history somerset somerset historic county south west england evidence human occupation prehistoric times hand axes flint points eras range burial hill forts artefacts dating bronze iron ages oldest dated human road work great_britain sweet track constructed somerset levels wooden 39th century bce following roman empire invasion southern britain mining lead silver hills provided basis local industry commerce bath site major roman fort city remains seen early medieval period somerset scene battles anglo later period ruled kings later kings england following defeat anglo saxon monarchy castles built somerset expansion population settlements county continued tudor recent periods agriculture coal mining expanded 18th century industries declined industrial revolution modern times population grown particularly seaside towns notably super mare agriculture continues major business longer major employer light industries based towns towns manufacture apple periods saw hunter region somerset evidence flint artefacts quarry ancestor modern man possibly present area years ago doubt artefacts human origin dated oxygen stage experts suggest bone rich middle pleistocene deposits belong single variable succeeded years ago detailed analysis origin modification flint artefacts leads conclusion probably product processes human work single cut marked bone suggests human presence animal bones artefacts unearthed 1980s sub somerset shown evidence early human activity approximately years ago modern man came somerset early upper evidence occupation caves years ago glacial maximum years ago probable somerset deserted area experienced conditions evidence found cave deposits human bone dating years ago bones probably buried related practised area time making skull cups storage containers somerset areas future england settled following end younger phase ice age man given remains human male found cave gorge britain oldest complete human skeleton remains date appears died violent death somerset thought occupied hunter bce artefacts found locations caves burial places skeletons found hole era bce evidence farming end ice age bristol channel dry land later sea level rose particularly bce resulting major coastal changes somerset levels flooded dry points long history settlement known occupied hunters county prehistoric burial long stone rows circles drew settlement sites evidence occupation come areas caves low land areas somerset levels dry points long history settlement wooden lake villages marsh lake village oldest dated human road work britain sweet track constructed somerset levels wooden 39th century partially route earlier post track bronze iron ages evidence human occupation times onwards period people started manage animals grow crops farms cleared woodland act purely hunter likely extraction mineral tools weapons containers ornaments bronze iron started late bronze iron ages caves hills settled period contain extensive archaeological sites gorge numerous iron age hill forts later reused dark ages castle camp hill age monument drew stone circles unknown believed period evidence mining hills late bronze age technological changes metal working indicated use lead numerous hill forts small hill warren hill domestic purposes defensive role generally occupied intermittently bronze age onward camp south refurbished different eras burial chamber bronze age burial chamber composed round possibly long iron age tribes later somerset north somerset south somerset west somerset second produced coins finds allows tribal areas suggested celtic culture language stated bath territory mistake celtic gods temple bath possibly temple iron age sites hills include major hill forts smaller ring camp roman somerset roman empire end abrupt elements century somerset invaded south east second legion future emperor hill castle captured hill probably temporary roman occupation massacre castle associated later revolt county remained roman empire roman invasion possibly preceding period involvement internal affairs south england inspired potential hills great deal attraction lead mines potential extraction silver forts set bath lead silver mines hills run military romans established defensive boundary new military road known way latin meaning ditch way ran bath south west road ran meet way small towns trading ports set larger towns decayed period smaller ones appear decayed period capital bath particularly east river constructed roman sites found west river produced important artifacts found outside roman towns somerset roman temples british farming settlements found somerset salt production somerset levels near took place near bath roman gave bath excavations carried flooding valley lake uncovered roman remains indicating agricultural industrial activity second half 1st century 3rd century finds included moderately large villa park wooden writing ink writing found evidence hill roman temple october west 4th century roman silver discovered west coins included early 2nd century dating period majority struck reigns emperors julian derive range including france germany rome april largest roman coins discovered britain found metal coins dated 3rd century found buried field near inches surface coins excavated archaeologists portable scheme sub roman period period start saxon political control mainly late 7th century said captured bath area initially somerset continued romans imperial taxation markets period civil war britain known affected somerset western constructed period archaeological data shows probably built 5th 6th century area border british west following battle ditch north presumably defence upper thames valley according anglo saxon chronicle saxon achieved breakthrough british celtic tribes victories gap south battle followed advance west hills river saxon advance east halted battles british example siege bath region hill 5th 6th 7th centuries somerset probably partly kingdom partly land partly boundaries largely unknown similar iron age controlled territories hill forts evidence elite hill forts castle camp example imported pottery important source evidence period large ones found somerset roman saxon period towns somerset little period continued farming villa sites british villages effects plague volcanic eruption period marine levels language spoken period thought southwestern inscribed stones survive somerset period couple curse found bath language place names somerset celtic origin period earlier river names celtic pre celtic religion people somerset period thought christian isolated rome council asked write letter bishops church sites somerset thought date period street known history period comes ruin britain thought written territory possibly earliest fortification started king year according anglo saxon chronicle destroyed years later early period late 7th century somerset 10th 11th centuries england danish control somerset like south held west saxon advance wiltshire hampshire century remaining frontier british conquered bath following battle border probably established line north hills broke battle possibly advancing west hills river advanced devon result battle fought possibly near period conquered king advanced far sea clear assumed occupied rest somerset time saxon rule consolidated king established fort demolished wife said built palaces south case fought diocese formed taking west saxon kings granted land somerset charter 7th century onward way extent survived matter king laws provision somerset originally formed separate formed 8th century recorded later set times places somerset saxon period somerset played important defeating spread 9th century viking raids took place instance battle king alfred driven seek refuge defeating battle usually considered near wiltshire possibly village somerset alfred established series forts posts linked military road army cover viking movements sea characteristic form familiar regulation wide track avenues trees growing laying ran ford river past hill fort climbed line current road park gate went south ridge stone branch led past hill hill alfred base main branch descended hills avenue red post cross west hills peace treaty signed danish king old baptised fortified places set alfred jewel object inch long gold rock crystal covering found park north believed owned alfred great thought handle fit hole base reading book monasteries churches set somerset daughter churches royal palace times 10th century host likely central place bath kings visited towns somerset occupation period evidence limited subsequent buildings remains period agriculture flourished period organisation villages east county period norman conquest somerset came control earl family danish settlement judging place names norman conquest county divided large areas owned crown fortifications castle control defence period somerset history documented example anglo saxon chronicle life alfred later period following defeat castles set somerset new lords awarded followers william william walter somerset played civil war king stephen time somerset lords main players murder thomas good picture county given book difficulty identifying places hundreds specified total population given county different boundaries today included heads households families farming prospered centuries severely hit black death arrived quickly spread somerset causing widespread mortality places occurred resulting change feudal practices manpower longer available land marsh somerset levels increased largely monastic influence crafts industries flourished somerset industry largest england time new towns founded period somerset newport successful coal mining important source wealth took place example near bath towns grew monastic period started church powerful period particularly abbey church burnt monks discovered tomb king arthur able rebuild church monasteries somerset period including founded salisbury founded abbey parish churches built period william chancellor king henry converted bishop hall castle successor henry transformed manor house mighty castle castle built william passed king repairs ordered towers 11th century second barons war henry iii held barons king english civil war town castle held colonel sir francis eventually buildings destroyed town castle valuable contents surrendered castle deliberately destroyed middle ages sheep farming wool trade came dominate economy wool spun thread isolated farms collected merchants woven dyed finished thriving towns land started enclosed 17th century onwards larger estates developed leading establishment areas large regular shaped fields period royal forest hunting ground established administered warden royal forest sold medieval period river transport quarry hill port bristol port created covering miles somerset coast line devon border mouth river axe historically main port river river point bridge constructed built slip built upstream town bridge customs house sited west dry dock launching slips boat yard east river care town bridge tonnes tons vessels trans shipping barges town bridge far river early modern period monasteries dissolved lands bought king important families somerset abbey monastery left abbot richard arrested executed orders thomas tudor georgian times farming specialised techniques improved leading increases population new towns founded large country houses george house built time bristol channel floods believed affected large parts somerset levels flooding feet sea level house correction established today