franklin lost expedition franklin lost expedition british voyage arctic exploration led captain sir john franklin departed england royal_navy officer experienced explorer franklin served previous arctic expeditions commanding officer fourth undertaken meant traverse section northwest passage early fatalities ships victoria near king william island canadian arctic entire expedition men including franklin lost pressed franklin wife jane lady franklin admiralty launched search missing expedition prompted franklin fame admiralty offer reward subsequent expeditions joined hunt point involved british american ships ships east_coast island relics expedition found including graves crewmen explorer john surveying near canadian arctic coast southeast king william island acquired relics stories franklin party search led francis discovered note left king william island details expedition fate searches continued 19th century finally canadian search team located hms west reilly island eastern portion queen gulf waters arctic archipelago team scientists led owen professor university alberta began series scientific studies graves bodies physical evidence left franklin men island king william island concluded men graves found island likely died pneumonia tuberculosis lead poisoning worsened health owing badly cans held ships food stores later suggested source lead food water systems fitted expedition ships cut marks human bones found king william island seen signs combined evidence studies suggested starvation lead poisoning disease including general exposure hostile environment whilst lacking adequate clothing nutrition killed expedition years following sighting europeans victorian media portrayed franklin hero despite expedition failure reports songs written statues home town london tasmania credit discovery northwest passage actually found john franklin lost expedition subject artistic works including songs verse short stories novels television documentaries background search europeans northern sea europe asia began christopher columbus continued mid-19th century long series expeditions originating mainly england degree successful added sum european geographic knowledge western hemisphere particularly north_america knowledge grew larger attention gradually turned arctic 16th 17th centuries geographic discoveries north_america included martin john davis henry hudson william incorporation hudson bay company led exploration canadian coasts interior arctic seas 18th century explorers included james knight christopher samuel james cook alexander george vancouver discoveries showed northwest passage ships lay temperate latitudes pacific atlantic oceans sir john second secretary admiralty post held began push royal_navy complete northwest passage canada navigate north pole decades explorers including john ross david william edward frederick william james clark ross george peter warren thomas simpson productive trips canadian arctic explorers john franklin second command expedition north pole ships trent leader overland expeditions arctic coast canada combined discoveries expeditions reduced relevant unknown parts canadian arctic area km2 unknown area franklin sail heading west lancaster sound west south ice land obstacles allow complete northwest passage distance roughly kilometres preparations command nearing end career command expedition complete northwest passage find believed ice free open polar sea north pole choice tired arctic declined second choice james clark ross declined promised new wife arctic choice james rejected admiralty account youth considered george thought francis possibility humble birth irish counted reluctantly settled year old franklin expedition consist ships hms hms terror seen service james clark ross given command commanded terror antarctica expedition ross appointed executive officer commander terror franklin received expedition command february official instructions ships provisions crew tons terror tons built outfitted recent steam engines fitted terror drive single screw vessel engines locomotives london railway enabled ships power advanced technology included bows reinforced heavy beams plates iron internal steam heating device comfort crew screw propellers iron withdrawn iron wells protect damage ships libraries books years worth conventionally preserved preserved food supplies supplied stephen awarded contract april mere seven weeks franklin set sail worked large hasty order speed required affected quality control proportion manufactured later found lead thick like melted wax inside surface crew north country small number aside franklin lieutenant graham gore officers arctic veterans assistant surgeon ice masters australian connections apart sir john franklin lieutenant governor van land crew included people close family connections explorers australia died henry cousin william john leader expedition cross australian mainland south north perished return journey william gibson steward hms terror elder brother alfred gibson disappeared expedition led cross western_australia east west honoured naming gibson desert journal entry april remarked gibson rode anniversary return depot creek recited appear know hardships endured struggles existence death remarked brother sic lost life field discovery went sir john franklin gibson remarked brother died franklin north pole father great deal trouble getting pay government loss expedition set sail england morning crew officers men ships stopped briefly harbour islands northern scotland sailed greenland hms transport ship junior islands bay west_coast greenland carried transport ship slaughtered fresh meat supplies transferred terror crew members wrote letters home letters written board told franklin banned swearing expedition final departure men discharged sent home junior reducing ships final crew size expedition seen europeans late july captain prince wales captain robert martin enterprise encountered terror bay waiting good conditions cross lancaster sound years expeditions explorers scientists piece happened franklin men island crew members died buried terror trapped ice king william island september sailed according note dated april left island franklin died june crew king william island remaining crew planned begin walking april river canadian mainland officers men died rest die way island northern coast mainland hundreds miles nearest outpost western civilization early searches years passed word franklin public concern grew lady franklin members parliament british newspapers urged admiralty send search party response admiralty developed plan effect spring sent overland rescue party led sir john richardson john river canadian arctic coast expeditions sea launched entering canadian arctic archipelago lancaster sound entering pacific addition admiralty offered reward party parties country shall render assistance crews discovery ships command sir john franklin effort failed british national concern interest arctic increased finding franklin crusade ballads lady franklin lament commemorating lady franklin search lost husband popular joined search british american ships cruised canadian arctic including sister ship hms phoenix east_coast island relics expedition found including remnants winter camp graves john john william messages franklin expedition found site spring passengers crew aboard ships observed huge newfoundland bore vessels upright beam ends ships examined closely suggested ships terror likely abandoned ships edward given command government arctic expedition search sir john franklin unsuccessful inability render popular subordinates unfortunate arctic voyage wholly suited command vessels ice ships hms pioneer assistance abandoned pack ice court acquitted ships hms later recovered intact american ship later manufacture desk presented queen_victoria president chosen presidents use oval office white_house overland searches john surveying peninsula hudson bay company discovered evidence lost men fate met near bay april told party white men died starvation near mouth river confirmed story included reports dying sailors showed objects identified having belonged franklin men particular brought bay silver later identified belonging franklin robert aboard report sent admiralty october urged send expedition river search signs franklin men chief factor james anderson employee james stewart travelled north canoe mouth river july band told group whites death coast august anderson stewart found piece wood inscribed said stanley surgeon aboard montreal island inlet river meets sea despite findings anderson admiralty plan search britain officially labelled crew deceased service march lady franklin failing convince government fund search personally commissioned expedition francis expedition ship steam schooner fox bought public subscription sailed july april parties set fox search king william island party led royal_navy lieutenant william found document left contained messages dated said terror ice northwest coast king william island earlier island island sir john franklin commanding expedition message said second message written margins sheet paper ominous dated april reported terror trapped ice year half crew abandoned ships april officers crew died including franklin june weeks date note commanding expedition survivors planned start day heading south river note contains significant errors notably date expedition winter camp island incorrectly given expedition found human skeleton southern coast king william island clothed searched papers found including certificate chief petty officer henry captain hms terror uniform ship steward likely body thomas gun room steward hms terror papers carried site western extreme island discovered containing skeletons relics franklin expedition boat large abandoned equipment including boots silk soap hair books copy vicar took testimony expedition disastrous end expeditions charles francis hall lived near bay island later bay canadian mainland found camps graves relics southern coast king william island franklin expedition survivors believed found concluded franklin crew dead believed official expedition records found stone assistance guides hall gathered hundreds pages testimony materials accounts visits franklin ships encounter party white men southern coast king william island near washington bay 1990s testimony extensively researched david basis books franklin mystery strangers final months expedition hope finding lost papers led lieutenant frederick army organise expedition island traveling hudson bay schooner assembling team included assisted hall continued north foot dog interviewing visiting known likely sites franklin expedition remains king william island failed find hoped papers speech dinner given honour american geographical society noted expedition longest journey regard time distance months days kilometres arctic expedition whites relied entirely diet established loss franklin records reasonable doubt expedition found remnants franklin expedition south place known starvation cove adelaide peninsula north stated goal river miles away nearest western outpost great slave lake wrote reports expedition member seen baker lake area kilometres south found ancient normal construction inside hardwood box joints contemporary search expeditions east james clark ross hms enterprise hms investigator somerset island ice center richardson arctic expedition river coast west hms hms herald william reaches west richard hms enterprise robert hms investigator frozen banks island rescued man cross northwest passage reaches coronation gulf east ship east austin hms hms assistance plus steam pioneer john finds franklin island camp austin ships gather island frozen spring send expeditions directions leave arctic winter east charles prince albert financed lady franklin somerset island fury beach east william penny lady franklin east john ross schooner east haven uss rescue uss advance expedition william kennedy prince albert finds proving somerset island island edward