battle battle fought september began set piece battle half day battle large formations engaged responded movements opposition according pre existing plans months palestine campaign world war fighting took place wide area mediterranean_sea east hills egyptian expeditionary force corps french brigade sized palestine attacked army group eighth army corps german asia corps battle extended ottoman lines desert mounted corps rode gap line plain occupy plain battle corps attacked force held right flank jordan valley advancing secure bridges jordan river continue defenders hills subsequently force advanced fourth army capture salt second battle battle began september western style bombardment thirds mainly ground based heavy artillery supported firepower destroyers ottoman positions heavy artillery fired cover infantry assaults corps infantry attacked simultaneously line mediterranean coast 60th division launched attack western coastal section line defended eighth army corps battle 60th division breached second line trenches eventually capture site eighth army headquarters right main system trenches held ottoman corps attacked eventually captured battle 3rd 7th 75th divisions divisions subsequently advanced despite ottoman corps reinforced capture tire station process battles 7th 60th divisions created gap line desert mounted corps ride rode north eastwards rear capture defending ottoman armies lines communication right flank attacking corps protected eighth army asia corps 54th east division french colonial palestine holding battle infantry battle progressed cavalry phase battle began soon gap infantry attacks 5th cavalry division led way north plain followed 4th cavalry division australian mounted division reserve divisions subsequently rode mount range passes occupy plain september cut main ottoman lines communication units 4th 5th cavalry divisions capture 4th cavalry division capturing afternoon australian mounted division captured thousands prisoners captured main line retreat damascus september site ottoman army army group headquarters unsuccessfully attacked 5th cavalry division battle ottoman commander chief von forced escape 5th cavalry division captured town following day days later division captured acre following battle day battle australian mounted division attacked german reinforced rearguard garrison alert von escape australian light horse victory battle subsequent capture ended battle battle result battles known collectively battle territory prisoners captured final offensive palestine campaign began day battle ended pursuit damascus captured october background series central powers defeats palestine end ridge loss large areas southern palestine subsequent seventh eighth armies hills following loss jerusalem german ottoman army commanders region replaced general von commanding army group replaced general von friedrich von commander eighth army replaced appointed command fourth army commander seventh army previously resigned command reinstated early september focus ottoman army war effort turned palestine provinces territories lost empire russo turkish war change direction heavily influenced treaty brest signed march ended war eastern imperial russia central powers result ottoman army embarked series territorial conquests captured russians offensive march followed van april later ottoman possessions brought little strategic advantage compared potential benefits military success palestine march major offensive operations palestine low priority british_army spectacular successes spring offensive france seriously threatened british expeditionary force july clear german offensive western failed august brief return battle attrition trenches ensued days offensive coinciding preparations renewal campaign palestine began august general anxious september expected overrun german ottoman line capture headquarters ottoman seventh eighth armies advance road capture salt addition defeating enemy capturing large area territory motive reason moving line encourage new indian troops arab allies spring offensive western began war office decided substitute british units british indian army units relieved british units retained egypt reinforcements spring offensive launched british units quickly western battlefield september line held infantry close sea level mediterranean coast miles north point line extended corps area miles south eastward plain rising height feet sea level hills miles corps battle area height line dropped feet sea level area patrolled infantry mounted infantry force line crossed jordan valley attack area approximately miles ending east dead sea foothills mountains seventh eighth armies ottoman defenders supplied railways battlefield railway ran mediterranean coast join main railway istanbul crossed jordan river passing enter hills good roads damascus extensive railway network branched lines southern line known railway continued east jordan river supply ottoman fourth army headquarters garrisons salt forces scattered miles southern railway western line known palestine railways crossed jordan river valley railway ran southwards west bank jordan river western edge plain turned westward run parallel line hills railway branched lines line running north westerly mediterranean coast main line turned south plan railway wound narrow pass foothills climb junction hills branched line continued south eastward seventh army headquarters located main road damascus second line ran westward eighth army headquarters turning south reach eighth army line coastal plain advance desert mounted corps cavalry north coastal plain mount range rugged mountain range approximately miles wide stretching northward hills end south crossed mounted force passes northern pass linked plain arrive plain south east southern pass linked coast arrive plain mountainous terrain passes easily defended relatively small force hard capture cavalry encountered defences passes protracted campaign require large infantry attack quick occupation plain miles ottoman line place desert mounted corps rear ottoman armies fighting hills control lines communication cavalry position quickly control lowland areas forming ottoman seventh eighth armies hills plain plain jordan valley control important ottoman communications prelude attacking force corps commanded british lieutenant general edward consisted 3rd 7th 54th east 60th 75th divisions palestine units supported corps troops composite regiment squadron duke lancashire squadrons 1st artillery 100th brigades viii mountain brigades desert mounted corps commanded australian lieutenant general henry consisted 4th 5th cavalry australian mounted divisions armoured car support provided nos light armoured motor batteries nos light car patrols machine gun corps total beds set aside palestine egypt including clearing hospitals hospital beds available egypt hospital centre area stationary hospitals accommodate casualties august casualty clearing stations clearing hospitals located jerusalem supported medical stores depots jerusalem australian stationary hospital beds available australian general hospital suez_canal malaria cases jordan valley overflow treated british general hospital cairo aircraft september royal_air_force 5th corps wing 40th army wing headquartered deployed area responsible cooperation artillery contact patrols tactical strategic reconnaissance photography escorts offensive patrols bombing operations squadron australian flying corps squadron raf flight squadron raf based squadron raf based junction station tactical reconnaissance yards advance corps provided corps squadrons squadron raf balloon company assigned corps operating squadron raf flight assigned desert mounted corps based bristol fighters squadron carry bombing strategic reconnaissance providing general oversight battlefield reporting developments nos squadrons aircraft conduct day long patrols main bombing machine targets area prevent aircraft leaving squadron consisting bombers bomb telephone exchange railway station junction railway lines ottoman seventh army headquarters telephone exchange newly arrived page heavy bomber armed pound bombs piloted australian ross smith support squadron bombing deployment quarter line stretching mediterranean miles inland infantry cavalry guns preparing attack remaining quarters line hills dead sea covered infantry cavalry artillery guns corps deployed corps reserve 60th division positioned coast 7th division right 75th division longest frontage followed 3rd division right eastern end corps battle line hills 54th east division palestine held final deployment corps minutes darkness moon setting dawn september division took position right angles direction frontal attack deployed distance miles leaving stretches line favour frontal attack uncovered altogether stretches amounted miles sections line initial attack captured attack developed occur planned right flanking movement aimed bring divisions enemy caught cut desert mounted corps 5th cavalry division lead corps advance concentrated north west miles 4th cavalry division waiting orange east miles australian mounted division located near miles line divisions horses aircraft olive orange irrigation channels water horses james jones lowland brigade royal field artillery ammunition column described scene september diary mass horses transport stand night lie equipment horses hooked wagons movement restricted nighttime culminating general forward night september night fine 4th 5th cavalry divisions close infantry australian mounted division moved desert mounted corps concentrated supplies carried horse drawn transport endless strings road light horsemen loaded horses days food rations extra water bottle saddle extra horse neck kilograms weight rifle bucket close right hand surplus equipment discarded huge plan attack ottoman line breached quickly infantry overwhelming strength supported greatest possible weight artillery point line gap sections line lightly held successful infantry breakthrough mass cavalry quickly northwards avoiding contact reach rear strong force possible cavalry enter plain miles north hills reconnaissance reported absence major defensive works concentration surprise speed key elements warfare planned success depended making infantry attack terrain favoured attack movement large mounted formations battlefield sufficiently intense artillery cover concentrated infantry attacks destroying dominating german aircraft stop revealing weak sections line von approaching cavalry holding territory captured infantry cavalry corps dependent rations miles supply bases deception jordan valley disguised desert mounted corps valley coast rumours included race meeting planned day battle tactical improvements british artillery infantry attack tactical level battle plans similar use horses instead tanks british fourth army attack western battle weeks battle similarities include battles uneven deployments kept secret controlling aerial reconnaissance british air superiority initial attacks infantry divisions deployed brigades abreast reserve battles began minutes thirds heavy artillery engaged counter battery work time carefully coordinated short artillery barrage remaining available heavy artillery lifted shifted enemy rear accommodate forward movement assaulting infantry battles infantry attacks developed bypassed isolated strong points tanks supported fourth army advance miles broke german trench lines killing wounding germans capturing prisoners guns september desert mounted corps cavalry exploited infantry success advancing miles infantry cavalry corps captured prisoners guns desert mounted corps advance presence single tank bear closer relationship aircraft integral battle plan laid force order instructions issued separately defending force august army group line organised divisions deployed kilometres long line armed rifles light heavy machine guns high number machine guns reflected ottoman army new tables organization high machine gun component german asia corps eighth army soldiers commanded headquarters force organised corps corps commanded colonel consisted 7th 20th 46th infantry divisions asia corps known left wing group commanded german colonel von consisted 16th 19th infantry divisions german battalion groups german brigade eighth army supported artillery guns held line mediterranean