offences english law offences english law offences england wales cover illegal acts committed primarily attempts commit crimes commit crimes conspiracy commit crimes attempts governed criminal attempts act defined situations individual intends commit offence act merely preparatory offence commission traditionally definition caused problems firm rule constitutes merely preparatory act broad judicial statements guidance hand offence common law covers situations individual encourages person engage activities result criminal act taking place intends act occur criminal activity particularly broad covering suggestion proposal request gesture argument abolished crime act continues offences basis new offence encouraging assisting commission crime conspiracy statutory common law offence statutory form criminal law act consists agreement people commit criminal offence common law conspiracy hand covers conspiracy conspiracy corrupt public morals substantive case law seen offence individuals likely prosecuted offences require intent conviction defendant sentenced succeeded committing attempted crime question definition means begun undeveloped english criminal law refer situations substantial offence committed defendant taken steps commit encouraged situations generally divided categories attempts defendant taken steps carrying complete crime defendant encouraged commit crime conspiracy defendant agreed commit crime case defendant performed sufficiently close law find appropriate punish offences attempt attempts governed criminal attempts act states intent commit offence act applies person act merely preparatory commission offence guilty attempting commit offence required element intent court appeal england wales confirmed definition intent act definition common law common law gives intention normal meaning purpose aim judges advised majority cases attempt definition intent somebody intent commit crime certain circumstances deemed acceptable indictment attempting crime attorney general reference nos court appeal explained intention steal worth stealing form basis attempt charge indictment drafted carefully procedural solution previous apparent contradiction suggested drafting demonstrate sufficient proximity defendant actions planning steal requirement added attempt crimes strict liability intent merely objective ruling attorney general reference makes certain section provides merely preparatory practice academic herring notes hard fast rule act merely preparatory cases broad guidance man entered toilets school brighton large knife rope roll tape alleged intending kidnap pupil court appeal confirmed conviction certain general rules laid defendant committed act completing offence constitutes attempt jones necessary situations offence taken account defendant charged attempted victim garden knocking door found guilty entered property actions merely preparatory wording act prevents liability distinction law commission looked remove case attempted murder certain things attempted include conspiracy section act assisting criminal section criminal law act aiding commission offence summary offences logic minor attempts justify criminal conviction small number separate statutory offences created cover attempts concerning individual summary offences case usual attempt law procedure applies found guilty attempt sentenced section act provides attempts commit offence punished period prison succeeded theft carries maximum penalty seven years prison example convicted attempted theft find sentenced maximum seven years encouraging assisting offences encouraging assisting crime crime act offences case requirement defendant carry act capable encouraging assisting commission offence offence committed section intent section believing offence committed act encourage assist commission section multiple possible offences encouraged assisted need defendant successfully communicated thoughts wide courts narrow criterion probably reference encouragement crime failing act duty qualify encouraging defined statute considered way previous crime matter encouragement assistance effect assisting likely considered similar aiding liability assistance provided indirectly example person committed defendant principal crime encouraging assisting includes helping whilst section offence committed relation offences including sections crimes fact law impossible commit fall offence terms form including virtual certainty insufficient offence section existence section aid interpretation offences sections committed defendant believes crime committed act encourage assist possible commit offences defendant commits act capable encouraging assisting commission crime intending believing principal carry act constitute crime necessary defendant intend reckless required circumstances consequences example death result additionally prosecution defendant believed reckless act required defendant required offence complex provisions defence later withdrawing act acting reasonably section takes forms acts reasonable defendant reasonably believed circumstances exist acted reasonably circumstances existence defence attacked andrew bob sullivan grounds acting counteract excess sections act victims extended defence aid counsel offence oneself exactly victim protected unclear common law offence commission offence abolished october relation offences committed wholly partly date language retained statutory offences child engage sexual activity contrary section sexual offences act rules applied cases existing body law court appeal considers consist situation defendant cause act acts involve commission offence offences intends believes acts shall fault required offence offences unlike attempts common law offence particularly broad interpreted include suggestion proposal request gesture argument include act express implied offence committed act criminal nature offence person person exceptions section criminal law act offence aid attempt similarly specifically given criminal acts terms defendant intended offence committed aware likely consequences suggested intent necessary defendant knew advice followed result crime found guilty conspiracy statutory conspiracy consists agreement people commit criminal offence section act statutory elements agreement pursue course conduct involves commission crime parties agreement intended commit crime parties later decide plan reach agreement charged certain categories agreement criminal conspiracy agreement husband wife conspiracy section act agreement person age criminal responsibility intended victim crime need churchill conspirators knew proposed course conduct amounted crime intended consequences people poison victim tea conspiracy murder poison intended kill victim defendants similarly found guilty unaware crime result people agree grow plants unaware plants illegal engaged conspiracy hand people believe plants illegal found guilty common law hand fall categories conspiracy conspiracy corrupt public morals category existed time act conspiracy outrage public statutory offence public morals statutory offence situation unclear standard definition conspiracy provided lord scott metropolitan police commissioner said clearly law agreement person entitled agreement right constitute offence conspiracy conspiracy contains key elements conspiracy involved conspiracy undertaken victim property rights harmed require defendants actions directly result fraud house_of_lords held producing devices designed alter electricity meter readings constituted conspiracy actual fraud carried members public conspirators situations necessary actions directly lead kind financial loss victim conspirators plan person holding public office acting counter duties conspirators know actions victim property risk risk conspiracy corrupt public morals definitive case law unknown substantive offence herring sees unlikely conspirators prosecuted offence defence exceptions impossible attempts divided legal physical cases legal occur defendant attempts believes illegal fact constitute crime defence remain common law defendant attempts commit crime inadequate means case found guilty prosecutors discretion likely factor plans example murder doll simply removed attempted crime physical covers situations action inadequate impossible example attempted murder conspiracy murder fact dead actions governed section act provides constitute crime actions facts case defendant believed led valid attempt herring states defendant believes dealing illegal drugs convicted attempted drug dealing offence fact selling chalk plan successfully comes fruition offence defendant intended coming pass relieve defendant liability ruling smith proved hard distinguish abolition defences theory general principle law criminal liability normally imposed actor causes prohibited harm attempt crimes argued harm caused attempted example lead stolen distinction successful failed attempts consider defendant partially liable example advocating lesser punishment distinct advanced making distinction crime attempted harm threat security individuals right security property attempt commit crime right second regardless harm principle criminal liability attempts justified terms person tries commit crime shown dangerous restrained provide differing approach taken united_states jurisdictions intervention happen early conspiracy defendants held liable earlier liability controversial conspiracy standard justification group danger rationale states objective criminal law protect harm community community risk group people harmful intentions individual intentions crime justified argument constitutes attempt conspiracy objective persuade engage criminal acts knowledge cooperation dangerous direct attempt rise cooperation criminals special hazard


minor minor united_states supreme_court case court held constitution grant women right vote supreme_court upheld state court decisions missouri refused register woman voter state laws allowed men vote minor ruling based interpretation privileges clause fourteenth amendment supreme_court readily accepted minor citizen united_states held protected privileges citizenship include right vote nineteenth amendment constitution effectively overruled minor prohibiting discrimination voting rights based gender minor continued cited support restrictive election laws types 1960s supreme_court started interpreting fourteenth amendment equal protection clause guarantee voting rights background virginia minor leader women suffrage movement missouri attempted register vote october louis county missouri refused grounds woman assistance husband francis minor lawyer brought action state courts rejected application register vote alleging provisions missouri state constitution allowed men vote violation united_states_constitution specifically fourteenth amendment key minors argument citizenship entailed voting rights assertion rhetoric sides open question missouri supreme_court ruled favor minor state court observed universal practice states adoption constitution present time restrict voting rights men additionally clear intent fourteenth amendment rights citizenship slaves force changes state laws court noted particular second section fourteenth amendment states denied right vote citizens referred specifically male citizens concluded clearly recognizes right exercise right states restrict right suffrage male inhabitants minor appealed missouri ruling united_states supreme_court presenting arguments supreme_court unsuccessfully forth state court additionally proposing women suffrage consistent original intent constitution supreme_court observed sole point issue constitution entitled women