tube tube clandestine research development programme authorised united_kingdom participation canada develop nuclear weapons second world war starting manhattan_project united_states british efforts kept classified referred code highest circles government possibility nuclear weapons acknowledged early war university birmingham wrote memorandum explaining small mass pure produce chain reaction bomb power thousands tons tnt led formation committee called effort develop nuclear weapons wallace oversaw project chose deliberately misleading tube tube department scientific industrial research tube programme britain canada nuclear weapons project high costs fact britain fighting war bombing range enemies tube ultimately manhattan_project despite reaching agreement united_states share nuclear weapons technology refrain countries mutual consent details completely provided united_kingdom soviet_union gained valuable information atomic spies british american projects united_states terminated cooperation war ended prompted united_kingdom launch project production facilities established british scientists continued work auspices independent british programme finally britain performed nuclear test operation hurricane british demonstration stage bomb united_kingdom united_states signed agreement resulted resumption britain nuclear special relationship united_states origins discovery december conducted experiments laboratory berlin involved bombarding slowed discovered produced nucleus split split john laboratory university_of_cambridge split accelerated discovered james experiments bombardment elements slow produced heavier elements wrote colleague collaboration nephew developed theoretical justification process based liquid drop model published nature phenomenon new type nuclear powerful seen calculated energy released approximately electron volts process resembled division biological cells decided paris group followed group scientists france paris von francis february paris group showed occurs extra given important observation suggested self sustaining nuclear chain reaction possible immediately apparent scientists theory extremely powerful explosive created thought practical bomb term atomic bomb familiar british public writings wells novel world set free defined critical mass smallest sustain chain reaction cause considered slow released reaction released fast speed energy order create sustained chain reaction existed need contain slow fast reached usable energy level college france found water acceptable early paris group decided theoretical grounds heavy water ideal intended use asked french minister armaments obtain heavy water possible source large hydroelectric station norway french discovered germany offered purchase entire stock norwegian heavy water indicating germany researching atomic bomb french told norwegian government possible military significance heavy water norway gave entire stock litres imp gal gal french secret service agent secretly brought france germany invaded norway april june following german invasion france shipped england earl suffolk major aboard steamer heavy water valued initially kept prison subsequently secretly stored library windsor castle paris group moved cambridge exception remained france active french resistance memorandum britain number scientists considered atomic bomb practical university liverpool polish refugee scientist joseph tackled problem calculations inconclusive university_of_cambridge nobel prize physics george william lawrence wanted government urgent action acquire ore main source belgian worried fall german hands unsure spoke sir william master corpus college cambridge april approached sir kenneth local member parliament took concerns secretary committee imperial defence major general hastings turn asked sir henry opinion like scientists likelihood atomic bomb developed odds success long odds danger sufficiently great taken seriously lord minister coordination defence checked treasury foreign office found belgian owned union company british vice president lord arranged meeting president company union management friendly britain considered worthwhile immediately acquire committee scientific survey air defence directed continue research feasibility atomic bombs imperial college london mark australian physicist university birmingham tasked carrying series experiments february team failed create chain reaction natural decided worth pursuing birmingham team reached different conclusion delegated task german refugee scientists work radar project enemy aliens lacked necessary security clearance francis calculated critical mass tonnes long tons short tons placed reduced tonnes long tons short tons attempted problem fast produced consideration calculated critical mass sphere theoretical paper written order tons knew importance size critical mass allow chain reaction place practical significance interior critical mass sphere spontaneously produced material small portion larger portion escaping surface sphere worked calculating system number produced number escaping mass rare makes natural primarily responsible fast universally accepted able revise initial estimate critical mass needed nuclear substantially previously assumed estimated metallic sphere radius centimetres resembled approximately kilogram results led memorandum initial step development nuclear arms program britain marked beginning aggressive approach development atomic bomb began investigate processes successfully separate results discussed men set government committee committee time britain tube program committee purpose examine potential analysis critical mass separation investigation committee endorsed memorandum conclusion report super weapon possible feasible committee committee founded june committee originally committee scientific survey air warfare later gained independence ministry aircraft production committee initially named chairman quickly exchanged committee assumed acronym came unusual way shortly germany invaded denmark sent telegram telegram ended strange line tell ray kent thought code vital atomic weapons related information hidden suggestion replace producing taken regardless crazy cause concern britain returned england discovered message addressed ray ray kent committee named committee meetings normally held offices royal society london addition original members philip moon patrick charles william universities provided locations experiments taking place laboratory university birmingham responsible theoretical work size critical mass needed explosion run help fellow german refugee scientist laboratories university liverpool university_of_oxford experimented different types separation group