavalry senior generals strongly advise intervention guard general staff discussing matter general senior aide camp emperor brought field battle having wounded action immediately recommended emperor guard deployed action emperor said definitely want blown certain winning battle intervention determined commit valuable final reserve far away france napoleon rejected request time marshal instead called commander young guard marshal instructed guard field battle moving forward backward time massive guns end battle napoleon went forward situation russian lines shortly taken russians moved ridge line disarray disarray seen distance dust raised army ordered russian guard hold line artillery french army compact squares good artillery targets russian guard stood place fire resulting huge casualties masses troops distance attempted attack relied force refusal use guard finish day work showed brilliance napoleon russian forces protest prevented ruin french army day prussian staff officer von historian future author war alexander russia noting poor positioning troops particular defense communicated order receive instructions according von account commander found half hour away road moscow entourage young nobles drive napoleon day despite knew dispatches army badly hurt fight continuing action following day knew exactly fighting pitched battle retreat russian army intact lead recovery force weakened french forces bases supply textbook example hold logistics placed army far center supply september russian army moved away battlefield twin columns allowing napoleon occupy moscow await weeks russian surrender come course days russian army fight wall moscow fact site chosen near miles moscow battle site russian army received reinforcements risky moscow cost understood russian people wanted abandon moscow city regarded russia second capital believed russian army force protect city called council war night september village heated debate split battle listening general endorsed retreat passed chance battle moscow taken historiography unusual pivotal battle era difficult document similar difficulties exist battle battles war north_america battle offers particular challenges accuracy modern historian adam noted campaign history subjected overtly political uses personal accounts battle frequently individual role rivals politics time complex complicated ethnic divisions native russian nobility having second generation german descent leading rivalry positions command army historian deal normal problem veteran looking recalling events liked cases outright involved strictly russian event sabotage unknown french reporting generals lie like bulletin french affair particular promoting early form continued day occurred soviet years adherence formula expectation years time reliance western histories battle campaign french sources noted later historians views historians outcome battle changed passage time changing political situations surrounding proclaimed victory army emperor alexander general history claimed victory defeat egypt case man entire russian army allegiance army despite huge losses considered undefeated announcing defeat removed command damaged army endured stood proud alexander announcement gave justification needed allow march army rebuild russian forces later complete near utter destruction french army said supporting views allowed pass histories time histories soviet era raised battle contest political overtones master battlefield directing precision ballet master directing troupe abilities battlefield eyes contemporaries fellow russian generals far complex described terms noted author historian david writing echoes soviet era russian histories ways asserting general remained control battle ordered counter moves napoleon tactics personally aside personal differences overcome mistakes russian army tent scene played instead remains army russian army better shape moving secondary prepared positions seriously considering attacking day later historians leaving battle leaving early afternoon orders camp minutes battle described clear mistake leaving right far strong left weak fact cooperate fully saved russian army bad positioning artillery pieces standing silent russian right casualties casualties battle according french general staff inspector lost approximately soldiers including officers reported dead wounded according french historian french officers known killed battle total lost officers dead wounded including generals list slain included french generals division jean louis jean victor generals brigade jean saint jean charles louis jean louis suffering wound battlefield effectively death sentence french forces possess food healthy sick consequently equal numbers wounded soldiers death died injuries perished neglect casualties single day battle russian figures 5th 7th combined accounting method armies brings actual french army casualty count russian troops reported dead wounded missing including prisoners men separated units returned days bringing total russian losses russian generals killed wounded including prince died wounds september historian compared fully loaded crashing survivors minutes hours taken day battle scope napoleonic conflict battle series conflicts combined casualties nearest battle day historiography battle figures deliberately inflated generals sides attempting impact figures public opinion aftermath battle political reasons later soviet period aftermath battle seen victory napoleon scholars contemporaries described victory russian historian agrees constituted victory french ultimately cost napoleon war crown time apparent adds decision commit guard saved russians style defeat quotes marshal saint napoleon finest analyzed battle concluded intervention guard torn russian army pieces allowed napoleon safely follow plans winter quarters moscow resume successful campaign spring offer acceptable peace terms smith calls draw believes proved napoleon right decision commit guard far away homeland according christopher battle seen new battle 18th century sides sustained terrible losses achieve tactical goals battle clear result sides claimed battle victory long term war attrition battle source losses french