vote despite state laws limiting right men state missouri send counsel defend decision supreme_court choosing instead justify decision sentence opinion court supreme_court unanimously upheld missouri voting legislation saying voting inherent right citizenship constitution granted forbade voting rights women allowing male citizens vote infringement minor rights fourteenth amendment opinion written chief justice morrison asked minor citizen united_states answered citing fourteenth amendment earlier common law exploring common law origins citizenship court observed new citizens born created constitution words shall natural born citizens common law according court doubted children born country parents citizens birth citizens natives natural born citizens distinguished aliens foreigners court observed authorities include citizens children born jurisdiction reference citizenship parents minor born united_states parents citizens citizen possible definition court noted subject need explored greater depth court asked right vote privileges citizens united_states time fourteenth amendment adoption citing variety historical sources found court reasoned constitution united_states explicitly citizens right vote history nation adoption constitution wide variety persons including women recognized citizens denied right vote example time adoption constitution original thirteen colonies gave citizens right vote restrictions based factors sex race age ownership land opinion continues moment doubted intended citizens united_states voters constitution left important change condition citizenship actually existed intended declared subsequent history nineteenth amendment constitution ratified prohibited sex based denial united_states citizen right vote effectively key holding minor later voting rights cases minor cited opposition claim federal constitution conferred general right vote support restrictive election laws involving poll taxes literacy tests role political parties special elections 1960s supreme_court started view voting fundamental right covered equal protection clause fourteenth amendment opinion supreme_court case involving alabama state legislature associate justice john marshall included minor list past decisions voting longer followed


hawaii house bill house bill abbreviated bill hawaii state legislature passed april vetoed governor hawaii civil unions couples state hawaii legislative process accompanied controversy bill content effects rallies held supporters opponents bill passed hawaii house_of_representatives february form specific sex couples passed amended form including opposite sex couples hawaii senate carried session passed senate january veto proof majority bill moved house indefinitely postponed voice vote initiated house speaker requiring vote thirds representatives taken considered dead april day legislative session house suspended rules senate bill passed majority sending bill governor vetoed july hawaii allow sex marriages civil unions unmarried people register relationship provides rights benefits come marriage bill written law january allow couples obtain rights equal married couples hawaii state western united_states allow civil unions instead domestic partnerships content bill house bill introduced passed hawaii house_of_representatives extends rights benefits responsibilities marriage partners civil union eligible civil union bill outlined person seeking civil union civil union marriage relationship people seeking civil union sex members civil union years older partners related bill relationships civil unions automatically man father grandfather son woman mother grandmother daughter persons guardian guardian consent subject obtain civil union section house bill explained partners civil union shall rights benefits responsibilities law granted marriage bill recognized domestic partnerships civil unions sex marriages performed states civil unions hawaii taken effect january addition house bill repealed statute declared private unlawful house bill passed hawaii senate amended remove bill reference sex couples include language stating legislature intent change definition marriage include partners civil unions use terms family immediate family dependent language bill coming effect remained unchanged january legislative process past bills following decision supreme_court hawaii found state refusal grant sex couples marriage licenses voters approved constitutional amendment granting hawaii state legislature power reserve marriage opposite sex couples legislature passed law banning sex marriage civil unions restricted bills creating civil unions considered times failed receive committee approval prior session introduced hawaii house_of_representatives january passed hawaii house judiciary committee february members voting favor opposed approved hawaii house_of_representatives february members voting favor opposed vote fewer thirds vote needed veto republican governor indicate considered veto referred hawaii senate february hearing committee judiciary government operations held state capitol february outcome senators supporting bill opposed bill passed committee senate democratic leadership stated bill taken committee brought debate senate possible march following rally held february opposed passage people participated number democratic senators unwilling vote favor motion citing concerns changing common senate procedure number senators supporting civil unions reduced senators supporters held attended people support bill march senator offered amendment bill reduced number benefits granted stating remove concerns civil unions similar marriage passing amended bill required house vote establish conference committee negotiate differences versions chambers supporters civil unions stated support compromise senator argued amendment kill hawaii senate majority leader stated march try bring bill vote senator end legislative session clear senators supported opposing groups announced protests action taken march attempt bring bill senate failed senators supported measure instead required senators senate president chairman brian opposed recalling committee citing change traditional process second motion recall bill committee initiated senator les successful democrats voted favor senate democratic leadership democrats opposed civil unions senate republicans voted favor amendment bill added language distinction civil unions marriage allowing sex opposite sex couples enter civil unions amendment adopted killed bill revised version required renewed approval hawaii house_of_representatives legislature senate president stated issue taken session bill carried session stated january bill distraction budget voted final passage senate senator brian argued legislature work issues simultaneously bill pass passed amended bill approved house_of_representatives speaker house stated vote bill depend senate passed bill votes gubernatorial veto arguing want force vote controversial legislation election year bill approval doubt senate bill contains effective date january language changed bill vetoed regardless content senate passed unchanged bill january veto proof thirds majority amendment update effective date rejected measure moved final approval house_of_representatives january house speaker moved indefinitely postpone vote bill approved voice vote votes recorded deferred action bill thirds representatives vote reconsider bill considered dead april day legislative session senate bill revived hawaii house following motion majority leader blake speaker immediately ordered representatives returned votes suspend legislative rules issue taken bill passed votes governor july decide sign veto measure house vote margin support large gubernatorial veto vetoed bill july arguing civil unions decided referendum house ruled attempt legislative session reactions following introduction gay rights organizations stated support arguing bill supported equality diverse state religious groups began set websites newspaper advertisements hold rallies opposition bill arguing ran marriage roman catholic bishop honolulu richard called bill democratic process ignores people alexander vicar general roman catholic diocese honolulu argued civil unions sex marriage different non profit organization hawaii family forum opposed bill organized february rally local churches achieved large turnout alliance hawaii people christian jewish buddhist stated support bill argued civil unions opponents concept marriage family values university hawaii law professor adviser student gay rights group stated fundamental civil rights unpopular minority stake principle letting people decide mere church honolulu sponsored poll found percent opposition sex marriage percent support rights senate hearings bill attracted large turnout testimony recorded hours hearing bill opponents outnumbered supporters mike sponsored amendment permitting legislature outlaw sex marriage argued bill lead sex marriage taught hawaiian schools kim hawaii board education countered civil unions children gay families likely harassed lieutenant governor hawaii duke criticized bill arguing attempts people authorizing equivalent sex marriage representative supported bill stating equal share government government equal protection gay lesbian citizens hawaii honolulu reported senate democratic leadership support bill large demonstration opponents pressure senators oppose bill found senators privately suggested bill delay committee proposed amendment bill ways avoid taking vote following controversy following bill defeat committee attended labor union members religious groups father richard shields episcopal diocese hawaii stated religion taken argument spokesperson hotel restaurant union local argued bill provided economic justice letter later sent senators support community groups including local union hawaii hawaii state democratic women caucus japanese american citizens league response majority leader statement intended bring bill vote senate hawaii family forum stated issues demanded attention civil unions bill create legal challenges child care education group held demonstrations stated intention hold demonstrations ask governor veto legislation bill advance argued bill president barack_obama support civil unions support labor unions majority hawaii house representatives honolulu reported senate president privately told senators bill lead lawsuit sex marriage american civil liberties union hawaii supreme_court hawaii judge told legislature lawsuit little chance success following adoption amended version senator les stated hard time statement proponents equal rights civil unions time kills session michael parents families friends called vote dog pony hawaii family forum leader democratic state representative dennis commented things worked good began campaign june elected lieutenant governor hawaii calling support bill act critical issue elected succeed governor gubernatorial election defeating duke july following veto bill legal announced file lawsuit enable civil unions stating constitution prevents discrimination based sexual orientation