liverpool dealt thermal worked based assumption different attracted different temperatures simon group oxford investigated method works principle differing pressures barrier faster eventually promising method separation norman feather group cambridge investigated element called explosive compound french scientists oxford obtained world supply heavy water helped power research committee complied reports commonly known reports july report use bomb discussed feasibility creating super bomb thought true second use source power discussed idea source power bomb committee report helped bring british nuclear program tube project help start nuclear project britain helped jump start american project help committee american program manhattan_project started months instead able begin thinking create bomb possible historian margaret noted events change time scale months change history reports reviewed defence services panel scientific advisory committee chaired lord members sir edward sir henry alfred hill edward panel held seven meetings september submitted report lord president council sir john anderson point feared german scientists attempting provide country atomic bomb britain needed finish report ultimately stated chance bomb effort produce weapon power effort sure britain fall recommended pilot separation plant built britain production facility built canada defence services panel submitted report september time final decision taken lord taken matter prime minister winston_churchill national leader approve nuclear weapons program august chiefs staff committee supported decision tube organisation tube established department scientific industrial research wallace research director imperial chemical industries chosen head anderson came tube deliberately chosen meaningless air probability advisory committee known tube council created oversee work chaired anderson members lord lord sir edward sir henry handled policy matters deal technical issues technical committee created chairman simon original members michael secretary later joined charles darwin feather separation biggest problem faced committee find way separate difficult types identical separation achieved large scale cambridge team investigated gas chose perform thermal tubes simplest method calculations showed need tubes extract desired separation simon proceeded different direction turned simon chemist shielded britain consult methods separation simon preferred find method suitable mass production moon examined suggestion thermal method choice committee majority agreement forward committee consulted simon separation method came agreement ordinary best method pursue relies graham law fact gases materials rates determined molecular weight francis applied method separated neon sample thousands times pipe clay thick materials like pipe clay proved slow efficient industry scale simon proposed metal foil millions microscopic holes allow separation process faster estimated plant separated kilogram natural cost committee realised atomic bomb feasible inevitable moved london work built tube study properties discovered gases method work minor setback fact simon progress establishing alternative method separation ordinary chemical problems producing compounds pure metal studied university birmingham early experiments carried michael time working print technology works birmingham philip small batch received formal contract december kilograms vital material future work prototype equipment manufactured metropolitan vickers park manchester cost units pilot plants producing long pure metal kilograms commenced operation breakthrough norman feather laboratory realised slow theoretically produce substantial amounts product slow forms short lived new new nucleus rapidly electron beta decay producing new element atomic mass atomic number element nucleus electron new element atomic number greater half life feather showed theoretically feasible grounds element readily slow fast added advantage different separated devised chemical method separate new development confirmed independent work philip berkeley radiation laboratory nicholas cambridge team proposed names new element analogy outer planets neptune element americans suggested names production identification sample generally credited university california team knew existence voiced concerns need pure feasible bomb suspected gun method bomb lead proposed premature met robert los laboratory learned proposed bomb design calling sub critical mass supposed surrounded explosives arranged detonate simultaneously cause core compressed core surrounded depleted reflect reaction contribute explosion design solved worries purity require level needed gun type weapon biggest problem method creating explosive lenses took described method took england montreal laboratory heavy water team france continued slow research cambridge_university project given low priority considered relevant bomb making suddenly acquired military significance realised provided route british government wanted cambridge team relocated north_america proximity raw materials required american research sir john anderson wanted british team retain identity concerned americans working nuclear designs nuclear instead heavy water team receive fair share resources americans concerns particularly security senior scientists group british concerns patent rights french team attempt patent nuclear technology based pre war work compromise suggested relocating team canada canadian government approached dean president national research council canada immediately welcomed supported proposal costs salaries divided british canadian governments british share come billion dollar war gift canada staff arrived montreal end occupied house belonging university months later moved square metres area new building university montreal laboratory grew quickly staff half canadians recruited george recruited headed physicist george proved capable group leader generally regarded member staff stature highest scientific rank close personal contacts key involved manhattan_project friedrich head chemistry division experimental physics division von director laboratory proved unfortunate choice poor administrator work national research council canada americans saw security risk objected french atomic patents claimed paris group association montreal team canada depended americans supplies heavy water heavy water plant trail british_columbia american contract technical information americans said heavy water montreal group agreed direct research limited lines suggested despite good work june work montreal lab come complete morale low canadian government proposed project april combined policy committee meeting washington