battle battle june took place indonesia malaysia confrontation involving australian indonesian troops battle consisted series launched 3rd battalion royal australian regiment river indonesian borneo wider operation involved cross border operations british commonwealth units bases penetrating yards indonesian territory aim disrupting movement resupply indonesian forces balance ambush conducted company resulted significant indonesian casualties loss australians second ambush conducted fortnight later set little downstream time platoon company occurring june resulting heavy indonesian casualties loss australians background military situation following independence britain proposals states malaya singapore led tensions indonesia indonesian president begun military operations attempt new state including attempt seize power independent december following federation malaysia hostilities grew military activity increasing indonesian border borneo small parties armed men began malaysian territory propaganda sabotage missions carried indonesian irregular volunteers operations continued indonesian regular army units involved initially agreeing send troops borneo opening stages indonesia malaysia confrontation australian government allow forces stationed malaysia far_east strategic reserve protect malaysia indonesian attack based camp subsequently small airborne landings near september october incursions suggested major conflict imminent january government conceded british malaysian requests subsequently agreeing deploy infantry battalion borneo addition battery artillery engineer construction squadron squadron special air service regiment early phases british malaysian troops attempted control border protect population centres time australian battalion deployed british decided aggressive action crossing borders obtain information forcing remain defensive operation fighting took place mountainous jungle clad terrain climate operations characterised extensive use company bases sited border cross border operations use helicopters troop movement resupply role human signals intelligence determine indonesian movements intentions prelude opposing forces operations british commonwealth reconnaissance special forces patrols frequently crossed border order detect indonesian forces enter initially penetration limited yards later extended yards yards conventional forces tasked act information ambush attack uncertain british commonwealth forces strike increasingly forced devote resources protecting positions reducing ability conduct offensive operations continued reduced scale given sensitivity operations potential consequences exposed controlled highest level highly classified time participants sworn secrecy casualties suffered reported having occurred malaysian territory formally relieved british_army battalion 7th area march mounted number patrols inside malaysian territory proceeding weeks joining west brigade australians initially deployed series company bases border guarding approaches capital miles away commanded lieutenant colonel bruce mcdonald battalion deployed rifle companies forward company company company order cover border areas fourth company company remaining reserve battalion headquarters average company operated frontage yards support west brigade british 4th light regiment equipped millimetre pack inch medium guns included guns field battery royal australian artillery recently deployed west late april australians began cross border reconnaissance patrols opposing number indonesian units including elements division normally based central java units best april indonesian battalion combat teams 5th brigade deployed area operations designated battalion concentrated east total men overall command colonel units supported detachments artillery equipped anti aircraft machine guns millimetre mortars battle ambush australian fighting patrol began company forward observation party departing company base command major william patrol designated operation article involved ambush patrol bank river days careful movement thick jungle established patrol base high ground overlooking river sent forward small reconnaissance party men lieutenant patrick forward element subsequently detected party talking loudly firing random shots seemingly unaware proximity australians basic notions security following morning moved company spur line order establish firm base moved platoon forward light machine guns incorporated patrol australians encountered track lay river north shallow creek movement heard presence close australian position chances detection great troops brought forward instead deployed platoon positions covering track order secure position bend river right hand flank private lawrence jackson bend narrowed yards point occupying position minutes motors heard approaching river foot motor boats coming view vessel contained armed indonesian soldiers including fair haired european later identified dutch mercenary australians detected allowed boats draw closer ambush sprung boats yards away opened fire automatic fire emptied boats occupants boat sank second drifted stream observed swimming far bank subsequently shot killed unknown australians boats following boat rounded bend river private jackson engaged killing occupants range yards fourth vessel subsequently pulled quickly shore sight remainder australians jackson engaging grenades small arms fire weapon jammed action lasted minutes point party approximately river began engage australians heavy automatic fire largely inaccurate ordered withdrawal link rest company ambush party subsequently rejoining rest platoon platoon covered withdrawal forward observation officer subsequently called defensive artillery fire mission abandoned position reducing volume indonesian fire allowing australians break contact shortly indonesian millimetre mortar began fire dropping rounds jungle siding away company escape route elements company support company deployed support withdrawal patrol subsequently border incident returning later evening australian casualties incurred believed killed later night indonesian radio broadcast announced indonesian military personnel accidentally killed training exercise jackson subsequently awarded military medal complete disregard safety prevented landing near bank attacking members ambush contributed overwhelming success engagement received military cross personal bravery inspiring leadership judgment skill operations followed quick succession making june intensive month australian battalion tour borneo successful second ambush june june patrol designated operation fare consisting platoon company lieutenant robert guest accompanied company commander major intelligence officer fire control party left company base mount ambush river site ambush little downstream successful action previous month indonesian positions siding australian patrol occupied intended ambush position early morning proceeded wait day boats occupied civilians observed allowed pass morning june private left hand flank warned approach indonesian foot patrol river bank australians sited ambush engage targets river initially disadvantage minutes seen private extreme left engaged group long burst machine gun fire killing instantly ran subsequently killed fourth fifth indonesian continued past followed engaged australians indonesian patrol continued advance taking rear australian positions worked way left indonesian line approach subsequently engaging killing wounding guest gathered right hand elements platoon counter attacking remaining killing previously wounded soldier wounded indonesian observed crawl away tenth proceeded run unharmed direction patrol come minutes contact australians proceeded collect discarded indonesian weapons equipment including automatic rifle rifles rounds ammunition dressed steel helmets green shirts blue shorts indonesian soldiers subsequently identified members battalion australians withdrew calling defensive fire artillery mission abandoned ambush position order allow break contact later indonesian small arms fire heard area rounds called bombard site patrol night border incident following day returning australians suffered casualties killed seriously wounded leadership company deployment brought highest qualities expected professional soldiers appointed member order british_empire consequence planned increase activity areas additional forces subsequently response australian reconnaissance patrols increased order detect movement later result fighting indonesian mortars subsequently targeted number australian positions border firing rounds rounds fired casualties aftermath assessment addition inflicting significant casualties indonesian forces successful australian later june allowed dominate border area providing early warning indonesian incursions following actions major general george british director operations ordered short pause offensive operations order observe effects indonesian mortar attacks company bases area operation heavy june ceased soon following resumption operations australian battalion later followed profitable mission july contributing wider success british commonwealth forces slowly asserting control war overall operation largely successful gaining initiative inflicting significant casualties keeping defensive suspended late war generally british commonwealth units tour borneo allowed undertake operations consequently highly successful actions tour representative experienced british battalions denied war incursions publicly disclosed britain australian government officially acknowledge involvement carried operations total including reconnaissance patrols fighting patrols majority resulted contact contrast indonesian activity usually small scale aimed challenge incursions attack subsequent operations completed tour august returned camp relieved west brigade 10th months borneo australian battalion suffered men killed wounded bulk occurred separate land incidents 10th subsequently fought number heavy engagements including action november killed loss lance corporal later awarded victoria_cross decoration conflict 4th battalion royal australian regiment arrived malaysia september replace battalion returning australia october period training new battalion deployed april operated series company bases time war winding peace negotiations begun malaysia indonesia involved number contacts tour