coast north hills 2nd cavalry division available reserve duty operational level eighth army area ottoman deployment infantry divisions corps held shortest entire army group 7th division covered kilometres trenches mediterranean coast left 20th infantry division covered kilometres trenches template laid contemporary ottoman tactics 19th infantry division asia corps left covered kilometres trenches inland eighth army reserve 46th division corps located kilometres line divisions facing corps highly regarded veteran ottoman army formations 7th 19th infantry divisions fought distinction gallipoli campaign iii corps 20th infantry division highly regarded regular army division raised stationed palestine referred arab division fought phases gallipoli campaign served year eastern fighting imperial russia adjacent seventh army soldiers commanded general headquartered iii corps 1st 11th infantry divisions corps 26th 53rd infantry divisions supported guns seventh army held line hills eastwards jordan valley battle sector corps divisions commanded lieutenant general philip views force ottoman armies strength suffering greatly strained lines communication overwhelmingly outnumbered factor supply system bad february normal daily army group palestine consisted grains bread boiled beans times day oil fighting strength ottoman armies including fourth army deployed east jordan river attack area estimated infantry mounted troops artillery guns infantry battalions asia corps 16th infantry division effective strengths equal british infantry company men men assigned asia corps 19th infantry division battalions men miles line stretching inland mediterranean_sea deployed infantry cavalry guns faced infantry guns defenders deployed miles length miles depth miles respectively line single trench system relied defence defence meant inch ground fought flexible system better suited situation point struck turks achieved fair degree concentration resources secondary lines defence fall positions event retreat army intended fight die deception issue despite lack aerial reconnaissance von fairly accurate knowledge september forces deployed fourth seventh eighth armies understood infantry divisions french detachment facing eighth army divisions facing seventh army mounted divisions facing fourth army von surprised strength location attack shifted available reserves reinforcements west east strategically vital coastal plain strongly defended sector line von deployed experienced infantry divisions supported heavy artillery position army group heavy artillery moved eastwards deception plan worked change remained primarily eighth army sector ottoman army heavy artillery batteries 75th available palestine deployed eighth army sector remaining heavy artillery batteries assigned adjacent seventh army significantly ottoman heavy artillery batteries positioned jordan river austrian heavy artillery battery served deception plan effective ottoman reserves drawn jordan river fact exactly reverse happened von sent reinforcement 2nd cavalry division support army division began arriving near september 46th infantry division reserve near eighth army headquarters moved kilometres south west september new reserve position tire reinforce corps holding coastal sector regiments line alerted major attack imminent surprise result successful deception caused line break infantry attacks failure sufficient reserves available mount effective loss awareness caused breakdown communications complicated change architecture infantry divisions assault battalions added battle preliminary attacks attacked september raf aircraft sections railway north west junction bombed railway south attacked september arab column supported british armoured cars french mountain battery left miles east destroying bridge section rail line september communications west north restored jordan arabs cut railway junction railway palestine leaves damascus line von lost railway communications outer world don know beginning think great success weather perfect hot clear hills preliminary attack took place battle section line september 53rd division corps attempted capture basin overlooked ottoman road system near line section line required quickly possible linking road construction connect ottoman road systems objectives captured september main position known british ridge remained ottoman hands late afternoon september battle preliminary attack description operation bombardment infantry advance assault artillery barrage hour infantry leave positions deployment hour known corps zero hour preliminary bombardment artillery bombardment began battle september trench mortars machine guns firing german ottoman line second line trenches siege batteries targeted opposing batteries destroyers hms hms opened fire trenches coast north guns fired half hour long bombardment deployed yards concentrated fire resembled western style bombardment heavy guns normally deployed gun placed yards preparation bombardment artillery organised weight targets heavy artillery aimed enemy batteries guns headquarters telephone exchanges range field artillery places infantry advance held inch mark vii gun batteries siege pounder batteries able moving forward fire line tire sea reinforced siege battery heavy battery able fire line tire sea hours moving forward siege heavy battery held reserve field artillery targeted german ottoman line infantry approached pounders royal horse artillery pounder batteries lifted form barrage advancing troops eventually extending extreme range barrage lifted moved forward rate yards yards yards minute advancing infantry inch fired targets barrage augmented guns destroyers firing mediterranean_sea bombardment began artillery range yards extended yards attempt systematic wire cutting artillery leading soldiers cut hand carried means crossing corps attacks ottoman line breached evening september commander major general 60th division corps deployed brigade ready attack near coast brigade support miles objective brigade reserve recently formed 5th light horse brigade attached 60th division desert mounted corps deployed 7th division corps orders advance directly capture town september brigade captured line defences prisoners company establishing mouth miles ottoman line process created gap desert mounted corps advance northwards infantry division turned north east eighth army headquarters 5th light horse brigade covering right flank brigade cut road north captured prisoners guns brigade marching south captured town prisoners attack defences defences consisted continuous trench system defenders dug lines trenches varying depth miles centered village stretched east coast developed system defences located miles beginnings system defences stretching plain objectives 3rd 7th 75th divisions assault line defences advance attack second line ran advancing capture tire 75th division captured tire september 7th division captured 3rd division captured railway ottoman 7th 20th divisions reduced small groups survivors conducting fighting retreat september 3rd division captured north 7th division captured lid hard fought day long battle september 7th division captured station advancing 3rd division advanced yards west time seventh eighth armies retreat attack hills wide gap open plain favour frontal attack extreme right corps 54th east division attacked northwards 7th battalion 1st 9th battalion 2nd 1st 2nd battalions palestine known french contingent french detachment right force secured right flank cover infantry divisions advanced objectives won despite british french units fighting german asia corps eighth army known left wing group included german battalions right battle fought corps 10th 53rd divisions supported corps troops 1st worcester brigade brigade 39th indian mountain battery hong_kong singapore mountain battery opposed seventh army subsidiary battle began evening september ridge captured sun appeared noise field guns point observation large extent stopped field artillery batteries moving forward fact sufficient indicate line carried grand rush day intensity infantry battle varied considerably line coast 60th division rapid progress advancing yards half hours attached 5th light horse brigade protecting right flank rode north east end day 60th division captured march miles right 75th division fought way defences tire captured 7th division 75th division right advanced north tire turning attack western defences 3rd division right 7th division advanced rapidly capture line defences road turning eastwards flank attack defences 54th east division right 3rd division palestine left cover right flank 60th 75th 7th 3rd divisions advances despite strongly opposed hours battle september september infantry continued fighting marching forward forcing ottoman seventh eighth armies hills retreat eighth ottoman army virtually ceased exist asia corps seventh ottoman army hills having lost transport corps continued advanced north east drive enemy foothills junction road captured australian light horse night september september corps described virtual straight line stretching palestine northwest 54th east division held left 3rd division 7th division taken village lid controlled cross roads 60th division 5th light horse brigade railway line south time 75th division came corps reserve tire days fighting corps suffered casualties including killed killed wounded enemy combatants captured prisoners guns vast quantities ammunition transport motor 4th 5th cavalry divisions helped transport wounded area rejoining divisions plain september desert mounted corps attacks objectives desert mounted corps advance north road protect left flank corps subsequently advance mount range occupy plain capture successful advance desert mounted corps control ottoman lines communications september desert mounted corps 4th 5th cavalry divisions followed australian mounted division advanced gap created infantry riding north plain commanding desert mounted corps ordered 5th cavalry division cross mount range northerly track 4th cavalry division followed australian mounted division rode southerly pass reaching plain morning september 5th cavalry division ordered attack capture commander chief army group von headquarters miles away division clear plain 4th cavalry division objective capture subsequently 4th cavalry division ordered advance plain occupy eastern edge plain capture bridges north crossed jordan river division hold destroy bridge miles north miles starting point australian mounted division 5th light horse brigade ordered send 3rd light horse brigade capture main line retreat hills miles starting point 4th light horse brigade garrisoned known carried escort guard duties september desert mounted corps suffered killed wounded missing 5th cavalry division condition northerly pass decided leave divisional artillery follow morning guarded 15th imperial service cavalry brigade 13th 14th cavalry brigades 5th cavalry division entered plain morning september despite orders contrary 14th cavalry brigade advanced directly objective 4th cavalry division 13th cavalry brigade available attack 5th cavalry division objective brigade sufficiently strong capture town army group headquarters von escaped day german ottoman garrison retreated occupied 13th cavalry brigade subsequently ordered 5th cavalry division capture acre miles away 18th 13th cavalry brigade advanced acre shortly midnight september attacked ottoman battalion routed september annexation expedition stopped strong rearguard machine guns supported effectively positioned artillery controlling approach road september successful cavalry charge strong ottoman rearguard position captured imperial service regiments 15th imperial service cavalry brigade squadron 1st rangers 14th cavalry brigade attached captured german ottoman prisoners 4th cavalry division 4th cavalry division following 5th division rode plain far division attacked captured entrenched ottoman defensive position stretched sea near mouth 2nd 10th cavalry brigade led 11th light armoured motor battery entered pass crossed mount range night september continued advance early morning september capture center plain leaving 5th cavalry division garrison 4th cavalry division continued advance eastwards afternoon capture having ridden miles hours 19th 12th cavalry brigade advanced