losing men french russians suffered terribly russians reserve troops clear advantage logistics war french army supplies came long road lined hostile forces according long russian army existed french continued lose victory ultimately cost napoleon army allowed french emperor believe campaign exhausting forces went moscow await surrender come historian notes victory allowed napoleon moscow allowing arrival reinforcements french army possessed maximum men ill equipped win battle lack supplies ammunition suffered casualties time moscow retreat snow starvation ensured men crossed russian border alive furthermore russian army suffered heavy casualties battle fully recovered time napoleon retreat moscow immediately began interfere french withdrawal costing napoleon surviving army legacy poet battle poem battle famously described count leo continuous slaughter avail french russians culminating books novel war peace huge representing battle painted centenary installed hill moscow mark anniversary event composed commemorate battle russia battle yearly sunday september battlefield preserved modest monument constructed honour french soldiers fell battle remnants trenches seven day battle fought battlefield soviet german forces took fewer human lives commemorative coin released soviet_union commemorate anniversary battle million minor planet discovered soviet named village


battle battle fought austria-hungary serbia august early stages serbian campaign world war took place mountain surrounding villages town battle austro hungarian invasion serbia began night august elements serbian 1st combined division encountered austro hungarian outposts established slopes mountain earlier invasion clashes followed escalated battle control towns villages near mountain especially august morale austro hungarians collapsed thousands soldiers retreated austria-hungary drowning river fled panic august serbs entered marking end battle serbian casualties nearly days fighting killed wounded austro hungarians significantly higher soldiers killed wounded taken prisoners war victory austro hungarians marked allied victory central powers world war aerial war took place battle background relations austria-hungary serbia deteriorated aftermath overthrow immediately new government aligned russian_empire oriented foreign policy away long time patron austria-hungary austria-hungary closed border serbian agricultural exports episode known pig war austria-hungary formally annexed bosnia territory large population granted congress berlin annexation prompted serbian public war austria-hungary promise russian support event war serbian government decided pursuing matter militarily count von boasted austro hungary months defeat serbia war nations bosnia firmly austro hungarian hands serbia balkan states turned forcing ottoman_empire southeastern europe ensuing balkan wars lasted saw serbia possession macedonia june student assassinated ferdinand austria assassination precipitated july crisis led austria-hungary issue ultimatum serbia july suspicion assassination planned belgrade austro hungarian government ultimatum intentionally unacceptable serbia rejected austro hungarians declared war serbia july day serbs destroyed bridges danube rivers order prevent austro hungarians future invasion belgrade shelled following day marking beginning world war fighting eastern_europe began austro hungarian invasion serbia early august number austro hungarian troops assigned invasion far smaller strong force intended war declared large portion austro hungarian 2nd army moved russian reducing number troops involved initial stages invasion approximately percent force composed south living austro hungarian borders hand serbs muster men oppose austro hungarians main elements face austro hungarians 1st 2nd 3rd armies combined strength approximately men balkan wars concluded serbia recovering serbian soldiers killed seriously wounded recruits gained newly acquired territories serbian army stretched need garrison insurgents threat bulgarian attack compound matters serbian army dangerously short artillery begun ammunition stocks supply problems extended basic items serbian recruits reported duty units lacked uniform standard issue traditional serbian cap known rifles critically short supply estimated serbian soldiers equipment austro hungarians hand possessed abundance modern rifles twice machine guns field guns serbs better stocks munitions better transport industrial infrastructure serbs slight advantage austro hungarians soldiers experienced veterans balkan wars better trained austro hungarian counterparts soldiers highly motivated compensated lack weaponry austro hungarian forces assigned invasion placed command general responsible security detail ferdinand prior battle predicted easy victory calling pig farmers serbian army commanded crown prince alexander chief general staff field marshal commanded forces balkan wars deputy facto military leader generals commanded 1st 2nd 3rd serbian armies respectively battle prelude july august austro hungarian army launched series artillery attacks northern northwestern serbia subsequently managed exploit constructing system bridges rivers knew impossible forces line entirety austro serbian border extended miles ordered serbian army fall traditional line defence grouped bulk forces rapidly north west strong detachments posted towns outposts stationed important point frontier stage serbian general staff wait austro hungarian invasion plan belgrade continued subjected vigorous artillery number failed attempts cross danube resulted heavy austro hungarian losses bulk austro hungarian forces stationed bosnia serbian general staff danube subsequently austro hungarians attempted cross attacks seen significant august austro hungarian troops entered serbia town crossing village austro hungarian 13th army corps crossing day austro hungarian 4th army corps crossed north austro hungarian troops crossed town quickly taken august miles austro hungarians crossed rivers austro hungarian 2nd 5th armies moved belgrade encountered serbian 1st 2nd 3rd armies august ordered forces counterattack combat august elements serbian 1st combined division encountered