james james april february american lawyer born new_york_city studied law father practice admitted new_york bar notable career criminal lawyer involved numerous high profile proceedings tried criminal cases lost died home having left body paralyzed days interred cemetery new_york early life born april new_york_city eldest son thomas wife later seven siblings boys girls senior emigrated ireland united_states war ongoing started boys school new_york james seven attended father school james father left teaching lawyer helped father practice trials father office james studied legal material soon operated firm managerial affairs career admitted new_york bar years old case insurance proceeding opposed prominent lawyer charles connor claim insurance money property allegedly burned fire lost case proficiency law immediately noted received taste legal notoriety day patent case worked daniel delivered opening arguments best known work criminal lawyer quarter century preceding death involved nearly notable criminal proceeding eastern united_states famous legal defense daniel trial murder philip key attorney general district_of_columbia trial worked united_states secretary war defended baker murder trial infamous william bill butcher baker shot death hall bar broadway manhattan career tried criminal cases lost case confederate john professed membership democratic_party notably politics interim district attorney new_york county years later appointed city corporation counsel position served terms term lasting year ran elected position attorney general new_york john joseph lane democratic ticket governor new_york american_civil_war began switched sides ardent supporter abraham_lincoln republican_party deeply southern politics policy personal life death remained lifelong bachelor friend asked said father died left daughters looked support affection wife went sisters desired recall sunday february left body paralyzed died age home new_york february funeral occurred patrick cathedral interred cemetery


asia case better known asia born pakistani christian woman convicted pakistani court receiving sentence death hanging june involved argument group muslim women harvesting women grew angry drinking water subsequently accused insulting islamic prophet muhammad charge denies arrested imprisoned november judge sentenced death executed woman pakistan killed verdict reached district court need upheld superior court received worldwide attention petitions including received signatures organized protest imprisonment pope publicly called charges dismissed received sympathy neighbors islamic religious leaders country called executed christian minorities minister pakistani politician killed advocating behalf opposing laws family went hiding receiving death threats threatened kill asia released prison background arrest born raised small rural village district pakistan thirty miles outside christians district pakistan usually lower class roman catholic worked support family married brick children previous marriage children family christians village repeatedly urged fellow workers convert islam june harvesting group field asked point water nearby complied stopped drink old metal cup found lying neighbor involved running feud family property damage saw angrily told forbidden christian drink water muslims drink workers considered christian arguments ensued recounts statements religion responded believe religion jesus christ died cross sins mankind prophet save mankind later workers complained insulted muhammad mob came house beating members family rescued police police initiated investigation remarks resulting arrest section pakistan code subsequently imprisoned year formally charged prosecution imprisonment denied committed said accused neighbor settle old score november judge court sentenced death hanging additionally fine equivalent imposed verdict woman condemned death pakistan charges described day sentencing follows cried putting head hands longer bear sight people hatred killing poor farm worker longer hear crowd gave judge standing ovation saying kill kill court house invaded break doors chanting vengeance holy prophet great thrown like old rubbish sack van lost humanity eyes husband years old time announced planned appeal verdict upheld high_court month later governor investigated affair president ali stated likely pardoned high_court suspend sentence grant pardon high_court issued stay order potential presidential pardon remains force till date court numerous inconsistencies evidence presented reporters dare repeat testimony accused solitary confinement foot cell windows prison assassination visited jail times wife daughter pakistani court officials later ruled visited husband lawyer prison superintendent said wanted treated like prisoner kept away inmates individuals accused killed prison concern poisoned prison officials began giving raw materials cook food foundation human rights group described physical condition health reported decline poor living conditions jail threatened inmates subjected physical abuse prison guards according human rights watch situation unusual executed pakistan accused remain imprisoned extensive time case processed appeal hearing delayed fifth time appeals october high_court dismissed appeal upheld death sentence november husband appealed pakistan president november lawyer appealed supreme_court july supreme_court pakistan suspended death sentence duration appeals process november lead attorney announced high_court hear appeal case march local reactions conviction led divided opinions laws drew strong reactions public pakistani human rights watch researcher ali said law creates legal infrastructure informal ways harass described law abusive governor pakistan minority affairs minister publicly supported saying knock justice behalf steps protection received support pakistani political scientist local priest imprisonment left christians minorities pakistan feeling vulnerable liberal muslims sentencing general population sympathetic signs erected rural areas declaring support laws including called beheaded member pakistan party organized demonstration led small crowd chanting hang hang december month conviction muslim announced pakistani award equivalent kill survey reported million said willing personally kill religious conviction reward village mosque reportedly indifferent plight stated joy learning sentenced death threatened people law hands pardoned released journalist mccarthy suggested country peaceful majority views overshadowed vocal family received threats gone hiding husband stated afraid let children outside expressed concern kept safe released saying let live saying kill comes family declined leave country remained prison italy france spain offered grant family asylum event release january market governor assassinated year old member security team defence opposition law sentenced death assassination hanged february outspoken criticism law verdict case day thousands turned governor funeral spite warnings portion pakistani population praised hero thousands muslims rallied support laws pakistan murder prohibited followers sending family resulted concerns public tolerant prison officials said learning assassination repeatedly saying man came sacrificed life father andrew senior catholic spokesperson described situation utter chaos seven months later year old son kidnapped later found released march returned march years captivity minority affairs minister said threatened death june told beheaded attempted change laws response told reporters committed principle justice people pakistan willing die fighting release march shot dead gunmen ambushed car near residence presumably position laws christian member pakistan cabinet international response death sentence drew international outrage strong condemnation human rights groups amnesty international human rights watch saw laws form religious persecution called abolished pope publicly called statement described spiritual urged human dignity fundamental rights similar situations respected case achieved extensive media coverage american journalist john allen writes certainly famous farm worker mother planet according allen celebrity christian activists unusual instance cases discrimination christian minorities typically receive little attention press number campaigns organized protest imprisonment online petitions twitter trends concerts christian pop band based united_kingdom collaborated british pakistani christian association released song titled free asia music video included disturbing visual portrayal prison conditions held subject books documentaries petition received signatures individuals countries petition organised american centre law justice obtained signatures called america billion dollar yearly aid pakistan stop whilst persecution minorities allowed country memoirs french journalist anne assisted writing memoir titled memoir sentenced death cup water unable visit directly prison restrictions able conduct interviews husband passed questions answers met members family including children sister known assassination


decided november copyright lawsuit benjamin george legal rights publish works swift london trial test statute anne copyright law regards irish publishing independence held copyright swift works suit legal struggle irish rights eventually denied english courts published works swift dublin works copyright kingdom great_britain sought sell book london issued formal complaint swift proceeded sue injunction issued favor book prohibited sold british soil basis law protected rights author publisher works swift unwilling support lawsuit swift reaction basis lawsuit later seen struggle rights print material denied english law background benjamin london publisher took benjamin publishing business printed swift earlier works swift sent copy travels printed anonymously took great care protect identity author employed publishing houses speed production book avoid copying formed direct contract swift order publish swift contract paid original copyright work george dublin journal newspaper established featured articles written swift inspired writings swift published works attributed swift actually written works printed swift turned written swift suggests critics swift working ensure authentic works printed swift publish answer swift final defense irish economy england policies publish collected letters fraud detected october helped edit december case august swift wrote charles ford work travels finished soon added scene referring letters swift wrote letter pope printer shall found brave venture ears printer swift found benjamin swift control publication order critics preserve swift found willing print work willing print swift additional scene swift lack control publication lead swift complaining murdered pages reasons swift turned printer sought printer willing produce complete works content removal october swift wrote remember complained suffering friend suppose took clergy man dead things thought offence insert good deal trash contrary author manner style intention editions travels produced london corrected edition works printed john dublin davis thought edition swift critics argue swift involved helping edition based london edition year risk smith printed dublin simple reprint original print minor produced second edition fourth version travels later editions based swift sent printer letters edition published includes original text surpassing editions version contains passages present original expanded original text suggested critics edition later travels correction printing related mistakes inclusion additions later seen critics swift disapproval versions version true anti government spirit swift work swift motivation allowing reprint work swift works previous collected volume set edited alexander pope called swift wanted proper edition works critics speculate swift turned having work printed public sponsorship afraid breaking commitments pope publisher regardless swift planning wrote december said cause believe collected think print subscription encourage oppose february advertised future publication swift collected works volumes dublin