england oldest prison use english civil war somerset largely royalist stronghold county site important battles notably battle battle castle fallen ruin repaired civil war castle changed hands times town siege defended robert blake july july war demolished base remains war resulted castles destroyed prevent use duke led rebellion somerset people fought james rebels landed travelled north hoping capture bristol bath soldiers damaged west wells cathedral tore lead roof bullets broke windows smashed organ time horses nave defeated battle battle fought english soil bloody followed saw sentenced death transportation society friends established street century close group families cyrus started business later joined brother james introduced production later boots shoes clark headquarters street shoes longer manufactured instead redundant factory buildings converted form village purpose built factory outlet united_kingdom 18th century largely peace declining industrial prosperity somerset industrial revolution northern england end somerset cottage industries farming continued flourish bath west england agricultural society founded improve methods john conducted survey county agriculture found methods improved arthur took title duke wellington town wellington commemorated nearby hill large known wellington monument north somerset mining somerset important industry effort reduce cost transporting coal somerset coal canal built later converted railway canals included canal canal grand western canal canal canal somerset canal proposed little constructed late modern 19th century saw improvements somerset roads introduction building canals railways canals short lived restored recreation railways second world war continued smaller lines scrapped transferred private ownership heritage lines somerset county council created replacing administrative functions quarter sessions population somerset continued grow particularly seaside towns super mare population decline occurred earlier period villages reversed population somerset claims birthplace powered flight victorian pioneer john demonstrated engine powered flight possible work aerial steam carriage north town england lit gas lighting supplied north company street lights provided replaced coal gas produced provision electricity supply 1860s height iron steel era pier deep water dock built bristol pier railway accommodate large ships difficulty reaching bristol harbour power stations coal fed power stations built dock construction work started power station began generating electricity bristol corporation electricity department wilson built chemical works opposite dock power stations chemical works produced white rock imported docks onset new generating capacity oil fired coal fired mid-1970s brought closure older efficient station newer power stations station converted burn oil somerset closed developed marina residential area world war hundreds somerset soldiers killed war memorials towns villages villages escaped casualties casualties fewer second world war added memorials county base troops preparing day landings somerset hospitals date partly time royal ordnance factory constructed early world war ministry supply designed explosive produce new experimental high explosive obtained water supplies sources somerset levels artificial river dug construction factory king drain widened time stop line set resist potential german invasion remains boxes seen coast town constructed black intended represent lights town neglected follow black regulations sites county housed prisoner war camps including wells airfields built converted civilian use including hms raf super mare hms airport raf raf raf raf british national parks designated national parks access countryside act named main river expanded designated environmentally sensitive area hills designated area outstanding natural beauty designation england national parks access countryside act hills followed designation point nuclear power station power station constructed operating generation point advanced gas cooled designed generate electricity construction point started september announced france twin unit european known point planned replace point closure somerset today small cities bath wells small towns comparison areas england tourism major source employment coast bath example attractions include west somerset railway motor museum fleet air arm museum churches national trust english_heritage properties somerset agriculture continues major business longer major employer light industries place towns towns manufacture number apple reduced late 19th century boundaries somerset slightly altered main change came county set northern somerset removed administrative control somerset county council abolition county areas separate administrative authorities north somerset bath north east somerset department communities local government considering proposal somerset county council change somerset administrative structure districts create somerset authority changes planned implemented later april support county council bid guaranteed opposition district council local population strong people responding referendum organised district councils rejected proposals confirmed july government rejected proposals authorities somerset present tier arrangements somerset county council district councils remain


copenhagen fire copenhagen fire largest fire history copenhagen denmark began evening october continued burn morning october destroyed approximately city measured counting number destroyed lots left population homeless reconstruction lasted section city dates middle ages completely lost copenhagen fire main reason traces medieval copenhagen found modern city number dead wounded relatively low compared extent fire cultural losses huge addition private book collections texts including large number unique works lost university copenhagen library observatory instruments records destroyed timeline wednesday october exact time fire started unknown sources mention times best estimate exact location origin fire known directly street west gate corner facing small house lot according owned widow lot identical corner present day western end city hall square widow tenants restaurant manager wife anne second floor apartment fire started inquiries held fire wife stated seven year old son started fire accidentally likely result behalf parents casting candles blamed child avoid punishment quick sound alarm given fire department relatively primitive equipment fact streets narrow fire pumps strange fighting fire series events fight nearly hopeless wind blew southwest evening carrying fire store main street burning sides fire spread store later evening fire reached dormitory lot flames professor lived dormitory lost possessions presumably simultaneously fire reached professor room lot midnight fire reached priest residence church fire started brewery wednesday evening possibly prior original fire reached people fought fire reason help sent late deal new fire midnight wind shifted west situation turned critical fire driven street wide people sought fire western spread eastern night simultaneously fire moved present day north gate thursday early thursday morning final desperate attempt flames spreading burning houses fired cannons collapse work order given blow houses black powder charges building housing wine cellar known corner demolition dangerous undertaking failed gunpowder blew men carrying charges building people killed injured explosion ignited nearby buildings including church church fallen street soon church flames personal property people brought church safe fire lost fire reached flames reached bishop worm residence lot burned ground bishop travelling left clothes prayer books flames consumed royal location copenhagen district court city hall copenhagen located flames taken hold building soon added list buildings lost way heading fire found fuel canal new fires reported count adam house cellar market street northern gate broke flames likely ignited carried wind fire consumed university copenhagen saw building burn community building help support students giving free meals university head building study courtyard location current head building anatomy building anatomy theatre lost aforementioned professor sought refuge professor home possessions found temporary safety fire reached home lot time save possessions saved destruction university copenhagen professors homes fell prey flames student lost wing buildings saved including church notable victim fire church housed university library attic flames got hold church ceiling gave entire library collection delivered sea flames left undamaged observatory burned fire spread monument traitor lost letters heat hours later fire closed church bells came life half hour playing thomas din turn anger lord mercy crashed fire church fire continued fire met branch fire ate way present day midnight church place city control fire friday friday morning wind shifted time north finally started organization efforts waged stop fire neighborhood failed fire took soap factory noon wind blowing northwest moved strand failed save east fire proceeded south hospital drowned flames residents inside close professor left home lot midnight blaze close store saturday course night wind settled stopped forward march fire thirty homes selected demolition create stop fire corner store west church threatened blaze stopped close houses north lots lost fire soap factory threat fire ate way end house lot vice mayor christian people tried save houses torn houses opposite street blown black powder outcome hardly better earlier attempt wine cellar gunpowder went people run lives vice mayor house set burned ground failed attempt save house fire stopped spreading things weigh station saved line christian interpretation day fire saturday seen result divine intervention thank god king christian introduced october new annual holiday church copenhagen held service thanksgiving holiday abolished holiday reform losses property losses fire accounted relative certainty detailed surveys immediately city surveyor submitted survey november april magistrate copenhagen finished second according royal request december differences surveys limited extent damages lots fairly certain lots containing buildings lost flames copenhagen consisted lots lots lost medieval town ratio magistrate survey spared parts town appears residents parts touched fire found new estimated homeless population estimated number dead wounded unknown possible information parish registers sources number remains uncertain probably low comparison extent fire human property losses cultural loss felt today university copenhagen library doubt greatest frequently mentioned texts large archive historical documents disappeared flames original works historians scientists worm brothers lost archive zealand diocese went flames archive diocese moved university library day fire started book collections lost professor mistake bringing possessions safety church lost books notes records manage rescue valuable collection manuscripts volumes burned museum containing collections botanical burned observatory contained instruments records professors lost practically large city archive records burnt city hall library church things world longer owns damage helped consequences reconstruction denmark capital begun number changes introduced commission appointed regulate streets ruins commission submitted suggestion create metre wide main streets metre wide streets surrounding houses half plan followed reconstruction half houses banned ban lifted brick houses considerably expensive medieval copenhagen changed permanently reconstruction complete streets longer followed original paths ceased exist fire houses term english fire houses today refer type built large numbers years immediately fire modelled generic inspiration houses storeys high bays wide prominent wall façade street brick rest house timber framing typically painted bright colours preserved examples today found locations