battle lone pine battle lone pine known battle fought australian ottoman_empire forces gallipoli campaign world war august battle attack draw ottoman attention away main assaults hill known august offensive australians initially brigade strength managed capture main ottoman trench line battalion defending position hours fighting fighting continued days ottomans brought reinforcements launched numerous attempt recapture ground lost intensified australians brought fresh battalions finally august ottomans called attempts august offensive action ceased leaving australians control position despite australian victory wider august offensive attack failed situation stalemate developed lone pine lasted end campaign december allied troops evacuated peninsula prelude terrain lone pine battlefield named solitary turkish pine stood start fighting situated near centre eastern line australian new_zealand trenches cove rise known plateau joined ridge south ridge east valley north southern end area cove terrain lone pine region comparatively gentle opposing trenches separated distance flat man land intervening location relative shape intervening ground lone pine importance lay fact position provided commanding view australian new_zealand rear areas plateau possible observe far south possession afforded ottomans ability place approaches second ridge fire preventing flow reinforcements supplies forward trenches main australian position lone pine centred feature known developed point australians position closest ottoman line east opposite ottoman line extended head known owen australians south yards neck ridge continued south spur called sniper ridge ottomans focused developing trenches flanks position centre placed firing positions centre depth order gain advantage able pour fire attacking force rear ottoman line near owen depression called cup visible australians position despite area british reconnaissance aircraft june australians unaware cup existence time attack believed area flat consist trench lines reality actually reserve area ottomans established regimental headquarters sited series time attack large numbers reinforcements camped military situation prior battle isolated fighting lone pine begun early gallipoli campaign day australian new_zealand landings cove april elements australian force pushed lone pine effort destroy ottoman artillery battery firing landing beach australians engage battery ottomans withdrawn ridge south west australians later dubbed ridge gun ridge pressing inland troops 6th battalion attempted reach ridge crossing wide valley later known valley pushed ottoman regiment 27th launched counterattack south east lone pine objective plateau rolling 6th battalion ottomans pushed australians pine ridge finger land south lone pine taking heavy casualties australians withdrew north lone pine able establish defensive position reinforcements brought new_zealand units afternoon second ottoman regiment arrived heavy hand hand fighting ensued counterattack fighting lone pine continued early stages campaign eventually stalemate developed able advance static trench warfare began early july making plans offensive break developed gallipoli peninsula following initial landings april commander australian new_zealand army corps lieutenant general william determined attack lone pine divert ottoman attention away main attack launched north hill australian 1st infantry brigade chosen undertake attack consisted men command colonel 2nd 3rd infantry brigades 1st infantry brigade australian 1st division division commander brigadier general walker british officer replaced major general william bridges temporary commander bridges killed sniper walker like idea launching attack lone pine let mere diversion general sir hamilton british commander insisted attack proceed thorough planning walker troops best chance success possible unfavourable ottoman forces opposing australians lone pine consisted battalions 47th regiment command battalions amounted total men positioned trenches positioned depth sitting divisional reserve north east mortar ridge battalion 57th regiment relieved position line north lone pine arab battalion regiment positions north south ottoman line lone pine held regiment north 48th regiment south pine ridge battle preparation width attack yards distance trench lines yards reduce distance crossed australians projected number tunnels ottoman trenches immediately attack tunnels opened length communications trench reinforcements advance having cross exposed ground attackers advance open ground australian trench line provide measure protection men mines set engineers seek shelter preliminary bombardment stretched days initially confined limited slow shoot building final intense bombardment hour assault successful cutting barbed wire ottomans placed position preparation stage attack began august australians detonated mines dug ottoman lines attempt create cover advancing troops half hours later final heavy preliminary bombardment commenced australian british new_zealand artillery batteries firing ottoman trench line naval gunfire support british cruiser hms provided counter battery fire ottoman artillery positioned ridge retreating tunnels cut mining operations majority forward ottoman troops able find shelter bombardment lasted hour artillery prepared ground attack australian lines assault formations moved sited brigade headquarters position called brown dip metres south firing line small attack launched initial assault undertaken waves 2nd 3rd 4th battalions 1st battalion remain brown dip reserve ready brought consolidate gains respond event counterattack 1st battalion taken position assault battalions moved forward line attack launched half force tunnels dug man land half simply troops taken positions barrage came conclusion tunnels opened final preparations soldier waves issued total rounds ammunition rifle rations day miscellaneous equipment including gas mask wave received ammunition issued equipment construct positions defend initial gains inevitable ottoman counterattack support battalion vickers medium machine guns issued rounds contributed platoon job throw grenades brigade allocated attack small section engineers allocated undertake initial assault australian 1st infantry brigade attacked wave men threw forward north troops 2nd infantry brigade laid suppressing fire supporting ottoman troops 3rd infantry 2nd light horse brigades held line opposite sniper ridge half force went prepared tunnels half crossed exposed ground trench lines dubbed patch amounted distance metres ottoman artillery small arms fire headquarters overlooking fighting senior ottoman commander began response passing orders reinforcements brought calling artillery casualties wave attackers relatively light defenders line ottoman trenches preliminary bombardment time return fire steps lifted australians reached ottoman trenches found pine logs easy entrance identified aerial reconnaissance planning stages ottoman defenders recovered artillery barrage began firing australians specially cut holes point blank range second waves attack came australians fired found way inside gaps lifting logs places thick inches inches ran past open communications support trenches able gain access trenches ottoman troops captured attempted escape ran australians entering trenches small groups australians managed push cup stopped ottoman troops hastily assembled defend regimental headquarters ensuing fighting australians killed handful taken prisoner ottoman trenches darkness cramped conditions led considerable confusion attackers concerns shooting comrades australians unable fire rifles initially fighting melee soldiers attacked grenades australians enter position picked defenders australians established strength able break position defenders tunnels line able fully respond space half hour australians took control position remaining ottomans main trench established number defensive positions line amounted positions communication trenches flanks captured ground seven posts centre isolated connected hastily dug australians attack successful gained possession main ottoman line halted cup began preparing defend gains hastily barriers settled wait counterattack brigade reserve 1st battalion brought tunnels attack reinforcements sent open ground old ottoman positions despite recently captured position ground subjected heavy ottoman artillery machine gun fire poured positions flanks company lots 1st battalion moved began filling gaps assault battalions engineers 2nd field company began task extending tunnels new australian line ottoman shortly dark ottoman counterattack came group 1st battalion 57th regiment major arrived reinforce battalions 47th attacking hand grenades fighting took place complicated maze ottoman trench system close quarters meant grenades travel forth times exploding australians held old ottoman fire trench deeper ottoman lines blocked ottoman communications trenches best bodies dead raids bodies moved unused communication trenches possible wounded evacuated fighting intense conditions cramped men exhausted cases left lie trench night august ottomans brought reinforcements 5th division 13th regiment ali marched south east position known australians 9th division german colonel received orders begin moving lone pine position 9th division later diverted 15th regiment 5th division command committed fighting moving south position kurt near blair days ottomans continued launch ultimately unsuccessful effort recapture ground lost total regiments dispatched australians brought reinforcements moving men battalions 2nd 3rd infantry brigades 7th 12th battalions hold 1st brigade gains august fighting series hand grenade supply australians soldiers work cove manufacturing makeshift grenades jam sent 1st infantry brigade late august fighting continued night august 47th regiment launched determined counterattack suffering heavy casualties including regimental commander attack unsuccessful main line trenches succeeded regaining ground north pushed australians little way cup ali commander 13th regiment took charge ottoman effort lone pine continued day ottomans began prepare large scale counterattack morning remaining australian positions overlooking cup abandoned fighting stopped briefly australians ottomans evacuated wounded removed dead line time 1st 2nd battalions defending heavily southern flank suffered casualties withdrawn line 7th battalion moving positions late afternoon 3rd 4th 12th battalions remained holding north centre australian line attacks mounted ottomans australian line dark focused efforts 7th battalion position south ottomans succeeded taking australian line late night fierce hand hand fighting followed early morning august australians retook positions grenade attacks launched ottoman troops later morning australian trenches brought fire ottoman positions attack launched junctions australian battalions achieving break centre reached 1st infantry brigade headquarters advanced forward brown dip following initial gains brigade commander joined defence eventually drove midday ottomans attack repulsed positions southern australian flank continued subjected 5th battalion brought relieve 7th 2nd battalion having received brief respite came forward replacing 4th battalion support squadron 7th light horse regiment fresh units settled australians prepared renewed fighting line end expected attack came finally late afternoon august ottoman commanders called attempts australians day fighting subsided ottomans australians worked consolidate positions aftermath fighting australians experienced campaign point ground captured battle amounted total metres metre amidst scenes considerable devastation australian divisional commander walker believed result disastrous higher commanders believed tactical success hamilton describing desperate fine feat tactical victory australians terms fact remained possession ground captured managed draw ottoman reinforcements wider repercussions attack lone pine weighed heavily outcome sent north reinforce lone pine effectiveness australian attack 9th division directed instead proceed time ottoman artillery battery covering force force arrived time seriously delay new_zealand attack ultimately wider offensive battle failed stalemate situation developed gallipoli peninsula brief periods fighting september troops australian 1st division taken position lone pine relieved 23rd 24th battalions dominated heights baby position regularly shelled subsequently described australian soldier dangerous spot australian ultimately proved liability troops tasked holding opposed troops ottoman 47th regiment remaining months campaign australian battalions alternate positions line ottoman australians engaged mining operations positions stalemate continued australians ottomans lacked strength mount determined attack situation ultimately lasted allied evacuation december sources ottoman losses estimated university placed losses high broken killed wounded listed missing captured australians included commanding officers 47th 15th regiments australian force launched attack half casualties australian losses battle amounted men killed wounded total men committed fighting course battle represent highest casualties campaign toll particularly heavy australian officers commanding officers 2nd 3rd battalions killed leading troops battle dead thick ground australian captain 1st battalion remarked trench dead respect faces floor trench carpet addition ones turkish later dead removed australian position hastily buried seven australians awarded victoria_cross actions fighting lone pine including men 7th battalion rushed forward help relieve 1st brigade height ottoman recipients corporal william war general manager herald newspaper melbourne recipient captain alfred shout earned military cross mentioned despatches earlier gallipoli campaign mortally wounded lone pine later buried sea recipients john hamilton corporal alexander burton frederick william war australian military historical mission sent gallipoli led charles advice australian government sought permission newly formed turkish republic establish official war cemetery area treaty ratified provisions lone pine cemetery established area dubbed patch australians total graves cemetery identities bodies interred cemetery remain unknown standing cemetery grounds lone pine memorial main australian new_zealand memorial gallipoli commemorates australian new died campaign including known grave buried sea result battle significance australians lone pine site annual australian day dawn service gallipoli service australian visitors memorial remember fought died gallipoli new_zealand national world war museum exhibit battle lone pine australian war memorial memorial lone pine trees planted australia new_zealand gallipoli commemorate battle gallipoli campaign general seeded specimens taken gallipoli places australia named battle