journal edition led controversy london benjamin publication rights english copyright law works included edition english attempted pass law allow copyright holder prohibit works violate copyright law failed pass parliament decision power halt introduction work asked swift intervene swift refused backing swift turned english legal system halt introduction edition issued bill complaint sued statute anne claiming publishing works right publish works like travels case heard court agreed ruling lord lord chancellor great_britain november determined forth injunction swift works works like letters copyright works printed complete work legally brought halt published england critical response uncertain swift allowed publish works order allow irish publisher compete english publisher swift matter published works swift letter swift defend legal right publish works sure attitude action publisher instead coming agreement allowed reprint material critics believe swift incident affair example english oppression irish swift wrote letter cruel kingdom england borne send books send written absolute oppression town use safe means reprint london books run town england laws god country lives commits sin england little regard laws clergyman encourage merchants export wool country europe conceal custom house officers hide purse came rob road england law contrary encourage sell author books printed send towns england safety profit repeat offence god laws country live debate academic community printer produced authoritative edition swift works especially travels williams major proponents edition correct critics argue edition instead corrected edition added new revisions text truly called authoritative influence legal terms report november longer existence cited later legal decisions copyright issues miller taylor read case november injunction granted printing pope swift pieces published counsel strongly pressed objection pieces lord continued injunction irish man substance general point consequence advised case pope refers irish english aspects publishing came claimed work dublin edition originally george statute anne reprinted england lord ruled matter june works published ireland allow publication works london copyright


school district school district landmark decision supreme_court united_states held public school student newspapers established forums student expression subject lower level amendment protection independent student expression newspapers established policy practice forums student expression case concerned censorship articles spectrum student newspaper east high school louis county missouri school principal removed article concerning divorce concerning teen pregnancy student journalists sued claiming amendment rights violated lower court sided students decision later overturned court appeals eighth circuit decision rendered supreme_court overturned circuit court decision majority opinion determining school administrators exercise prior restraint school sponsored expression newspapers assembly speeches censorship reasonably related legitimate concerns school sponsored newspapers considered limited public forums expression case earlier des independent community school district considered landmark decisions defining right expression students public schools subsequent courts varied significantly decision applies case remains strong precedent regulation student speech new voices bill date passed states decision returning precedent background facts case case concerned spectrum student newspaper published journalism class east high school school district louis county missouri spectrum written edited journalism class public school published roughly weeks school year copies paper distributed students community members year cost printing paper supplies textbooks portion academic advisor salary furnished district board education supplemented newspaper sales school year board supplied printing costs newspaper generated revenue howard adviser journalism class submitted page issue newspaper principal robert eugene approval practice customary time objected stories scheduled run story concerning teen pregnancy containing interviews students pregnant story contained false names girls identities secret concerned pregnant students identifiable text concerned references sexual activity birth control inappropriate younger students school second story concerned divorce featured interview student parents divorced complained father wasn spending time mom sister town business late playing cards guys argued unaware girl changed concerned family given opportunity respond story consent publication believe time appropriate changes newspaper delay publication mean newspaper published end school year consulting opted publish page newspaper instead page pages containing stories cutting pages removed total seven articles paper tell students decision find paper delivered school response editor reporters smart filed suit january aid american civil liberties union later said idea pieces came old issues spectrum looking update legal precedent 1960s administrative review student publications considered routine high school collegiate level students faculty advisers alternatives rise 1960s student publications began explore social issues greater focusing issues vietnam war civil rights movement sexual orientation issues considered sensitive time supreme_court upheld freedom expression students protected amendment des independent community school district following precedent court cases courts country decided favor student expression administrative censorship instance censorship involved action government employee school principal college dean courts held amendment constitutional apply precedent courts recognized student newspapers public forums student expression restricted prove substantial disruption school activities imminent school administrators opposed interpretation additional cases following years james university missouri expanded amendment rights students college campuses strongly define status student newspapers forum 1980s end student protest era school administrators sought authority case new trend school district involved discipline high school student delivering speech containing sexual legal sense lower courts case supreme_court clarified ruling case apply penalties imposed school unrelated political viewpoint lower court decisions case introduced district court eastern district missouri students sought declaration amendment fourteenth amendment rights violated actions public official relief monetary damages bench trial district court denied injunction monetary damages court reached decision district court held school officials student speech activities integral school educational function long decision substantial reasonable basis court held violation amendment rights occurred court appeals eighth circuit reversed decision january court held outset spectrum school program public forum newspaper intended operated student viewpoint public forum court ruled spectrum censored necessary avoid material substantial interference school work discipline rights supreme_court granted january case argued october january court handed decision supreme_court ruling ruling supreme_court overturned decision circuit court majority opinion set precedent school sponsored activities including student newspapers drama productions normally protected administrative censorship amendment majority opinion majority justices held principal entitled censor articles majority opinion penned associate justice white stated officials intended school paper public forum underground publications cases past white went amendment rights exercising control student speech school sponsored activities long actions reasonably related legitimate concerns court established student publication regulated school officials reserved forum intended purpose supervised learning experience journalism students school need tolerate student speech inconsistent basic educational mission government judicial action protect students rights justified decision censor school sponsored publication theatrical production vehicle student expression valid educational purpose decision precedent set case decision permitted censorship student speech violated rights students threatened cause campus disruption majority opinion held case different justices said school administrators required tolerate speech contrary school academic mission majority opinion continued requires school tolerate particular student speech question addressed different question amendment requires school promote particular student speech question addresses ability silence students personal expression happens occur school premises question concerns authority school sponsored publications theatrical productions expressive activities students parents members public reasonably perceive bear school protect student journalists instead stating absence rules barring administrative censorship amendment protect student publications seven states arkansas california colorado iowa kansas massachusetts oregon laws books states considering court clarified ruling necessarily applied collegiate level opinion associate justice william wrote opinion joined associate justices marshall harry took liberal positions amendment issues opinion expressed concern message majority opinion send students young men women east expected lesson court teaches today contempt individual rights state official particularly school principal public task youth appreciation democratic liberties constitution guarantees legacy case established standard school personnel meet limiting students freedom expression secondary schools representatives state school administrators censor publish school sponsored student expression requirements school discipline students rights academic generates health welfare concerns deemed vulgar extends theatrical productions public speeches assembly environment publications produces activity student newspaper majority termed reasons legitimate concerns standard apply personal communication non school sponsored communication campus publications non school sponsored speech school discipline rights case establishes student newspapers limited public forums means schools exercise prior restraint style content student paper long action previously compelling evidence warrant censorship separate cases established constituted school activities class parties art created students behest teachers web based student publications school student response ruling individual states responded laws designating student newspapers public forums offering greater amendment protection experts student press law center contended case meant fewer lawsuits student censorship court subsequent supreme_court indicated necessarily apply collegiate level federal appeals courts held applied college newspapers appeals courts courts split viewpoint based expression schools religion variety cases appeared citing case citing school ability regulate student dress speech certain ethnic groups find offensive cases courts decision support student speech isn found offensive case alabama student party student government held campus newspapers curriculum enjoy amendment protection notable court appeals seventh circuit court decision carter held applied student media college level ruling controversial found sharp difference high school college newspapers noting financially produced journalism classes students rights speech explored decision frederick found amendment protect student speech reasonably viewed promoting drug use case court appeals sixth circuit gibson ruled apply college level instance court found case student publication censored censorship viewpoint neutral subsequent case dean dealt specifically defines legitimate concern case case found school censored speech