crete crete called arabic muslim state existed mediterranean island crete late byzantine island recognized maintained close ties egypt facto independent group conquered crete quickly establishing independent state numerous attempts byzantine_empire recover island failed approximately years existence major foes byzantium crete commanded sea lanes eastern mediterranean functioned forward base haven muslim fleets ravaged byzantine controlled shores sea internal history known accounts point considerable prosperity piracy extensive trade agriculture brought end launched huge campaign history crete target muslim attacks wave muslim conquests century suffered raid parts island temporarily occupied reign island conquered despite occasional raids 8th century remained byzantine hands crete far arab naval bases levant effective expedition undertaken conquest crete point second half reign byzantine emperor michael group landed crete began conquest long history survivors failed revolt aftermath suppression citizens suburb exiled settled morocco numbering took piracy probably joined group leadership ibn ibn ibn commonly known landed alexandria took control city besieged expelled general ibn exact chronology landing crete uncertain following muslim sources usually dated expulsion alexandria byzantine sources placing landing soon suppression large revolt thomas considerations number chronology byzantine campaigns launched invaders questions byzantine generals headed led scholars like propose earlier date terms agreement ibn families left alexandria ships historian warren estimates people fighting men according byzantine historians familiar crete having raided past claim muslim landing initially intended raid transformed bid conquest set fire ships brought families probably later invention landing place unknown scholars think north coast bay near main city fortress arabic castle moat modern later built think likely landed south coast island moved densely populated interior northern coast soon emperor michael learned arab landing secured control entire island reacted sent successive expeditions recover island losses suffered revolt thomas hampered byzantium ability respond landing occurred diversion ships men counter gradual conquest sicily interfered expedition theme count stable defeated open battle killed expedition sent year later comprised ships initially victorious byzantines routed night attack managed flee captured arabs suggests campaigns taken place completed construction transferred capital inland site pirate repulsed early byzantine attacks slowly consolidated control entire island recognized ruled facto independent prince conquest island major importance transformed naval balance power eastern mediterranean opened hitherto secure sea frequent devastating raids occupied early years michael organized large scale expedition recruiting entire new marine_corps building new ships admiral fleet managed arabs islands failed retake crete michael successor sent embassy proposing joint action giving byzantine action crete came october destroyed imperial fleet work opening coasts later attacked coasts theme destroyed monastic centre mount heavily defeated local constantine death new measures confront threat undertaken new byzantine regime new maritime theme sea established better deal arabs raids expedition recover crete launched personal leadership powerful regent succeeded occupying island abandon army political constantinople troops left slaughtered arabs effort weaken arabs byzantine fleets engaged coordinated operations eastern mediterranean attacking egyptian naval base capturing weapons intended crete despite byzantine successes arabs following years resumed raids early attacking byzantine assembled large scale expeditionary force subdue crete murder weeks fleet set sail capital spelled end undertaking early raids reached new intensity fleets commanded byzantine ranged reaching coasts occasion fleet penetrated sea unsuccessfully attacked time second arab siege constantinople muslim fleet come close byzantine capital return suffered heavy defeat hands new byzantine admiral battle shortly defeated gulf took prisoners tortured extensively revenge raids time muslim fleet led destroyed raid byzantine victories apparently led temporary truce appears ibn obliged pay tribute byzantium decade raids resumed soon joined north african syrian fleets particular suffered considerably raids islands nearby came control rule extended far north gulf southern coast great island probably neighbouring islands ios forced pay poll tax muslim presence left generally material literary traces list islands time controlled occupied longer impact new wave arab raids felt islands deserted altogether coastal sites abandoned better protected inland locations athens occupied syrian fleet led leo tripoli sacked byzantine_empire second city arabs crete operated closely syrian counterparts crete base stop leo tripoli fleet return captives sold gifted slaves crete likewise received strong support governors egypt successors neglected aid crete large scale expedition ships launched crete headed admiral forced leave island months return journey fleet destroyed battle syrian fleet byzantine piracy reached high devastating southern greece western coasts asia minor result emperor constantine vii sent expedition routed surprise attack defeat byzantine incompetence inexperience leader chamberlain constantine constantine vii years reign began preparing expedition carried successor entrusted leadership capable general head huge fleet army sailed june july landed island defeated initial muslim resistance long siege followed dragged winter city stormed march city walls torn muslim inhabitants killed carried slavery island ibn son taken captive brought constantinople celebrated triumph island converted byzantine theme remaining muslims converted christianity missionaries like converts prince entered byzantine service fell war legacy arab period crete remains relatively obscure surviving evidence internal history furthermore place names recalling presence arabs major archaeological remains period survive possibly deliberate byzantine destruction influenced way generally regarded scholars forced rely byzantine accounts traditionally viewed crete byzantine lens nest surviving piracy slave trade picture painted scattered references muslim world hand ordered state regular monetary economy extensive trade links evidence cultural centre importance survival numerous gold silver copper coins constant weight composition strong economy high living standard population economy strengthened extensive trade rest muslim world especially egypt agriculture need sustain independent state access markets muslim world led intensification cultivation possible sugar cane introduced crete time unclear happened island christians muslim conquest traditional view converted expelled evidence muslim sources continued survival christians crete according sources muslims descendants recent migrants converts combination formed majority evidence rival factions island christian muslim reports inhabitants caves leader descending mountains siege population countryside left relatively muslim element including native converts towns list succession crete established arab byzantine sources chiefly dates reigns largely approximate


valley mills valley mills world heritage site river england designated december administered valley mills partnership modern factory mill system born 18th century accommodate new technology spinning cotton developed richard technology possible produce cotton continuously system adopted valley later spread type mills britain system organising labour exported europe united_states water power introduced england john silk mill derby richard applied water power process producing cotton patent water frame allowed cotton spun continuously meaning produced workers mill site mill nearby village significantly expanded new workforce system production workers housing copied valley ensure presence labour force necessary construct housing mill workers new settlements established mill owners mills developing pre existing community amenities schools markets housing exists use transport infrastructure form site transport infrastructure built open new markets mills produce mills workers settlements established abbey competitors type mills successful copied paying royalties richard cotton industry valley went decline quarter 19th century market shifted lancashire better position relation markets raw materials mills associated buildings preserved reused cotton industry declined buildings world heritage site listed buildings scheduled monuments mills contain museums open public location coverage valley mills world heritage site covers area km2 spans stretch valley bath north derby city centre south site mill complexes settlements including workers housing river transport network supported mills valley site consists communities abbey includes listed buildings grade grade grade structures scheduled ancient monuments buildings mixture mills workers housing structures associated mill communities canal high peak railway aided area world heritage site history late 17th century silk making expanded demand silk fashionable attempt increase production use water power thomas commissioned engineer george build mill near centre derby island river experiment unsuccessful convinced john employee water power perfected market produce engaged industrial espionage gained plans italian machines patented design built storey mill mill years patent expired seven mills built silk market small introduced viable form water powered machinery established template organised labour later follow silk luxury good market small easily saturated machine produced goods innovation machine produced came cotton industry wider market produced affordable goods spinning cotton complex process silk production water frame spinning cotton developed richard patented machines spin continuously replaced skilled workers sure machines didn break water frames varied size reasons water frame popular widespread richard took lease land mill operational began construction second mill time developed machines pre spinning took second patent spinning processes involved producing cotton required produced machine process laid cotton parallel successful cleaning cotton performed hand effective machine invented sought financial assistance peter local landowner grand uncle florence bought estate million built rock house residence overlooking mill gave build second mill workers housing family built mills spread partner mill built mills thomas evans land abbey bought acres area abbey cost built cotton mill village paid royalties copied machines people prosecution engaging piracy construction mill bath began instigated contemporaneous entry cotton spinning industry advantage necessary experimentation