agreed canada build heavy water john director americans supported project information visits supplied material example heavy water chalk river laboratories opened montreal laboratory closed project developed went critical september contribution tube sir john anderson eager invite tube project world famous scientist contribute expertise project help british government gain leverage dealings manhattan_project september word reached denmark nazis considered family jewish danger arrested danish resistance helped wife escape sea sweden september news escape reached britain lord sent telegram asking come britain arrived scotland october operated british overseas corporation invitation director manhattan_project brigadier general visited manhattan_project sites november offered substantial pay initially refused offer wanted sure relationship united_states great_britain remained real cooperative partnership december meeting albert son committed working manhattan_project substantial contribution atomic bomb development effort attempted prevent atomic arms race soviet_union war believed threat key points believed essential international nuclear weapon control urged britain united_states inform soviet_union manhattan_project order decrease likelihood feeling threatened premise nations building bomb beliefs stemmed fact convinced russians knew manhattan_project led believe point hiding evidence came interpretation letter received soviet friend scientist russia showed british security services reasoned longer united_states britain hid nuclear russia feel increasingly threatened inclined speed effort produce atomic bomb help supreme_court justice met president united_states franklin roosevelt initially sympathetic ideas controlling nuclear weapons august churchill opposed informing soviet_union work second quebec conference september roosevelt sided churchill deciding nation best interest atomic bomb project secret decided potentially dangerous specific security measures order prevent leaking information rest world russia particular tube united_states mission british mission led members included sent america create relations help advance research war technology americans important device transferred mission cavity inquiry mission possible americans create radiation laboratory lab later model los laboratory mission members involved advising scientists construction lab relations armed forces barrier broken exchange technical information countries developed mission discuss development nuclear time process deemed impractical main priority mission members visit united_states committee reports urged cooperation united_states continued research nuclear charles physicist working national defense research committee london time invited sit meeting committee pushed rapid development nuclear weapons separation device returned united_states able brief bush director office scientific research development concerning details discussed meeting august mark director physics department university birmingham original member committee sent united_states assist radar visit met william shocked informed british predicted kilograms efficient supply chain reaction effected fast moving america discovered chairman committee locked away reports transferred britain initial discoveries informed committee members findings took initiative scientific community recent ground breaking discoveries committee exposed travelled meet lawrence inventor informed lawrence report lawrence met chairman james george arthur relay details directed lawrence able touch lawrence met bush inform significant data discovered ability inform americans led convincing lawrence lawrence convincing convincing forward nuclear weapons actions resulted bush taking report directly president information sharing american effort increased rapidly soon british american authorities reluctant share details british counterparts separate research continued country exchange information key british scientists visited united_states early given access information available momentum american atomic bomb project assumed british american exchange information efforts continued nations combine efforts leading programmes separately furthermore british government rebuffed vetoed attempts proposals bush strengthen cooperation great_britain america june united_states_army corps engineers took manhattan_project project director security dried flow information britain american officials particularly concerned people involved tube project trying exploit american nuclear scientific knowledge create profitable post war industry october bush convinced roosevelt united_states independently develop atomic bomb project despite agreement scientific interchange united_states britain disastrous impact british efforts lacked manpower facilities equipment materials tube fell race manhattan_project july anderson advised churchill face fact pioneering work asset quickly shall real contribution merger soon shall little time great_britain realised position worsened bush decided outside help manhattan_project longer needed military policy committee supported bush arguments restricted access classified information britain develop atomic weapons programme slowed american efforts americans stopped sharing information heavy water production manufacture method electromagnetic separation physical chemical properties details bomb design facts fast reactions major disappointment hindered british canadians collaborating heavy water production aspects research programme britain stopped sending scientists united_states slowed pace work british boycott impact american project relied efforts led british scientists march approached military policy committee decided britain help benefit areas project british scientists important bomb design team los laboratory needed despite risk revealing weapon design secrets quebec agreement churchill sought information building britain plant heavy water plant atomic britain despite immense cost july london american officials cleared major british motives months negotiations quebec agreement signed churchill roosevelt august quebec conference british handed material americans return received copies american progress reports president tube manhattan_project section quebec agreement formally entitled articles agreement governing collaboration authorities usa matter tube britain usa agreed share resources bring tube atomic bomb project fruition earliest moment leaders agreed use agency secondly use parties consent communicate information tube parties mutual consent agreed post war advantages industrial commercial nature decided discretion president quebec agreement established combined policy committee control