battle battle known battle french began august opening phase allied offensive later known days offensive ultimately led end world war allied forces advanced kilometres day greatest advances war henry british fourth army playing decisive role battle notable effects sides morale large number surrendering german forces led describe day battle black day german_army major battles involving armoured warfare marked end trench warfare western fighting mobile armistice signed november prelude march german empire launched operation michael series attacks planned drive allies length western signing treaty brest revolutionary controlled russia germans able transfer hundreds thousands men western giving significant temporary advantage manpower material intended translate advantage victory operation michael intended defeat right wing british expeditionary force lack success ensured ultimate failure offensive final effort aimed town vital railway junction advance halted british australian troops april subsequent german operation april operation operation june operation july advances western failed achieve decisive breakthrough end offensive german manpower advantage spent supplies troops exhausted allied general ferdinand ordered led second battle victory promoted marshal france germans recognising position withdrew north tried allies offensive plan disclosed plan july following franco american victory battle plan called reducing saint later combat battle saint freeing railway lines ran german commander british expeditionary force field marshal sir douglas plans place attack near british retreat ended april headquarters british fourth army general sir henry taken left hand corps british iii corps lieutenant general richard butler australian corps lieutenant general john held right flank linked french armies south australian infantry divisions united corps time western australians mounted number local counter attacks revealed open firm terrain south larger offensive established refined methods submitted proposals july meeting july agreed plan insisted french army held south british fourth army participate opposed plans depended large scale use tanks finally available large numbers achieve surprise avoiding preliminary bombardment french army lacked tanks forced bombard german positions infantry advance began removing element surprise eventually agreed french participate launch attack minutes fourth army agreed advance proposed date attack august august strike germans completed withdrawal finalised plans discussion corps commanders butler sir arthur canadian corps lieutenant general charles cavalry corps july time australians attack canadian corps reputation aggressive innovative tactics strong record success past years tactical methods tested australians local counter attack battle july german defenders deeply dug position commanded wide field fire similar positions resisted capture months battle australians surprise weight artillery opened fire moment infantry tanks advanced germans rapidly overrun key factor final plan secrecy pre battle bombardment artillery fire immediately prior advance australian canadian british forces final plan fourth army involved field guns heavy guns making medium artillery brigades thirteen heavy batteries addition infantry divisions artillery fire plan fourth army artillery devised senior artillery officer major general british sound ranging advances artillery techniques aerial photographic reconnaissance possible ranging shots ensure accurate fire produced allowed german guns hit zero hour barrage preceded infantry method similar germans spring offensive effectiveness increased surprise achieved tanks canadian australian corps allocated brigade battalions mark fighting tanks mark star unarmed tanks intended carry supplies ammunition forward single battalion mark tanks allocated iii corps cavalry corps allocated battalions medium mark tanks allies successfully moved canadian corps infantry divisions detected germans noteworthy achievement reflected increasingly efficient british armies detachment corps infantry battalions wireless unit casualty clearing station sent near bluff germans entire corps moving north flanders canadian corps fully position august maintain secrecy allied commanders notice mouth shut orders issued men referred action raid offensive germans offensive late july allied armies growing strength american units arrived france british reinforcements transferred home army britain palestine campaign german commanders realized early august forces forced defensive considered likely germans believed french probably attack saint east flanders near mount believed british attack near albert allies mounted number local counter sectors gain local objectives improve defensive positions distract attention sector german forces began withdraw fronts response theories allies maintained equal artillery air fire fronts moving troops night movements day mask actual intent german east held second army general von der divisions line facing french 1st army divisions immediate reserve concern allies august german 27th division actually attacked north allies planned attack days later german division specially selected trained formation penetrated roughly yards half mile attack retaliation trench raid 5th australian division north night july gained prisoners australian corps concentrated south river german division moved somewhat original position morning august movement required changes allied plan battle battle began dense fog august fourth army british iii corps attacked north australian corps south river centre fourth army canadian corps south australians french 1st army general opened preliminary bombardment time began advance minutes later supported battalion tanks german forces alert largely anticipation possible retaliation sixth learned allied attack forces metres gas bombardment low bulk allied presence unknown germans attack unexpected german forces began return fire minutes positions allied forces assembled start battle long left phase seven divisions attacked british 18th eastern 1st london australian 2nd 3rd canadian 1st 2nd 3rd divisions parts american 33rd division supported british attackers north attackers captured german position advancing centre supporting units following leading divisions attacked second objective distant australian units reached objectives australian 4th 5th divisions canadian 4th division passed initial breach german lines phase attack assigned infantry carrying mark tanks infantry able carry final step allies penetrated rear german defences cavalry continued advance brigade australian sector cavalry divisions canadian sector raf armoured car fire kept retreating germans rallying canadian australian forces centre advanced quickly pushing line forward starting point speed advance party german officers divisional staff captured eating breakfast gap long punched german line south end day success north river british iii corps single tank battalion support terrain german august disrupted preparations attackers gained objectives held short spur steep wooded ridge british fourth army took prisoners french captured total german losses estimated august fourth army casualties british australian canadian infantry approximately exclusive tank air losses french allies german_army chief staff paul von noted allies use surprise allied destruction german lines communication hampered potential german counter attacks command positions german general described day tag des black day german_army ground lost advancing allies morale german troops sunk point large numbers troops began recounted instances retreating troops shouting war officers tried rally reserves moving german divisions effectively allied forces pushed average enemy territory end day canadians gained australians british french later fighting advance continued august spectacular results day battle widened north south initial attack southern battle involving french forces called battle french infantry supporting artillery initial force tanks played large role allied success reduced tanks fit battle days germans spur commanded wide field fire south flanking fire held left units australian corps late august small australian party slipped river captured village renewed attack iii corps canadian roads communication problems prevented british 32nd division pushed forward rapidly maintain momentum advance august signs germans pulling operation michael according official reports allies captured nearly prisoners guns august armour british drove german positions august field marshal refused request marshal continue offensive preferring instead launch fresh offensive army aftermath battle major turning point tempo war germans started war plan race sea slowed movement western war trench warfare german spring offensive earlier year given germany offensive edge western armoured support helped allies tear hole trench lines weakening trench positions british army armoured support effect line fourth fewer thousand tanks broke deep german territory australian commander john king george days following battle british war correspondent philip noted effect war tempo saying august enemy defensive initiative attack completely hands able strike different places credits shift troop morale saying change greater minds men taking territory army enormous hope getting business quickly change enemy mind longer dim hope victory western hope defend long gain peace negotiation books gregory london allen isbn norm king empire canadians august ottawa books isbn daniel victory canada great war publishers isbn hart peter british victory london isbn battle reprinted east sussex naval military press isbn black day german_army campaign publishing isbn james steel james dawn victory press isbn riley decisive battles isbn shane shock army british_empire canadian corps days great war ontario publishing isbn