northern bay edward ships exploration rescues ships abandoned ice crushed ice kane led second expedition boat expedition wellington channel command hope john learns franklin lost ship anderson stewart descend river find relics inlet francis finds relics king william island including ship boat runners containing corpses charles francis hall king william island allen young blocked sound frederick king william island scientific expeditions king william island excavations june owen professor university alberta began franklin expedition forensic project team researchers field assistants travelled king william island traversing island western coast franklin men years hoped find artifacts skeletal remains order use modern establish identities causes death lost trek found archaeological artifacts related 19th century europeans human remains disappointed remains found examining bones franklin crewmen noted areas pitting scaling found cases cause returning compared notes survey james arctic archaeologist noticed skeletal patterns suggesting seeking information franklin crew health diet sent bone samples alberta soil feed testing laboratory trace element analysis assembled team visit king william island analysis find unexpected level parts million lead bones times higher control samples taken skeletons geographic area june team graduate student university alberta geography student simon university british_columbia student field assistant flown west_coast king william island steps discoveries expedition included remains fourteen men vicinity boat place artifacts including complete boot sole fitted makeshift better traction island excavations returning learning lead level findings expedition struggled find cause possibilities included lead seal expedition food food containers lined lead foil food tobacco products lead wicked candles came suspect problems lead poisoning compounded effects lethal franklin crew skeletal lead reflect lifetime exposure exposure limited voyage theory tested forensic examination preserved soft tissue opposed bone decided examine graves buried crewmen island obtaining legal permission team visited island august perform crewmen buried started crew member die leading john completing autopsy briefly examining body john team pressed time threatened weather returned tissue bone samples trace element analysis bones hair indicated suffered severe mental physical problems caused lead poisoning autopsy indicated pneumonia ultimate cause death lead poisoning cited contributing factor expedition team visited place north grave site examine fragments hundreds food discarded franklin men noted poorly lead likely come direct contact food release findings expedition photo year old corpse preserved led wide media coverage renewed interest lost franklin expedition recent research suggested potential source lead ships fresh water systems food argued impossible food lead day months required raise level symptoms lead poisoning begin appear adults suggestion bone lead adults lead food period months years scarcely addition food widespread use royal_navy time use lead significant increase lead poisoning uniquely expedition ships fitted converted railway locomotive engines auxiliary propulsion required estimated fresh water hour steaming highly probable reason ships fitted unique water system given materials use time produced large quantities water high lead content william argued likely source high levels lead observed remains expedition members food survey graves undertaken camera crew filmed procedure shown nova television documentary buried ice difficult field conditions medical doctor university minnesota technician larry anderson took rays crewmen prior autopsy barbara arctic clothing specialist roger amy assisted investigation team noticed attempted effort damaged wooden lid coffin coffin plaque missing research later showed sir edward commander franklin rescue expeditions ordered october thwarted month later edward commander rescue expedition succeeded removed coffin plaque unlike grave grave private william largely intact survey team saw signs burial hasty arms body head positioned carefully coffin backwards coffin small lid pressed nose large copper plaque personal data punched adorned coffin lid excavations team archaeologists forensic identified site referenced western shores king william island site matches physical description boat place excavations uncovered nearly bones bone fragments physical artefacts ranging pieces clay pipes buttons brass fittings examination bones anne expedition forensic scientist showed elevated levels lead cut marks consistent basis expedition generally accepted groups franklin men resorted final distress june study accepted publication journal concluded addition bones bones signs pot occurs ends bones heated boiling water cooking pot placed typically occurs end stage people extract bit nutrition wreck searches franklin author david help expert nelson organised project search wreck reported testimony lie waters adelaide peninsula enlisting national research council canadian forces patrol aircraft fitted sensitive large search area west grant point surveyed elevation feet strong magnetic targets identified deemed characteristics expected franklin ships joe organised attempt identify priority targets year chartered aircraft landed ice locations hole ice small sector scan image sea unfortunately ice conditions uncertain navigation possible exactly confirm locations holes found hitherto unknown depths found locations consistent testimony wreck king william island organised led land search area richard inlet modern victory point search buried spoken testimony contemporary hunter person team spent days search sponsored royal canadian geographical society filmed focus north trace found expedition jointly organised george american party planning separate search group travelled island investigate stories white man found party accompanied archaeologist margaret investigated summer camp found miles south cape minor franklin relics found companions travelled south wall bay victory point investigated likely coast finding cans previously unknown near cape maria wreck searches franklin expedition mounted canadian film company nova use investigate priority magnetic targets found senior archaeologist robert assisted margaret acted expedition historian search coordinator operations conducted canadian coast guard approximately square kilometres surveyed result near island detached parties found franklin relics primarily copper small items beaches north reilly island search diverted area poor weather prevented significant survey work expedition ended documentary oceans mystery search lost fleet produced nova expedition james vancouver maritime museum organised enactment historic passage westward northwest passage vessel supported canadian tender simon knowing ice delay transit area king william island offered use search vessel friends forward looking survey northern search area island continued result expeditions mounted continue mapping proposed wreck sites privately sponsored expedition irish canadian franklin search expeditions use drawn working sea ice completed unfinished survey northern island search area entire southern reilly island area high priority magnetic targets identified ice geological origin small franklin artefacts characteristic explorer tent sites found small northeast reilly island shore searches august new search announced led robert senior archaeologist parks canada search hoped advantage improved ice conditions scan boat open water hoped draw newly published testimony collected oral historian placed location franklin ships vicinity royal geographical society island area searched previous expeditions search include local historian found significant remains expedition represent indigenous culture july hms investigator subsequently abandoned searching franklin expedition found shallow water mercy bay northern coast banks island canada western arctic parks canada team reported good shape upright metres feet water august new search announced parks canada victoria expedition september larger search canadian team banner victoria expedition found items hat island queen gulf near king william island wooden object possibly plug deck iron pipe ship chain cable descend chain locker boat launching bearing stamps royal_navy broad arrows september expedition announced september located franklin ships ship preserved good condition scan picking deck wreck lies eastern portion queen gulf west reilly island october house_of_commons prime minister stephen harper confirmed wreck hms scientific conclusions field surveys excavations spanned years results study king william island island artefacts human remains showed island crew likely died pneumonia tuberculosis suggested evidence disease discovered reports pointed lead poisoning likely contributing factor blade cut marks found bones crew seen signs evidence suggested combination cold starvation disease including pneumonia tuberculosis worse lead poisoning killed franklin party factors franklin chosen passage west king william island took terror train ice clear short summers route island east_coast regularly summer later successful navigation northwest passage franklin expedition locked ice winters victoria naval equipped trained land travel crew members heading south terror hauled items needed arctic survival noted large quantity heavy goods boat place thought mere accumulation dead weight little use likely break strength crews addition cultural factors prevented crew seeking help quickly possible adopting survival techniques timeline franklin expedition sails england july expedition docks greenland sends home men batch letters july sighting expedition europeans ship bay expedition winters island crewmen die tuberculosis buried terror leave island sail sound king william island september ships trapped ice king william island expedition winters king william island date note says june franklin dies expedition winters king william island ice fails april terror abandoned year seven months trapped ice april date second note saying men died survivors plan start marching south april river board abandoned ship king william island men walking south king william island hunters men trying head south verified sighting survivors reported charles hall seen survivor south baker lake area john interviews local items expedition tell men death finds abandoned boat messages admiralty form king william island ryan harris underwater parks canada project lead search announced finding september underwater wreck said franklin ships investigation determined hms news confirmed october canadian house_of_commons legacy historical meaningful outcome franklin expedition mapping thousand miles hitherto coastline expeditions searching franklin lost ships crew richard noted loss expedition probably added geographical knowledge successful return time largely admiralty appetite arctic exploration gap years expedition declared north pole words marked end royal_navy historical involvement arctic exploration end era exploits widely seen british public worthy expenditures human effort monetary resources writer think fairly account cost results arctic expeditions ask worth risk difficult attained worthless navigation northwest passage expedition effectively ended centuries long quest northwest passage cultural legacy years loss franklin party victorian media portrayed franklin hero led men quest northwest passage statue franklin home town bears inscription sir john franklin north west passage statues franklin outside london tasmania bear similar inscriptions expedition fate including possibility widely reported debated franklin standing victorian public expedition subject numerous works non fiction including books fatal passage lady franklin revenge mystery surrounding franklin expedition subject episode nova television series arctic passage television documentary franklin lost expedition discovery theatre canadian documentary