united_states united_states 9th united_states court case united_states court appeals ninth circuit held property electronic storage devices presented inspection entering united_states border subject forensic examination reason suspicion holding weakened border search exception fourth amendment united_states_constitution background april approximately howard drove mexico port entry arrival inspector checked customs border protection electronic database found computer generated alert based howard prior conviction child sex crimes alert advised inspector child pornography warning sent secondary inspection area vehicle search officers discovered digital cameras officers unable find discover number protected files time ice case assigned agent riley drove supervisor agent brisbane sells arizona drive agents decided forensic examination arriving agents interviewed howard separately howard offered help agents computer offer declined agents left digital camera devices taken delivered john ice computer forensic night camera returned evidence found april agent forensic examination turned approximately images child pornography howard computer agent called night asking howard assistance opening protected files howard agreed come day wife showed pick later discovered howard boarded flight mexico april final destination sydney australia april agent owen able break computer security discovered images child pornography indicted june charges related child pornography unlawful flight avoid prosecution arrested australian law officials delivered service march filed motion suppress evidence seized customs officials argued search miles port entry period days non routine border search requiring reasonable suspicion motion granted district court favor government appealed stated border search doctrine justified initial search transport computer adequately conduct search ninth circuit court appeals overturned lower court ruling favor government opinion reversing reasoning panel ninth circuit held forensic examination computer seized border requires reasonable suspicion court held reasonable suspicion case alert informing seizing officer possibility child pornography opinion ninth circuit panel majority opinion judge agreed government border search doctrine allowed property transported secondary site examination stated government seize property hold weeks months years effectively allowing courts continue determine searches reasonable case case basis arguments appealing district court decision government argue reasonable suspicion instead government argued border search doctrine supported initial search transportation examination judgment majority found time distance matter instance opinion judge stated need control entry border government unable remove property away border fully staff equip border crossing content shutting eyes positions defendant property cleared entry border time forensic search opinion judge stated time space relevant initial inquiry extent inform individual reasonably expect stopped searched geographic point international border majority found reasonable suspicion needed considered inspection routine search body search property destroyed finally court ruled consider day delay particularly offensive dissent judge majority argued sticking point government transport property border location inspection government seize property inspection unknown time reason suspect property contained hold officers level suspicion order conduct seizure search like issue seizing personal property individual valid interest property authorizing computer forensic search suspicion permits government engage type fishing expeditions fourth amendment designed prevent supreme_court appeal petition writ filed united_states supreme_court august time extensions ninth circuit violate constitution create circuit splits court decisions process replacing question presented parties issue prosecution deliberately abandoned making factual finding reasonable suspicion existed time appeal disregarded factual findings district court agents scene holding citizen personal belongings seized border suspicion wrongdoing january court denied petition march court denied petition filed february letting ninth circuit decision stand reasonable suspicion standard created


contracts rights parties act contracts rights parties act act parliament united_kingdom significantly reformed common law doctrine removed universally disliked criticised legal landscape second rule doctrine party enforce contract provided consideration widely criticised lawyers academics members judiciary proposals reform act parliament law revision committee sixth interim report action taken government 1990s law commission proposed new draft bill presented final report bill introduced house_of_lords december moved house_of_commons june received royal november coming force immediately contracts rights parties act act allows parties enforce terms contracts benefit way contract allows enforce grants access range terms breached act limits ways contract changed permission involved party time provides protection situations dispute party allows parties contract specifically exclude protection afforded act want limit involvement parties background historical doctrine consisted rules party obligations imposed terms contract second party enforce contract provided consideration rule contested second described universally disliked criticised legal landscape originally second rule held valid 17th century party allowed enforce terms contract benefited shown wood judgement stated party benefit promise bring action reversal law mason vent court king bench found party rights enforce contract benefited ruling quickly reversed decisions immediately original rule years different judges provided different decisions party enforce contract benefited dispute ended confirmed party enforce contract benefited decision affirmed house_of_lords tyre ltd lord stated person party contract sue version doctrine commonly known original basic doctrine criticism original doctrine second rule party claim benefits contract widely criticised academics members judiciary legal professionals problem rule exceptions cases obviously intended party claim benefit uncle gave nephew business condition nephew pay uncle certain week event uncle death similar widow second argument undermine doctrine point large number exceptions rule created acts parliament indicate parliament issue doctrine critics argued large number inconsistencies exceptions doctrine bad law provided reliable rule way law works theory hugely different enforced courts doctrine found legal systems united_states doctrine came criticism academics judges including lord lord lord arthur stephen guest wrote said serves defeat legitimate expectations party social interest community security commercially formation proposal reform doctrine law revision committee sixth interim report proposed act parliament allow parties enforce terms contract specified allowed report acted late assumption parliament act reform come judicial sources particularly house_of_lords law commission published consultation paper contract contracts benefit parties proposed similar change july final report draft bill published proposed changes supported legal profession academics alike bill introduced house_of_lords december second reading jokingly offered lord birthday present fight doctrine moved house_of_commons june received royal november provisions section right party enforce contractual term section act old common law rule party enforce terms contract established tyre ltd ltd rule party act established allows party enforce terms contract situations firstly party specifically mentioned contract authorised secondly contract benefit exception second rule involves contracts include language barring parties applying rule exception applies contracts clients write governed white jones act published argued situation felt second rule applied statement contract prove shipping ltd ltd high_court supported reasoning second situation party enforce terms benefit described dean broad view forward parliamentary debates situations complex construction contracts involving dozens sub contractors chains contracts argument proposal exempt construction industry act rejected law commission parliament phrase benefit originally found law commission paper new_zealand contracts act adopted english act party identified member particular group need exist contract cause problems example party party enters contract party party construct building later sells building finds structural problems cause action named original contract party chooses enforce terms contract right remedy available party contract specific performance exception ability terminate contract rendered void law commission believed party entitled terminate contract breach contrary wishes interests topic discussed law commission report bill generally considered party rights regardless rights andrew prepared law commission report said party acquire rights suggested different stance taken scots law duty party ensure performance contract section variation contract section act changes contracts prevents parties contract altering remove modify terms affect party party told term relied contract knows expected known default position act allows parties insert clauses contract allow alter contract consent party choose courts ignore consent party allow change contract party mentally incapable impossible tell party truly time courts add conditions decision requiring pay party compensation considered complete party variety ways including post contract specify communication method method valid party suffered reliance simply relied contract party relied term party closely related party party relies terms contract breached claim damages loss suffered relying contract standard damages loss profit section defences available section covers defences available party brings action dispute party term rely defence dispute long defence applicable term dispute law commission directly rejected suggestion defence dispute party dispute regardless applied disputed term iii directly modelled similar section new_zealand contracts act act allows list additional defences party contract law commission decision equal defences party simply listing additional defences like access act takes different attitude defences available party law commission saying apply rules misleading complex valuable original claim impose obligation party pay money appropriate doctrine prohibits placing burden obligation party parties contract insert clause section enforcement contract section preserves right enforce term contract allows sue losses losses party section protection double liability section helps protect double liability having pay sets damages breach party contract limited way protected paid damages party claim comes addition act limits damages paid situation eliminate brings action wins damages paid party subsequent action previous damages paid account party brings action claim damages law commission felt party claimed compensation breach interest dispute fails account situations suffered personal loss breach contract brings action party prohibited action fails case party free pursue claim section exceptions section creates exceptions scope act act applies standard contracts contracts deeds apply contracts instruments bills exchange notes contracts governed companies