machinery invest researching new technology established mill south probably complete site expanded addition second mill built mill south mills added printing estimated invested theirs mills return year reputation employer concerned employees families sunday school built provided education children estate ownership actively influenced structure construction given market place act new focus village organised market sunday incentive attend gave annual prizes attended died son richard junior took sold cotton mills outside bath mills bath probably retained support estate societies clubs created religious affairs community interest junior established church father envisaged private chapel family castle family attempts self sustaining establishing market successful village expanded mills passed begun enter decline period richard junior cotton business death father family ceased invest industry family continued invest profits mills continued building mills business employed people dominated cotton industry valley provided housing employees established village market began building mills required active role developing community self sustaining entity richard provided education children attended sunday schools respectively compared population early 19th century population rose prosperity business abbey expanded worker settlement market place providing food inhabitants problematic settlement doubled size population increased addition worker housing sunday school children established mills church school built respectively despite major power cotton industry quarter 19th century company began lose competition lancashire mill towns problem shifting markets affected entire valley lancashire better situated relation raw materials new markets mills run family suffered lack forefront technology start 19th century machines mills got bigger powerful child labour adults adept machinery company declined second half 19th century mills leased sold companies cotton industry valley declined structures associated industrial processes associated producing cotton workers housing survived listed buildings world heritage site transport canal canal begun intended primarily transport coal flowed river trent mill south richard asked william estimate cost building canal connecting mills mill figure came million raised couple weeks local mill owners thomas evans opposed proposed canal fearing interfere water supply mills parliament granted permission construct canal canal opened cost nearly twice original estimate mill wharf canal terminated mill complex canal crossed traversed tunnel beneath bull bridge fourteen locks quarters cargo transported canal coal rest consisted iron ore lead derby nottingham canals completed benjamin provided direct routes important textile centres derby nottingham january canal company decided permanent pump built provide water dry conditions graham company iron works canal successful mid 19th century manchester junction railway extended line south canal canal sold railway company accelerated decline canal local traffic eventually closed cost maintaining repairing canal great county council acquired canal canal society undertook task restoring high peak railway early 19th century canal proposed connect peak forest canal terminated bridge canal providing direct route markets lancashire costs plan abandoned son william believed cheaper canal act parliament construction railway bridge passed proposal backed william 6th duke richard junior manchester ambitious expected steam locomotives line technology infancy george build revolutionary rocket south railway wharf south east opened july rest line opened bridge steam locomotive line introduced traffic entirely wagons railway ascended sea level wharf height sea level descending peak forest canal changes height necessitated locks canal relatively easy railway time high peak railway curve railways britain vehicles steam power construction railway cost higher original estimate million million respectively lower canal predicted cost million having built connect peak forest canals railways fortunes closely tied canals line profitable time opened traffic declined canal act parliament allowed line transport passengers freight passenger travel important railway went decline closed april legacy valley considered birthplace factory system machines developed valley water frame allowed continuous production richard mill associated workers settlement provided template industrial communities valley internationally reason settlement built mill provide housing workers way secure labour mill required homes provided labourers families success model lead copying peter thomas evans founded settlements abbey valley employees economic standpoint ensuring supply labour concerned employees families acted sense innovations confined developing workers settlements patents technologies water powered spinning successful rival legal action copying designs patents expired type mills founded britain new scotland world heritage site directly influenced richard developments valley identified potential site mill visit david later established mills structurally similar mill mills technology developed valley factory system different valley new acquired robert owen developed valley experimenting education young old social control world heritage site founded featured worker housing facilities elements factory system developed british government passed act export tools cotton industries result way new technologies developed britain spread countries industrial espionage worked england gave plans information establish mill near began production named settlement associated mill mill mill mainland europe techniques spinning cotton developed valley spread america united_states powered spinning compared million machine driven britain time mill introduced america migrants england samuel valley apprentice founded mill technologies developed valley mills endured adopted textile industries mid-20th century performed machinery invented richard factory system possible produce cheap clothing preservation festival held society formed mill complex bought society saving buildings associated mill demolition purchased site purpose conservation intention beginning restoration mills contaminated industrial processes involving stored mills stopped processing cotton help local councils east development agency english_heritage heritage lottery fund cost million mills restored mill small businesses education mills built valley cotton industry survive reused decline industry reused worker housing survives homes 1970s 1980s local authorities partnership english_heritage attempted prevent deterioration houses mills giving advice owners grants undertake conservation work application world heritage site status listed buildings area english_heritage risk register state disrepair valley mills nominated world heritage site industrial landscape new world heritage sites site proposed increase representation industrial list world heritage sites proposal successful valley mills designated world heritage site status world heritage site intended ensure protection sites considered outstanding value humanity site listed second fourth heritage site selection criteria valley mills pioneered worker housing technology developed richard producing industrial landscape industrial towns valley mills partnership responsible behalf british government management site june bath street mill derby damaged fire building world heritage site dated 18th century museums richard mill working textile museum largest collection world working museum original job pumping water canal open selected weekends site converted business uses north mill building houses valley visitor centre features displays machinery items associated history valley textile industry extreme southern end site silk mill houses derby industrial museum museum closed april years october programme started silk mill 21st century incorporating principles steam science technology engineering art museum opens days week


camp pronounced camp built nazi_germany occupied poland world war located forest north east warsaw kilometres south train station camp operated july october operation deadliest phase final solution time estimated jews killed gas chambers people jews killed nazi camp apart managed german eastern european known guards camp consisted separate units forced labour camp prisoners worked gravel pit irrigation area forest cut wood fuel half inmates died summary executions hunger disease second camp camp small number men killed immediately arrival jewish slave labour units called forced bury victims bodies mass graves bodies cremated large open air bodies new victims operations ended october following revolt early august guards killed prisoners escaped camp survived subsequent chase camp dismantled ahead soviet advance farmhouse built site ground attempt hide evidence genocide postwar poland government bought land camp stood built large stone memorial declared national monument jewish ceremony site gas chambers year german trials held war crimes committed members end communism poland number visitors coming abroad increased exhibition centre camp opened later expanded branch regional museum background following invasion poland million polish jews rounded newly established nazi_germany system intended jews outside world order facilitate exploitation abuse supply food inadequate living conditions cramped jews way earn money lack medicine led soaring mortality rates initial victories soviet_union inspired plans german occupied poland including territory general government conference held near berlin january new plans outlined genocide jews known final solution jewish question programme german differentiate operations territories conquered nazi_germany half million jews killed secret camps set operation equipped gas chambers disguised shower rooms processing entire transports people lethal agent established following pilot project mobile killing conducted camps began operating gas german testing ground establishment faster methods killing people marked construction stationary facilities mass murder camp operation built following incorporated lessons learned construction alongside camps mass killing facilities developed concentration camp march september nazi plan kill polish jews general government overseen occupied poland deputy berlin operation camps reported directly main security office german short headed staff operation involved action programme framework construction facilities jews killed camps came location parallel camps built kilometres northeast polish capital warsaw world war site gravel mining enterprise production concrete connected major cities central poland railway junction village station owned operated polish industrialist added new kilometre railway track existing line german took quarry equipped heavy machinery ready use connected isolated halfway largest jewish nazi occupied europe including warsaw capital newly formed warsaw jewish inmates divided separate camps kilometres apart engineering firms company leipzig warsaw branch oversaw construction camps centre redeveloped new gas chambers brick cement mortar erected mass introduced perimeter enlarged provide zone making impossible approach camp outside number trains caused panic residents nearby settlements likely killed caught near railway tracks founded officially november forced labour camp initially poles jews captured