operation operation western allied air operation executed tunisia campaign larger north african campaign second world war operation designed cut air supply lines italy axis armies tunisia april parallel allied naval effort operation retribution november american british forces landed north_africa operation torch allied overran french morocco algeria advanced tunisia danger axis powers apparent allied forces advancing eastward british 8th army advancing westward victory second battle trap destroy remaining axis forces north_africa response crisis poor state axis forces reinforcements german italian army luftwaffe dispatched sea air reinforcements duly immediate defeat tunisia region axis hands poor state roads rail lines algeria meant allied forces faced difficult challenges enabled axis defence inexperience forces apparent battle pass growing number experience allied forces axis northern tip tunisia royal_air_force raf royal_navy operating malta took heavy toll axis shipping axis supplies reaching besieged air early april large quantities axis manpower evacuated air allies held air superiority time luftwaffe transports operating darkness order prevent allied air forces raf united_states_army air forces ordered conduct operations axis air power day night order prevent resupply withdrawal owing bad weather need gather intelligence operation begin april axis determined resistance large scale air battles took place allied air forces succeeded destroying aerial link axis held sicily italy course operation air battle known april palm sunday massacre took place german transport fleets suffered heavy losses cape evacuating forces escaping allied ground offensive operation vulcan air operation continued april operation destroyed axis logistical support attempted battle operation inflicted losses german transport fleets unable recover background strategic situation axis campaign north_africa characterised lack consistent concentrated logistics support forces field failure primary reasons field marshal win decisive breakthrough british 8th army points recognised malta obstacle axis logistical lines axis held europe forces north_africa malta lay lines communication despite siege half years remained active base allied naval air forces axis supply lines period failed apply pressure der german high command launch planned invasion island operation malta largely ineffective offensive base mid later year allied offensive malta increasingly effective axis defeat second battle allied landings operation torch western north_africa threatened crush axis east west germans responded sending reinforcements africa held tunisia start suffering increasing shipping losses malta forces respite won axis allies lost run owing rapid german reactions difficulty supplying armies poor infrastructure early axis numerical superiority aircraft allies axis campaign malta caused chronic supply shortages africa april allied armies pushed supply axis forces northern tip tunisia near capital despite desperate situation continued send significant reinforcement supply besieged axis forces air prevent prolonged resistance allies aware german supply use british ultra launched aerial offensive destroy link begin week march bad weather tunisia meant begin april axis supply situation situation air land sea gradually deteriorating axis supply ships suffered heavy losses cape sicily total losses allied aircraft appointed fighter leader sicily fly area nicknamed death row axis shipping april organisation given fighters operations luftwaffe reorganised forces tunisia appointed flying corps tunisia commands flying leader middle headquarters location equivalent groups maintained fighters mid april german fighter defences benefited rudimentary radar supported early warning network major general wing commander appointed air transport leader mediterranean_sea january forces organised naples based naples based missions day formations aircraft strong operations flown altitude arriving noon order operate allied lunch period units operating brought tonnes daily giant brought tonnes fewer numbers logistical effort indian prisoners war helped supplies operational method usually involved escort fighters picking formation route fighter aircraft transports available owing shortages naples units met near return leg fighters including escorted home end allowed expansion axis transport aircraft march beginning april rose force flew needed ammunition fuel axis armies africa allied plan james commanding northwest african strategic air_force ordered air campaign named operation operation called allied fighters intercept aerial convoys sicily tunisia allied units carry major offensive operations axis airfields tunisia staging fields sicily ordered carry anti shipping sweeps operation unlikely work times shown relative surviving axis air transports operated night operation begun flight time sicily short aerial interception precise intelligence germans understood know communications compromised read allied intelligence ignorant intelligence leaks operated day enemy option flying night weather conditions ideal interception operations allies delayed implementation operation german transport aircraft operation blow decisive possible allied intelligence listened stations sure strike tactical plan included coordinated strikes axis airfields carried boeing flying fortress groups tie axis fighter groups medium bomber units operating north american mitchell fly sweeps gulf joined lockheed lightning heavy fighters detailed sweep area presence allow operate area raising axis suspicions escort actual intention axis air transports units sweep straits north catching enemy aircraft evaded units detailed strike airfields catch transports ground 9th air_force detailed send consolidated bomb groups airfields naples capacity april superiors supreme commander allied air forces mediterranean arthur commander allied air forces western north decided wait suitable window launch offensive order battle allied allied order battle involved major commands area time supreme allied air_force command mediterranean air command mad air chief marshal arthur supreme command sector organisations northwest african air forces commanded directly northwest african strategic air_force james second command operational tactical force northwest african tactical air_force air marshal arthur axis martin commanded air air fleet controlled luftwaffe operations africa attached seven different bomber wings corps command direct control large number fighter wings available luftwaffe following forces available april american operations closing straits april 1st fighter group conducted sweep bomb group escorted fighter group set maritime operation returned base reasons claimed ferries damaged destroyer sunk shot 1st group arrived cape reported contact formations different types estimated formed flights fact german formation seven fighters attacked large air battle developed fighter group joined 1st fighter group claimed lost claimed seven losses uncertain significant claiming fact german losses amounted fighters source states loss supposed doubt identified bomber offensive later bomb group bombed axis airfields italian transports destroyed second mission flown raids flown escorts german fighters intercepted success bombers claimed german fighter destroyed hour later bomb group fighter group raided axis airfields sicily near axis aircraft counted poorly vulnerable attack achieved good results bombs attackers intercepted losing bombers claimed claimed german fighters bomb group attacked airfield claiming destroyed ground actual axis losses german italian aircraft destroyed german italian aircraft damaged bomb group bombed airfield claimed seen aircraft raid destroyed axis aircraft damaged claimed losses sweeps groups found claimed axis aircraft destroyed including air german sources list loss aerial combat ground damaged aside combat aircraft british official history concludes german italian transports lost april fighter offensive operation attacks merged preparatory phase campaign air attacks helping air defences island continued smaller scale emphasis fighter operations april renewed 1st fighter group intercepted italian battle resulted transports italian fighters shot later morning fighter group escorting bomb group cape spotted stayed acting escort bombers joined flying past transports firing gunners tunisia help transports destroyed damaged germans suffered heavy losses pilot killed flew shot americans claimed victories germans lost managed ditch crews survived patrol later shot likely spotted formation actually raf units downed ferry flight shot iii shot april ran seven americans claimed seven escorts actual german americans losses unclear afternoon ran transports fought losing shooting pilot killed day total amounted destroyed raf involved day operations squadron raf sent intercept escorted handful shot loss claimed german units reported losses day bad luftwaffe losses amounted belonged iii raids raf vickers wellington bombers continued night night fighters downed results raids known april bomb groups bombed airfields italians lost destroyed damaged ground germans lost aircraft damaged loss island fighter defences consisting battles airfields afternoon inconclusive costing axis allies raf squadron raf night air raids killed german fighter pilots iii lost british operations early sweeps april raf desert air_force took command operation operations raf sea looking radar use german formations flew low considerable ranges stretched limit british spread forces maintain continuous coverage april ran large formation axis aircraft shot seven loss german fighters claimed actual victims wing commander wing raf possibly victim time death victories near disaster meant small operations abandoned point missions consisted squadrons covered squadron later april small scale counter attack escorted led attack allied airfields near destroyed havoc bombers day april shot squadron raf offensive operations response american bomb group dispatched seven covered bomb airfields large air battle developed intercepted attacked bombers tackled escort germans claimed bombers fighter loss actual allied losses unknown palm sunday massacre patrols failed intercept formations transports afternoon april evening ninth air_force 57th fighter group sent squadrons including fighter squadron fighter group command 57th flown sorties afternoon arrived sweep area squadron raf flew high cover stayed soon large formation reported allied pilots altitude flying north east return flight actually axis fighters allied fighters began attacks passengers fired machine guns windows desperation fend attack air battle followed shot americans claimed victories later reduced actual german losses fighters german fighter casualties amounted possible italian fighters shot destroyed damaged managed crash land coastline battle known palm sunday massacre continuation offensive following day wing shot italian ease caught fire led allied pilots believe carrying precious fuel units involved squadron squadron source gives axis losses destroyed crash landed april south african wing sent intercepted escorted italian formation south claimed loss known axis losses raf flying malta downed transports later flight daylight cost axis transports destroyed plus german fighters intercepted australian british south african covered south african british polish units lost force land main combatants battles squadron squadron raf squadron raaf ordered transport flights albert complained deny axis forces vital supplies permitted flights time travel flights allowed night mounted daily transports run radar equipped bristol rarely successful allied effort bombed airfields italy german aircraft destroyed damaged ground units claimed aftermath aerial operation considerable effect axis logistics supplies reaching axis units axis armies air units remaining tunisia gradually ran fuel ammunition supplies having lost luftwaffe evacuated units early italian fighter units german remained axis held narrow strip african coastline near allied air superiority overwhelming luftwaffe personnel climbed fighter alongside pilot risk flying transport aircraft ground crew pilots attempted escape way flying large numbers personnel transport dangerous personnel killed crash april transport missions flown tons fuel ammunition brought supply drops attempted remaining signals transport administrative staff left captured campaign ended