directly north east capture bridge jordan river north september wrote morning cavalry occupied pushed rapidly south eastwards entered evening closing enemy line escape bombing crowded roads continues today think ought capture turks guns bulk army losses heavy proportion results gained hope motor tomorrow cavalry cavalry headquarters armageddon present moment aerial reconnaissance reported gap miles jordan river crossings north bridge bridge captured morning september force turned east capture salt capture second battle ordered 4th cavalry division advance southwards banks jordan river september cut line retreat remained seventh eighth armies west jordan river hills complete september australian mounted division australian mounted division followed 4th cavalry division pass 3rd light horse brigade ordered attack capture cut road 4th light horse brigade 4th light horse regiment guarded desert mounted corps headquarters 11th 12th light horse regiments deployed escort artillery transport columns cavalry required garrison captured positions miles base dependent rations cavalry divisions quickly efficiently transported forward extended supply lines leaving 8th light horse regiment 9th 10th light horse regiments 3rd light horse brigade approached different directions charging town hour long battle town main line retreat hills captured main supply ordnance depot ottoman seventh eighth armies captures large quantities valuable stores sorts workshops hospitals locomotives rolling stock station main german air base burnt aircraft counted captures evening september australian mounted division controlled patrolled plain 4th 5th cavalry divisions ottoman seventh eighth armies main lines retreat controlled desert mounted corps railway east jordan river forced army group headquarters morning september von drove organise establishment strong rearguard 4th light horse brigade ordered september subsequently ordered advance capture town strategically important sides controlled direct road damascus september 11th light horse regiment supported 12th light horse regiment charged pre dawn german australian machine gunners conducted hour long battle light horse forced garrison surrender capturing prisoners station town suffering killed wounded units 4th light horse brigade subsequently advanced western shore sea jointly occupy town units 3rd light horse brigade advanced hills victories concluded battle battle aerial attacks september airmen palestine brigade raf including squadron australian flying corps flew bombing raids september attacking key communication centers seventh eighth army headquarters cut communications army group headquarters bombed main german air base harassed retreating turkish troops roads page bomber piloted australian ross smith took carrying bombs bomb railway junction smash central telephone exchange bristol fighters flying saw labourers working repair railway station ottoman infantry battalion seen moving southward reinforce line flying west railway line initial movements northward near indicated beginnings retreat bombing raid attacked later bristol fighters reported infantry cavalry guns transport retiring disorder near tire ottoman force small bombs dropped machine gun bullets fired area appeared quiet shortly bombed pilot reported having seen leading cavalry division desert mounted corps approaching plain cavalry right rear ottoman units reported alarmed beginning south roads retreating army units bristol fighters bombing formation took bombs dropped retreating columns tire fired hundreds machine gun bullets scattering retreating force time machine gun fire ground aimed aircraft fairly heavy causing number casualties air crews second formation aircraft repeated attack retreating ottoman column reached corner road aircraft took afternoon pursuing retreating columns north heading aircraft found soldiers transport artillery horses moving bombed machine section road passed little gorge steep hills column escape formation seven bristol fighters attacked west evening patrols reported ottoman seventh army headquarters entire eighth army appeared retreat headquarters captured crossroads coast roads supply base hospital grain dump flames inhabitants seen retreating hills reports reached day describing aircraft spreading destruction death terror enemy lines tons bombs dropped machine gun bullets fired air particularly road narrow twice blocked smashed transport dead horses later cleared survived abandoned transport seek cover hills period hours repeated aerial attacks road miles north east narrow bombed aircraft area covered wreckage guns motor vehicles unknown casualties area east jordan river garrisoned ottoman fourth army bristol fighters reporting early day ottoman camps area quiet attacking mass cavalry ain sir returned base flying road dropped remaining bombs column motor moving eastwards road bridge jordan river direct hit blocked road late afternoon bristol fighters continued attack september evening september early morning ross smith page bombed railway station leaving looking like rubbish second dawn patrol reported column vehicles spread miles road moving direction bridge column bombed bristol fighters making direct hits transport blocked road bombs dropped target machine gun fire created early morning reconnaissance flights reported effects previous day bombing particular ottoman camps burnt region northwards ottoman troops seen retreating road railway railway station trains loaded northwards road soldiers wreck hours bombing trains carriages engines station aircraft prepared flight bombed aerial attacks began road aircraft dropped bombs fired machine gun bullets retreating columns nearly bomb fell retreating soldiers bodies troops suffered terrible casualties ran ammunition aircraft returned supplies repeating bombing machine near survived aerial attack continue retreat damascus captured later night 3rd light horse brigade reconnaissance day reported fires burning ottoman army indicating ottoman line jordan retreat described destruction today went road broken wagons dead turks horses killed smashed bombing bombing crowded roads continues today think ought capture turks guns bulk army early morning patrol upper road reported september mass enemy transport moving section old roman road formed big stretch road ain jordan river passed jordan cliffs steep hills airmen counted horse drawn wagons guns wagons ain mass cavalry transport heading northeast bombs dropped formations machine gun rounds marking beginning massacre aerial bombardment commenced arrival australian british aircraft continued day aircraft dropped tons bombs fired machine gun rounds days later guns motor motor cars wagons water field representing seventh army transport found destroyed abandoned september small groups soldiers remnants army group attacked aircraft road near jordan river shortly column thousand ottoman soldiers seen marching white flag road east jordan river german scout aircraft number aircraft attacked bristol fighters aerial fight german shot near aircraft forced land near railway ottoman outpost aircraft chased attacked early morning september aircraft flying attacked night page ended enemy use army group reactions september telephone communication ottoman line units cut minutes later german ottoman reserves ordered forward telephone telegraph wireless communications eighth army headquarters cut eighth army headquarters survived infantry onslaught lost contact 7th 19th divisions corps von ordered 46th infantry division eighth army reserve forward tire division regiments ordered forward regiment reinforced 20th division position second regiment fortified near corps headquarters seventh army communications army group cut von learned time asia corps seventh army headquarters trench lines coastal sector breached cavalry advancing northwards weight infantry artillery attack forced corps retreat army group combat formations position stop cavalry advance coast asia corps commanded von expected attack night september corps 47th 48th infantry regiments 16th division held line hills strongly supported local reserve consisting 1st battalion infantry regiment 48th regiment machine gun company divisional assault engineer cavalry companies 19th division attacked 54th east division palestine brigade sized force french colonial armenian troops von ordered remainder asia corps reinforce corps attacking westwards von ordered german battalion german cavalry squadron reserve battalion ottoman regiment 19th divisional cavalry squadron taking position east 1st battalion infantry regiment cavalry troop reinforced line north ibn reinforcements 46th division tire caused difficulties corps infantry von dispatched german lieutenant transport personnel armed machine guns rally retreating 19th division near 16th division continued maintain positions holding line reserves committed long forced retreat conform corps right flank von withdrew baggage guns headquarters having previously issued orders withdrew dusk withdrew line stretching miles west heights south rendezvous seventh army ottoman eighth army right flank forces holding line defences rapidly collapsed end day remnant survivors withdrawing coastal plain main line retreat direction junction road subjected continuous aerial attacks aerial blocked afternoon september casualties inflicted retreating columns von ordered seventh army commander withdraw northwards send battalion regiment spare troops stop advance road easily defended narrow steep sided pass near von taken steps defend pass entry plain ordered 13th depot regiment based military police total companies machine guns occupy mouth pass ottoman fourth army east jordan river remained position holding ground ottoman left flank september von forced withdraw early morning 5th cavalry division unsuccessfully attacked town journey von ordered establishment rearguard line running river valley jordan river west shore sea northwards lake line main roads railway lines damascus held time gained consolidation retreating columns strong defence damascus journey took contact armies continued morning september found fairly secure placed commandant major temporary command von received report fourth army ordered withdraw line waiting southern troops evening von met leaders thousand agreed remain neutral loss september consequence infantry advances von asia corps ordered eighth army headquarters station fall line lid miles west north west miles south south west asia corps cover junction roads damascus road long possible continuing retreat damascus road miles north station von ordered units 16th 19th divisions asia corps rearguard position road asia corps near night von ordered send german troops cover seventh army retreat refused 16th division conducted fighting retreat september artillery lost remnants corps eighth army retreated north main damascus road september captured night 3rd light horse brigade september night asia corps lost touch 16th 19th divisions following direct orders von divisions withdrew west von got contact morning september time remains battalions reformed battalion supported rifle company machine gun company trench mortar detachment battalion machine gun company guns troop cavalry infantry artillery platoon mountain guns trench mortar section mortars cavalry squadron remained intact bulk seventh army retreating road jordan river heavily bombed machine guns aircraft aerial attacks seventh army guns transport destroyed leaving road blocked survivors forced turn north ain order continue retreat having got road blocked 53rd division continued road attacked captured force september attack bridge asia corps withdrawing road jordan river forced turn north east ain south east von informed closing road blocked decided retreat miles east southeast jordan river found route cut ordered retreat mount leaving wheeled transport including guns baggage withdrawal column suffered casualties artillery fire combined battalions night 16th 19th divisions eighth army headquarters abandoned september join seventh army headquarters accompanied chief staff staff officers signalled end ottoman eighth army 20th 21st regiments existed afternoon surviving remnants retreat threatened including asia corps von german ottoman soldiers 16th 19th divisions retreating northwards learned fallen decided advance