nearby replaced hoc company set june new barracks barbed wire fencing metres tall erected late obtain workforce civilians sent camp real imagined offences sentenced hard labour office headed average length sentence months prisoners sentences extended indefinitely thousand people passed year existence half died exhaustion hunger disease survived released serving sentences generally poles nearby villages given time workforce prisoners worked hour shifts large quarry later harvested wood nearby forest fuel open air german czech french jews poles captured farmers unable deliver food hostages trapped chance people attempted harbour jews outside jewish performed restricted actions permits beginning july jews non jews separated women mainly worked barracks repaired cleaned military clothing delivered freight trains men worked gravel work uniforms inmates lost shoes forced dead prisoners water regularly delivered roll calls december inmates longer carrying specific sentences camp operated officially july imminent arrival soviet forces led abandonment entire operation commandant van ran camp men guards quarry spread area hectares acres supplied road construction material german military use strategic road building programme war soviet_union equipped mechanical shared use worked closely german police commanders warsaw jews early prisoners brought warsaw necessary replacements according local station master killed prisoners taking shots widely feared executed prisoners hammer officially divided parts camp administrative compound guards lived camp receiving area incoming transports prisoners camp location gas chambers parts built groups german jews expelled berlin imprisoned warsaw total men years age richard head construction brought german jews speak german construction began april operation entire death camp hectares acres hectares acres size sources vary surrounded rows barbed wire fencing metres tall fence later woven pine tree branches view camp jews brought surrounding settlements work new railway ramp camp receiving area ready june section camp administrative residential compound telephone line main road camp paved named kurt corporal supervised construction roads lined gravel main gate road traffic erected north barracks built supplies delivered warsaw kitchen dining rooms equipped high quality items taken jewish germans sleeping quarters positioned angle better control entrances barracks inner fence jewish work kurt set small zoo centre horse stables deer brought smaller rooms built laundry medical aid closest quarters separate barracks polish ukrainian serving cleaning kitchen women section camp called lower camp receiving area railway unloading ramp extended line camp long narrow platform surrounded barbed wire fencing new building erected platform disguised railway station complete wooden clock fake rail terminal signs worked unloading ramp known especially cruel grabbed crying feet smashed heads wagons second fence metres track large barracks booth collected money jewellery ostensibly jews resisted taken away beaten death guards area women children hair path men buildings lower camp including barber barracks contained clothing belongings prisoners station building right square baggage collected flanked fake called red_cross sign small barracks surrounded barbed wire sick old wounded difficult prisoners taken directly open excavation pit seven metres deep prisoners led edge pit shot time nicknamed inmates single executed thousands jews aided supervisor august called angel death prisoners pit burn old worn clothes identity papers deposited new arrivals area section camp called upper camp main killing zone gas chambers centre completely screened railway tracks earth bank built help mechanical mound elongated shape similar retaining wall seen sketch produced trial commandant sides zone new arrivals like rest camp tree branches woven barbed wire fences work detail led collect barracks path leading forested area gas chambers called die road heaven der tube months camp operation dig burial ditches sides gas chambers ditches metres long metres wide metres deep early replaced metres long rails laid pits concrete blocks prisoners operated upper camp lived separate barracks gas chambers killing process unlike nazi concentration camps german occupied europe prisoners forced labour german war effort death camps like function kill sent prevent incoming victims realising nature disguised transit camp east complete train schedules fake train station clock hands painted names destinations fake ticket window sign code word commonly passengers departing western_europe landed estate kilometres away camp polish jews mass jews warsaw began july shipment people gas chambers started operation following morning months warsaw continued daily basis shuttle trains second august carrying people crying water trains allowed stop station daily trains came early morning overnight wait second mid afternoon new arrivals sent immediately area squad managed arrival platform gas chambers according german records including official report jews transported freight trains warsaw period july september rail traffic polish railway lines extremely dense average german military trains passing hours internal traffic holocaust trains routinely delayed route transports took days arrive hundreds prisoners died exhaustion transit camp wagons extreme cases transport jews travelling kilometre distance cent people dead sealed doors flew open september polish foreign jews greeted brief verbal announcement earlier directions removed clearly insufficient told arrived transit point way ukraine needed shower clothes receiving work uniforms new orders foreign jews people received transports foreign jews october march including german bulgarian occupied macedonia following agreement nazi allied bulgarian government train tickets arrived predominantly passenger carriages considerable travel foods drinks taken food storage barracks provisions included items smoked wine cheese fruit tea coffee unlike polish jews arriving holocaust trains nearby cities like warsaw foreign jews received warm welcome arrival man killed like dealt mainly polish jews handled jews austria final destination jews france netherlands processed jews country europe frequency arriving transports slowed winter locomotive went station yard load victims pulled carriages platform jewish work details forced assist germans camp led gate amidst chaos screaming separated gender gate women pushed barracks barber left men sent right ordered tie shoes strip kept jews resisted taken called red_cross shot women hair cut took longer prepare gas chambers men hair manufacture boat crews hair felt killed jews people died like jews rounded sent conference january decided living germany proper deported polish territory sent jewish general government warsaw jews went died gas chambers shot majority jews living sent executed living shot spot known survivors gas chambers newly arrived jews beaten drive gas chambers hesitant men treated particularly brutally commandant contrasted practice victims showers camp practice telling process according postwar testimony officers men women children waited outside gas chambers turn time women children hear sounds suffering inside chambers aware awaited caused panic distress according train transport people processed hours hour people killed new gas chambers built duration killing process reduced hour half area entirely closed tall wooden fencing vertical boards originally consisted barracks metres long metres wide disguised showers double walls earth packed interior walls ceilings lined paper floors covered tin sheet metal material roof solid wooden doors rubber outside heavy cross bars victims exhaust engine red army tank captured operation responsible installing engine brought time camp construction housed room generator supplied camp electricity tank engine exhaust pipe ran ground opened gas chambers seen minutes bodies removed dozens placed wheeled away system imperfect required lot effort trains arrived later day wait tracks overnight august september large new building concrete foundation built bricks mortar guidance action expert contained gas chambers metres metres corridor centre supervised construction brought building materials nearby village factory stock time victims continued arrive daily led naked past building site original gas chambers new gas chambers operational weeks construction equipped producing engines instead metal doors taken soviet military possible observe dead removing said old death chambers capable killing people hours new ones highest possible output gas chambers death camps kill people day fact boasted kurt fellow officer services new gas chambers seldom capacity victims remained daily average killing process differed significantly method poison gas hydrogen victims died carbon poisoning visiting guided tour commandant concluded exhaust gas inferior camp chambers silent minutes closed minutes according survived prisoner uprising escaped doors gas chambers opened bodies dead standing kneeling lying severe dead mothers embraced bodies children prisoners worked later testified dead frequently let air extracted chambers victims showed signs life disposal corpses guards routinely refused react pits germans aware political danger associated mass burial corpses early discovered polish victims soviet massacre near occupied officers bodies preserved underground soviet mass murder april nazi propaganda began draw attention international community war crime germans brought group forensic experts european countries prove claim commission examined bodies detail summary report findings commission concluded soviets solely responsible germans attempted use commission results drive wedge allies subsequently secret orders corpses buried burn came directly nazi leadership possibly concerned covering nazi crimes began shortly visit camp late february early march bodies large pits constructed camp burning new corpses old ones dug buried months camp operation built instructions camp expert pits consisted railroad rails laid blocks concrete bodies placed rails wood petrol burned sight according pregnant women exploding boiling fluid wrote heat pits bodies burned hours bones operated hours day system perfected bodies time open air burn pits located east new gas chambers depending work load roughly hour intervals current camp memorial includes flat grave marker resembling constructed melted concrete foundation symbolic grave nazis spread actual human ashes mixed sand square metres square feet organization camp camp operated german austrian members guards trained special facility concentration camp near poland guards trained guards mainly ethnic german east russians central served red army enlisted commander camp prisoner war camps soviet soldiers degree recruitment voluntary remains disputed conditions soviet camps soviet collaborated germans cold hunger disease began devastating camps mid september work carried threat death jewish prisoners organised specialised squads work details camp receiving area squad different coloured triangle impossible new arrivals try blend members work details blue unit managed rail ramp unlocked freight wagons met new arrivals carried people died route removed cleaned wagon floors red unit largest squad belongings victims processed red unit delivered belongings storage barracks managed yellow unit separated items quality removed star