battle hill battle hill battle world war canadian corps divisions german 6th army battle took place western outskirts lens region france august objectives assault inflict casualties draw german troops away 3rd battle capture territory canadian corps executed operation designed occupy high ground hill quickly establish defensive positions combined small arms artillery fire technique predicted fire time repel german counter attacks inflict casualties possible later attempt canadian corps extend position city lens failed sides suffered high casualties lens remained german control german canadian assessments battle succeeded attrition objective battle consisted extensive use poison gas sides including newly introduced german yellow cross shell containing agent ultimately goals canadian corps partially accomplished canadians successful preventing german formations transferring local men equipment aid defensive operations failed draw troops areas background industrial coal city lens france fallen german control october race sea consequently germans controlled heights hill north city hill southeast commanding views surrounding area city hill end spurs september british overrun hill battle managed hold british army commander general henry ordered canadian corps relieve corps position opposite city lens july directed canadian corps commander arthur develop plan capturing town end july operation intended engage german formations possible prevent reinforcing sector battle command canadian corps recently changed month earlier canadian corps commander julian promoted rank general replaced general commander british army turn 1st canadian division commander arthur promoted lieutenant general assumed command canadian corps tactical plan regarded control hill hill important control city lens merely occupy city germans held high ground place attackers lower exposed position ones occupied conference corps commanders persuaded army commander general henry hill lens main objective limited offensive controlling hill provide excellent observation german lines preparation believed germans attempt counter attack hill captured largely importance believed position hill permit directed artillery effectively deal counter attacks plan occupy high ground quickly establish defensive positions utilize combined small arms artillery fire repel expected counter attacks inflict casualties possible attempt germans minor operations conducted effort suggest forthcoming attack british army south canal included attack 9th canadian brigade units german 36th reserve division trench british army poison gas attack north late july bad weather led attack hill late july mid august interim special companies royal engineers augmented regular level harassment firing total gas drums gas shells lens august artillery estimated german batteries area zero hour partly technique predicted fire time points guns greatly improved accuracy artillery troops rotated reserve area conduct training rehearsals preparation assault obvious preliminary actions attack unnoticed germans impossible conceal army general intentions turned date assault best attempt germans respect time place end corps staged exercises dummy tanks august directly west lens battle opposing forces canadian corps commander lieutenant general arthur attacking divisions division reserve numerous support units command german 6th army commander general der von responsible area hill area surrounding defended hoc defending elements german 6th army consisted 7th division 4th guards division division 11th reserve division division assault hill plan capture hill called 1st 2nd canadian divisions attack yards objective capture main enemy defensive positions eastern reverse slope hill objectives marked depth stages stage assaulting troops capture german line trenches german second position crest hill second stage final stage marked german line reverse slope yards starting position 1st canadian division 3rd canadian infantry brigade attack north hill 2nd canadian infantry brigade attack summit 2nd canadian division 4th 5th canadian infantry brigades attack rubble remains suburbs directly south hill assault began morning august dawn breaking special companies royal engineers fired drums burning oil suburb selected targets supplement artillery barrage build smoke screen divisional field artillery positions executed barrage directly advance assaulting troops field shelled german positions advance barrage heavy shelled known german strong points artillery forward observation officers moved forward infantry artillery observation aircraft flew overhead sent calls artillery fire wireless germans moved reserve units previous night anticipation attack main assembly canadian troops detected minutes attack commencing german artillery brought defensive fire widely scattered points affected forward positions german 7th division 11th reserve division quickly overwhelmed minutes attack beginning canadian divisions reached objective 2nd canadian infantry brigade reached second objective line units brigade cases reached final objective flanking companies battalions attacking hill managed reach objectives remainder units forced retreat slope consolidate position intermediate objective line right flank 2nd canadian division 12th canadian infantry brigade 4th canadian division executed operation proved successful drawing german fire away main operation hours later 11th canadian infantry brigade 4th canadian division attempted exploit weakened german force pushing strong patrols centre lens ultimately failed germans local counter attacks 4th canadian division drive patrols city outskirts initial counter attacks preparation german counter attacks 1st 2nd canadian divisions began reinforce construct strong points immediately capturing objective line hours start battle germans began immediate reserves mount local counter attacks morning august germans executed local attacks canadian positions attack repulsed large work forward artillery observers german positions occasion counter attack repulsed engaging hand hand fighting germans rapidly brought seven additional battalions 4th guards division division reinforce line battalions place following days germans executed counter attacks canadian positions frontal attack 2nd canadian infantry brigade afternoon august ultimately failed german attack 4th canadian infantry brigade initially successful germans capturing trench repulsed later afternoon capture hill additional counter attacks morning august relatively quiet attempts small german parties approach canadian lines having failed capture objectives previous day having postponed additional attacks number times 2nd canadian brigade attacked captured remainder final objective line afternoon august assault lasted little hour troops forced defend dozen german counter attacks day attempts 4th 11th canadian infantry brigades eliminate enemy lens august failed germans continued mount determined counter attacks german command began realize canadian british artillery need counter attack succeed germans began series counter attacks chalk quarry canadian control outside sought wear canadian artillery resources sending false signals provoking infantry unnecessary artillery fire germans began use poison gas earnest new yellow cross shells containing agent fired addition number shells containing canadian 1st 2nd artillery field brigades canadian line heavily artillery men casualties gas forced remove masks set lay sights maintain accurate fire germans cover gas number attempts canadian controlled chalk quarry trench night august early morning august attempts chalk quarry failed company 55th reserve infantry regiment loan 11th reserve division managed breach canadian defences trench repulsed german troops employing managed penetrate canadian line north quarry morning august driven attack lens significantly final attack chalk quarry canadian corps following days consisted largely consolidation activities line drawn yards midway original intermediate final objective lines 4th division slightly advanced forward posts outskirts lens extended northward include lens road wished improve position hill ordered attack enemy positions yard opposite 2nd 4th canadian divisions operation scheduled morning august tasks divided 6th canadian infantry brigade left 10th canadian infantry brigade right attack begin germans began canadian positions canadian attack 6th canadian infantry brigade left flank attacked units german 4th guards division forces met respective objectives fought hand hand bayonet melee 6th brigade advance stopped communication forward units brigade headquarters broken beginning attack restored heavy german making impossible infantry artillery counter attacks 4th guards division reinforced battalion infantry division forced 6th canadian infantry brigade start line right flank 10th canadian infantry brigade unit suffered large number casualties assembling attack met artillery machine gun fire neared objective small parties largest men reached goal attacking units captured objectives late evening created 4th canadian division line evening august parties went forward bomb german position flanks moderately successful additional attack planned august failed battalion level brigade reserve unit ordered remedy situation attacking called green complex louis attack repulsed majority attackers killed wounded taken prisoner germans held possession beginning final german retreat aftermath analysis germans attempts recapture lost ground lens demands defensive operations battle need avoid diversion forces main effort subsequent operations remainder august september beginning october relatively quiet canadian efforts devoted mainly preparations offensive took place largely british army lacked sufficient resources task instead canadian corps transferred sector early october preparation second battle soon battle german commander general der von transferred italian took command newly formed austro german 14th army capacity executed extremely successful offensive battle october general der ferdinand von took command german end war victoria_cross victoria crosses highest military decoration awarded british commonwealth forces awarded members canadian corps actions battle private harry brown 10th canadian battalion company sergeant major robert hill 29th vancouver battalion sergeant frederick 20th central ontario battalion corporal 47th british_columbia battalion ukrainian awarded victoria_cross acting major 2nd eastern ontario battalion private michael james 7th british_columbia battalion


operation biting operation biting known raid code given british combined operations raid german radar installation northern france took place night february world war number installations identified royal_air_force raf aerial reconnaissance photographs exact purpose nature equipment possessed known number british scientists believed stations connected heavy losses experienced raf bombers conducting bombing raids targets occupied europe scientists requested installations raided technology possessed studied possible extracted brought britain examination extensive coastal defences erected germans protect installation raid believed commando raid sea suffer heavy losses sufficient time garrison installation destroy radar set decided airborne assault followed evacuation way surprise garrison installation seize technology intact casualties raiding force night february period intense training delays poor weather company airborne troops command major john frost france miles installation main force assaulted villa radar equipment kept killing members german garrison capturing installation brief raf technician force dismantled radar array removed key pieces force withdrew evacuation beach detachment assigned clear beach initially failed german force guarding soon eliminated help main force raiding troops picked landing craft transferred motor gun boats returned britain raid entirely successful airborne troops suffered relatively casualties pieces radar brought captured german radar technician allowed british scientists understand enemy advances radar create background end battle france evacuation british troops operation britain war production effort raf bomber command strategic bombing offensive germany bomber losses raid began increase british intelligence concluded german use advanced radar equipment british germans competing radar technology nearly decade point germans level british surpassing heavy investment fledgling technology beginning world war british scientific advances radar reached effective levels primarily work robert watson technology