night september correctly von order rearguard action known commander eighth army ordered cross jordan river september september 1st 11th divisions iii corps seventh army fought rearguard actions jordan river delayed cavalry covered retreat remaining units ottoman seventh army jordan river seventh army lost prisoners captured corps cavalry september battle september asia corps 16th infantry division reduced officers men days later september relying machine guns defence enemy horse units divisional headquarters joined surviving headquarters elements 19th division attacked overrun cavalry 16th division 2nd 3rd battalions infantry regiment combined assault engineers company survived fight delaying action damascus captured october aftermath king congratulated feelings pride admiration home received news conceived brilliantly carried operations british indian allied forces command support royal_navy gained complete victory enemy telegram chief general staff war office september asked consider cavalry raid sir henry wilson chief general staff went describe effect advance campaign north west persia moral political consequences ottoman_empire assured war office accept risks involved venture early stage operations focus remained battle pursuit damascus desert mounted corps step 7th brigade 3rd division detached desert mounted corps garrison areas occupied mounted corps infantry brigade marched arriving september desert mounted corps pursuit remnants army group damascus september 7th division concentrated corps cavalry regiment acre preparation march tripoli pursuit ottoman german prisoners september prisoners captured guarded 7th brigade 3rd division detached desert mounted corps garrison plain took responsibility compound prisoners australian light horsemen shortly germans arrived followed large numbers turks armenian arabs jews prisoners night september prisoners added compound packed shoulder shoulder discipline vanished covered open space arrived rations army bully beef prisoners fed escort arrived spanish flu rapid advance improvisation medical service inevitable clearing stations lacking elementary problems multiplied huge numbers prisoners ill spanish flu hospital located convent sick treated survival able chance getting eat case attention staff cope numbers sick canvas field ambulance majority turkish prisoners available lie sick sun fever fever malaria hit spent turkish army hard degree turks dying like flies acute cases wagons pushed turks sick unto death dust common sight sick evacuated vehicle passes station motor ambulance trains route orderly road stops passing vehicles demands carry sick wounded temperature warrant officer patrick hamilton serving 4th light horse field ambulance australian mounted division earlier cases spanish flu reported sick september september evacuated sitting returning supply australian receiving station sick day pains especially case receiving station taken 4th cavalry divisional receiving station remained september evacuated 15th british casualty clearing station motor ambulance train 26th british casualty clearing station arriving troop train 47th stationary hospital september seven days falling ill slowly recovered evacuated train october miles admitted 24th british stationary hospital recovered rejoined 4th light horse field ambulance middle november arriving boat tripoli


world war world war abbreviated known second world war global war lasted related conflicts began earlier involved vast majority world nations including great powers eventually forming opposing military alliances allies axis widespread war history directly involved million people countries state total war major participants threw entire economic industrial scientific capabilities war effort distinction civilian military resources marked mass deaths civilians including holocaust approximately million people killed strategic bombing industrial population centres approximately million killed included atomic bombings hiroshima nagasaki resulted estimated million million fatalities world war deadliest conflict human history empire japan aimed dominate asia pacific war republic china world war generally said begun september invasion poland germany subsequent war germany france united_kingdom late early series campaigns treaties germany conquered controlled continental europe formed axis alliance italy japan pact august germany soviet_union annexed territories european neighbours poland finland romania baltic states war continued primarily european axis powers coalition united_kingdom british commonwealth campaigns including north_africa east africa campaigns aerial battle britain blitz bombing campaign balkan campaign long running battle atlantic june european axis powers launched invasion soviet_union opening largest land theatre war history trapped major axis military forces war attrition december japan attacked united_states european territories pacific_ocean quickly conquered western pacific axis advance halted japan lost critical battle midway near hawaii germany defeated north_africa decisively soviet_union series german defeats eastern allied invasion sicily allied invasion italy brought italian surrender allied victories pacific axis lost initiative undertook strategic retreat fronts western allies invaded german occupied france soviet_union regained territorial losses invaded germany allies japanese suffered major mainland asia south central china burma allies crippled japanese navy captured key western pacific islands war europe concluded invasion germany western allies soviet_union culminating capture berlin soviet polish troops subsequent german surrender following declaration allies july refusal japan surrender terms united_states dropped atomic bombs japanese cities hiroshima nagasaki august august respectively invasion japanese archipelago imminent possibility additional atomic bombings soviet_union declaration war japan invasion japan surrendered august ended war asia total victory allies world war altered political alignment social structure world united_nations established foster international operation prevent future conflicts victorious great powers united_states soviet_union china united_kingdom france permanent members united_nations security council soviet_union united_states emerged rival setting stage cold war lasted years influence european great powers waned asia africa began countries industries damaged moved economic recovery political integration especially europe emerged effort end pre war create common identity chronology start war europe generally held september beginning german invasion poland britain france declared war germany days later dates beginning war pacific include start second sino japanese war july japanese invasion september follow british historian taylor held sino japanese war war europe colonies occurred simultaneously wars merged article uses conventional dating starting dates world war include italian invasion october british historian views beginning world war battles fought japan forces soviet_union september exact date war end universally agreed generally accepted time war ended armistice august day formal surrender japan september peace treaty japan signed formally tie loose ends compensation paid allied prisoners war victims atrocities treaty germany future allowed east west_germany place resolved post world war issues background europe world war radically altered political european map defeat central powers including austria-hungary germany ottoman_empire seizure power russia eventually led founding soviet_union victorious allies world war france belgium italy greece romania gained territory new nation states created collapse austria-hungary ottoman russian prevent future world war league nations created paris peace conference organisation primary goals prevent armed conflict collective security military naval settling international disputes peaceful negotiations arbitration despite strong sentiment world war aftermath caused nationalism european states sentiments especially marked germany significant territorial colonial financial losses incurred treaty versailles treaty germany lost percent home territory overseas colonies german annexation states prohibited imposed limits placed size capability country armed forces german empire dissolved german revolution democratic government later known republic created interwar period saw strife supporters new republic opponents right left italy ally post war territorial gains italian nationalists angered promises britain france secure italian entrance war fulfilled peace settlement fascist movement led seized power italy nationalist class agenda abolished representative democracy socialist left wing liberal forces pursued aggressive foreign policy aimed making italy world power promising creation new roman empire adolf_hitler unsuccessful attempt overthrow german government eventually chancellor germany abolished democracy radical racially motivated revision world order soon began massive campaign time political scientists began predict second great war place france secure alliance allowed italy free hand italy desired colonial possession situation aggravated early territory basin legally reunited germany hitler treaty versailles accelerated programme introduced conscription hoping contain germany united_kingdom france italy formed june united_kingdom independent naval agreement germany prior restrictions soviet_union concerned germany goals capturing vast areas eastern_europe drafted treaty mutual assistance france taking effect franco soviet pact required bureaucracy league nations rendered essentially united_states concerned events europe asia passed neutrality act august year hitler defied versailles treaties march encountered little opposition european powers october germany italy formed rome berlin axis month later germany japan signed anti pact italy join following year asia party china launched unification campaign regional nominally unified china soon embroiled civil war chinese communist allies increasingly japanese empire long sought influence china step government saw country right rule asia incident pretext launch invasion establish puppet state weak resist japan china appealed league nations help japan withdrew league nations condemned nations fought battles shanghai truce signed chinese volunteer forces continued resistance japanese aggression incident communist forces agreed present united oppose japan pre war events italian invasion second italo war brief colonial war began october ended war began invasion empire known armed forces kingdom italy launched italian war resulted military occupation annexation newly created colony italian east africa africa addition exposed weakness league nations force preserve peace italy member nations league clearly violated league article germany major european nation support invasion italy subsequently dropped objections germany goal absorbing austria spanish civil war civil war broke spain hitler lent military support nationalist rebels led general francisco franco soviet_union supported existing government spanish republic foreign volunteers known international brigades fought nationalists germany ussr war opportunity test combat advanced weapons tactics bombing german legion april heightened widespread concerns major war include extensive terror bombing attacks civilians nationalists won civil war april franco dictator sides second world war concluded major agreements send volunteers fight eastern german command spain remained neutral allow use territory japanese invasion china july japan captured chinese imperial capital beijing polo bridge incident culminated japanese campaign invade china soviets quickly signed non aggression pact china lend support effectively ending china prior operation germany deployed best army defend shanghai months fighting shanghai fell japanese continued push chinese forces capturing capital december fall tens thousands hundreds thousands chinese civilians disarmed combatants murdered japanese march nationalist chinese forces won major victory city taken japanese june chinese forces stalled japanese advance flooding yellow river manoeuvre bought time chinese prepare defences city taken october japanese military victories bring collapse chinese resistance japan