act articles association act contracts transport goods national lines fall international trade laws terms employment contract allow party sue employee excluded reasons position parties types contract established changed easily reasons public policy bad idea allow involvement parties contracts employment section provisions relating party section includes provisions relating rights parties particular prevents parties definition party act applying act parliament section unfair contract terms act covers applying actions party time section ensures exceptions rule existed prior act remain valid section arbitration provisions act allows arbitration clauses require parties submit specific arbitration procedures event disputes law commission initially excluded arbitration clauses act later amended draft bill allow parties advantage arbitration proceedings provisions arbitration clauses received bill passage parliament described labyrinth commission initially proposed jurisdiction clauses specifically excluded act bill passage parliament exclusion disappeared act explanatory notes assume act covers jurisdiction clauses section northern_ireland section takes account differences english northern irish law act interpreted northern_ireland particularly replaces use companies act northern irish equivalent companies northern_ireland order sections law reform husband wife northern_ireland act scope implementation act applies england wales northern_ireland scotland rules rights parties act came law november received royal provisions act come force act clear contracts negotiated month twilight period act passage fell provisions included language saying terms act act consequences allowing parties enforce terms number exceptions basic rule unnecessary claiming behalf party seen jackson horizon holidays ltd repeal abolish exceptions allows courts accept cases based old common law exceptions act act specifically allows parties exempt provisions act contracts allowing way choose reaction judiciary legal profession largely supportive act doctrine long thought unfair act criticised somewhat construction industry refusal exception complex construction contracts term benefit generally accepted unfair exception particular industry case law clarified meaning benefit nonetheless construction industry continues prefer parties hold piece paper clear evidence intent failure standard form contracts insist liability insurance parties conservative nature construction industry

Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999


united_states supreme_court decision established united_states citizen citizenship taken away acted intent citizenship supreme_court overturned portions act congress listed actions said performance actions taken conclusive proof intent citizenship court ruled person intent citizenship established standard evidence likely rejecting argument intent relinquish citizenship found basis clear convincing evidence background born united_states father mexican mexico citizenship laws followed principle held mexican citizenship birth born united_states held citizenship fourteenth amendment dual citizen united_states mexico birth enrolled mexican university applied certificate mexican application signed statement united_states citizenship submission obedience loyalty foreign government especially united_states_of_america subsequent discussions official gave conflicting answers truly intended abandon rights citizen applied certificate mexican state department eventually concluded lost citizenship decision appealed state department board review subsequently courts supreme_court ruling law provided numerous ways citizens lose citizenship ruling supreme_court held fourteenth amendment barred congress citizenship consent specifically court held law automatically citizenship voted foreign election unconstitutional law continued list acts voluntary performance result automatic loss citizenship 7th circuit court appeals ruled according congress devoid power citizenship congress power standard proving intent relinquish citizenship fell short requirement proof clear convincing evidence secretary state appealed ruling supreme_court questioning court finding required standard proof challenging finding separate intent citizenship required opposed merely performance designated act opinion majority supreme_court held government prove voluntary commission act swearing allegiance foreign nation inherently inconsistent continued retention american citizenship congress accord natural consequences loss court held ruling emphasized loss citizenship requires individual addition voluntary commission act fact end conclude citizen voluntarily committed act prescribed statute intended relinquish citizenship point supreme_court agreed 7th circuit ruling favor majority turned attention question standard proof loss citizenship cases argued 7th circuit agreed 14th amendment interpreted left congress constitutional authority set standard proof intent relinquish citizenship level lower clear convincing evidence supreme_court majority rejected claim held congress rights specify standard evidence likely cases alleging loss citizenship involved finally supreme_court majority upheld validity aspect law enacted congress government assume potentially act performed voluntarily claim person acted person involved establish evidence supreme_court explicitly rule lost citizenship case original trial court federal district court illinois proceedings consistent court ruling court membership divided question evidence standard sufficient establishing intent citizenship judges agreed key holding citizenship fourteenth amendment taken away act congress person consent justices disagreed majority filed separate opinions justices supported principle retention citizenship protected right agreed contrary court majority actions led loss citizenship justice marshall rejected majority decision intent citizenship established merely evidence arguing court casual dismissal importance american citizenship withstand scrutiny said hold citizen lose citizenship absence clear convincing evidence intended justice john paul stevens argued person interest retaining american citizenship surely aspect liberty deprived process law process requires clear convincing standard proof met case like additionally stevens felt congress adequately addressed question specific intent relinquish citizenship accept dual citizenship wrote taking oath allegiance foreign government necessarily inconsistent intent remain american citizen written statute fairly read require finding specific intent relinquish citizenship justices william potter stewart argued born dual mexican national having taken oath allegiance mexico consistent citizen words formal oath allegiance mexico adds existing foreign citizenship affect united_states citizenship argued addition congress provided procedure formally renounce citizenship officials procedure conceded citizen subsequent developments receiving case supreme_court district court ruled lost citizenship subsequent appeal 7th circuit court appeals reversed earlier decision time evidence standard instructions supreme_court ruled finding time abundant evidence intended renounce united_states citizenship acquired certificate mexican willingly voluntarily office secretary state changed hands twice following supreme_court ruling case replacing cyrus alexander assuming position subsequent lower court cases known congress amended immigration act specify required potentially act result loss citizenship performed intention united_states ruling left intact congress right specify evidence standard judging intent citizenship state department adopted policy pursues loss citizenship proceedings issues usually individual states intent relinquish citizenship case involving possible comes attention officer officer normally simply ask intent relinquish citizenship performing act answer officer person intent relinquish citizenship consequently find person retained citizenship bill introduced sought things force state department abolish policy loss citizenship policy viewing dual multiple citizenship problematic discouraged encouraged bill floor house died committee congress


singapore administrative law available singapore administrative law orders mandatory order known prohibiting order prohibition order order review detention corpus declaration form remedy singapore administrative law branch law enables person challenge exercise power executive branch government challenge carried applying high_court judicial review court power review law official act government official jurisdiction involve action decision ordering redone remade mandatory order order high_court commanding public authority perform public duty prohibiting order operates prevent illegal action authority occurring place order commonly sought order effect ultra decision authority obtaining mandatory prohibiting order stage process granted leave court apply order court find existence proper public law issue available grounds review leave granted provided case reasonable suspicion authority acted breach administrative law rules established order review detention directs holding person detention produce high_court legality detention established power court require specifically mentioned article constitution singapore orders applied court permission order review detention applied prior permission court declaration court stating legal position parties action based facts presented court possible apply orders set legal proceedings following date changes order rules court permitted application declaration application orders application declaration court grants leave orders applied government proceedings act bars high_court granting government officers injunction private law remedy public authority act ultra place injunction court declaration concerning parties rights common law general right claim damages monetary compensation rules public law breached authority order obtain damages person able establish private law claim contract law introduction jurisdiction high_court aim administrative law regulate executive government providing individuals apply challenging administrative actions decisions failures action decisions exercise statutory power public authorities constitution unlawful administrative law available judicial review action taken judicial review means high_court controls exercise legislative executive power court jurisdiction basis jurisdiction affirmed court appeal public prosecutor inherent nature common law statute court noted jurisdiction existed historically common law judicial system inherent power high_court review decisions inferior courts administrative bodies extend bodies words high_court judge exercise judicial review decision high_court judge addition provisions supreme_court act court appeal power exercise jurisdiction high_court pointed subordinate courts effective scope principles judicial review depends court chooses exercise discretion jurisdiction available judicial review action orders mandatory order known prohibiting order prohibition order order review detention corpus declaration form remedy high_court grant successful absolute right remedy deciding grant remedy court account factors following delay bringing case suffered substantial impact remedy parties remedy practical effect matter academic case remedy usually granted merits case remedy promote good administration orders ancient prohibition corpus originally available british crown termed issued sovereign end 16th century theoretically sought citizen abolished united_kingdom replaced orders essentially names