rudimentary nature mistakes inability watson scientists effective night defence system time german nighttime bombing britain british scientist working radar systems techniques jones appointed britain scientific intelligence officer spent years conflict researching advanced german radar comparison britain convincing germans actually radar examining leaked german documents crashed luftwaffe bombers german prisoner war jones discovered high frequency radio signals transmitted britain continent believed came directional radar system months discovery jones identified radar systems detect british bombers known array named ancient norse goddess jones finally able concrete proof presence system shown mysterious objects visible reconnaissance pictures taken raf near cap circular rotating antenna approximately feet wide having found proof installations jones scientists command begin system raf begin locate destroy installations jones found evidence second set referred shown set raf reconnaissance photographs november learned consisted antenna feet diameter worked conjunction locate british bombers direct luftwaffe night fighters attack systems complemented long range early warning radar system lacked precision shorter range far precise advantage smaller system easier manufacture quantities needed luftwaffe defend german territory prelude order effectively system developing counter measures jones team needed study systems vital pieces technology system composed fortunately site recently located raf reconnaissance photographic reconnaissance unit flight french english channel coast near site located immediately north village miles north accessible german radar site located far british installations located inland france far away romania bulgaria request raid site capture system passed admiral lord louis commander combined operations turn took proposal chiefs staff committee approved raid brief debate having received permission conduct raid staff studied installation defences rapidly coming conclusion extensive coastal defences area installation guarded permit commando raid considered raid result high casualties attacking troops fast capture radar destroyed germans believing surprise speed essential requirements raid installation ensure radar captured saw airborne assault viable method january contacted headquarters 1st airborne division wing raf asking able conduct raid division commander major general frederick particularly enthusiastic successful operation excellent morale boost airborne troops command good demonstration value commanders believed training airborne troops completed end february suitable meteorological conditions operation place training raid begun immediately encountered problems wing new unit process formation squadron raf wing commander charles selected provide aircraft needed operation group captain norman wing remain overall command problem encountered state training unit airborne troops chosen raid installation period 1st airborne division composed parachute battalions 1st parachute battalion fully trained wishing 1st parachute battalion intact larger operation division selected ordered 2nd parachute battalion provide company operation company commanded major john frost selected company recently formed frost men completed parachute jumping course level security imposed planning raid high major frost liaison officer headquarters 1st airborne division informed company airborne warfare demonstration war cabinet informed company divided sections exercise contrary plan frost devised exercise confused frost raised objections senior officer headquarters informed intended raid major dropped objections turned attention training company training company spent time salisbury plain wiltshire travelled scotland underwent specialised training practising night landing craft prepare company evacuation sea raiding radar installation unit returned wiltshire began carrying practice parachute drops aircraft squadron despite having previous experience dropping exercises proved successful company working aided creation scale model radar installation surrounding buildings built photographic interpretation unit period major frost introduced commander cook royal australian navy commanding naval force intended evacuate company completion raid detachment thirty officers men commando arrive landing craft cover company withdrew beach frost met raf flight sergeant cox volunteered accompany company operation expert radio mechanic job locate radar set photograph transportation britain jones team asked jones obtain army uniform identification number cox object special attention germans captured air_force uniform war office information radar installation gathered period help french resistance detailed knowledge disposition german forces guarding installation impossible information gathered gilbert known british code members resistance cell installation composed distinct areas villa approximately yards edge cliff contained radar station enclosure containing number smaller buildings contained small garrison antenna erected villa cliff radar station permanently manned luftwaffe radar technicians surrounded number guard posts approximately thirty guards buildings small enclosure housed approximately german troops including detachment technicians platoon german infantry stationed south responsible manning defences guarding evacuation beach included near beach machine gun nests cliff overlooking beach beach mined sporadic barbed wire defences patrolled regularly mobile reserve infantry believed available hour notice stationed distance inland basis information frost decided divide company groups men raid named famous royal_navy admiral nelson hardy drake nelson clear secure german positions defending evacuation beach whilst hardy drake capture radar site villa enclosure reserve formation placed radar site main likely enemy approach block counterattack considered combination moon visibility rising tide allow landing craft manoeuvre shallow water vital success raid narrowed possible dates day period february february final rehearsal exercise took place proved failure despite ideal weather conditions evacuation landing craft grounded yards offshore shifted despite efforts crews troops raid raid postponed days february rehearsal weather conditions february weather proved ideal clear skies good visibility aircraft squadron moon provide illumination evacuation raiding force naval force commander cook departed britain afternoon transport aircraft carrying company took raf evening aircraft crossed english channel incident reached french coast came heavy fire hit successfully delivered company designated drop zone near installation drop total success majority raiding force landing edge drop zone half nelson detachment landed miles short detachments gathered equipment moved undertake arranged tasks hardy drake encountered enemy opposition moved villa housing radar installation surrounding villa frost gave order open fire grenades automatic fire german guard killed returned fire upstairs window taken prisoner airborne troops interrogation prisoners revealed majority garrison stationed inland remained substantial enemy force buildings small enclosure near villa opened fire raiding force alerted initial killing airborne troops volume fire rapidly increased enemy vehicles seen moving villa nearby woods particular worried frost radio sets force issued failed work giving means communication detachments including nelson tasked clearing evacuation beach fortunately british flight sergeant cox arrived time proceeded radar equipment placing pieces specially designed having secured radar equipment heavy enemy fire major frost gave order detachments withdraw evacuation beach apparent beach secured strength nelson detachment german machine gun opened fire airborne troops severely wounding company sergeant major frost ordered available men nelson clear defenses whilst led detachments villa enemy troops villa soon cleared enemy troops frost returned beach found machine gun nest destroyed dropped troops nelson avoiding number enemy positions reached beach attacked machine gun post flank time sign naval force evacuate airborne troops frost ordered nelson guard inland approaches beach fired emergency signal soon naval force seen approaching original plan operation called landing craft time land beach achieved training instead landing craft landed time covering troops landing craft opening fire german soldiers gathering cliff original evacuation plan enemy fire caused considerable confusion beach landing craft left beach crowded whilst left half radar equipment german prisoners entire raiding force embarked transferred motor gun boats transport britain return journey frost learned naval force received signals apart signal spent time hiding german naval patrol nearly discovered journey britain uneventful force escorted destroyers flight aftermath success raid installation important effects successful raid german occupied territory welcome morale boost british public featured prominently british media weeks british prime minister winston_churchill took personal interest operation march assembled war cabinet hear major frost officers participated medals awarded result special supplement london gazette carried announcement decorations frost awarded military cross cook distinguished service cross cox military medal distinguished service medals mentions despatches mid wing commander subsequently awarded bar distinguished service order success raid prompted war office expand existing british airborne forces setting airborne forces depot battle school april creating parachute regiment converting number infantry battalions airborne battalions august second important result raid technical knowledge british scientists gained examination components radar array showed design aided maintenance fixing faults far simpler similar british radar models confirmed interrogation captured german technician proved trained british counterparts examination radar array allowed british scientists conclude deploy recently developed code named window examination array showed jammed conventional means british early years conflict window deployed german radars effectiveness window radar confirmed raid conducted raf bomber command july hamburg operation bombers utilised window radar hamburg blinded operators confused unable distinguish radar signature real bomber pieces window giving similar signature unexpected bonus raid germans efforts improve defences stations prevent similar attacks radars surrounded rings barbed wire increased visibility air making easier target prior operation overlord final consequence raid telecommunications research establishment equipment analysed british radar systems designed tested moved inland southern coast england ensure target raid german airborne forces original model area radar station brief troops taking assault preserved parachute regiment airborne forces museum located imperial war museum