hoped achieve instead chinese government relocated inland continued war soviet japanese border conflicts mid late 1930s japanese forces sporadic border clashes soviet_union japanese doctrine ron emphasised japan expansion northward favoured imperial army time devastating japanese defeat ally nazi_germany pursuing neutrality soviets policy prove difficult maintain japan soviet_union eventually signed neutrality pact april japan adopted doctrine ron promoted navy took focus southward eventually leading war united_states western allies european agreements europe germany italy aggressive march germany annexed austria provoking little response european powers encouraged hitler began pressing german claims area czechoslovakia predominantly ethnic german population soon britain france followed counsel british prime minister chamberlain conceded territory germany munich agreement wishes government exchange promise territorial demands soon germany italy forced czechoslovakia additional territory hungary poland germany stated demands satisfied agreement privately hitler furious british interference prevented seizing czechoslovakia operation subsequent speeches hitler attacked british jewish war january secretly ordered major build german_navy challenge british naval supremacy march germany invaded remainder czechoslovakia subsequently split german pro german client state republic hitler delivered ultimatum lithuania forcing concession region greatly alarmed hitler making demands free city danzig britain france guaranteed support polish independence italy conquered albania april guarantee extended romania greece shortly franco british pledge poland germany italy alliance pact steel hitler accused britain poland trying germany renounced anglo german naval agreement german polish non aggression pact august germany soviet_union signed pact non aggression treaty secret protocol parties gave rights spheres influence western poland lithuania germany eastern poland finland estonia ussr raised question continuing polish independence agreement crucial hitler assured germany face prospect war world war defeated poland situation reached general crisis late august german troops continued polish border private meeting italian foreign minister count hitler asserted poland doubtful neutral needed yield demands prevent drawing german troops future war western believe britain france intervene conflict august hitler ordered attack proceed august hearing britain concluded formal mutual assistance pact poland italy maintain neutrality decided delay response british requests direct negotiations avoid war germany demands poland served pretext relations august hitler demanded polish immediately travel berlin negotiate danzig allow polish corridor german minority vote poles refused comply german demands night august violent meeting british ambassador henderson declared germany considered claims rejected course war war breaks europe september germany invaded poland false pretext poles carried series sabotage operations german targets near border days later september british ultimatum germany cease military operations ignored britain france followed fully independent british commonwealth australia september canada september new_zealand september south_africa september declared war germany initially alliance provided limited direct military support poland consisting cautious half hearted french probe western allies began naval blockade germany aimed damage country economy war effort germany responded ordering boat warfare allied merchant warships later battle atlantic september signing cease fire japan soviets invaded poland east polish army defeated warsaw surrendered germans september final pockets resistance surrendering october poland territory divided germany soviet_union lithuania slovakia receiving small shares defeat poland armed forces polish resistance established underground state partisan home army polish military personnel evacuated romania baltic countries soldiers later fought germans theatres war poland evacuated france october hitler public peace britain france said future poland determined exclusively germany soviet_union chamberlain rejected october saying past experience shown reliance placed promises present german government rejection hitler ordered immediate offensive france bad weather forced repeated spring signing german soviet treaty friendship cooperation soviet_union forced baltic countries estonia lithuania allow station soviet troops countries mutual assistance finland rejected territorial demands prompting soviet invasion november resulting winter war ended march finnish concessions britain france treating soviet attack finland entering war germans responded soviet invasion supporting ussr expulsion league nations june soviet_union forcibly annexed estonia lithuania disputed romanian regions northern nazi soviet political economic operation gradually stalled states began preparations war western_europe april germany invaded denmark norway protect shipments iron ore sweden allies attempting cut mining neutral norwegian waters denmark hours despite allied support important harbour temporarily recaptured germans norway conquered months british discontent norwegian campaign led replacement british prime minister chamberlain winston_churchill germany launched offensive france plan attacked neutral nations belgium netherlands day british forces landed iceland possible german invasion islands close operation danish envoy washington agreed protect greenland laying political framework formal establishment bases april netherlands belgium overrun tactics days weeks respectively french fortified line main body allied forces moved belgium flanking movement wooded region mistakenly perceived allied planners natural barrier armoured vehicles result bulk allied armies found trapped beaten majority taken prisoner whilst british french evacuated continent early june abandoning equipment june italy invaded france declaring war france united_kingdom paris fell germans june days later france signed armistice germany soon divided german italian occupation zones state regime officially neutral generally aligned germany france kept fleet british feared germans seize july british attacked battle britain began early july luftwaffe attacks shipping july hitler publicly offered end war saying desire destroy british_empire united_kingdom rejected ultimatum main german air superiority campaign started august failed defeat raf fighter command proposed invasion postponed indefinitely september german strategic bombing offensive intensified night attacks london cities blitz largely failed disrupt british war effort newly captured french ports german_navy enjoyed success extended royal_navy boats british shipping atlantic british scored significant victory sinking german battleship importantly battle britain royal_air_force successfully resisted luftwaffe assault german bombing campaign largely ended period neutral united_states took measures assist china western allies november american neutrality act amended allow cash carry purchases allies following german capture paris size united_states_navy significantly increased september united_states agreed trade american destroyers british bases large majority american public continued oppose direct military intervention conflict roosevelt promised united_states war took concrete steps prepare war december accused hitler planning world conquest ruled negotiations useless calling arsenal democracy promoted passage lend lease aid support british war effort january secret high level staff talks british began purposes determining defeat germany enter war decided number offensive policies including air offensive early elimination italy raids support resistance groups capture positions launch offensive germany end september pact united japan italy germany axis powers pact stipulated country exception soviet_union war attacked axis power forced war axis expanded november hungary slovakia romania joined pact romania major contribution hungary axis war ussr partially recapture territory ceded ussr partially pursue leader desire combat communism mediterranean italy began operations mediterranean initiating siege malta june conquering british august making british held egypt september october italy started italian war jealousy hitler success days repulsed pushed albania stalemate soon occurred united_kingdom responded greek requests assistance sending troops crete providing air support greece hitler decided weather improved action greece assist italians prevent british gaining balkans strike british naval dominance mediterranean secure hold romanian oil december british commonwealth forces began counter italian forces egypt italian east africa offensive north_africa highly successful early february italy lost control eastern libya large numbers italian troops taken prisoner italian navy suffered significant defeats royal_navy putting italian battleships commission carrier attack taranto warships battle cape germans soon intervened assist italy hitler sent german forces libya february end march launched offensive drove commonwealth forces weakened support greece month commonwealth forces pushed egypt exception besieged port commonwealth attempted axis forces june failed occasions late march following bulgaria signing pact germans position intervene greece plans changed developments neighbouring yugoslavia yugoslav government signed pact march overthrown days later british encouraged coup hitler viewed new regime hostile immediately decided eliminate april germany simultaneously invaded yugoslavia greece making rapid progress forcing nations surrender month british driven balkans germany conquered greek island crete end axis victory swift bitter partisan warfare subsequently broke axis occupation yugoslavia continued end war allies successes time middle_east commonwealth forces uprising iraq supported german aircraft bases controlled syria assistance free french invaded syria lebanon prevent occurrences axis attack ussr situation europe asia relatively stable germany japan soviet_union preparations soviets wary mounting tensions germany japanese planning advantage european war seizing resource rich european possessions southeast_asia powers signed soviet japanese neutrality pact april contrast germans steadily making preparations attack soviet_union forces soviet border hitler believed britain refusal end war based hope united_states soviet_union enter war germany sooner later decided try strengthen germany relations soviets failing attack eliminate factor november negotiations took place determine soviet_union join pact soviets showed interest asked concessions finland bulgaria turkey japan germany considered unacceptable december hitler issued directive prepare invasion soviet_union june germany supported italy romania invaded soviet_union operation germany accusing soviets plotting joined shortly finland hungary primary targets surprise offensive baltic region moscow ukraine ultimate goal ending campaign near line white seas hitler objectives eliminate soviet_union military power communism generate living space native population guarantee access strategic resources needed defeat germany remaining rivals red army preparing strategic counter war forced soviet supreme command adopt strategic defence summer axis significant gains soviet territory inflicting immense losses personnel middle august german_army high command decided suspend offensive considerably depleted army group centre divert 2nd group reinforce troops advancing central ukraine offensive overwhelmingly successful resulting elimination soviet armies advance developed eastern ukraine battle possible diversion quarters axis troops majority air forces france central mediterranean eastern prompted britain reconsider grand strategy july soviet_union formed military alliance germany british soviets invaded iran secure persian corridor iran oil fields august united_kingdom united_states jointly issued atlantic charter october axis operational objectives ukraine baltic region achieved continuing major offensive moscow renewed months fierce battles increasingly harsh weather german_army reached outer suburbs moscow exhausted troops forced suspend offensive large territorial gains axis forces