manhattan_project consisting henry bush united_states field marshal sir john colonel british members howe canadian member returned united_kingdom end replaced committee sir campbell turn replaced british ambassador united_states lord halifax early died washington november replaced chief british joint staff mission member combined policy committee field marshal sir henry wilson british contribution manhattan_project summoned simon united_states arrived day quebec agreement signed ready assist manhattan_project way possible generally disliked americans refused forward collaboration british scientist accepted sound judgement appointed instead british officials dug britain right appointments government agencies compromise reached charge britain technical advisor combined policy committee head british mission manhattan_project dispute settled collaboration place wanted involve british scientists possible long accepted choice joseph refused polish citizenship turned surprise accepted british citizen right away began screening process travel america spent weeks november acquiring clear picture extensive manhattan_project realized scale sites oak ridge tennessee new headquarters project safely conclude similar industrial site found germany chances nazi atomic bomb project successful low involved main goal quebec agreement success britain duty cooperate speed process opportunity young british scientists experience possible carry experience post war britain eventually convinced integrity cause led accepted manhattan_project left charge tube research brought results obtained left william tube scientists expert shock waves june went america work los laboratory british delegation worked means assess effects nuclear explosion wrote paper height bombs detonated maximum effect attacks germany japan served member target committee established select japanese cities atomic bombing project alberta special consultant group captain sent british representative watched bombing nagasaki observation plane big formed manhattan_project post war scientific mission hiroshima nagasaki assessed extent damage caused bombs report issued war department august giving story atomic bomb including technical details public references british contribution bomb white paper statements relating atomic bomb drafted michael account issued replaced churchill prime minister official statement british contribution years soviet spies tube project soviet_union received details british research atomic spies john member notorious cambridge recruited later canada report march included reports british documents passed began information soviet_union possible production british atomic bomb joined tube project contribution soviet espionage severe manhattan_project able contact london based leader post war atomic energy research establishment laboratory near established main centre military civilian atomic energy research development britain royal_air_force stations selected isolated large returned united_states appointed mathematics imperial college accepted position armament research department end war special relationship britain united_states special british government trusted america share nuclear technology british saw joint discovery november king british prime minister went washington president harry future cooperation nuclear weapons nuclear power leaders agreed effective cooperation atomic energy british hopes resumption cooperation nuclear weapons disappointed americans soon clear restricted basic scientific research passing atomic energy act mcmahon act august clear longer allowed access united_states atomic research partly resulted arrest espionage february january prime minister formed secret cabinet committee consisting cabinet ministers government decided britain required atomic bomb maintain position world politics words foreign secretary won got don mind don want foreign secretary country talked secretary state united_states discussions got thing costs got bloody union jack knowledge committee approached marshal air_force lord portal lead clandestine efforts project code named high explosive research appointed director lead programme based royal armament research development establishment fort royal arsenal awe short span time assembled team initiate work atomic weapons firstly preparing report describing feature science idea american fat man bomb broke development tasks required replicate identifying outstanding questions required research nuclear weapons report entitled weapon general description roughly equivalent terms scientific data reports provided soviet nuclear program april abandoned second world war airfield raf selected permanent home britain nuclear weapons programme atomic weapons research establishment october code operation hurricane british nuclear device successfully detonated west_coast australia islands development independent british nuclear led atomic energy act amended resumption nuclear special relationship america britain mutual defence agreement


green pine green pine hebrew pronounced israeli ground based missile defense radar produced subsidiary israel industries operate mainly arrow theater missile defense system israel jointly funded produced united_states green pine exported india advanced version super green pine delivered south_korea cost million apiece israeli air defense command israeli air_force israel defense forces operates green pine radars super green pine radars integral arrow system history arrow program launched response acquisition arab states long range surface surface missiles united_states israel signed memorandum understanding fund united_states department defense strategic defense initiative organization placed order israel aircraft industries arrow technology years renamed missile defense organization later missile defense agency israel aircraft industries renamed israel industries gulf war exposed controversial performance patriot missile iraqi missiles gave impetus development arrow initially designed intercept missiles derivative operated syria operated saudi_arabia arrow evolved eye advanced missile programs iran awarded contract develop manufacture green pine radar green pine developed music phased array radar presented november rolled turned operational november green pine dozens tests arrow system revealed green pine detected launch syrian missile base outside northern syria tracked trajectory impact point southern desert green pine detected tracked similar drills syrian july israel united_states carried joint test naval air station point point missile test center california arrow launched real missile test represented realistic scenario tested israel test field safety restrictions enable