david outer extracted money yellow unit followed belongings including sacks hair processed women unit gold jews collected counted evaluated gold jewellery different group men called jews death lived worked camp gas chambers months took corpses away burial gold teeth extracted began early took corpses pits crushed remaining bones collected ashes disposal brought consisted average heavily guarded wagons divided sets yard set processed hours backing ramp ready exchanged set wagons members work units continuously beaten guards shot hanged strongest men selected new arrivals daily obtain necessary replacements work details contact transports unit cut disguise unit structures camp work detail responsible cleaning common areas camp residential compound contained barracks combined living gas chambers brought grand total roughly thousand time going work bruised lead execution prisoner beaten sustained black eyes open wounds severe swelling called greek water clock polish word synonym obituary prisoners likely shot evening roll day bruised began swell prisoners hanged night barracks occurred rate day work crews usually unable eat sleep fear anxiety entirely replaced days members old work detail sent deaths prisoner uprising early underground jewish resistance organisation formed goal seizing control camp escaping freedom planned revolt preceded long period secret preparations clandestine unit organised jewish captain polish army julian described fellow samuel noble essential action organising committee included leadership samuel sick bay henry treated german patients killed poison april faced imminent capture germans discover plot leader polish army officer arrived born practised medicine expelled nazis initial date revolt set june postponed fighter smuggled grenade early trains carrying captured rebels warsaw uprising begun april detonated area guards thrown panic explosion received jews capital fear similar incidents remaining warsaw jews deported instead burning unearthed corpses continued speed end july conspirators increasingly concerned future work began decline fewer transports arriving realised line gas chambers day revolt survivors uprising launched hot summer day august monday regular day rest group germans drove river bug swim conspirators unlocked door arsenal near train tracks key earlier stolen rifles hand grenades pistols delivered cart gravel work detail jews launched lasted minutes set buildings exploded tank petrol set fire surrounding structures group armed jews attacked main gate attempted climb fence machine gun fire germans ukrainian resulted near total slaughter killed insurgents jews escaped camp half killed chase cars horses jews cut phone wires called hundreds german reinforcements arrived different towns set way partisans polish home army transported surviving river like ran kilometres miles helped fed polish villagers broke known survived end war including future authors published memoirs richard samuel jewish prisoners escaped setting fire camp year olds samuel arrived forced work pain death died stated experience hell absolutely hell normal man imagine living person lived killers natural born killers trace remorse murdered little thing emigrated israel war devoted years retelling story richard suffered survivor guilt syndrome eventually killed uprising spite revolt continued function remained priority year met head operation inspector christian decided draft report native germans died putting revolt wanted rebuild camp told closed shortly transferred help fight partisans nazi high command felt personnel knew wanted dispose sending jews german established poland killed little point rebuilding facility capacity nazis remaining needs rendering redundant camp new commandant kurt deputy commandant took august war testified stopped reality despite extensive damage camp gas chambers intact killing polish jews continued speed reduced wagons rolled ramp time wait rail transports jews brought camp august consisted wagons day second according published office information based observation holocaust trains passing village wagons came august carrying survivors uprising october operation terminated letter following day large group jewish worked camp structures previous weeks loaded train transported october followed november clean operations continued winter operations jews surviving work detail dismantled gas chambers brick brick erect farmhouse site camp confirmed purpose secret guard post nazi ukrainian agent remain scenes letter sent january guard called ukrainian ethnic german given permission bring family ukraine reasons surveillance wrote worked guard instructed tell visitors farming decades local poles aware existence camp operational command appointed camp commandant july psychiatrist centre physician chief command camp world war according poor skills caused operation turn disastrous point number transports coming reflected nazi high command wildly unrealistic expectations ability process prisoners early machinery frequently broke forcing shoot jews assembled workers time bury mass graves according testimony colleague ego power exceeded ability transports arrived people longer handled incoming holocaust trains jews locked inside correctly going happen decaying corpses kilometres miles away jewish eyewitness escaped uprising told camp state arrived august noticed view place hundreds human bodies piles packages clothes mess german ukrainian men stood corners barracks shooting crowd surprise visit august christian adjutant dismissed spot reasons dismissal tens thousands dead bodies inefficient methods killing properly mass killing transferred berlin closer operational headquarters hitler main architect holocaust stepped pace programme assigned remain temporarily help clean camp august suspended chose previously commandant camp assume command camp successor reputation competent administrator good understanding project objectives trusted capable resuming control arrived late august replaced september years later described saw came scene interview road ran alongside railway minutes drive began corpses line drove station looked like hundreds lying obviously days heat station train jews dead alive looked days reorganised camp transports warsaw jews began arrive september according israeli historian wanted camp look attractive ordered paths paved administrative compound flowers planted near living quarters ordered arriving prisoners greeted verbal announcement translated working jews told transit point way ukraine questions answered germans wearing lab coats tools deception times carried whip wore white uniform nicknamed white death prisoners directly responsible camp operations according testimony limited contact jewish prisoners possible claimed rarely interfered cruel acts subordinate officers camp killings came perceive prisoners humans merely cargo destroyed said song according postwar transports temporarily halted deputy commandant kurt wrote lyrics song meant celebrate camp reality prisoner walter wrote melody came remembered music upbeat key major song taught newly arriving jews assigned work forced nightfall day camp survivor samuel remembered song beginning firm steps march years later recalled lyrics follows know word commander know obedience duty want working working bit luck time musical ensemble formed gold popular jewish composer warsaw arranged theme song piece prisoner orchestra conducted gold arrived played music mess hall german orders died uprising kurt revolt august termination operation october went northern italy reinforcements needed commandant kurt nicknamed polish doll prisoners innocent face according survivor deputy commandant beat prisoners death minor dog barry tear pieces managed november subsequent clean perimeter completed prisoners nearby following months deputy maintained network hands killings kurt maintained photo album orders photographs inside named good times album rare source images illustrating grave digging zoo careful photograph gas chambers gravel functioned capacity command van july new forced labourers sent mass continued soviet troops closing evidence executed late july long camp official closure ethnic german installed farmhouse built place camp original bricks gas chambers set fire building fled avoid capture arrival soviets late july soviet forces began approach east departing germans destroyed direct evidence intent burned surrounding villages ground including buildings families killed fields grain fed burned august german forces blew church bell tower defensive red army area soviets entered august zone planted remained wrote visiting soviet war correspondent small pieces bone soil human teeth paper fabric broken dishes cups sizes shoes human hair road leading camp pitch black human ashes day regularly remaining prisoners road kilometres miles direction war ended locals started walking black road began search man shaped melted gold order buy bread early attempts preservation new soviet installed government preserve evidence camp scene legally protected conclusion world war september students local school led teacher priest collected larger bones skull fragments farmers buried single mound year remembrance committee committee remembrance victims formed warsaw launched design competition memorial officials allocated funding design competition memorial committee disbanded survivors left country town protected camp new fence gate work crew archaeological experience sent landscape grounds end poland warsaw provincial council declared place years hectares acres land formed camp purchased farmers villages construction memorial construction monument metres tall designed sculptor inaugurated april laying cornerstone site gas chambers sculpture represents trend large avant garde forms introduced 1960s europe granite tower cracked middle capped mushroom like block carved abstract jewish symbols declared national monument official ceremony attended people monument unveiled marshal republic poland presence survivors uprising israel france czechoslovakia poland camp house built nearby turned exhibition space following collapse communism poland retirement opened later expanded branch regional museum death count estimates total number people killed scholarly estimates range meaning jews died nazi camp apart museum poland states people died israel holocaust museum puts number killed united_states holocaust memorial museum gives range estimates estimate number people killed came soviet war reporter visited july soviet forces marched westward poland published article called hell called appeared november issue monthly russian literary magazine article claimed million people killed aware short station platform greatly reduced number wagons time soviet trend nazi crimes propaganda purposes polish historian estimated death count based accepted record transports average prisoners court exhibits trials 1960s took place produced official west german estimates trial kurt court concluded people killed following report director institute contemporary history munich trial court number new evidence chief witness prosecution trials employed rail traffic controller village published book old new memories records estimate people died estimate based maximum capacity warsaw yearly average original german possession number prisoners listed polish member railway staff war non german witnesses transports came camp present station holocaust train arrived warsaw member polish home army