passage episode travel documentary series billy journey edge world presenter crew visited island filmed gave details franklin expedition memory lost expedition canada northwest territories subdivisions known district franklin including high arctic islands jurisdiction abolished area set newly created territory april october special service thanksgiving held chapel old royal naval college accompany national monument franklin service included remains lieutenant henry thomas remains repatriated england monument event brought members international polar community invited guests included polar travellers photographers authors descendants franklin captain francis men families went search including admiral sir francis rear admiral sir john ross vice admiral sir robert gala directed frost polar historian lewis jones organised high commission canada united_kingdom celebration contributions united_kingdom charting canadian north honoured loss life pursuit geographical discovery navy represented admiral nick prayers led bishop readings tributes duncan wilson chief executive foundation james wright canadian high commissioner private drinks reception painted hall following arctic service chief marine archaeologist parks canada robert spoke ongoing search missing expedition ships following day group polar authors went london green cemetery pay respects arctic explorers buried difficulty located hoped memorial particular future veterans searches franklin buried including admiral sir thomas austin admiral sir george admiral sir edward admiral admiral sir john ross franklin wife jane griffin lady franklin interred green vault commemorated marble cross dedicated niece portrayal fiction arts 1850s present day franklin expedition inspired numerous literary works play frozen deep written collins assistance production charles play performed private audiences house early royal gallery illustration including command performance queen_victoria public manchester trade union hall news franklin death inspired including charles fictional treatments final franklin expedition begin journeys adventures captain novel hero seeks franklin footsteps discovers north pole dominated enormous volcano mark briefly fate expedition subsequent searches beginning story learned good old boys girls german novelist discovery english translation takes entirety franklin life touching briefly expedition recent treatments franklin include solomon william rifles john wilson north franklin journals james dan terror developed television series announced february expedition subject horror role playing game supplement walker recently novel arctic drift incorporates ordeal franklin expedition central element story richard wanting deals franklin deeds tasmania arctic novel white passage rounds list science fiction concepts time travel consequences alternate fate lost expedition january bbc radio broadcast radio play entitled based franklin expedition franklin expedition inspired great deal music beginning ballad lady franklin lament known lord franklin originated 1850s recorded dozens artists martin connor john franklin inspired songs include convention james taylor frozen man based photographs john influence franklin expedition canadian literature especially significant best known contemporary franklin ballads northwest passage late ontario stan rogers referred unofficial canadian national anthem distinguished canadian novelist margaret spoken franklin expedition sort national myth canada remarking culture stories told told stories bear examining canadian literature story franklin expedition recent treatments canadian poets include verse play terror broadcast canadian broadcasting corporation radio 1960s david verse cycle franklin passage french language novel usage des creatively considers franklin expedition variety perspectives genres finalist literary awards canada governor general awards english translation novel proper use stars governor general awards french english translation visual arts loss franklin expedition inspired number paintings united_states britain church unveiled great canvas later year prior taking england exhibition added image broken ship mast silent tribute franklin sir man proposes god caused stir annual royal academy exhibition depiction polar bears ship ensign human seen time poor taste remained powerful expedition final fate expedition inspired numerous popular illustrations magic shows


thomas thomas april april english born surveyor explorer remembered exploration west_coast new_zealand south island born april oxford began learn architecture surveying joined new_zealand company venture establish settlement north south island new_zealand called nelson working apprentice surveyor laying sections roads new settlement explored interior seeking pastoral land growing colony undertook extensive journeys charles named west_coast december commenced expedition accompanied including began nelson party travelled river west_coast reaching far south head near returning nelson river journey stage saw legs took days received honours royal geographical society french geographic society continued work surveyor appointed government surveyor surveyed sites scouted previous towns retired died stroke april early life thomas born oxford england april baptised months later august oldest son william oxford attorney county swiss descent father parents having emigrated england time french revolution family active oxford community thomas parents raising siblings appreciate cultural charitable activities age architect thomas learn architecture surveying years proficient skills service new_zealand company father son forward new_zealand company seeking prospective proposed settlement south island new_zealand company wanted new settlement educated young men excellent character leadership potential furthermore apprentice time known particular demand aided character references employer notable residents oxford duly selected join company addition work assist settlement principal surveyor frederick joined party young left england april aboard voyage new_zealand received instruction tested having prepare draft new settlement plan best september arrived port new_zealand company settlement approximate site new settlement finalised initially intended banks peninsula location vetoed governor new_zealand william instead located south island bay early following month convoy company ships aboard crossed cook bay scouting area weeks site adjacent deep sheltered natural harbour identified suitable settlement years assisted laying settlement called nelson nelson settlement lack pasture colony began appropriate nearby plain displeasure local personnel company including arthur senior official company nelson killed june new_zealand company forced look south farming land sent scout valley failed penetrate far poor weather local heard large plain south passed findings august dispatched confirm reports accompanied befriended defeated poor weather life nelson hard colonists company limited finances expenditure affected salaries employees halt operations time nelson landowners nearly thirds owners actually lived town lived nearby village addition carrying survey work river helped design building houses area ended service company august exploring west_coast february accompanied charles william fox undertook expedition southwest nelson fox resident agent new_zealand company nelson provided equipment provisions party addition paying salary land nelson farming scarce hoped steep hills southwest good pastoral land found difficult terrain faced high mountain ranges topped snow ice steep bush numerous rivers food sources included roots birds caught streams coast eggs added diet party carrying load pounds lake climbed high ranges backed lake february saw lake way shores spent days exploring area gained river february walked banks far river believing miles coast provisions prevented proceeding mouth river guided party traversed hope saddle way nelson reached march keen exploration fox persuaded scout west_coast mouth river hope finding suitable land farming left nelson march month expedition tracing western coast south island far south known journey began golden bay way west hired local porter party expedition hit local chief barred journey south tobacco continued coast climbing steep cliffs rivers went movements held times rain high tides night shelter small caves augmented screen palm leaves crossed river april reached river days later crossed old canoe repaired safely getting stayed local village early sighted southern alps river tributary grey river southernmost point expedition hosted local tribe poor weather plagued return trip coast reached nelson august great journey december began longest expedition planned follow river sea trek west_coast far south sound previous expedition told existence route southern alps river hoped discover route use cross southern alps reach canterbury accompanied brought wife friend joined venture accompanied wife provided clothing shoes companions wives proved problematic journey supported husbands stocked provisions included guns pounds tobacco pounds flour salt pepper tea party travelled canoe weeks reached river followed path river coast journey difficult party constantly bothered rain ford river times settled routine week camping period provisions living freshwater fish tree roots final reaches food scarce find kill dog noted flesh pork richly eat incident led nicknamed dog disappointed condition land banks river neared coast briefly scouted area previous journey believed potential pastoral farming found damp cultivated party reached mouth june way stayed journey arrival found abandoned continued river reached stayed months worst winter months october continued south local went far south head near december severely ankle recovering decided way companions river late january discovered lake bears wanted continue route canterbury party began way nelson travelled north tributary river eventually met river reached march april making way gorge suffered leg party lay week recover use body aid wife abandoned party ill able reach nelson june ending days described great journey nelson people thought dead readily recognised survived aid writing found native use better progress owe life faithful attached servant information west_coast informed colony coal found grey river valley considered mistakenly west_coast worth expense exploring reports west_coast soon spread wellington england wrote account journey published charles editor local newspaper nelson later journal royal geographical society royal geographical society awarded patron medal appointed fellow society exploits recognised france french geographic society awarding diploma later life constitution considerably impaired health fully returned despite period recovery set november companions including discover quicker route nelson involved travelling paths rivers weather poor week trip discomfort ultimately unsuccessful venture determined existing route fastest apart short period contract surveying new_zealand company march remained unemployed wrote numerous letters contacts travelling companion william fox bell chief agent new_zealand company sought find job able find work clerk canterbury association september february returned nelson secured time employment surveyor new_zealand company able private work interfere duties supplement income began architectural commissions new_zealand company struggling financially eventually transferred land new_zealand government employment company ceased writing letter surveying work appointed government surveyor annual salary low salary professional allowed continue architectural commissions working office purchased nelson kept busy years addition carrying supervising survey work area took responsibility public works drew plans bridges botanical gardens october married jane year old daughter brought family new_zealand previous year respectable match jane considered particularly eligible bachelor nelson professionals working town people salary increased chief surveyor nelson province local returning officer commissioner native reserves nelson owned properties including nelson office returned mouth river march time aboard ship working greater comfort visit area members staff surveyed laid sections town later month work soon completed party returned nelson april designed michael church west probably new_zealand memorial church commemorates captain francis early died buried previous church site church nelson province april michael registered new_zealand historic places trust category structure registration number retirement death retired relatively young age remained employed nelson provincial council consultant surveyor head nelson survey department administration skills role surveys produced supervision poor quality continued seek private work contributed report region settlement published early retirement retained offices sheriff returning officer registration officer relieved cost cutting measures nelson provincial council meet approval locals late suffered left prevented working mid april sufficiently recovered begin provincial government suitable employment morning april suffered stroke died hours later funeral service held nelson cathedral attended people large contingent including long time friend present buried cemetery survived wife moved england soon death lived brother death couple children geographic features named originally called small settlement grey river inland found coal site best known new_zealand worst disaster lake located kilometres road upstream arnold river went coal discovery feature named range located east valley river flows plaque memory lies nelson cathedral