campaign failed achieve main objectives key cities remained soviet hands soviet capability resist broken soviet_union retained considerable military potential phase war europe ended early december reserves allowed soviets achieve numerical axis troops intelligence data established minimal number soviet troops east sufficient deter attack japanese army allowed soviets begin massive counter offensive started december pushed german troops kilometres west war breaks pacific united_states renounced trade treaty japan beginning aviation gasoline ban july japan subject increasing economic pressure time japan launched attack strategically important chinese city repulsed late september despite sides war china japan increase pressure china blocking supply routes better position japanese forces event war western powers japan invaded occupied northern united_states iron steel mechanical parts japan sanctions soon followed august year chinese communists launched offensive central china retaliation japan instituted harsh measures occupied areas reduce human material resources communists continued chinese communist nationalist forces culminated armed clashes january effectively ending operation march japanese 11th army attacked headquarters chinese 19th army repulsed battle september japan attempted city clashed chinese nationalist forces german successes europe encouraged japan increase pressure european governments southeast_asia dutch government agreed provide japan oil supplies dutch_east_indies negotiations additional access resources ended failure june july japan sent troops southern threatening british dutch possessions far_east united_states united_kingdom western governments reacted freeze japanese assets total oil early united_states japan engaged negotiations attempt improve strained relations end war china negotiations japan advanced number proposals dismissed americans inadequate time britain netherlands engaged secret discussions joint defence territories event japanese attack roosevelt reinforced philippines american scheduled independence warned japan react japanese attacks neighboring countries frustrated lack progress feeling pinch american british dutch sanctions japan prepared war november presented interim proposal final offer called end american aid china supply oil resources japan exchange promised launch attacks southeast_asia withdraw forces threatening positions southern american counter proposal november required japan evacuate china conditions conclude non aggression pacific powers meant japan essentially forced choose abandoning ambitions china seizing natural resources needed dutch_east_indies force japanese military consider option officers considered oil declaration war japan planned rapidly seize european colonies asia create large defensive perimeter stretching central pacific japanese free exploit resources southeast_asia exhausting stretched allies fighting defensive war prevent american intervention securing perimeter planned united_states pacific fleet american military presence philippines outset december december asian time zones japan attacked british american holdings near simultaneous southeast_asia central pacific included attack american fleet pearl harbor philippines landings thailand malaya battle hong_kong attacks led united_states britain china australia states formally declare war japan soviet_union heavily involved large scale hostilities european axis countries maintained neutrality agreement japan germany followed axis states declared war united_states solidarity japan citing justification american attacks german war vessels ordered roosevelt axis advance stalls january big united_states britain soviet_union china smaller exiled governments issued declaration united_nations atlantic charter agreeing sign separate peace axis powers allied officials debated appropriate grand strategy pursue agreed defeating germany primary objective americans favoured straightforward large scale attack germany france soviets demanding second british hand argued military operations target peripheral areas wear german strength lead increasing bolster resistance forces germany subject heavy bombing campaign offensive germany launched primarily allied armour large scale armies eventually british persuaded americans landing france instead focus driving axis north_africa conference early allies reiterated statements issued declaration united_nations demanded surrender enemies british americans agreed continue press initiative mediterranean invading sicily fully secure mediterranean supply routes british argued operations balkans bring turkey war americans extracted british commitment limit allied operations mediterranean invasion italian mainland invade france pacific end april japan ally thailand fully conquered burma malaya dutch_east_indies singapore inflicting severe losses allied troops taking large number prisoners despite resistance filipino forces philippine commonwealth eventually captured forcing government exile april burma british soldiers encircled japanese 33rd division battle rescued chinese 38th division japanese forces achieved naval victories south china sea java sea indian_ocean bombed allied naval base darwin australia january allied success japan chinese victory easy victories unprepared european opponents left japan early japan initiated operations capture port amphibious assault communications supply lines united_states australia planned invasion thwarted allied task force centered american fleet carriers fought japanese naval forces draw battle coral sea japan plan motivated earlier raid seize midway lure american carriers battle eliminated diversion japan send forces occupy islands alaska early june japan operations action americans having broken japanese naval codes late fully aware plans force knowledge achieve decisive victory midway imperial_japanese_navy capacity aggressive action greatly diminished result midway battle japan chose focus attempt capture port overland campaign territory americans planned counter attack japanese positions southern solomon islands primarily step capturing main japanese base southeast_asia plans started july mid september battle took priority japanese troops new_guinea ordered withdraw port area northern island faced australian united_states troops battle soon focal point sides heavy commitments troops ships battle start japanese defeated island withdrew troops burma commonwealth forces mounted operations offensive region late went forcing retreat india second irregular forces japanese lines february end april achieved mixed results eastern despite considerable losses early germany allies stopped major soviet offensive central southern russia keeping territorial gains achieved previous year germans defeated soviet peninsula launched main summer offensive southern russia june seize oil fields occupy maintaining positions northern central areas germans split army group south groups army group advanced lower don river struck south east army group headed river soviets decided stand mid november germans nearly taken bitter street fighting soviets began second winter counter offensive starting german forces assault near moscow failed early february german_army taken tremendous losses german troops forced surrender line pushed position summer offensive mid february soviet push tapered germans launched attack creating line russian city western_europe atlantic mediterranean exploiting poor american naval command decisions german_navy ravaged allied shipping american atlantic coast november commonwealth forces launched counter offensive operation north_africa reclaimed gains germans italians north_africa germans launched offensive january pushing british positions line early february followed temporary combat germany prepare upcoming concerns japanese use bases held madagascar caused british invade island early axis offensive libya forced allied retreat deep inside egypt axis forces stopped continent raids allied strategic targets culminating disastrous raid demonstrated western allies inability launch invasion continental europe better preparation equipment operational security august allies succeeded second attack high cost managed deliver desperately needed supplies besieged malta months later allies commenced attack egypt axis forces beginning drive west libya attack followed shortly anglo american landings french north_africa resulted region joining allies hitler responded french colony ordering occupation france forces resist violation armistice managed fleet prevent capture german forces axis forces africa withdrew tunisia conquered allies early british americans began combined bomber offensive strategic bombing campaign germany goals disrupt german war economy reduce german morale house civilian population allies gain momentum campaign allies initiated operations japan pacific canadian forces sent eliminate japanese forces soon support australian new_zealand forces began major operations capturing surrounding islands breach japanese central pacific perimeter gilbert marshall islands end march allies completed objectives additionally major japanese base caroline islands april allies launched operation retake western new_guinea soviet_union germans soviets spent spring early summer preparing large central russia july germany attacked soviet forces week german forces exhausted soviets deeply constructed defences time war hitler cancelled operation achieved tactical operational success decision partially affected western allies invasion sicily launched july combined previous italian failures resulted arrest later month july british hamburg killing people july soviets launched counter chance german victory stalemate east soviet victory marked end german superiority giving soviet_union initiative eastern germans tried eastern hastily fortified line soviets broke lower september western allies invaded italian mainland following italy armistice allies germany responded italian forces seizing military control italian areas creating series defensive lines german special forces rescued soon established new client state german occupied italy named italian social republic causing italian civil war western allies fought lines reaching main german defensive line mid november german operations atlantic suffered allied counter measures increasingly effective resulting german submarine losses forced temporary halt german atlantic naval campaign november franklin roosevelt winston_churchill met cairo joseph conference determined post war return japanese territory included agreement western allies invade europe soviet_union declare war japan months germany defeat november seven week battle chinese forced japan fight costly war attrition awaiting allied relief january allies launched series attacks italy line tried landings end january major soviet offensive expelled german forces region ending longest lethal siege history following soviet offensive halted pre war border german_army group north aided hoping establish national independence delay slowed subsequent soviet operations baltic_sea region late soviets liberated largely expelled axis forces ukraine incursions romania repulsed axis troops allied italy succeeded expense allowing german divisions retreat june rome captured allies mixed success mainland asia march japanese launched invasions operation british positions india soon besieged commonwealth positions british forces mounted counter offensive drove japanese troops burma chinese forces invaded northern burma late besieged japanese troops second japanese invasion china aimed destroy china main fighting forces secure railways japanese held territory capture allied airfields june japanese conquered province begun new attack province allies close june known day years soviet pressure western allies invaded northern france allied divisions italy attacked southern france landings successful led defeat german_army units france paris liberated local resistance assisted free french forces led general charles august western allies continued push german forces western_europe year attempt advance northern germany spearheaded major airborne operation netherlands failed western allies slowly pushed germany failed cross river large offensive italy allied advance slowed major german defensive