functions british colony singapore inherited english administrative law independence singapore courts continue pay close attention english cases singapore orders known traditional names names modernized following change schedule supreme_court act entitled orders states high_court possesses following power power issue person authority direction order writ enforcement right conferred written law purpose including following orders mandatory order known prohibiting order known prohibition order known order review detention known writ corpus subordinate courts empowered grant orders amendment provision removed specific reference high_court power issue quo remedy challenge person right hold public office reported cases quo having issued singapore high_court issue person authority order writ enforcement right conferred written law purpose court power issue order equivalent quo impaired mandatory orders mandatory order order high_court commands public body perform public duty usually employed public bodies exercise powers given combination remedy commonly order case order set aside unlawful decision mandatory order require public body reconsider matter person mandatory order legal proceedings taken responsibility high_court determine legality decision merits order public body certain course action merely perform duty manner justices kingston held court direct justices public body anybody duty cast manner perform duty simply direct perform duty think facts admitted particular circumstances particular case brother pointed case happens way performing duty goes perform duty perform particular way san development application sought decision commissioner appeals appeals board land acquisition act refusing allow proceed appeal award collector land revenue notice appeal filed late directing commissioner hear appeal relying case high_court held grant terms instead commissioner decision issued directing consider determine application applicants according law similarly urban redevelopment authority high_court held asked mandatory order requiring urban redevelopment authority approve redevelopment plan property sought processing fee paid law society singapore example case mandatory order granted high_court advocate solicitor convicted income tax offences found witness july attorney general wrote president law society singapore providing information conviction records following report society inquiry committee formal inquiry conduct necessary disciplinary committee appointed successfully applied disciplinary committee certain statement case formulated council law society ground facts appear inquiry committee report consequently charges major portion charge require investigation disciplinary committee dissatisfied decision law society applied high_court order direct disciplinary committee hear investigate charges high_court granted application holding legal profession act inquiry committee function consider matters decide formal investigation disciplinary committee duty council law society draw charges duty disciplinary committee hear investigate charges properly committee statement case object charges based facts mentioned inquiry committee report decision affirmed court appeal issues court appeal law society standing apply disciplinary committee court cited inland revenue commissioners national federation self employed small businesses ltd house_of_lords noted law required legal specific right ask interference court obtain longer correct courts moved sufficient interest standard court went find law society sufficient interest apply legal profession act purposes maintain impose standards conduct legal profession singapore council society empowered act charges advocates inquiry committee felt formally investigated prohibiting orders prohibiting order operates prevent illegal action public authority occurring place granted high_court cases aware authority unlawful course action prevent authority repeating unlawful act like order prohibiting order help maintain good standards public administration kent police authority instance united_kingdom case order prohibition issued action complied administrative law rules july police chief inspector kent police authority examined police authority chief medical officer took view suffering mental disorder unfit duty placed sick leave specialist found psychiatric illness subsequently january police authority informed appointing chief medical officer assess permanently disabled purpose determining retired court appeal england wales found medical officer previously formed opinion mentally assessing permanently disabled order prohibition issued prohibit carrying assessment singapore case thin company removed large quantity cigarettes warehouse ostensibly loading board vessel exported alleged loading supervised customs department director general customs subsequently concluded goods exported requested company pay import duty company applied order prohibition bar director general proceeding recover sum guarantees lodged customs security regards order prohibition obtained director general high_court said prohibition issue inferior court tribunal public authority carry order decision invalid law excess authority principles applicable order decision equally applicable prohibition law field reached stage test prohibition tribunal concerned exercising public duty director general public officer appointed statute discharge public duties subject order prohibition appropriate case court found evidence produced applicants director general reasonably come conclusion came hearing applicants witnesses law nature evidence required produced prove export goods finally insufficient inquiry resulted failure account relevant considerations investigation unfair court order prohibition director general prevent money guarantees person seeking obtain prohibiting order demonstrate sufficient interest minister information arts high_court cited following passage sir william wade administrative law 4th valuable features public character prohibition emphasized awarded member public special personal right words restrictive requirement standing consequently court prepared act instance mere stranger retains discretion refuse considers good public citizen standing invite court prevent abuse power claim regarded public case appealed sufficient interest test upheld court appeal orders effect order ultra decision public body usually acting statutory authority commonly sought orders judicial review proceedings orders obtained decisions direct indirect actual legal effect mere opinions income tax locally incorporated company arranged enter interest rate swap agreements singapore banks singapore branches foreign banks behalf offshore income tax took position payments swap agreements fell section income tax act tax requirements imposed section statute applied complied relevant tax requirements respect payments question required account tax withheld conveyed letter sought leave apply determination court appeal held letter advice legal determination tax technically speaking determination applied declaration instead parties accepted ruling high_court letter legal determination tax liability questioned aspect high_court judgment court appeal proceeded basis letter contain determination said given particular circumstances case court require proceedings judgment overly view procedural justice requires mentioned relation prohibiting orders test standing apply order sufficient interest matter high_court held standing necessary particular arising order complained sufficient abuse power support rule cited lord master rolls greater london council regard matter high constitutional principle good ground government department public authority law way thousands majesty subjects offended injured draw attention courts law seek law enforced courts discretion grant remedy appropriate passage approved court appeal orders review detention order review detention directs holding person detention produce high_court legality detention established high_court held writ corpus process securing liberty subject effective means immediate release unlawful detention prison private custody high_court judges court instance subject command production subject cause imprisonment legal justification detention party ordered released power court require specifically mentioned article constitution singapore states complaint high_court judge thereof person detained court shall complaint satisfied detention shall order produced court release minister home affairs detained trial section internal security act alleged involvement conspiracy country detention orders subsequently suspended section act revoked following release press statement denied conspirators having applied unsuccessfully high_court corpus issued appealed ruling court appeal allowed appeal narrow ground government sufficient evidence discharge burden proving president satisfied detention necessary prevent things singapore security public order required section minister home affairs detention orders lengthy discussion court held objective test apply exercise discretion authorities sections words executive insist exercise discretion exercise discretion reviewed court executive satisfy court objective facts decision course judgment court appeal noted common law return writ corpus response writ person holding valid face court matter section corpus act court power examine facts mentioned return section stated judges truth facts contained return judge bail appear term cases provided act return writ corpus shall good sufficient law shall justice baron writ proceed examine truth facts set forth return justice shall section act possibility investigation court satisfy truth lies extent investigation depends public authority exercise power rests existence absence certain precedent facts court assess authority correctly established existence facts power contingent precedent facts court task determine exists evidence authority reasonably acted corpus act applied singapore virtue second charter justice generally accepted english statutes principles english common law equity force november applicable straits settlements including singapore unsuitable local conditions modified avoid causing injustice oppression decided application english law act enacted effect english statutes specified schedule act continued apply singapore november corpus act statutes appears ceased singapore law nonetheless argued high_court continue apply rule equivalent section act orders review detention combined effect article constitution regarded having legislature clear language following principle government nigeria stated lord accordance british member executive interfere liberty property british subject condition support legality action court justice tradition british justice judges shrink deciding issues face executive order review detention remedy establishing legality detention challenge conditions person held detention order sought person physically detained merely form restriction bail nationals non nationals jurisdiction apply orders review detention context lord disagreed suggestion corpus protection extends british nationals stating secretary state home department secretary state home department person jurisdiction enjoys equal protection laws distinction british nationals subject english law entitled protection procedure orders according government proceedings act civil proceedings government commenced appropriate authorized government department appropriate authorized government department person wishing commence proceedings reasonable doubt department appropriate proceedings commenced attorney general