outposts set invading austro hungarian army slopes mountain fighting erupted austro hungarian positions lightly held defenders driven away mountain midnight fierce clashes austro hungarians serbs underway chaos ensued darkness morning august seized range austro hungarians positions village austro hungarians suffered heavy casualties fighting retreated disorder day progressed serbs drove 21st infantry division slopes prevent linking 2nd army august serbs attempted retake efforts failed 1st combined division attacked villages moving small town austro hungarians succeeded serbian 3rd army forcing manoeuvre divisions protect approach town threatened 42nd mountain division early morning august austro hungarians launched attack intention pushing 1st division allow 5th army advance attack failed serbs defeated austro hungarians river forcing surviving soldiers withdraw serbian 2nd army counter offensive continued 1st combined division attacking village coming severe pressure serbian assault fought wave attacks followed night early morning august serbs finally defeated austro hungarians seized small town 1st division drove 9th infantry division position fought division subsequent counterattack inflicting heavy losses 4th corps renewed attack division forcing serbs withdraw having sustained light casualties 4th corps break serbs austro hungarian division unable alter direction advance mountain division position attack 4th corps rear result 4th corps unable join austro hungarian forces fighting serbs retook noon 1st combined division exploited advance 1st division attacked managed drive austro hungarians village fell serbs mid day late afternoon ridge time austro hungarians began retreating increasing apparently shattered 3rd army similar success routing 36th infantry division forcing retreat considerable disorder serbs moved pursue fleeing austro hungarians august austro hungarian forces fleeing river pursued serbs bosnia entire 5th army forced austro hungarian river austro hungarian soldiers drowned water fled panic serbian military reports announced enemy withdrawing greatest disorder notified king peter telegram saying main enemy defeated mount troops hot pursuit triumph mountain serbs sought recapture heavily fortified town violent clashes occurred august forces fought way western approaches town august serbs encircled town evening brought siege artillery august serbian forces entered discovered austro hungarians previous night serbs reached banks river bringing austro hungarian invasion serbia end casualties sides suffered heavy casualties battles estimates number austro hungarian casualties vary jordan states austro hungarians suffered total casualties battle fatalities states austro hungarian soldiers wounded killed writes austro hungarians soldiers killed wounded battle compounded loss cannons machine guns ammunition wagons historian david states austro hungarian soldiers taken prisoner estimates number serbian casualties vary jordan agree approximately serbian soldiers killed wounded battle soldiers killed battle number fatalities suffered sides heralded massive cost human lives world war french journalist henry reported area river tremendous battle took place mass graves flesh shadow woods emerged foul rendered approach summit impossible number corpses enormous second army constrained abandon burial lack time atrocities committed austro hungarians serbs according author lawrence majority committed austro hungarians austro hungarians charged civilians austro hungarians soldiers austro hungarian troops executed hundreds men raped murdered numerous women children battle hatred serbs starting war murdered austro hungarians victims fellow south serbs muslims serving austro hungarian army serbian commanders noted austro hungarians committed numerous killings course battle general recounted austrian army committed atrocities territories group nineteen men women children found tavern group people found small groups slaughtered people women children found villages woman belts skin cut breasts cut group women children found tied peasants sights seen legacy succeeded austro hungarian attack serbs ammunition battle needing million shells prevail commander serbian 2nd army general promoted rank field marshal serbian successful command contrast austro hungarian commander defeat determined launch second invasion serbia september given permission launch invasion provided risk lead defeat mountain affected morale austro hungarian troops aerial war occurred battle serbian aviator encountered austro hungarian plane performing reconnaissance mission enemy positions austro hungarian pilot fired revolver managed escape weeks serbian austro hungarian planes fitted machine guns battle allied victory central powers world war serbia triumph battlefield drew worldwide attention country won serbs sympathy neutral allied countries number foreigners serbia late offering financial political humanitarian military aid articles defence serbia frequent british press certain cultural circles italy advocated entering war allied citing serbian battlefield successes serbian patriotic song march written serbian composer shortly battle commemorate victory dedicated march favourite commander army colonel killed fighting yugoslav war film titled march released loosely based battle books websites