line june soviets launched strategic offensive operation destroyed german_army group centre completely soon soviet strategic offensive forced german troops western ukraine eastern poland soviet advance prompted resistance forces poland initiate uprisings german occupation largest warsaw german soldiers civilians national uprising slovakia receive soviet support subsequently suppressed germans red army strategic offensive eastern romania cut destroyed considerable german troops triggered successful coup état romania bulgaria followed countries shift allied september soviet troops advanced yugoslavia forced rapid withdrawal german_army groups greece albania yugoslavia rescue cut point communist led partisans marshal led increasingly successful guerrilla campaign occupation controlled territory yugoslavia engaged delaying efforts german forces south northern serbia red army limited support bulgarian forces assisted partisans joint liberation capital city belgrade october days later soviets launched massive assault german occupied hungary lasted fall february unlike impressive soviet victories balkans bitter finnish resistance soviet offensive denied soviets occupation finland led soviet finnish armistice relatively mild conditions finland later shifted allied start july commonwealth forces southeast_asia repelled japanese pushing japanese river chinese captured china japanese successes having finally captured mid june city early august soon invaded province winning major engagements chinese forces end november successfully linking forces china mid december pacific forces continued press japanese perimeter mid june began offensive islands decisively defeated japanese forces battle philippine sea defeats led resignation japanese prime minister provided united_states air bases launch intensive heavy bomber attacks japanese home islands late october american forces invaded filipino island soon allied naval forces scored large victory battle gulf largest naval battles history axis collapse allied victory december germany attempt western remaining reserves launch massive counter offensive split western allies large portions western allied troops capture primary supply port antwerp prompt political settlement january offensive repulsed strategic objectives fulfilled italy western allies remained german defensive line mid january soviets poles attacked poland pushing river germany overran east prussia february british soviet leaders met conference agreed occupation post war germany soviet_union join war japan february soviets entered western allies entered western germany closed rhine river march western allies crossed rhine north south german_army group soviets advanced vienna early april western allies finally pushed forward italy swept western germany soviet polish forces stormed berlin late april american soviet forces joined river april april captured signalling military defeat nazi_germany changes leadership occurred period april president roosevelt died succeeded harry killed italian partisans april days later hitler committed suicide succeeded grand admiral german forces surrendered italy april total surrender signed effective end german_army group centre resisted prague pacific theatre american forces accompanied forces philippine commonwealth advanced philippines clearing end april landed january recaptured manila march following battle reduced city ruins fighting continued islands philippines end war night march bombers army air forces struck tokyo bombs killed people hours months american bombers japanese cities causing destruction numbers buildings deaths japanese civilians australian troops landed borneo running british american chinese forces defeated japanese northern burma march british pushed reach chinese forces started counterattack battle west occurred april june american naval amphibious forces moved japan taking march okinawa end june time american bombers destroying japanese cities american submarines cut japanese imports drastically reducing japan ability supply overseas forces july allied leaders met germany confirmed earlier agreements germany reiterated demand surrender japanese forces japan specifically stating alternative japan prompt utter destruction conference united_kingdom held general election replaced churchill prime minister allies called japanese surrender declaration july japanese government internally divided peace respond early august united_states dropped atomic bombs japanese cities hiroshima nagasaki like japanese cities previously bombed american airmen allies justified atomic bombings military necessity avoid invading japanese home islands cost lives allied troops millions japanese troops civilians bombings soviets agreement invaded japanese held quickly defeated army largest japanese fighting force red army captured island islands august japan surrendered surrender documents finally signed aboard deck american battleship uss missouri september ending war aftermath allies established occupation austria germany neutral state non aligned political divided western eastern occupation zones controlled western allies ussr accordingly program germany led prosecution nazi war criminals removal nazis power policy moved amnesty integration nazis west german society germany lost quarter pre war territory eastern territories taken poland east prussia divided poland ussr followed expulsion million germans provinces expulsion million germans czechoslovakia germany 1950s fifth west german refugee east soviet_union took polish provinces east line million poles expelled north east romania parts eastern finland baltic states incorporated ussr effort maintain peace allies formed united_nations officially came existence october adopted universal declaration human rights common standard member nations great powers war united_states soviet_union china britain france formed permanent members security council permanent members remain present seat changes republic china people republic china soviet_union successor state russian federation following dissolution soviet_union alliance western allies soviet_union begun deteriorate war germany facto divided independent states federal republic germany german democratic republic created borders allied soviet occupation zones accordingly rest europe divided western soviet spheres influence eastern central european countries fell soviet sphere led establishment communist led regimes partial support soviet occupation authorities result poland hungary east germany czechoslovakia romania albania soviet satellite states communist yugoslavia conducted fully independent policy causing tension ussr post war division world international military alliances united_states led nato soviet led warsaw pact long period political tensions military competition cold war accompanied unprecedented arms race wars asia united_states led occupation japan japan islands western pacific soviets annexed islands korea japanese rule divided occupied south soviet_union north separate emerged sides 38th parallel claiming legitimate government korea led ultimately korean war china nationalist communist forces resumed civil war june communist forces victorious established people republic china mainland nationalist forces retreated taiwan middle_east arab rejection united_nations partition plan palestine creation israel marked arab israeli conflict european colonial powers attempted retain colonial losses prestige resources war rendered unsuccessful leading global economy suffered heavily war participating nations affected differently emerged richer nation baby boom gross domestic product person higher powers dominated world economy pursued policy industrial western germany years international trade led european economic delayed european recovery years recovery began currency reform western germany sped european economic policy marshall plan directly indirectly caused west german recovery called german economic miracle italy experienced economic boom french economy rebounded contrast united_kingdom state economic ruin received quarter total marshall plan assistance european country continued relative economic decline decades soviet_union despite enormous human material losses experienced rapid increase production immediate post war era japan experienced incredibly rapid economic growth powerful economies world 1980s china returned pre war industrial production impact casualties war crimes estimates total number casualties war vary deaths went suggest million people died war including million military personnel million civilians civilians died deliberate genocide mass bombings disease starvation soviet_union lost million people war including million military million civilian deaths largest portion military dead million ethnic russians followed million ethnic quarter people soviet_union wounded killed germany sustained million military losses eastern final battles germany total number deaths world war approximately percent soviet chinese allied percent axis deaths caused war crimes committed german japanese forces occupied territories estimated million civilians died direct indirect result nazi ideological policies including systematic genocide million jews holocaust million ethnic poles including ethnic minority groups hundreds thousands varying estimates ethnic serbs jews murdered axis aligned croatian yugoslavia retribution related killings committed war ended asia pacific million million civilians chinese estimated million killed japanese occupation forces best known japanese massacre thousand chinese civilians raped murdered reported million casualties occurred general implemented policy axis forces employed biological chemical weapons imperial japanese army variety weapons invasion occupation china unit early conflicts soviets germans japanese tested weapons civilians prisoners war soviet_union responsible massacre polish officers imprisonment execution thousands political prisoners baltic states eastern poland annexed red army mass bombing civilian areas notably cities warsaw london including aerial targeting hospitals fleeing refugees german luftwaffe bombing tokyo german cities dresden hamburg cologne western allies considered war crimes resulted destruction cities death german civilians positive specific customary international humanitarian law respect aerial warfare existed world war concentration camps slave labour genocide german government led adolf_hitler nazi party responsible holocaust killing approximately million jews million ethnic poles million deemed life including disabled mentally ill soviet prisoners war witnesses programme deliberate million eastern europeans employed german war economy forced labourers addition nazi concentration camps soviet labour camps led death citizens occupied countries poland lithuania estonia german prisoners war soviet citizens thought supporters nazis percent soviet germans died war richard gives number million soviet percent died killed total million soviet repatriated civilians treated great suspicion potential nazi collaborators sent checked japanese prisoner war camps labour camps high death rates international military tribunal far_east found death rate western prisoners percent american percent seven times germans italians prisoners netherlands united_states released surrender japan number chinese released according historian million chinese civilians northern china enslaved east asia development board work mines war industries number reached million library congress estimates java million japanese manual laborers forced work japanese military labourers sent japanese held areas south east asia repatriated java february roosevelt signed executive order japanese living west_coast canada similar program addition german italian citizens assessed security risks interned accordance allied agreement conference millions civilians forced labour soviet_union hungary case hungarians forced work soviet_union occupation europe occupation came forms western northern central europe france norway denmark low countries annexed portions czechoslovakia germany established economic policies collected roughly billion billion dollars end war figure include industrial products military equipment raw materials goods income occupied nations percent income germany collected taxation figure