revolt revolt spanish series uprisings settlers peru spanish authorities underlying cause unrest strong anti jesuit feelings dislike governor seen favoring resumption revolt economic issues came fore rebel organization split second phase rural poor urban elite formed factions similar grievances incompatible politics unusually strong tradition self rule colonists tradition strict obedience spanish crown governor decreed independence helped push revolt forward beginnings revolt quasi legal judge real sent examine charges misconduct pro jesuit governor diego los reyes concluded charges valid forced reyes exile later imprisoned declared governor power accused crimes demanded mission indians care enslaved distributed citizens expelled college actions support citizens governors deposed replaced central government complaining peru diego residing approve action ordered reyes restoration governor backing settlers refused citing authority superior feud continued replaced peru militia attacked defeated allied force jesuit mission indians spanish colonial forces battle legitimacy claim governorship second force sent movement seen clearly resigned fled order seemingly restored province arrested imprisoned years executed quiet years interim governor seen friendly settlers hostile replaced refused new governor spread ideas populace power people superior governor king held new elections town council won seats resumed self rule replacement governor sent killed movement split times happy colonial authorities town council run feared total breakdown order poorer started estates property notable thought sufficiently pro inability trade rest spanish empire led economic crisis colonial forces finally moved divided scattered fled faction joining government forces bid background tradition self government loosely controlled parts spanish empire crown strong independent streak leadership partially stemmed history shortly settlements rio governor died crown subsequently issued royal decree real stated named successor successor confirmed governor named successor successor dead replacement elected election unique privilege spain american colonies historian calls strange king charles ruthless spent reign autonomy spain holdings especially thought hold precious metals time decree limit use election time citizens decree elect governor use times merely elect replacement governors disliked appointed governors decree justify coup reigned governor years attempted control settlers abuse native indians earning dislike colonists arrested replacement governor proclaimed sent spain chains number likely false crimes accused historians later attempt tie coup revolt revolt royalist forces earlier struggle helped defeat unlikely contemporary identified according hoped attain legitimacy choice governor eyes king identifying despised rebels main contemporary references calling come sources friendly seeking discredit coup eyes king governors office constrained spanish empire unpopular governors faced threat removed application decree drastic measures governor power curtailed town council powerful governors found difficult enforced acted consulting securing consent spain contributed relatively little way troops officials funds armaments determined region fact rich precious metals resources immigration slowed interior south_america dangerous portuguese aligned hostile indian tribes threaten armed militia limited governor influence members rallied militia jesuit missions missionaries society jesus arrived invitation settlers governor set work converting indians area built prominent church college college educational institution importance province gathered large number indians care able introducing indians elements spanish civilization importantly able offer indians care measure protection whites indians mission sold slavery tricked goods women taken extra wives time entire empire empire built took responsibilities far religious education order pay royal taxes indians ran economy sold goods market order defend portuguese hostile indians gathered armaments trained arts war highly controversial opposed settlers constant threat portuguese invasion meant spanish crown gave consent time went relations settlers native population indians initially large compared number spanish settlers decreased greatly abuse system legal framework similar slavery spanish laws declared offspring wives entitled native slaves immigration slowed province heavily populated spanish mixed blood descendants increasing pure blood claim servants new class poor whites jesuit missions actively chose mission life remaining independent falling system result perceived shortage cheap labor shortage fixed jesuit mission indians taken impressed additionally jesuit missions economic competitor settlers major export mate production drink mate variety produced mission lands considered superior harvested civil province pushing margins mission lands closed wild rumors jesuit activities found easy currency tales hidden great treasures secret lucrative mines worked captive indians uncommon early average despised agitated government action idea extending privileges question series took place pro jesuit governor anti jesuit bishop exiled end governorship returned new governor diego attempted remain neutral conflict settlers backed returned successfully avoided time died seizing decree promptly elected new governor support expelled college wrote explanation actions destroying province natural right people defend aggression governor bishop similar democratic language said voice people voice god authorities displeased government permission sent army mission indians militia decided resist battle october jesuit army roughly indians won complete victory scattered closest supporters arrested citizens subjected humiliation occupying army indians patrolling streets enforcing new governor rule wound healed hatred intense early contested governorship diego los reyes governor purchased position spanish authorities practice spread time reyes merchant fortune trading mate cheap needed seen qualified post spanish crown reyes open admirer wife members jesuit order important advisors policies seen settlers pro jesuit reyes jesuit advisors instigated order attack indians despite truce established years earlier captured conversion christianity mission life settlers received captives militia lives fighting colonial trade outlying farms threatened raids lived considerably likely threaten missions farther east civil province reyes acquired reputation powers office control trade reyes important members elite fund construction defensive fortifications end result reyes deeply unpopular governor found majority actively seeking removal bid position reyes accused chief antagonists treason imprisoned complained real accusing reyes members good cause general unlawful conduct governor took investigation reyes judicial system colonial spain wide degree latitude independence known distant capital court power sent judge justice saw fit young rising star court critics wrote likable handsome intelligent unusually educated time gave sealed document open found reyes guilty ordered reyes release council members imprisoned interfere investigation way interviewing witnesses accusing reyes concluded evidence strong warrant immediate arrest reyes september presented sealed document given document gave position governor took objections reyes remaining supporters april officially found reyes guilty dismissed governor reyes immediately escaped day sentence handed proceeded reyes property order arrest reyes friends supporters taking property sold public auction actions earned support majority province hated reyes clinched popularity taking stand hated endorsed settlers demands mission indians distributed secular paid spanish government priests charge jesuit missions customs house established enforce limits jesuit exports mate historian james comes meaning believed imposing civil authority independent jesuit missions benefit empire possible matter ended succession governor new royal governor appointed province friends reyes reached pleaded case court support influential convinced peru diego reyes victim plot jealous ambitious conducted stormy correspondence accusing having authority giving chief judge case reyes power succeed governor illegal separate occasions demanded reyes governor responded judicial matter bounds held ceremony proclaiming escaped reyes legitimate governor reyes went authorities recognized claim began goods traders refused support reyes claim trade rest spanish empire interrupted situation degenerated group men loyal came kidnapped reyes night dragging highly illegal act eyes citizens government power enraged finally opted military force ordering governor buenos_aires prepare army march rallied militia response sent lieutenant governor marshall jesuit mission indians troops buenos_aires reinforcements villa hoped peaceful resolution possible received briefly served interim governor known great supporter worked jesuit armies mission indians fighting portuguese gained admiration support allegedly ignored royal award mission indians settlers interim governor run college mob citizens given hours leave armies exchanged hostile letters briefly force persuade august indians celebrating feast preparations military attack attacked dancing indians won complete victory element surprise hundreds indians killed arms ammunition papers taken royal army forced retreat band citizens villa arrived late reinforcements surrendered immediately saw leader executed victory came unexpectedly cheap settlers killed wounded captured mission indians distributed settlers victory new peru dedicated supporter monarchy allow authorities spread sent final warning continuing affair tolerated frightened new connections spain battle spanish forces backed ceased campaign behalf second expedition organized personally forces bishop supported strongest terms accept fight stronger force clear continuing struggle fruitless additionally guaranteed jesuit mission indians enter civil territory time settlers submitted peacefully mention retribution arrests decided submit fled arrested temporary peace pursued policy settlers wishing situation handed fines arrests executions members kept posts ill governor reyes quietly freed year conditions