formed polish resistance movement world war kept daily record transports photographed burning perimeter uprising august witnessed set enclosed freight wagons carrying gas chambers october son wrote article revised number daily records transports camp demographic information number people deported main sources estimates death toll book operation death camps israeli historian stated people killed july april considerable number estimates followed table telegram source information available telegram message sent berlin december operation deputy commander detailing number jews deported death camp point discovered documents britain shows official count german transport authority jews sent number deaths probably higher according basis telegram additional german evidence listing people deported historian calculated official count people brought table estimates information rows column comes dam page trials official trial war crimes committed held october august preceded trial triggered charges war crimes unrelated service camp trial delayed united_states soviet_union lost interest german war crimes onset cold war nazi war criminals recorded german files serving positions prominence west german chancellor camp personnel brought trial west_germany including commandant kurt sentenced life imprisonment august gas chambers received years gold money years operation years gas chambers years albert years horn corpse detail acquitted second commandant escaped wife children austria brazil found work factory role mass murder jews known austrian authorities austria issue warrant arrest registered real austrian brazil took years famous nazi hunter simon tracked triggered arrest brazil west_germany tried deaths people admitted killings argued conscience clear simply duty found guilty october sentenced life imprisonment died heart failure prison june material gain theft cash collected victims conducted higher ranking men enormous scale common practice concentration camps concentration camp tried executed offence april ranking officers went home request private locomotive station transport personal gifts connecting train drive camp cars evidence person later arrive transfer goods overall material gain nazi_germany unknown period august september wagons goods sent recorded delivered written tally headquarters december profit including kilograms gold silver platinum american dollars diamond diamonds stole unknown claimed court filled box million archaeological studies jewish religious leaders poland authorities allowed archaeological excavations camp respect dead approval limited archaeological study issued time british team university non invasive technology remote sensing soil resistance analysed site ground penetrating radar features appeared structural found thought remains gas chambers study allowed continue archaeological team performing search discovered new mass graves remains respect victims second dig findings included yellow tiles stamped pierced star resembling star david building foundations wall star soon identified logo polish factory manufacturing floor tiles founded jan brothers renamed communism war explained forensic archaeologist caroline new evidence important second gas chambers built housed brick building camp claimed provides physical evidence existence memoir describing stay camp survivor says floor gas chambers helped build similar tiles discoveries subject documentary channel claims floor tiles controversial noted imprint star david tiles visible forensic work planned march living museum receives visitors day annual march living educational programme brings young people world poland explore remnants holocaust visitors primary destination march visit preceding days israeli students attended ceremony led ministry education total international students visited number students came ahead foreign students visited operation leadership comprehensive list list individuals responsible camp


armenian parliament shooting armenian parliament shooting commonly known armenia october terrorist attack armenian national assembly capital october group armed men led killed facto decision makers country political leadership prime minister parliament speaker karen shooting controversial events post soviet armenian history led significant changes country political landscape remains subject numerous conspiracy theories involving president robert tenure frequently criticized authoritarian posthumously honored national hero armenia titles shooting october men led journalist member armed rifles hidden long coats broke national assembly building avenue government holding question answer session shot dead people prime minister karen national assembly speaker deputy national assembly speaker deputy national assembly speaker minister urgent affairs member parliament member parliament member parliament gunmen injured people parliament accompanied brother karen uncle group claimed carrying coup état described act patriotic needed nation regain senses said wanted punish authorities nation described government drinking blood people claimed armenia catastrophic situation corrupt officials provide way main target group deaths said according reporters witnessed shooting men went said drinking blood responded future children hit times claimed deaths dozens injuries attack innocent victims case said failed nation anna eyewitness journalist stated shots fired directly distance meters words impossible survived person outside allowed building men control recorded dead bodies karen body taken parliament building evening october government response soon attack hundreds policemen army forces personnel armored personnel carriers brought positioned avenue surrounding national assembly building anti terrorist squad russia participated operation ambulance vehicles rushed site shooting president robert directing operation security forces parliament building holding hostages inside building men demanded helicopter national television political statement president robert gave speech announcing situation control spokesman quick characterize men individual terrorists assured parliament building small group overnight negotiations president gunmen released hostages gave morning october lasted hours guaranteed personal security gunmen right free trial meantime armenian armed forces blocked roads leading security reasons october president declared day mourning period state funeral ceremony victims parliament shooting took place october october bodies victims including placed inside opera theater number high ranking officials countries including russian prime minister georgian president attended funeral holy gave prayers reaction public poll carried immediately shooting october center studies national academy sciences armenia found respondents said october events crime country authorities questioned believed terrorist group consisted assassins enemies international australia foreign affairs minister alexander condemned assassination high officials france armenian embassy paris received president prime minister iran vice president visited armenian embassy left note book sad occasion president sent telegram president saying incident received shock emphasized monstrous crime demands join efforts step fight terrorism threatens people stability creative work peaceful life russia president expressed deep anger sharp condemnation actions terrorists instructed russian ambassador convey deepest sympathies suffered result act president quoted saying need curb decisively terrorism happened stressing russia readiness close operation issue concerned parties syria parliament speaker offered turkey prime minister expressed concern stated extremely sad worrying event added possibilities come mind process dialogue started gives signs hope armenia reaction don know united_kingdom foreign office spokesman said clearly terrible blow armenia gaining independence efforts build democracy terrorism united_states president bill_clinton condemned calling act stated renewed support armenia added time tragedy renew support people armenia leaders continue build principles today victims embodied november house_of_representatives passed resolution investigation trial men charged terrorism aimed authority october investigation led chief military prosecutor armenia claimed team looking shooting trial begun according investigating team considered dozen theories january investigators considered connection circle parliament shooting figures close arrested including deputy presidential adviser deputy director public television armenia summer year released eventually failed find evidence linking shooting investigation ended case sent court july trial began february district court judicial case transferred jurisdiction prosecutor general office finally closed case lack evidence main perpetrators shooting younger brother karen uncle sentenced life prison december conspiracy theories fully explained motivated attack gunmen claimed acting initiative despite abundant conspiracy theories convincing evidence surfaced suggest political leader party attack killings left leadership void political establishment conspiracy theories immediately flourished gunmen acting orders sabotage peace deal decade available evidence pointed leading armenian political elite interview april widow karen suggested shooting commanded outside armenia attempt coup assassination alleged involvement robert investigation find considerable evidence linking group armenian politicians analysts believe president robert national security minister assassination leading politicians january investigators alleged members president robert inner circle october shooting promoting opposition figures resignation gradually consolidated power year emerge powerful figure country leadership armenia president repeatedly accused criminal system real perpetrators parliament shooting run presidential election explicitly stated vote february vote holy graves karen armenian national congress opposition alliance led released statement 10th anniversary shooting blaming killings claiming consider crime statement continued october violent seizure power means terrorism terrorism regime main tool power march younger brother stated questions governments robert claimed judicial process october deepened public distrust authorities questions remain unanswered today according disclosure shooting vital armenia conclusion insisted accused authorities responsible october accused fully october albert stated come conclusion crime aimed making robert power unlimited physically eliminating karen organizers wanted create victory future presidential elections alleged foreign involvement russia late april interview newspaper russian secret service agent alexander accused main intelligence general staff armed forces russian federation having organised armenian parliament shooting ostensibly peace process resolved conflict offered evidence support accusation russian embassy armenia denied involvement described accusation attempt harm relations armenia russia people democratic reforms russia armenian national security service denied russian involvement spokesman stated single fact hint relating theory emerged trial president robert national security adviser called sick man october french based armenian political refugee priest known religious gave interview claimed russian secret services shooting interview agency claimed shooting lieutenant general deputy minister defense national