increased nearly percent total german income war went east hoped attained fluctuating lines soviet earth policies denied resources german invaders unlike west nazi racial policy encouraged excessive brutality considered inferior people slavic descent german advances followed mass executions resistance groups formed occupied territories significantly german operations east west late asia japan termed nations occupation greater east asia prosperity sphere essentially japanese claimed purposes peoples japanese forces originally welcomed european domination territories excessive brutality turned local public opinion weeks japan initial conquest captured barrels oil tonnes left retreating allied forces able production dutch_east_indies million barrels percent output rate home fronts production europe outbreak war allies significant advantages population economics western allies united_kingdom france poland british percent larger population percent higher gross domestic product european axis germany italy colonies included gives allies advantage population nearly advantage asia time china roughly times population japan percent higher reduced times population percent higher japanese colonies included allies economic population advantages largely initial rapid attacks germany japan decisive factor united_states soviet_union joined allies war largely settled attrition allies ability produce axis attributed allies having access natural resources factors germany japan reluctance employ women labour force allied strategic bombing germany late shift war economy contributed significantly additionally germany japan planned fight protracted war equipped improve production germany japan millions slave labourers germany million people eastern_europe japan million people far_east asia advances technology warfare aircraft reconnaissance fighters bombers ground support role advanced considerably innovation included capability quickly limited high priority supplies equipment personnel strategic bombing bombing enemy industrial population centres destroy enemy ability wage war anti aircraft weaponry advanced including defences radar surface air artillery german gun use jet aircraft pioneered late introduction meant little impact led jets standard air forces worldwide advances nearly aspect naval warfare notably aircraft carriers submarines warfare relatively little success start war actions taranto pearl harbor coral sea established carrier dominant capital ship place battleship atlantic escort carriers proved vital allied convoys increasing effective protection radius helping close mid-atlantic gap carriers economical battleships relatively low cost aircraft requiring heavily armoured submarines proved effective weapon world war anticipated sides important second british focused development anti submarine weaponry tactics convoys germany focused improving offensive capability designs type vii submarine tactics gradually improving allied technologies light squid torpedoes proved victorious land warfare changed static lines world war increased mobility combined arms tank predominantly infantry support world war evolved primary weapon late 1930s tank design considerably advanced world war advances continued war increases speed armour firepower start war commanders thought enemy tanks met tanks superior specifications idea challenged poor performance relatively light early tank guns armour german doctrine avoiding tank versus tank combat germany use combined arms key elements highly successful tactics poland france means destroying tanks including indirect artillery anti tank guns towed self propelled mines short ranged infantry weapons tanks utilised large scale infantry remained backbone forces war infantry equipped similarly world war portable machine gun spread notable example german guns suited close combat urban jungle settings assault rifle late war development incorporating features rifle gun standard postwar infantry weapon armed forces major attempted solve problems complexity security involved large designing machines known german machine development signals intelligence enabled process notable examples allied japanese naval codes british ultra pioneering method information given britain polish bureau early versions war aspect military intelligence use deception allies great effect operations bodyguard technological engineering feats achieved result war include world computers guided missiles modern rockets manhattan_project development nuclear weapons operations research development artificial oil english channel


battle battle february final major engagement days campaign war sixth coalition resulted napoleon defeating superior prussian russian force army field marshal von beginning armies french empire direct command emperor napoleon defend eastern france invading coalition armies despite fighting vastly superior forces napoleon managed score significant victories february repeatedly beat army february successive defeats looked napoleon instead manoeuvre forces fall isolated corps marshal defending napoleon rear prussian commander attacked pushed late february emperor read enemy intentions directed powerful forces support morning february commanding prussian corps elements russian corps resumed attack continued fall reinforced napoleon arrived battlefield strong combined arms forces allowed french launch determined counterattack drive leading elements army realized facing emperor person decided pull avoid battle napoleon practice attempt proved extremely difficult execute coalition force advanced position virtually cavalry present cover retreat facing enemy ready commit numerous cavalry actual pitched battle short french infantry marshal cavalry general launched relentless pursuit rode enemy retreating slow moving square formations broad daylight excellent cavalry terrain coalition forces suffered heavy losses squares broken french cavalry nightfall combat ceased opted exhausting night march order remaining forces safety context february having fought successful actions days prussian russian army napoleon pursuing defeated enemy consecutive defeats field marshal decided napoleon significant force isolated french army corps marshal knew corps weak plan destroy fall rear napoleon main force pursuit debris enemy force late february napoleon received reports corps attacked pushed position emperor enemy force reduced promptly decided aid emperor left february clock morning leaving small portion forces marshal orders continue pursuit enemy taking cavalry guard cavalry reserve napoleon headed village late february having successfully forces muster launched attack single division pushing advancing planned rear napoleon force having read intentions napoleon given orders concentration french forces sector opposing forces army battle february prussian field marshal commander combined prussian russian army count men army corps prussian corps commanded general friedrich von 10th brigade george von 11th brigade von 12th brigade prince prussia cavalry brigade von cavalry brigade von reserve artillery russian corps 9th division russian corps general peter 8th division prince 22nd division corps numbered men corps counted soldiers troops corps survived battle grouped temporary battalions artillery battery corps lost men guns evening february corps pound batteries pound batteries battery guns total cannons battery unknown strength corps batteries attached napoleon sent orders major concentration forces resulted force men assembled sector men soldiers got battlefield time men engaged actual fighting corps commanded marshal empire 3rd division joseph 8th division reinforcements temporarily attached 7th division jean cavalry commanded general division louis saint division jean division guard cavalry commanded general 2nd division charles 3rd division louis marie guard artillery guard infantry marshal prince reinforcements engaged 1st old guard division louis 2nd young guard division jean cavalry corps cavalry corps divisions numbered combined horsemen guard cavalry divisions counted 1st old guard division men 2nd old guard division 1st young guard division soldiers 2nd young guard division troops divisions muster men jean 7th division comprised soldiers forces cavalry infantry battalion old guard actually engaged fighting marching battle having begun push french forces corps day occupied early february sending vanguard forward far village commanding division men division pulled men began receive reinforcements clock morning set brigade cavalry motion surprise men didn ground time vigorously pushing advance guard village accompanying prussian cavalry dispersed violent french brigades division available launched men prussian position 1st brigade right advancing cover forest south road 2nd brigade left north road advancing position escort cavalry squadron imperial guard duty squadrons emperor escort general lion brigade entered village heavily invested prussian defenders soon repulsed pursuit marshal launched squadrons rescue cavalry promptly forced village battalions taken prisoner taking refuge isolated farm decided pull forces village joined generals having heard sound guns begun respective army corps direction coming french moved forward divisions pursuit road supported left general arrived field battle divisions saint moving past village order cut retreat french reinforcements available time right division steadily moving valley river bid french imperial guard artillery deployed firing drew good order formed squares fend cavalry clock afternoon assessing situation realised facing napoleon decided immediately withdraw ordered forces retreat directed artillery safety pursuit coalition forces retreat received orders aggressively pursue enemy knowing count infantry divisions plus support general guard artillery guard cavalry right cavalry divisions left following short distance reinforcements guard infantry divisions command marshal napoleon napoleon followed additional young guard division general emperor taken left early morning french cavalry hindered movements broken terrain far unable bother infantry squares consequently able lead retreat past villages terrain flat proper cavalry action increasingly aggressive action enemy cavalry flank rear brigade increasingly isolated divisions saint menacing right left prussian general saw guard cavalry division plus service squadrons brigade finally cut rest army charged violently broke infantry squares took prisoners rest brigade routed abandoning position infantry begun ordered continuation retreat corps left south road corps right north road taking advantage flat terrain able advance rapidly fall rear coalition infantry squares slowly withdrawing efficiently terrain shelter artillery bombardment night approaching retreat barred enemy cavalry prussian squares began lose spotting weakness reinforced division launched divisions coalition squares number men fleeing disorder refuge forest old exposing great danger order boost morale men taken prisoner chief staff generals prince prussia escaping capture crossed forest took positions prince division left reserve russian general men cannon instructed cover position occupying park men exhausted long retreat fighting seeing night fallen thought safety formed unseen night surprised men single charge send panicked men fleeing prince men artillery pieces captured action french sailors regiment division subsequently entering village abandoned position hasty retreat opted night march day managed bring remaining men joined corps result battle actually long cavalry pursuit costly defeat army lost men day french author jean states prussian corps men action killed wounded missing prisoners according author russian corps men killed wounded missing lost cannons flags historian places overall losses army day men detail losses suggest lighter casualties speaks men killed wounded missing prisoners men lost russians asserts casualties occurred pursuit possible figures account casualties incurred initial actions battle battalion brigade captured plus prisoners taken joint action according french registered light casualties men military historian battle jean notes muddy ground efficient deployment french artillery infantry prevented victory notes napoleon able safely turn south fall army commanded prince