approached solitary confinement told avoid trouble best showed province left months placing charge interim governor serve governor replacement governors failed arrive arrested beat wife died transit atlantic_ocean proved sympathetic settlers hostile sent letters threatening investigate claimed abuses mission indians wrote similar concerns jesuit missions assured loyal servants crown burden defending hostile indian raids share mission indians main dispute tenure return college ordered restored immediately complied fear revolt settlers actively hostile return implementing orders letters exchanged extremely blunt orders demanding immediate required occasion came complied continued governor traded accusations jesuit lands reports sent madrid invited travelling advisors origins cloudy educated possibly lawyer acquired reputation imprisoned possibly meeting prison point escaped exiled eventually way spread ideas government role people considered radical time according rights reyes defied political authority rested community power people said greater king pope late news came replacement governor way rumors spread friend reyes rallied followers called raised force outside city delegation sent demanded new governor denied entry demanded refused resigned post frustration demanded new elections won members accepted rebel line elected members replaced arrived informed wanted allowed stay days virtual house arrest convinced left bishop left city entirely control despite new influence desired radical shift apparently felt abolish directly instead created parallel governmental structure members elected people step far treason members assumed new mayor built power base faction controlled rural areas faction saw threat arranged quiet arrest sent eventually found way jail buenos_aires soon escape prison return fled brazil victory short lived faction thrown confusion months eventually rallied found militia members willing fight supporters forced flee jesuit missions radical ruled rural areas news refusal governor reached doomed defense imprisoned convinced new uprising trial accelerated sentenced death friendly organized mob shouting pardon blocked way public execution site july shot instead way execution leading citizens executed allies considerably involved implying forthcoming purge supporters jesuit relations collapsed rallied indian army crossed river lands assured settlers self defense jesuit college ignored earlier stages affair expelled college enraged interference church bishop placed province rebels sack church temporarily lifted band colonists needed fight indians army jesuit army indians came close tense series communications backed agreed truce position governor sat vacant peru selected favored candidate believed restore order province pre king selected new governor given force soldiers governor buenos_aires left choosing believe promises sent loyalty king arrived accepted new governor declared speech establishment treason attempting revive publicly executed waited weeks assessing situation began justice ordered elections declared invalid leadership militia began preparations return college acting far fast citizens thin support governor collapsed began rally countryside largely oblivious learnt army rallied militia ride meet found army unwilling fight met rebel leaders advised agree changes priest known sympathetic sides refused concessions honor sake took field pistol afterward despite having entire army desert killed brief battle rebels promptly rode reinstated declared acts invalid looted properties supporters elected eighty year old bishop juan buenos_aires governor government split old official structure headed largely rubber stamp provided legitimacy city leadership dominated rich families avoided looted pro countryside influenced philosophy self governance far faction concerned goal revolt achieved death business usual resume hopefully governor poor rural finished revolt war war poor rich wealthy raided shipments mate cattle stolen leaders countryside considered political rural according account contained people speak especially countryside killed commerce came sides refused allow trade allow leave permission pain death blockaded province economic crisis deepened completely broke prepared fight seeing having sunk countryside expected colonial armed response delayed number factors notably famine plague struck jesuit missions army difficult ready rallied army force battles actually fought support experienced superior forces armies melted soldiers tried escape army retook unlike previous occupation time sought suppress future revolt faction arrested regardless despite late support royal army series executions actions death declared void actions declared royal decree mentioned publishing laws kingdoms indies las longer valid attempt elect governor treason october returned college later influence self government espoused later democratic uprisings spanish colonial rule especially rural branch revolt historians james caution giving apparent resemblance weight mistake according revolt closer traditions 16th 17th centuries principally local uprising led local interest groups unrelated important changes spanish empire beginning 18th century little common revolt new rebellion occurred agrees revolt true revolution aimed fundamental change saw loyal servants crown attempting fundamentally change political economic structure province attempting assert control seen province poverty remained poor somewhat revolt suppressed higher taxes imposed later region export income jesuit missions continued hated competitor driving prices cash crop folk hero martyr new attempting suppress talk ordered public burning dangerous documents city archives coup governor organized friendly discovered arrested convicted treason executed saw previously solid support royal courts europe dry middle 18th century number reasons jesuit missions expected total obedience fathers enlightenment values gaining favor intellectuals enemies agreed wealthy prosperous according enemies illegal theft best land corruption according ability intellect hard work influence money near monopoly education helped spawn backlash lost support portuguese government opposed treaty madrid led war expelled portuguese empire entirely lost support charles iii spain riots food riots madrid charles iii fled madrid time ministers convinced riots plot expelled spanish empire expelled college citizens end expelled missions replaced secular administrators best lands mission territories quickly taken white settlers cattle mission indians scattered diminished short period time jesuit missions memory reputation folk heroes people eyes spanish government stance new inquiry madrid concluded victim jesuit conspiracy april king charles iii signed document declared dedicated loyal servant crown provided relatives feature streets named monument hill honors fought died revolt latin_america liberation movements


fortress fortress known gibraltar south_america military installation near mouth river strategic site equal region key upper rivers played crucial role conflict continent history war site sharp bend river practically vessels wishing enter republic forced navigate bend commanded foot line artillery batteries end chain boom raised closed river navigation fortress protected attack swamp extensive earthworks greatest extension stretched miles garrison men deployed cannon reputed impassable enemy shipping widespread perception created practically immune naval attack induced marshal president francisco unnecessary risks foreign policy particular seize government vessels provinces populous brazil argentina send armies invade united treaty triple alliance war led country utter defeat ruin casualties immense declared purpose treaty triple alliance demolition fortifications sort built fortress latest armour warships obstacle allies plans proceed capital recapture brazilian territory delayed half years taken siege razed treaty present day symbol national pride standing country resist motives construction key country history difficult access sailing atlantic river river map early spanish explorers means required invading force difficult hostile country command river key security feared larger neighbours brazil argentina anxiety brazilian empire long history conflicts portugal spain america portuguese numerous incursions permanent spanish claimed territory slave raids brazil jesuit reductions carried inhabitants feared despised boundaries resolved conflicts continued independence portuguese america empire brazil brazil practical access territory sailing atlantic_ocean river map fear interfere navigation source conflict ended began matter opinion anxiety buenos_aires spanish river plate occupied enormous territory roughly modern day territories central northern argentina exist long spanish seat city buenos_aires independent spain city claimed thought capital identical territory called united provinces south_america provinces especially differ broke warfare particular buenos_aires recognise independence sent army general try recover buenos_aires governor juan dictatorship tried bring heel closing river commercial traffic battle buenos_aires province fell provinces argentine confederation declared independent state buenos_aires recognise independence late nineteenth century united argentina formally recognised independent boundaries argentina dispute notably territories defensive outlook independence tried anarchy adjoining hispanic america formidable dictator imposed strict policy isolation reign allowed enter leave professor williams assessment attempt economically bring knees buenos_aires nationalism produced voluntary isolation province death succeeded called authors convenient inaccurate designation father francisco open foreign trade technology steamship country vulnerable invasion feared powerful neighbours presidency conflicts brazil buenos_aires united_states uss water witch affair fort fired american warship led naval expedition know resolved immune foreign attack future immediate cause construction initial works colonial times modest post established place miles mouth river formidable version built stages orders started work conflict brazil boundaries navigation threatened brazilian flotilla fortunately delayed low state river author diplomat army time gives slightly different account hearing brazilian squadron way immediately transferred troops working night day days fortified place including making red hot brazilian squadron strength fortifications low state water mentioned incidentally design hungarian colonel engineers hastily fortified river left bank batteries continually slowly augmented trench dug land rear virgin forest leaving scattered trees roots laid batteries completion years devoted january installation appeared formidable described eye witness aboard uss expedition sent president demand alleged united_states sixteen ominous pointed contain like eyes figure picture follow vessel motion battery constructed brick deep defended formidable battery sixteen inch guns numerous batteries noticed having left rest squadron allowed proceed works continually extended supervised british engineers considerable number contract government description finished fortress location fortress situated level cliff feet metres river sharp bend bend called ideal strategic pinch point metres long channel narrowed metres broad current knots mph places knots mph difficult ships day stem matter brazilian navy ideal release torpedoes nineteenth century floating naval mines unpleasant surprise invading flotilla owing peculiar river bed action rudder direct proportion length vessels impression explorer captain sir richard burton visited scene war fortifications described sweep usually concave benefit gunnery shipping dangerous great bend vessels sure confused fire happened port hudson fleet commanded admiral level bank thirty feet river places bounded swamps stream stream earthworks consisting trenches disposed intervals wanted suggesting