invasion isle france invasion isle france complicated successful amphibious operation indian_ocean launched november napoleonic wars operation substantial british military force landed royal_navy grand isle france mauritius marching inland weak french opposition british force able defenders series minor engagements culminating capture island capital port napoleon surrender charles french governor surrender eliminated french territory indian_ocean military equipment captured french_navy frigates heavy cannon isle france retained britain end war mauritius remained british_empire background operation culmination years conflict island neighbouring frigate squadrons commanded repeatedly raided british trade convoys responded amphibious assaults french gained time sent force attack port grand port isle france august ensuing battle grand port british squadron destroyed began blockade british reinforcements actions fought recently arrived british ships numerous french forces september defeated captured allowed build forces months sufficient successful invasion led recently arrived admiral indian_ocean important strategic region british trade british trading posts developed india napoleonic wars millions pounds worth goods crossed ocean trade routes year heavily guarded convoys east french recognised economic importance convoys failed provide sufficient forces disrupt indian trade late decided send strong frigate squadron ocean command augment forces available island bases isle france raid british shipping region able commander july ships captured seven east large number small merchant ships warships british response deployment provided admiral collected squadron ships available cape good hope placed command commodore gave instructions blockade islands prepare invasion attempts required forces spared spring maintained blockade launched series small raids largest saint paul september july developed sufficient forces island base rodriguez successfully invade capture restored august attempted extend blockade isle france seizing small islands main ports control passage shipping coral reefs surround island operation capture grand port successfully secured august shortly french squadron forced passage harbour captain samuel ordered frigates blockade squadron attack ships anchored bay ensuing battle grand port disaster british frigates wrecked reefs captured entire crews seriously wounded including captain repatriated squadron reduced single frigate sent urgent messages british bases madras cape_town requesting reinforcements naval authorities responded sending forces available join rodriguez frigates arrive hms hms ceylon attacked sailing captured squadron blockading able recapture ships hours loss able seize flagship action september loss french naval commander blow squadron isle france supply problems resulting lack naval stores food supplies unable lengthy cruises needed disrupt indian_ocean trade routes forced remain harbour heavily reinforced september october eventually senior naval officer captain jean guy frigates moored port louis crew disembarked reinforce garrison town planning invasion isle france prompted defeat grand port ultimate intention squadron creation planned carefully strategic level cape_town lord madras tactical level british_army counterpart lieutenant colonel henry rodriguez transport ships soldiers come indian garrisons madras bombay calcutta led general john accompanied rear admiral william ordered return madras invasion naval forces protect support invasion force provided cape good hope forces gather rodriguez preparation invasion landings planned relied intimate knowledge coastline isle france series careful surveys reefs surrounded island select landing site chosen point grand northwestern coastline approximately miles north island capital port napoleon intention prepare elite force men formed light companies regiments attached invasion vanguard storm ashore advance rapidly capital closely supported naval brigade royal marines units followed main body army soldiers entire force logistical assistance artillery support royal_navy ships shadow advance coast army orders seize port napoleon capture governor charles action hoped sufficient force surrender entire island subsequent landings west capital french resistance stronger expected october arrived rodriguez squadron cape_town november troops bombay garrison arrived followed november madras contingent rodriguez invasion plans finalised hms staunch sent northern coastline isle france seek suitable beach command landing naval support role given captain philip beaver reputation expert amphibious operations placed command vanguard land force captain william commanding naval brigade overall charge remain offshore hms took flagship french response impending british invasion island strong militia despite large numbers force poorly armed poorly motivated recognised unreliable face attack british regular soldiers bolstered forces attempting recruit volunteers hundreds prisoners war held island prisons principal cause food shortages isle france volunteers agreed join army majority promised french assistance obtaining irish independence britain altogether muster regular soldiers defend capital placed command general martin invasion november british troops ships assembled ordered squadron rendezvous grand reached early november despite adverse winds vanguard landed unopposed landing craft supported ship boats carrying cannon supplemented firepower larger ships offshore disruption early stages attack caused adverse weather conditions entire vanguard naval brigades ashore landing effected casualties men died natural causes took command vanguard advanced fort garrison retreating troops blowing fort left morning november pushed southwards river overlooked port napoleon units french defenders river lightly wounded musket ball bridge river held force militia fell british advance failed properly demolish bridge allowing rapidly cross threaten port napoleon grand remainder invasion force coming ashore entire army landed midday elected stay beaver hms follow advance offshore december stand port napoleon defending entrance town available regular troops small cannon attacked engaging french second attack madras french line disrupted allowing successful frontal assault defences breached french fell december proposed accepted following day surrendered guarantees garrison repatriated allowed retain personal arms eagles british force unhappy terms surrender british commanders relieved invasion complete hurricane season began later month danger ships british fleet storm important safe harbour hurricane season began aftermath surrender isle france marked final british operation campaign capture french territory east africa island restored mauritius towns renamed port napoleon restored pre revolutionary names governor robert placed administrative control island taken french garrison repatriated invaders captured french frigates smaller warships corvette victor brig schooner isle france merchant ships lloyd list