security minister insisted shooting assisted russian secret services order bring neo criminal clan robert power united_states france leading members committee minister internal affairs national security adviser close ally stated october armenian officials warned foreign country declared western special services involved october events words special services france acting destroy armenia context likely involved realization terrorist acts armenia alleged role armenian revolutionary federation leader armed group member armenian revolutionary federation according representatives expelled party misconduct association involvement stated worried number party leaders acting interest american foreign policy aftermath armenian american journalist described aftermath attack follows early june late october political system armenia based tandem controlled military legislative executive branches assassination disrupted political balance country political arena armenia left disarray months assassination hit armenia international reputation resulting decline foreign investment facto dual command transferred president robert people party armenia elected speaker parliament brother appointed prime minister dismissed president inability work cabinet republican_party leader came replace prime minister successfully prevented unity controlled parliament gradually consolidated power remained highly unpopular armenia poll august showed politicians having support heritage widow killed deputy national assembly speaker stated robert turned october terrorism act good use making shift regime human development report wrote october events adversely impacted situation country aspects spheres consequences felt long economic political social expressions predicted decline human development later developments october memorial installed national assembly park opening ceremony son main victims karen stated impossible entire revelation current authorities power sooner later reality disclosed matter dignity case having entire revelation able overcome negative consequences october events


albania albania constructed nearly year rule inhabitants sight albania average square kilometre country programme resulted construction corner people socialist republic albania ranging mountain passes city streets little military value intended purpose years communist rule cost constructing drain albania resources away pressing needs dealing country housing shortage poor roads abandoned following collapse communism derelict reused variety purposes including residential accommodation shelters animals homeless briefly saw use balkan conflicts 1990s background end world war death april pursued style politics informed elements broke soviet_union embarked withdrew albania warsaw pact protest warsaw pact invasion czechoslovakia broke people republic china president richard_nixon visit china regime hostile country immediate neighbours albania end state war greece left second world war late years death suspicions greek territorial ambitions southern albania known greeks northern hostile moderate communist government socialist federal republic yugoslavia accusing government maintaining anti attitude party state people asserted intended albania seventh republic yugoslavia yugoslav government treatment ethnic claiming yugoslav leaders pursuing policy albania maintained links outside world time trading neutral countries austria sweden establishing links adriatic_sea colonial power italy modest domestic controls curtailed renewed wave repression directed individuals young military feared threaten hold country new constitution introduced increased communist_party control country limited private property forbade foreign loans country sank decade paranoid isolation economic virtually cut outside world military doctrine starting continuing government carried policy saw construction hundreds thousands country built possible location ranging beaches mountains villages towns albania best hotel envisaged albania fighting war attack mounted yugoslavia nato warsaw pact involving simultaneous enemy airborne divisions moment toned struggle enemies strike immediately like snake bites poison aware albania military doctrine based concept people war drawing experience partisans world war led european country managed liberate intervention foreign troops partisans benefited great quantities supplies weapons provided allies partisans victory massive scale regime wartime successes rule armed forces based partisan model built infantry units percent regular forces percent employed infantry roles partisans strategy based mountain based guerrilla warfare took refuge mountains launched raids contrast aimed defend albania national integrity sovereignty costs necessitated defending intended establish defensive positions entirety country smaller ones laid lines sight large command bunker permanently manned commanders large communicate superiors radio occupants smaller making visual signals seen slits regime sought civilians people population million served defence way ranging regular armed forces reserves civil defence student armed youth units sectors government state owned businesses public service given roles defence meaning entire population brought way scope state defence planning age taught enemy propaganda constantly emphasised need citizens trained age station nearest bunker repel invaders local party cells organised families clean maintain local civil defence drills held twice month lasting days civilians military age sexes issued rifles ammunition members young pioneers communist youth movement trained defend airborne invasion fixing pointed spikes descending foreign despite population defence system massively inefficient took little account country real defence needs training minimal fuel ammunition scarce uniforms equipment poor quality weapons military lacked proper command control system construction constructed concrete steel iron ranged size person gun slits large underground nuclear bomb shelters intended use party leadership common type bunker small concrete dome set ground circular extending downwards large people stand inside known firing position transported final positions assembled consist main elements diameter concrete dome firing hollow cylinder support dome outer wall radius larger cylinder gap cylinder outer wall filled earth places coast large numbers built groups linked concrete tunnel constructed strategic points country lines territory particularly heavily defended thousands concentric circles city bunker designed military engineer served partisans world war trained soviet_union war observed dome shaped fortifications virtually artillery fire bombs simply dome knowledge design subsequently dome shaped initially delighted design thousands constructed promoted rank colonel chief engineer ministry defence paranoia led imprisoned years charges sabotage foreign agent wife went insane family friends acquaintances daughter died breast cancer later said painful tragic fate family thousands thousands families albania experienced dictatorship experiences later basis bunker film director command control command control known pike firing point assembled site far larger heavier diameter metres series concrete weighing tons site form dome fully assembled weigh tons large tunnels category larger special structures strategic purposes largest bunker complexes mountains near capital network tunnels kilometres long built protect members interior ministry secret police nuclear attack thousands kilometres tunnels built house political military industrial assets albania said country world north_korea tunnels built conditions great secrecy engineering teams allowed construction completion rotated site site monthly basis impact programme massive drain albania weak economy construction cost estimated percent net material product total cost twice line france consuming times concrete programme diverted resources away forms development roads residential buildings average said cost equivalent room apartment resources build easily resolved albania chronic shortage housing according building smaller cost constructing kilometre road human cost people year died constructing addition occupied significant area land country effects went physical impact landscape presented party symbol practical means preventing albania foreign powers viewed concrete expression policy keeping outside world bay saw oppressive symbol intimidation control novel pyramid regime brutality control characterised symbol isolation psychology represented argued programme form patterned large scale construction disciplinary potential means population given order rule regime effect creating siege mentality sense constant emergency strategy people war caused friction armed forces little military value compared conventionally equipped organised professional army commentator long man bunker hold resupply individual bunker communicate general defence minister member publicly criticised bunker system speech disputed line albania equal threat united_states soviet_union argued albania needed modern equipped professional army poorly trained equipped civilian militia responded having arrested accusing agent chinese working bring military coup dubbed arch traitor general associates convicted punished according laws dictatorship meaning executed military figures bunker designer caught introduction new constitution years later sealed absolute control military appointing commander chief armed forces chairman defence council today programme stopped soon death leaving albania towns countryside vast numbers useless dominate landscape bbc reporter described road city airport looking bank difficult rid removed particularly cities countryside simply abandoned reused housing animals abandoned lie derelict cost removing extreme secrecy communist regime meant albania post communist governments lacked information built officials discovered forgotten tons gas chemical weapons bunker kilometres united_states government gave albania million destroy weapons places abandoned lethal danger holiday makers drowned caught created water currents subsided sea army carried bunker removal programmes coastline dragging ground modified type tanks real conflict rule found use conflicts broke 1990s rebellion albania townspeople southern albania reported taken positions town face fighting government troops rebels outbreak war border villages albania repeatedly shelled serbian artillery batteries located nearby local people shelter refugees took temporary shelters aid agencies tent camps nato troops stationed albania relocated dozens base liberation army defensive positions war risks occasion albania border mistakenly bombed nato aircraft acute shortage housing fall communist regime led set home abandoned lack running water meant area inhabited soon contaminated found creative uses coastal city bunker turned restaurant bunker turned café suggestions ideas included pizza solar mushroom farms projection rooms drive cinemas beach flower youth taken romantic purposes country recently cars short supply popular places lovers relationships travel writer tony puts lost bunker american lost seats cars november star nuclear shelter built near opened tourist attraction art exhibition large bunker contains museum exhibits world war communist period albania symbol sorts country pencil holders shape country popular tourist line bunker promoted message buyers land assumed afford buy big