lines rest river shape letter extend shape inland south outline measures nearly miles half meadow land extent square yards glorious battlefield river batteries invading force steaming bend pass batteries capable concentrating fire angle furthermore shipping range heavy guns arriving bend preliminary batteries pass armed single inch calibre gun pass seven guns heavy guns partly brick madame lynch guns barbette guns guns invading flotilla pass called recruited london firm walls metres thick supposed rendered bomb proof layers earth brick arches guns ports said burton walled converted workshops hourly climax invading force come alongside chain battery protected chain boom backed artillery barracks according survey brazilian engineering corps battery guns chain boom boom river intended shipping guns variously described sources richard burton commander kennedy said comprised chains twisted wrote burton largest inch diameter link fast supported house yards bank nearer battery stood larger sources notably george thompson facto chief engineer army wrote chains heaviest inch links sustained barges official staff report allied force captured dated july said banks river seven chains entering water bound partly sustained large floating iron boxes approach arriving invading squadron navigate river mouth run batteries able deploy left bank particularly warships sunk war wooden vessels brazilian navy attempt heavily iron ships ought sunk river batteries weight size difficult times impossible navigate shallow waters river commander kennedy royal_navy observed river presents important obstacles navigation principal point observe seasonal rise water varies danger attendant grounding sharp rocky entrance yards wide medium river depth feet water iron brazilian fleet drew thirteen feet water entirely dependent periodical rises forward movements retreat necessary guns ammunition shipped arrived equally shallow parts difficult conceive formidable obstacle advancing squadron small portion river water shallow uncertain depth channel sharp frequent available point guns heavy calibre torpedoes invading force ironclads dangerous aspect artillery batteries torpedoes released confined shallow stream river torpedoes improvised floating contact mines devised yankee consisted cylinder containing charge gunpowder largest charge explosion shook ground town argentina miles designed george frederick chief army glass acid broken striking heavy object ignited potassium sugar mixture devices failed prematurely sink ton brazilian ironclad rio_de_janeiro killing men released night taken seriously brazilian navy patrol boats rowing shifts including nights tried spot floating torpedoes attempted hook long lines wrote commander kennedy service great danger deploying torpedoes dangers death blown torpedoes work taken called served england met fate work given polish refugee named torpedoes river canoe rowed boys day distracted boys allies torpedo arrested reduced ranks sent soon killed anonymous brave tried attach torpedo brazilian ironclad hand found rudder chains drowned deliberately moored river brazilian navy suppose marked situations torpedoes noticeably reluctant navigate waters defences taken precautions seized protected naturally marsh swamp elaborate system trenches constructed eventually extending regular intervals known language sources trenches mounted batteries appropriate trenches natural barriers shown map reproduced section article drawn scale colonel george thompson engineer army personally detailed survey ground map burton detailed verbal description based inspection horseback figures supplied colonel argentine army burton reported layout required garrison men time siege allied commander chief estimated possibly men cannon including river batteries terrain familiar ground maps territory allies non existent area lay province flat low lying obscured swamp example established main camp southern allies realise placing southeastern line sauce trench volume work war brazilian historian insists brazilian high command letter april leave doubt allies completely ignorant topography terrain south fortress protected lines order gradually map area allies obliged resort improvised watch towers south american warfare captive observation balloons obscured terrain lighting fires damp grass headquarters established headquarters corners map section orange stood dwellings mistress lynch military officers enjoyed confidence generals bishop colonel george thompson chief engineer stewart surgeon general houses simple roofs large traverses earthworks protected allied artillery fire house lynch servants earthworks largest said contain pieces centre according burton surrounded hides unusual precaution intended conceal lynch contemporaneous drawing brazilian engineering corps unusually covered ascent large military hospital established halfway field officers settlements female camp followers assisted hospitals washed soldiers clothes allowed rations lived beef soldiers gave cemetery prisoner war compound newspapers headquarters published military newspapers mainly spanish mainly featured crude effective propaganda racially offensive nature paper short supply version improvised wild electrical final stages fortifications electrical telegraph lines laid points headquarters instantly informed code enemy attack point english military engineer george thompson colonel army recorded adept opposite bank river begins area known different hot semi arid climate opposite bank argentina dispute days inhabited fierce land far river high completely water later military roads vast effort strategic significance perception introduction iron warships reputation famous south_america war european press compared richmond american_civil_war famed europe united_states gibraltar south_america michael editor standard passed site reported world terms succession formidable batteries passed range vessel iron attempting force passage sunk concentrated fire fortification key upper rivers built warships wood driven wooden intending proceed steam current past succession batteries range metres cut boom twisted chains sunk appeared impossible modern appreciation professor strategic site equal region enemy ships ascend river passing guns exceptionally protected south east marshes dry areas leading reinforced troops way attack weaknesses fact rate sufficient supply river navigating ironclad warships available south_america burton having inspected captured site thought greatly exaggerated point bluff commander portuguese war vessel time wondered powerful navy long weaponry manufacture large artillery guns shortage partly guns taken reinforce artillery guns acceptable standard burton inspected august noted thrown deep water remainder poor guns barely deserve street posts worst air chimneys melt tons converted mere rifled pounders cast old tubes bearing arms spain hailed san san_juan burton artillery according thompson guns evacuated abandoning fortress fortifications according burton system fortification lacked latest developments obsolete barbette system failed protect defending consequence works utterly unfit resist developed powers rifled artillery concentrated discharge shipping accurate searching fire work state decay exposed mass masonry ought shared fate forts granite fails bricks hope succeed guns mounted monitor towers protected sand bags ironclads suffered running past observers formed similar impressions thompson wrote easy brazilian flotilla firing sweep away guns british hms passed site long damaged war likewise thought far exposed battery poorly constructed wide open dangerous garrison fortified era wooden steamer warship ironclad warship launched france intended blue water navy battles european ironclads actually happened evolution navies american_civil_war fulfilled demand heavily armoured vessels navigate river waters battle roads iron armoured union confederate warships unable sink dramatically demonstrated resistance heavy artillery news naval engagement arrived river plate reported buenos_aires standard terms steel vessels commenced mile apart damage hour half alongside terrible encounter vessels smoke balls monitor entered adversary soon wind cleared away smoke monitor seen running round looking vulnerable point vessels yards apart drove spur monitor received awful shock close guns fired mouths length confederate got wound hail tow norfolk terrible conflict hours heavy artillery monitor showed spur scarcely marked superiority established steel clad vessels caused immense sensation america american sea fight caused great excitement england feared new invention rob country naval supremacy wooden men war declared house_of_commons useless admiralty stopped fortifications devote attention construction steel fleet number apart conventional ironclads brazilian navy order britain france noted americans invented monitor armoured shallow draft vessel presented little superstructure enemy fire monitors built brazil time fired shots brazil december defences latest naval weaponry manufactured purchased brazil enormous country war broke soon ironclads said ironclad naval force unlikely pose strategic threat nation assuming latest ironclads past eventually follow logistical support invading army ironclads operated far ahead lines supply temporarily lack chain boom heavily armoured vessels chain boom turned heel drawn tight intermediate floating supports sunk naval gunfire burton description chain boom chain consisted seven twisted passed kind brick tunnel river fast supported house yards bank nearer battery stood larger wanted force haul tight chain provided enemy destroyed chain intermediate floating supports explained thompson chains supported number brazilian ironclads fired months sinking course chain went river yards wide chain drawn tight intermediate supports chain buried feet mud river offering obstacle navigation supplying garrison ideal raising cattle cultivation required large garrison food needed brought difficult position supply cut swamps easy overland communication nearest food producing regions coastal road poor cattle winter floods war shortage steam vessels small river craft difficult land winter resolved transportation difficulties siege army suffered consequences observed professor siege years consequences system built increase security described strength real perceived opposite effect end brazil brazil fortifications posed potential threat security caused preparations war noted colonel george thompson army batteries commanded bend river vessels anchor ask permission pass river road brazil province sic naturally disapproved river gradually accumulated large military stores view doubt day destroying inducing military power induced behave according professor decision declare war brazil argentina invade territories proved tragic consequences people enormous lost reckless actions brought thing threatened security existence country union powerful neighbours john williams instrumental generating risk taking behaviour according professor williams hundreds heavy calibre guns mounted modern navy railroad telegraph munitions manufacturing establishments helped bring war triple alliance destruction providing hardware francisco self appointed defend immediate borders military williams encouraged borders play wider infinitely dangerous role balance power passage standard wrote seen place questioned strength old president implicit faith believed attacked past implicit confidence strength minds people possibly exaggerated idea strength present traced grave political error step step led unfortunate man cautious policy father great champion river plate alternative view possible alternative view aware developments naval warfare making decided offensive lost balance advantage altogether chief engineer talented william failed aware advantages ironclad vessels record obtained british patent iron vessel months battle roads pressing american ambassador monitor placed orders ironclads built european brazilian yards war support view