battle island battle island october known operation drake battle pacific campaign world war allies attacked special naval landing force stranded island battle bay deny japanese ability use island prior campaign drake force consisting australian 12th battalion landed southern tip island mud bay bay october following short heavy fight japanese forces withdrew island october battle island developed allies major base operations later war background island northernmost islands north east separated mile wide ward hunt island located miles sea bay miles port lies sea route bay strategically important late island roughly oval shaped measuring miles long miles coastal belt miles width covered streams coastal swamps island rises sharply central summit mount feet sea level western island covered rain forest jungle grassy plains north eastern covered grass suitable sites airfield development best mud bay south eastern bay south western bay eastern sites accommodate shallow draught vessels drawing feet coral reefs exposed weather making unsuitable development island roads motor animal transport interior island surrounding waters adequately charted important features missing maps features different aircraft ships headed bay vice versa pass close island allied presence island provide warning japanese operations denying japanese opportunity observe allied ships aircraft island flat areas suitable construction emergency prelude early august small detachment american fighter control squadron stationed island provide advance warning australian fighters based bay august royal_australian_air_force raaf squadron forced landings grassy plains makeshift cut grass able flown august seven landing craft carrying japanese special naval landing forces troops 5th special naval landing force supplemented engineers 14th 15th pioneer units set cape nelson dark participate attack allied forces bay reaching island unable locate suitable hiding place landing craft day left beach discovered allies movement reported cape nelson report received bay midday august west_coast island squadron raaf investigate located landing craft destroyed seven japanese force radio stores japanese killed raid survivors lacking transport stranded american detachment island destroyed radios withdrew island news occurred island reached japanese command september orderly way canoe destroyers set rescue men september sighted allied aircraft day destroyers uss helm detached task force captain intercept locate japanese destroyers boeing flying fortresses escaped despite near miss sank taking direct hit stern set fire survivors reached island found similar island attack returned area gone finding oil slick survivors september returned time destroyer found survivors launch destroyers searched coast island success day survivors spotted patrol plane rescued september presence japanese sailors island presented military threat allied forces bay captain australian new_guinea administrative unit officer responsible islands argued posed threat native population australia reputation protector result company 10th infantry battalion command captain ordered land island leaving destroyer stuart september company landed september experienced opposition took japanese prisoners returning bay stuart september messages food supplies air dropped japanese troops september october submarine arrived island dropped rations ammunition medical supplies radio landing craft took sick wounded men carry bodies dead left japanese troops island suffering malaria returned october rations medical supplies second landing craft driven allied aircraft dropped october received radio message warning allies showing considerable interest island likely invade allied supreme commander south west pacific area general douglas issued new orders october forces southwest pacific area attack immediate objective driving japanese northward river line new_guinea force advance axes trail inclusive objective securing line river divide crossing trail inclusive occupy hold island north coast southeastern new_guinea south cape nelson force deny areas japanese forces securing objectives land forces prepare advance secure area orders headquarters battle operation drake 12th infantry battalion second australian imperial force unit 18th infantry brigade composed mainly men queensland tasmania selected invade island commanding officer lieutenant colonel arthur arnold commander drake force ordered destroy japanese force establish radar warning posts island airfield sites intelligence reports indicated approximately japanese troops island mainly concentrated bay mission area south east japanese believed short food ammunition suffering disease boarding destroyers stuart october australian troops transported island escorted task force arriving night battalion disembarked sides island southern tip planned trap japanese main force troops commanded arnold landed mud bay smaller force men company commanded major keith landed bay miles away australian landing craft unavailable 12th infantry battalion king japanese landing craft captured battle bay powered seven days rations carried craft seven days destroyers man carried days rations drake force wireless sets maintaining communication force taken mud bay remained army wireless sets enabled battalion headquarters communicate mud bay addition company army wireless set talk battalion headquarters mud bay force travelled came ashore king ship launches japanese landing craft powered base established ashore mud bay dressing station prepared heavy equipment including inch mortar company australians set march violent thunderstorm broke started rain heavily force pushed slow progress night steep terrain heavy rain half mile october encountered japanese australians crossing creek steep hill japanese commander waited australians position opening fire machine guns mortars troops crossed creek found hand grenades rolled hill pinned heavy accurate fire arnold decided pull night formed defensive position beat small japanese counterattack bay force travelled stuart came ashore ship launch ship ashore october captured japanese machine gun position went south engaged japanese forces japanese driven creek heavy japanese counterattack north inflicted casualties australians forced withdraw area broke radio silence attempted contact arnold set unable reach came heavy mortar machine gun fire inflicted heavy casualties having lost men killed wounded posted missing australians forced fall pressure pursuing japanese lieutenant later receive military cross japanese machine gun ensuing fighting faced overrun withdrew force bay mud bay aboard stuart arriving october radio petrol generator supplied power radios mud bay broken cutting arnold link mud bay force bay arnold launched attack supported inch mortars rounds brought mud bay promised air strike failed arrive instead japanese aircraft australian positions king mud bay wounded men board casualties caused arnold attempted flanking movement company lost jungle attack frontal main japanese defences arnold chose press australian forces unable advance japanese able withdraw night transported equipment supplies landing craft island arrived dawn october men collected light cruiser following day 12th infantry battalion pressed bay meeting resistance finding prepared defences bombing native villages allied air forces caused flee island detachment set refugee camp cared fighting safely return australian losses island killed action died wounds wounded japanese suffered killed wounded battle 12th counted dead estimate japanese able retrieve bury dead difficult australians accurately determine casualties despite evacuation number japanese left captured october handed group died malaria november taken prisoner july aftermath deception american officers air corps corps engineers accompanied 12th infantry battalion landing island mission locating suitable sites air warning facilities found good sites site cleared local labourers established foot foot emergency fighter landing strip 1st battalion engineer general service regiment assigned task developing airfield major capable handling heavy bombers 12th infantry battalion remained island end december eventually shipped bay night december join attack december leaving men american engineers withdrawn port engineers plans develop island postponed strategic importance island forthcoming operations imperial japanese forces south west pacific area small australian occupation force deception camouflage japanese believe brigade sized force occupying island fabricated dummy structures including hospital anti aircraft guns constructed simple logs pointed sky jungle looked like barbed wire lit fires appear cooking fires large numbers soldiers sent messages easily broken codes consistent brigade garrison new garrison australian 47th infantry battalion militia unit command lieutenant colonel henry arrived bay march major component drake force included company 4th field ambulance troop 10th field battery troop 17th light anti aircraft battery section 11th field company detachments signals workshop camouflage units drake force total strength men march japanese bombers attacked ships anchorage village caused damage wounded men aftermath battle sea japanese troops sailors island responding reports police civilian patrols searched island japanese survivors week vigorous patrolling march 47th infantry battalion located killed japanese captured found dead remarkable coup achieved patrol captain joseph killed japanese landed flat boats boats found documents sealed translation allied translator interpreter section document turned copy japanese army list names officer japanese army provided complete order battle japanese army including units reported mention japanese officer unit copies available intelligence units theatre war japan base development man survey party mobile works squadron raaf arrived island january selected bay suitable site anchorage ton ship anchor half mile offshore degree shelter south east north west member survey team local workers recruited began constructing bay improving foot track advance party men mobile works squadron arrived february plans operation chronicle invasion islands called fighter cover island operation scheduled june pace construction work lifted rest airfield construction squadron arrived late march followed mobile works squadron april foot fighter strip completed sealed mixture gravel squadron raaf arrived june joined squadron raaf squadron raaf june wing raaf assumed control fighter squadrons island foot foot bomber strip completed october squadron raaf commenced operations strip october work continued november time dispersal areas heavy medium bombers fighters mobile works squadron built liberty ships island staging point supply base operations new_guinea new britain sub base established island april sub base abolished july responsibility island passed force headquarters opened island august directed operations battles cape gloucester landing august island chosen site number hospitals treat casualties incurred allied forces advanced pacific work bed station hospital commenced september followed bed 9th general hospital november staging area troops established island thousands american troops later passed island base wound end


insurrection insurrection known june days uprising polish workers russian_empire june event largest disturbances russian controlled congress poland russian revolution poland major center revolutionary fighting russian_empire insurrection key incident events months workers state unrest major strikes having taken place forcibly suppressed russian police military insurrection began spontaneously backing organized group polish revolutionary groups taken surprise play major role subsequent events june following clashes authorities previous days angry workers began building assaulting police military patrols additional troops called authorities declared martial law june businesses operated city police military stormed dozens workers eventually june uprising crushed estimates dead wounded uprising reported international press widely discussed socialist communist activists worldwide unrest continue months protests large scale background beginning 20th century economic conditions contributed mounting tensions russia poland russo japanese war damaged economy kingdom poland late polish workers lost jobs late 19th early 20th centuries major polish industrial center heavily large working class important stronghold polish socialist movement news russian revolution revolutionary spirit spread quickly russian controlled poland saint_petersburg january poland major center revolutionary fighting russian_empire insurrection key incident events workers begun striking january january police reporting carrying war capitalized factions russia poland wanted radical changes soon workers involved strikes poland wing polish socialist party loyal believed poles determination regain independence active violent protests russians view shared roman national democratic_party polish left young wing national democrats favored cooperation russian authorities left