rule applies judicial review proceedings orders sought minister charged responsibility act required publish government gazette list stating government departments authorized departments purposes act names addresses service departments december list published reason chin minister home affairs decided date high_court held instead action minister home affairs commissioner police applicants attorney general nonetheless suit dismissed procedural cured attorney general mandatory prohibiting orders mandatory order prohibiting order order sought follow procedure set order rules court general stages stage obtain leave apply order requirement prevents applications taken decision makers cases early stage prevent judicial time protects public bodies harassment intentional application leave originating summons supported statement setting description relief sought grounds sought filed application facts relied granting leave judge hearing application leave impose terms costs security thinks fit addition time requirement leave shall granted apply order remove judgment order conviction proceeding purpose application leave months date proceeding period prescribed written law high_court allow application leave filed time delay accounted satisfaction judge case singapore medical council time limit requirements exist mandatory prohibiting orders orders applied delay test leave granted expressed high_court public service commission approved court appeal following terms duty court hearing application embark detailed microscopic analysis material placed material quickly material disclosed case reasonable suspicion leave granted moves second stage applies order filing high_court document called summons legal proceedings started earlier days leave granted court leave serve originating summons statement supporting order granting leave summons order actually applied persons directly affected application relates court proceedings intended court court official act relating proceedings proceedings order documents served court parties proceedings documents served judge conduct objected court opinion person ought served documents served court hearing terms direct order documents served person high_court stage process dealt applications merits stage cases involved pure questions law factual disputes orders review detention procedure applying order review detention differs obtaining mandatory order prohibiting order order orders available leave court order review detention applied prior permission court procedure set order rules court application high_court way originating summons supported possible person restrained shows application instance explaining nature restraint person restraint unable personally behalf explaining reason inability filing application court order immediately direct summons order review detention issued enable parties involved present arguments court course taken originating summons supporting order court summons served person order sought court directs necessary person restraint brought court hearing application addition court order person released application heard court decides order review detention direct person restraint brought court initial burden showing case considered court executive justify legality detention commentator said task discharge burden following public authority legal burden showing detention standard proof required achieved authority civil standard balance applied sense degree probability appropriate stake lord bridge said given seriousness allegations consequences detention court satisfied probability high degree addition orders remedy declaration employed control excess legal authority declaration court stating legal position parties action based facts presented court contrast orders termed public law declaration called private law remedy originally developed court cases private parties high_court grant judicial review cases subordinate courts generally empowered subordinate courts act grant district court exercises judicial review jurisdiction acts decisions persons authorities magistrate court deal action claim sum money declaration effective willingness public body court statement law contempt court ignore declaration london borough council parliamentary candidate national far right racial nationalist political party wanted hold election meeting hall owned london borough council despite required provisions representation people act permit use hall local council refused agree political views court declaration legally entitled use hall certain time purpose election campaign assumption local council obey nonetheless local council refused allow use hall held declaration order court accordingly refusal comply contempt authority effect court generally grant declaration considers issue hand academic question entirely hypothetical instance chief constable police proceedings chief constable police brought behalf members police federation england wales things enable chief country know stood question law respect police criminal evidence act unlawful appoint acting sergeant custody officer section act decision judge majority court appeal declined declaration matter took view evidence chief constable appointed acting sergeant custody officer issue academic hypothetical signs courts moving showing flexibility granting advisory secretary state home department salem salem citizen libya granted temporary admission pursue asylum claim month later home office recorded internal file salem asylum claim refused communicate decision salem found income support ceased benefits agency told informed refused asylum subsequently salem unsuccessfully sought leave apply judicial review home secretary decision department social security asylum claim rejected obtained leave appeal matter house_of_lords granted refugee status house_of_lords salem argued appeal heard question law case general public importance court held discretion hear appeal concerns issue involving public authority question public law longer live issue affect rights duties parties court cautioned discretion exercised entertained good public interest reason known singapore high_court adopt similar approach singapore courts directly address issue standing required apply declaration administrative law case energy trading ltd judicial review case court appeal expressed view asserting recognition right personal cited house_of_lords decision union post office workers held granted declaration proper proceedings dispute defendant concerning legal respective rights asserts legal right denied threatened claims immunity claim defendant claims defendant threatens public right inflict special damage court preferred position taken flexible approach taken hospital patient court jurisdiction long existed real present dispute parties existence extent legal right parties litigation affected determination issue necessary legal right parties reasons came conclusion regarded scholars consistent rule civil procedure rules states court binding remedy claimed hand relevant provision order rule rules court reads action proceedings shall open objection ground merely judgment order sought court binding right relief claimed emphasis added court concluded jurisdiction confined declaring contested legal rights parties represented litigation tan attorney general sought declaration section code unconstitutional high_court stated person asserting infringement constitutional liberty establish merely sufficient interest substantial interest matter alleging violation fundamental liberty court discuss issue standing context administrative law procedure possible apply orders set legal proceedings contended declaration obtained proceedings taken order rules court court appeal following application jones asia inc held power grant declaration order declaration form order declaration sought applied way writ substantial factual disputes parties originating summons traditional chinese medicine practitioners board high_court expressed view lack unified regime singapore applying orders abuse process seek public law right way declaration instead applying order effect possible include application declaration application orders application declaration court grants leave orders applied unavailable injunction private law remedy public body act ultra following law reforms united_kingdom possible high_court england wales grant orders declaration injunction set legal proceedings reforms followed singapore singapore high_court empowered grant order rules court addition civil proceedings taken government section government proceedings act bars high_court granting place injunction court declaration concerning parties rights court injunction government officer effect provide relief obtained government directly section act makes clear term civil proceedings includes proceedings judicial review damages common law general right claim damages monetary compensation rules public law breached public authority order obtain damages person able establish private law claim contract law person previously legal action damages separately judicial review proceedings possible person successfully obtained orders declaration ask high_court award relevant relief sum damages relief court directions parties relating conduct proceedings determine entitled relevant relief sought allow party opposing granting relief opportunity heard special applies public authorities public office successfully establish following elements public authority acted knowing power act harmed way act suffered damage result act lines international holding singapore tourist promotion board cruise operator claimed singapore tourism promotion board port singapore authority committed denying ship conducting cruises main activity gambling high_court found failed establish claim authorities acted ultra acted knowing lacked power evidence financial damage incurred denial said limited value importance means controlling ordinary run government establishes public authority action amounts able obtain damages shown authority guilty oppressive arbitrary unconstitutional action exercise public function cases high_court singapore inland revenue commissioners national federation self employed small businesses ltd house_of_lords secretary state home department secretary state home department law society singapore singapore law reports reissue singapore law society singapore court appeal singapore minister home affairs singapore archived original december thin singapore minister information arts singapore minister information arts singapore singapore public prosecutor singapore singapore medical council singapore income tax singapore traditional chinese medicine practitioners board singapore marine singapore town corporation singapore legislation government proceedings act cap rules court cap subordinate courts act cap supreme_court act cap works peter anthony gordon textbook administrative law 6th oxford new_york oxford_university press isbn order application order prohibition etc singapore court practice singapore isbn corpus detention singapore malaysia malaya law review articles websites public law public law july judicial review administrative action orders university malaya law review daniel december advisory recent developments judicial review oliver dawn january public law procedures need public law tan john december corpus singapore university malaya law journal books cane peter constitutional basis judicial public law peter woods terry administrative law facing future old constraints new london press isbn lewis judicial public law 4th london sweet isbn lord judgment 4th london sweet isbn

Remedies in Singapore administrative law