afforded seizing according thompson time arrived day break peace knew assemble man country immediately raise large army knew long time recruiting large force think wish carry war long said don war brazil shall convenient time sent fastest steamer river plate bring sources cited article establish declared war waiting ironclads completed delivered according burton general opinion single ironclad disposal cleared river went war altogether premature ships ordered marshal president begun campaign supplied place mexico great latin empire instead early stage war wooden vessels built warship defeated brazilian wooden flotilla battle river blockaded brazilian navy armoured ships ordered delivered paid contracts taken brazil eventually ironclads defeat traditional view death cautious son paid attention father dying words try settle disputes brazil pen sword induced government intervene conflict river plate region november firing bows seizing brazilian government ship proceeding monthly voyage proceeded seize according american ambassador charles explained seizure brazilian ship saying discretion war attention respect world secured small power comparison brazil advantages position gave equality strength troops fortified arrive considerable numbers encouraged sluggish response brazil infuriated buenos_aires press argentina refusal permit invade brazilian province sovereign argentine territory april fired seized small argentine naval vessels moored port proceeded argentine province making paper currency compulsory pain death resulting war triple alliance destroy country principal military objective treaty triple alliance treaty triple alliance signed specifically stated destroyed rebuilt article provided terms treaty kept secret principal objective attained consul thomas thought referred deposition demolition numerous political objectives mentioned treaty military ones day allied high command agreed strategic plan point read objective campaign operations military operations invasion routes position distance invasion point seven leagues land difficulties terrain short distance time ability hit enemy ironclads compensate effectiveness practice despite burton fortress obstacle allies plans proceed announced buenos_aires fired seized argentine naval vessels president told furious crowd hours shall barracks fortnight months fact allies occupy capital january nearly years speech main reason complex seven leagues land land necessary traverse argentine soil allies landed occupied april capture august phase war outside scope article summarised difficulties terrain conferred huge advantage defence marshes patches jungle connected narrow strips attacking squeeze narrow points advance inland possible south north natural defences lay earthworks long outer perimeter touching smaller fort river add difficulties allies found ironclads effective reputation led hope far ahead lines supply artillery sink disable action waterline exposed mines torpedoes stopped underwater ability manoeuvre depended excessively level river september march fall fourteen feet restricting channels increasing difficulties sufficient account failure allies bring quick decision overwhelming superiority numbers armament entitled hope handicapped divided leadership national time went sinking morale years national epic day called forged countless deeds heroism performed leaders names known home additional cause delay according professor williams long pause battle allies strength opposing army allowed year rebuild forces devastated battle february river unusually high brazilian ironclad vessels ordered dash past great difficulty chain boom lying river bed stopped river fortress finally captured siege operation culminated august razed treaty triple alliance decisive year war


history history capital peru began foundation francisco january city established valley river area populated capital peru site real 17th century city prospered center extensive trade network despite damage earthquakes threat pirates prosperity came end 18th century economic reforms population played ambivalent role war independence city suffered royalist patriot armies alike independence capital republic peru enjoyed short period prosperity mid-19th century war pacific occupied looted chilean troops war city went period demographic expansion urban renewal population growth accelerated 1940s spurred immigration regions peru gave rise towns public services failed city expansion foundation pre era location city inhabited groups prior arrival empire valleys rivers grouped presence left mark form associated irrigation system valleys group spanish led francisco defeated ruler searched suitable place establish capital choice city located amid location regarded high altitude far sea spanish scouts reported better site valley close pacific_ocean ample water wood provisions extensive fields fair weather founded city peru central coast january writes chronology conquest kingdoms peru los del foundation city capital peru founded january called los reyes city kings honor feast holy kings celebrated began church foundation plane city stone august new city besieged troops leader rebellion spanish rule native allies headed defeated rebels heavy fighting city streets surroundings november spanish crown confirmed founding december emperor charles granted coat arms city colonial period years shared turmoil caused struggles different factions time gained prestige designated capital peru site real latin_america university national university san established printing press important religious center roman catholic diocese established converted years later city held celebrations flourished 17th century center extensive trade network integrated peru americas europe far_east merchants silver nearby port exchanged imported goods trade fair modern day panama practice sanctioned law trade required way overseas markets resulting economic prosperity city reflected rapid growth population expanded estimated free dangers october december powerful earthquakes destroyed city surroundings disease food shortages followed disaster caused reduction population second threat presence pirates pacific_ocean dutch naval expedition led attacked port repelled diego english waters pacific routed merchants measure built city walls earthquake marked turning point history coincided recession trade reduction silver production economic competition cities buenos_aires add problems october powerful earthquake severely damaged city destroyed forcing massive rebuilding effort disaster led intense devotion image christ called lord taken procession october late colonial period rule house ideas enlightenment public health social control shaped development new buildings undertaken period include plaza general cemetery built regulate popular activities single venue cemetery end practice churches considered public authorities independence second half 18th century adversely affected reforms lost monopoly overseas trade important mining region upper peru transferred economic decline city elite dependent royal ecclesiastical appointment reluctant advocate independence city royalist stronghold south american wars independence led strong combined expedition chilean patriots general san managed land south september attack city faced naval blockade action land forced evacuate city july save royalist army fearing popular uprising lacking means impose order city_council invited san enter signed declaration independence request war years city changed hands times suffered sides time war decided battle december considerably impoverished republican period war independence capital republic peru economic political turmoil brought urban development halt hiatus ended 1850s increased public private revenues exports led rapid expansion city decades state funded construction large size public buildings replace colonial establishments included central market general mental asylum dos hospital improvements communications railroad line completed iron bridge river bridge opened city walls torn urban growth expected export led economic expansion widened gap rich poor social unrest war pacific chilean troops occupied defeating resistance battles san_juan city suffered invaders looted public museums libraries educational institutions time angry attacked wealthy citizens asian population properties businesses war city underwent process urban renewal expansion 1890s 1920s downtown victoria residential area established working class neighborhood period urban layout modified construction big avenues city connected neighboring towns 1920s 1930s buildings historic centre rebuilt including government palace municipal palace earthquake hit city time built 1940s started period rapid growth spurred immigration regions peru population estimated million reached start period urban area confined triangular area bounded city historic center following decades settlements spread north river east central highway south immigrants confined downtown led expansion large scale land invasions gave rise towns known renamed 1980s called human settlements 1990s major public works carried period mainly governments juan dominated 1970s exemplified massive headquarters built state owned petroleum company according census city population reached total population peru compared


rebellion rebellion uprising involving slaves took place crown colony rebellion took place august lasted days led slaves highest status reacting poor treatment desire freedom addition widespread mistaken belief parliament passed law emancipation withheld colonial rulers instigated chiefly jack slave success plantation rebellion involved father senior members church group english pastor john smith implicated largely non violent rebellion brutally crushed colonists governor john murray killed slaves estimates toll fighting range insurrection government sentenced men death executed executed slaves bodies displayed public months jack deported island saint rebellion following plea sir john owner success plantation john smith court awaiting news appeal death sentence died martyr abolitionist cause news smith death strengthened abolitionist movement britain thought actual leader rebellion declared national hero independence streets monuments dedicated capital georgetown context dutch 17th century auspices dutch west india company economy initially based trade began superseded 18th century sugar cane cultivation large plantations region opened settlement new opportunities attracted british settlers nearby barbados largest contingent business registers showed plantations owned british major external threat dutch control colonies britain obtained facto control following raid february british occupation lasted january island recaptured french allied dutch british transferred rule dutch terms peace took control year later british merged colony colonies ceded britain treaty netherlands britain august colony capital known dutch renamed georgetown colonial powers appointed governor rule local legislation decided court policy economy sugar grown cane plantations worked slaves sale crop britain enjoyed terms declared slaves working plantations slaves numbers known understated slave basis taxation declared slaves plantations plantations slave labour short supply expensive trading monopoly smuggling barbados dutch colonists ensured white dominance growing slave population collaboration indigenous natives strongly resisted white domination relied arms spanish incursions slaves rose natives blocked border prevent disruption spreading rapid expansion plantations 19th century increased demand african slaves time supplies reduced supply shortage labour production exacerbated british abolition trade slaves slave trade act population consisted whites freed blacks slaves african born treatment slaves markedly different owner owner plantation plantation plantations managed agents attorneys owners common owners managers prevalent mixed race advanced managers owners lower class whites considered superior