wanted work russian revolutionaries saw creation socialist important polish independence russo japanese war caused rising dissent russian_empire including polish provinces january workers took large strike day general strike declared day workers strike demanded hour work day support sick worker demonstrations joined students demanded end policy large strike occurred labor day affected close half city industry anniversary polish constitution demonstration patriotic took place asked russian governor general help murder worker russian cavalry mentioned sparks insurrection june russian police opened fire workers demonstrations killing approximately workers attended people escalated major demonstrations june funeral june met cavalry crowd threw stones russian cavalry returned fire killing people wounding hundreds social democracy kingdom poland lithuania called general strike june planning major uprising policy supporting protest russian forces socialist organizations jewish surprised scale spontaneous revolt russian authorities forces consisted regular armed members dozen semi enlisted workers larger group sent warsaw time control affect uprising end violent protest russian government uprising tensions mounted evening june sources vary angry workers began building assaulting police military patrols killing surrender constructed course days street workers opened fire company soldiers cavalry street unit surrounded fires begun town workers set liquor stores fire government forces assaulted initially success representatives called reinforcements came warsaw summer training camps infantry regiments entered city eventually russian forces sent suppress workers numbered infantry regiments cavalry regiments despite situation blown uprising june industries workshops shops offices closed workers government forces clashed heaviest fighting took place near intersection streets located near factory park road area manned strong worker militia eventually forced retreat park insurgents organized agenda commonly fought red standards common demands improvement workers living conditions greater rights polish population june late june sources vary signed decree martial law city supported worker factions found facing russian police regular troops militia armed clashes broke gunmen loyal loyal course june days uprising known poland miniature civil war insurgents poorly armed eventually overwhelmed regular military fell june park street captured russian troops end june midday june sources vary unrest including occasional shots police military patrols continue days aftermath uprising ultimately crushed russian authorities official reports indicated civilian deaths poles jews germans wounded unofficial reports spoke fatalities wounded uprising disturbance described polish historiography revolution kingdom poland protests strikes occurred major polish cities russian control year dramatic september activists assassinate owner factory known poor treatment workers strikes continued large russian military presence mass striking workers factories finally city afterward peaceful city years site radical socialist group labeled extreme terrorist group history poland uprising reported international press recognized socialist communist activists worldwide


battle battle took place march february battle fought greek ottoman forces stages balkan war revolved forts covered approaches largest city region outbreak war greek army numbers initiate offensive german designed defensive positions campaign macedonia large number greek troops crown prince constantine assumed command battle followed ottoman positions breached taken despite having slight numerical advantage decisive factor greek victory solid operational planning greeks key helped implement coordinated executed assault allow ottoman forces time react background main war effort greece initially turned macedonia greek army outnumbered ottoman corps outbreak hostilities october stopping initial attack ottoman commander greeks succeeded october pushing north direction ottoman attack november small force landing captured coastal area facing significant resistance december greek troops improved positions entered north cutting supply route threatening city northeastern flank prelude terrain south provided excellent defensive ground ottoman forces reinforced positions permanent fortifications constructed direction german general von der equipped concrete artillery trenches barbed wire machine gun positions fortress area included major fortresses guarding main southern approaches smaller forts ring city covering western northwestern approaches forts supplied artillery totaling pieces december sides reinforced ottomans received army retreating battle bringing forces greeks brought 2nd division macedonia number volunteer regiments total men greeks launched attack fortress area december ottomans succeeded series actions lasted december gained ground albeit cost high casualties depleted numbers men operations macedonia completed greek high command turned attention divisions transferred theater raising total greek troops artillery pieces heavy guns aircraft hand additional number ottoman soldiers retreating reinforced defenders period siege continued actively artillery attacks greek supply lines reconnaissance bombing missions city greek time hardships winter affected morale sides greek commander general launched new frontal attack january gained ground pushing defenders fort high casualty rate weather resulted operation suspended days later preparations mixed unit included local women protected left flank greek army possible attack ottoman groups stationed groups consisting local females supported greek ways particularly transportation guns food clothes important supplies specific occasions women participated armed conflicts ottoman forces distinguished battlefield like maria reached rank captain battle renewed failure relieved command replaced crown prince constantine constantine proceeded carefully marshal forces bringing men artillery crown prince formulated new plan army attack southeast main effort actually directed fortress area southwestern flank greek artillery began firing preparatory bombardment march continuing day estimated greeks fired rounds gun bombardment ottoman counter fire hampered lack ammunition assault launched march february greek infantry divisions 4th 6th 8th infantry divisions eastern western sectors defensive perimeter time joint brigade launched attack north greek units heavy artillery support breached defensive line sector morning following hours ottoman defenses broken locations result defending ottoman units retreated immediately order avoid different axes threatened collapse entire defensive perimeter cut forced reserve troops engage defensive role greek 1st regiment 9th battalion commanded major entered village southern outskirts consequence greek advance fortresses cut isolated rest ottoman army headquarters night fell forts ceased firing garrisons abandoned trying cut loose greek attempt withdraw significant number ottoman troops totaling officers soldiers captured greek units positioned city southern outskirts ottoman positions morning continued resist surrender realized battle lost tried evacuate troops wounded north greeks pressed advance contacted city foreign seek help negotiating surrender march february agreed surrender ottoman garrison greeks following day greek forces crown prince constantine flag covered streets city hand arriving turkey welcomed national hero aerial warfare greek forces small fleet aircraft mainly consisted operations airfield near performed reconnaissance bombing missions considerable effect michael flying sectors height meters numerous occasions ottoman troops recovering initial confusion attempted shoot aircraft rifles little success russian pilot flying greeks pilot shot combat hit ground fire came near repaired plane resumed flight base day came greek control native city landed aircraft city town hall square enthusiastic crowd aftermath battle greek army inflicted ottoman casualties suffering greeks captured prisoners remainder ottoman garrison able retreat albania greeks captured artillery pieces large amounts march march greek forces entered took day end war reached line stretched mountains coast lake east success enabled greek headquarters transfer army preparation confrontation given strongly entrenched opposition greek army faced historian richard hall cites battle fall greece greatest military achievement balkan war numerical superiority decisive factor greeks final assault instead way planned operations led coordinated executed assault left opportunity ottoman react time surrender secured greek control southern coast time denied newly formed state provided southern anchor point comparable north provisional government albania


massacre massacre killing civilians village near croatia croatian war independence killings began october continued late october croatian police generally targeted ethnic civilians victims ethnic serbs suspected police collaboration croatian authorities victims bodies thrown pit nearby cave thirteen individuals charged tried connection killings convicted belgrade tried convicted convicted county court subsequently returned croatia granted acquitted monument dedicated victims massacre built village background august insurrection took place croatia centred predominantly populated areas including parts city significant populations areas subsequently named declaring intention integrate serbia government croatia declared rebellion march conflict escalated croatian war independence june croatia declared independence yugoslavia month followed decision came effect october yugoslav people army increasingly supported croatian police unable cope croatian national_guard formed development military croatia hampered arms introduced september military conflict croatia continued battle started august end august fighting intensified specifically battle continued september killings forces occupied village september village located kilometres miles northeast mixed population consisting serbs population fled end month october chief police instructed remaining village houses evacuated civilians complied request forces shot assembled villagers houses owned looted mob attack resulted thirteen civilian deaths victims killed bodies thrown burning houses victims burned death killed elderly victims child following days killings continued according news report total civilians killed village month corpses thrown pit retrieved cave november republic serbian police estimated bodies approximately civilians thrown pit mid october police arrested serbian civilians children allegedly collaborating croatian authorities night october police searched home killed wife house body end month children murdered remains thrown pit aftermath police officers prosecuted district court murder family investigation spurred requests relatives victims threatened authorities united_nations protection force authorities continued searching led president district court write minister interior asking instructions proceed stating attempt retrieve bodies family uncover numerous bodies pit requested instructions proceed investigation found bodies pit investigation completed trial suspected involvement murders begin belgrade trial appeals process concluded resulting convictions sentenced thirteen years prison milan sentenced years prison respectively county court tried convicted group seven croatian serbs involvement killings civilians members families family handing prison sentences sentenced years prison received sentences years prison county court tried taking massacre convicted sentenced years prison convicted served prison time voluntarily returned croatia september granted convicted conviction overturned acquitted september prosecution failed present sufficient evidence monument victims massacre world war victims area built monument designed named croatian history portal portal unveiled relatives killed massacre october marking 12th anniversary killings