published list vessels captured military civilian february british seized heavy cannon british recaptured east ceylon united_kingdom french prison ships hundreds prisoners released survivors battle grand port crews passengers captured previous year french prisoners discovered british_army royal_navy successfully passed repatriated france trial return britain later hanged transported rewards forthcoming particularly created scandal admiral accused taking credit work principally mauritius unlike remained british hands end war retained british_empire granted independence british operations region mauritius campaign news victory grand port reached france pressure resupply reinforce victorious squadron small squadron commanded commodore ordered sail isle france squadron included frigates carried extensive stores repair frigates journey france indian_ocean long february squadron arrived mauritius discovering island british hands attempted return france chased frigates stationed mauritius captured action escaped british pursuit orders battle


battle apple river fort battle apple river fort occurred late afternoon june apple river fort present day elizabeth illinois black hawk british band surprised group route illinois wounded thigh riders quickly protection nearby fred rode ahead warn settlers approaching fox saving lives small company militia fort men boys led captain stone fought black hawk man war party action lasted hour pace gunfire eventually convinced black hawk fort heavily defended lead direct attack band warriors retreated battle certain individuals honored bravery assisting numerically inferior force elizabeth armstrong rallied settlement women children taken shelter inside fort women children divided groups mold musket balls roll pre measured gun powder married women weapons militia pace battle fort torn replica built place stands elizabeth george fatality inside fort background consequence treaty governor indiana territory group fox leaders land settlement fox tribes vacated lands illinois moved west mississippi chief black hawk disputed treaty claiming tribal councils consulted representing tribes authorization lands angered loss birthplace black hawk led number incursions mississippi_river persuaded return west time april encouraged promises alliance tribes british moved called british band warriors non combatants illinois finding allies attempted return iowa illinois militia actions led battle run number engagements followed militias michigan territory illinois mobilized hunt black hawk band conflict known black hawk war period run battle apple river fort filled war related activity events series attacks buffalo grove river settlement fort blue war famous incident indian creek massacre took place mid late june week preceding battle apple river fort important turning point militia june key battles grove bend played key role changing public perception militia defeat run prelude following militia disastrous defeat run settlers lead mining region panicked left area altogether exaggerated claim warriors sweeping northern illinois destruction sent terror region apple river settlement situation prompted residents form man militia tentatively captain late river settlement present day illinois captain stone taken command lead apple river fort completed days immediately preceding june apple river fort horses raided stolen stolen night incident time led illinois militia officer james clash british band warriors fight later erroneously named grove june june supply wagon arrived apple river fort noon unknown men traveling wagon black hawk british band route fort fallen line black hawk forces able detection time opened fire wagon team men traveling trail passed women inside fort eager hear news conflict black hawk armed militia inside apple river fort time attack women children settlers resident apple river settlement captain stone command garrison stationed fort present battle battle group men george fred formed military message escort known express travelling stopped briefly fort continued way group feet east fort man loaded gun ambushed black hawk warriors shot hip fell horse companions aimed weapons band putting wounded man attackers group recovered moved away fort fred covered retreat fellow express men raced fort attained safety fort fled horse apple river nearby farm john mcdonald find overrun native americans abandoned horse walked reported apple river fort attack settlers took shelter inside fort men boys took positions inside fort vicious erupted involving black hawk british band battle hour heavy gunfire sides battle onset settlement women woman elizabeth armstrong rallied provide support soldiers assumed command women assigning tasks weapons soldiers tried stream gunfire fight convinced black hawk apple river fort impossible defeat hold outs abandoned fight band raided near fort needed horses flour clothing retreated casualties given intensity battle shot neck early battle died documented killed wall garrison casualty suffered non lethal wound head number casualties unknown aftermath defenders apple river fort awaited black hawk holding positions night dawn came incident day following battle june relief party consisting companies mounted rangers arrived fort day black hawk band encounter major john detachment second battle grove militia member killed fighting buried near fort trace grave elizabeth armstrong praised heroine actions battle displaying kind courage fire militia badly lacked months black hawk war actions helped black hawk impression apple river fort heavily defended frontal attack disagreement woman assumed command apple river fort collection wisconsin historical society graham source stated armstrong swearing like pirate battle angry black hawk band purported hear collection described action great credit fort demolished construct barn today fort buildings reconstructed apple river fort historic foundation apple river fort site listed national_register_of_historic_places military archaeological significance january state illinois took operation reconstructed apple river fort center state operates area apple river fort state historic site illinois purchase funded grant state illinois