giving access skilled work blacks performed skilled work worked households enjoyed greater autonomy regarded having higher status slaves slaves fields work drivers slaves delegated authority plantation plantations plantation owners slave population poorly treated churches whites existed inauguration colonies slaves barred colonists feared education lead slaves question status lead dissatisfaction missionary arrived wanting set church slaves immediately repatriated order governor london missionary society entered shortly end slave trade behest plantation owner believed slaves ought access religious teachings post englishman dutch descent advocated teaching religion literacy idea considered radical time supported thought religion offered place emancipation colonial administration hostile idea written official journal royal gazette dangerous slaves christians giving liberty strongly opposed plantation owners felt teaching slaves duties masters lead anarchy chaos discontent destruction colony post ignored facilities available worship facilities easily popularity worship months contributed post gave land paid balance chapel person capacity inaugurated september house constructed minister cost respectable inhabitants colony pastor reverend john arrived february spent years wife operated girls school white children chapel construction owner wrote improvements neighbourhood account drumming dancing nights week looked jealous eye account dangerous communications public worship private instructions drums heard neighbourhood owners prohibited attendance slaves church fighters changed sober people set post sought missionaries appointed places colony post died lamented slaves conditions slaves markedly deteriorated new management subject forced work saturdays sundays soon arrived fought rights slaves colony attend church services place nightly governor declared meetings dark illegal obtained support plantation owners managers armed sought confront refused audience went london appeal directly government transferred nearby end term mission pastor years john smith replacement sent colony equally welcomed slaves writing smith said clergy explicitly ordered cause slaves masters dissatisfaction status colony resented presence believed spies abolitionist movement london feared religious teachings liberal attitudes promoted eventually cause slaves rebel colonists interrupted services threw stones churches barred ministers access certain plantations refusing permission build plantation land slaves stopped attending services turn smith received hostile reception governor john murray colonists saw chapel services threat plantation output feared greater unrest smith reported governor told allow taught read pain colony furthermore religious instruction slaves endorsed british parliament plantation owners obliged permit slaves attend despite opposition colonists attended perceived smith distraction attended prevent slaves attending owners complaints slaves far walk attend services smith requested land erect chapel john reed owner idea vetoed governor murray allegedly complaints received smith colonists intention circular britain mandated giving slaves passes attend services august governor issued circular required slaves obtain owners special attend church meetings services causing sharp decline attendance services time smith wrote letter george secretary conditions slaves colony slaves oppressed quantity work generally women far advanced pregnancy sick commonly neglected ill treated half frequent severe seldom able obtain long discontinued seek noted slaves rebelled motives status families caught turbulent changes ownership plantations feared sold split case slave christians frequently complained harassed belief reed prince sandy female slaves reported abused raped owners managers slaves punished reasons managers owners insist slaves work sundays deny passes attend church manager non bachelor adventure violent complained frequently deprived legal day missing church unable care wife found dead night coming home jack slave success work driver enjoyed considerable freedom learned debate slavery britain heard rumours emancipation papers arriving london plantation owners sir john father british prime minister william built fortune trader acquired plantations mortgage included half share success largest productive plantations acquired remaining half years later switched crop coffee sugar expanded workforce slaves sir john continue acquire plantations fire sale prices rebellion decade agents able assets different properties time emancipation enacted britain owned plantations success wales john smith writing journal august said slaves success complained work load severe treatment sir john believing slaves estates properly treated wrote letter missionary society december clear wrote intentions treat people kindness attention wants description grant reasonable stated work gangs doubled production shifted sugar coffee later maintained sugar estates grinding sunset boilers parties remain longer finish cleaning clock general food addition salt fish occasionally provisions consisted preferred food cultivated ordinary daily work estate purchased supplied consume slaves provided clothing suitable climate situation dispose purpose religion inclined set foot plantation attorney frederick believing seldom necessary punish slaves asserted generally happy able considerable money selling surplus produce provision grounds subsequent revolt secretary london missionary society warned lying continued identify agents second son inspected estates november march observed estate dismissed britain lord criticised concept sir benjamin urban took office lieutenant governor wrote earl secretary state colonies september criticising managers slaves placed half educated men little discretion command good unfit charge bodies men proper care cattle revolt slaves highest status members smith congregation implicated leading rebellion harsh conditions demanding believed right son jack slaves success plantation led peers revolt member smith church chosen congregation soon smith arrival british house_of_commons thomas introduced resolution condemning state slavery principles british constitution christian religion called gradual abolition british colonies fact subject rumours orders council colonial drawn george canning pressure conditions slaves following debate principal provisions restrict slaves daily working hours prohibit female slaves whilst governor immediately proclamation receiving orders london instructed local john explain provisions congregation john murray counterpart received order london july measures proved controversial discussed court policy july august passed inevitable administration formal declaration passing lack formal declaration led rumours masters received instructions set slaves free refusing weeks prior revolt sought confirmation rumours slaves particularly worked position know obtained information mistress john hamilton daniel governor servant joe simpson specifically simpson written letter said freedom imminent warned patient jack wrote letter signing father members chapel informing new law smith chapel situated rebelled respected slaves alike initially tried stop slave revolt urged instead peaceful strike fellow slaves promise use violence cooper work driver jack enjoyed considerable freedom able organise rebellion formal informal networks close conspirators church teachers included success william david intention jack luke friendship joseph bachelor adventure sandy non finalised planning afternoon sunday august thousands slaves raise masters morning joe informed master approximately morning coordinated uprising planned night chapel place day captain simpson owner immediately rode governor stopped alert estates way town governor assembled cavalry simpson rebellion leaders hoped mass action slaves actual unrest involved slaves estates located east_coast georgetown slaves entered estates houses weapons ammunition tied whites stocks low number white deaths cited proof uprising largely free violence slaves accounts witnesses indicate rebels exercised restraint small number white men killed slaves took revenge masters putting stocks like slaves went large groups plantation plantation seizing weapons ammunition locking whites promising release days according slaves rebels loyal masters held rebels governor immediately declared martial law 21st 1st west india regiment aided volunteer battalion dispatched combat rebels armed mainly poles small number stands rifles captured plantations late afternoon august situation brought control slaves rounded rebels shot whilst attempting flee august lieutenant governor murray issued account battles reported major confrontations tuesday morning reed estate rebels killed skirmish good hope rebels wednesday morning killed plantation rebels died elizabeth hall battle took place bachelor adventure number considerably involved lieutenant colonel having vain attempted convince people error attempt induce lay arms having failed charged bodies simultaneously dispersed loss slightly wounded slaves defeat bachelor adventure jack fled woods handsome reward thousand offered capture governor proclaimed free pardon slaves surrendered hours provided shall guilty aggravated jack remained large wife captured hour september trials august governor murray constituted general court martial presided stephen arthur despite initial revolt passing largely peacefully slave masters locked homes considered tried set different estates coast executed shooting heads cut nailed posts variety sentences handed including solitary confinement death records slaves having sentenced court martial time publication noted death sentences carried slaves executed bodies hung chains public road respective plantations left months jack sold deported suggests letter sir john sent behalf resulted john smith court martial col october charged offences promoting discontent dissatisfaction minds negro slaves masters managers rebellion advising consulting corresponding aiding revolt failure known planned rebellion proper authorities use best suppress rebellion way officers court martial judging smith included young captain campbell later field marshal lord clyde smith trial concluded month later november smith found guilty principal charges given death sentence pending appeal smith transferred colony house prison died consumption early hours february risk stirring slave sentiment colonists interred grave went markings avoid rallying point slaves royal arrived march smith death major step forward campaign abolish slavery news death published british newspapers provoked enormous outrage garnered petitions parliament aftermath rebellion took place months founding anti slavery society strong impact britain public sentiment initially favoured colonists changed revelations abolitionist debate deaths smith slaves martial law lifted january considerable anger missionaries resulted oppression court policy passed ordinance giving financial assistance church selected plantation owners district chapel seized taken anglican church pressure london court policy eventually passed ordinance religious instruction slaves condition working hours civil rights slaves weekend sunset saturday sunrise monday field work defined mandatory hour break protector slaves appointed abolished women use field rights marriage property right acquire amendments new continued flow london progressively establishing civil rights slaves strongly resisted colonial legislature refused comply provisions confrontation continued challenged occasions right british government pass laws binding colony arguing court policy exclusive legislative power colony plantation owners controlled voting taxes disrupted administration refusing vote civil list august british parliament passed act abolition slavery british colonies promoting industry slaves persons hitherto entitled services slaves effect august plantation owners british received compensation loss slaves