test battery shipped point green pine radar command control systems deployed base arrow installed offshore island forms test range test success destroying flew trajectory altitude west san island seventh test complete system interception real green pine radar proven track record demonstrated successful missile specifications contrast older passive array radar set patriot green pine active array solid state radar unlike advanced band radar terminal high altitude area defense system green pine operates band range green pine reportedly operates search detection tracking missile guidance modes simultaneously capable detecting targets ranges able track targets speeds targets natural true target guides missile target effective power green pine makes possible candidate conversion directed energy weapon focusing radar energy target missiles energy spikes tailored enter missiles fool guidance systems scramble computer memories burn sensitive electronic components radar system includes wide high trailer mounted antenna array power system cooling system radar control center power system break containers including diesel generator clutch control module diesel fuel tank container houses service generator direct current switching racks radar cooling system heat makes use inherently redundant cascade cooling machines incorporates integral tank control panels radar transmit receive weighs tonnes system mobile moved prepared sites set according developer green pine deployment new operational site takes hours super green pine advanced version radar called super green pine green pine block great pine hebrew pronounced place original green pine composed powerful smaller transmit receive better capabilities green pine believed produce double power output extending detection range october decided arrow battery operational use new battery receive new radar super green pine advanced upgrade super green pine development users according stockholm international peace research institute report arms deal signed israel considers import green pine radar israel israel deployed green pine radars integral arrow system unknown number green pine super green pine versions active super green pine declared operational deployed alongside green india india acquired deployed green pine radars july august long range tracking radar indian defence research development organisation acknowledged derivative original green pine indian government sought purchase complete arrow system early vetoed israel request sell arrow missiles india exercising right major funding contributor officials argued sale violate missile technology control regime south_korea south_korea considering buying green pine radars operational south_korea preferred super green pine radars cost million counterpart radars

Weapons, military equipment and programs


inch commonly known hoc anti tank weapon british_army home guard second world war german invasion great_britain likely defeat battle france available weaponry diverted regular british_army leaving home guard short supplies particularly anti tank weaponry designed home guard officer named robert harry act makeshift anti tank weapon production following demonstration prime minister winston_churchill weapon consisted hollow metal tube attached rudimentary breech end rounds fired use black powder ignited standard musket percussion cap effective range yards cheap easy manufacture problems difficult special grenades type ammunition tendency break inside breech damaging weapon injuring crew production began late beginning nearly service like obsolete home guard weapons eventually replaced weapons pounder anti tank gun development end battle france evacuation british expeditionary force port june german invasion great_britain likely british_army equipped defend country event weeks evacuation field seven divisions army particularly short anti tank guns left france leaving available britain ammunition scarce remaining guns regulations forbade single round training purposes given shortcomings modern weapons available allocated british_army home guard forced supplement outdated weapons ammunition hoc weapons weapon invention major robert harry officer home guard designed easily manufactured cheap anti tank weapon costing produce excluding required major wrote directly prime minister winston_churchill design arranged churchill attend demonstration prime minister approved weapon gave personal endorsement ordering october weapon mass produced scale home guard platoon design officially labelled inch war office formed hollow metal tube resembling drain pipe mounted cast iron weighed approximately kilograms simple breech attached end tube rounds fired small quantity black powder ignited hat copper cap muzzle loading rifles curtis weapon absorbed legs hollow maximum range approximately yards accurate yards home guard units added modifications weapon included mounting carriages served crew ammunition weapon consisted special grenade glass bottle containing mixture burst flames giving quantities smoke exposure air normal hand rifle grenades number defects difficult tendency damage dropped discharge pressure described grenades exhibited number faults explode inside weapon black powder added fall short little fail explode break inside barrel fired led weapon damaged crew injured fired properly gave large cloud smoke minute clear revealed weapon position bishop argues anti tank abilities doubtful fired hand rifle grenades considers grenades successful handling easier lighter version weapon developed produced operational history issued home guard regular british_army units august service number increased beginning initial reactions varied number home guard volunteers uncertain weapon unusual design officers accepted useful home guard units came accept weapon confidence aided large amounts terms war office propaganda cited positive qualities weapon simplicity use ease manufacture low maintenance requirements home guard volunteer accepted better arrived like obsolete weapons designed home guard taken service replaced marginally ineffective weapons provided army pounder anti tank gun official documents tank hunting destruction military training manual amendment appendix war office december


gun cartridge developed nazi_germany extensively axis powers world war designed inspiration predecessor heavily platoon squad leaders eastern western advanced modern features favorite soldiers popular countries parts world war erroneously called allies despite hugo non involvement weapon design production estimated million produced development machine pistol descended predecessor turn based prototype steel developed independently funding german_army took design elements worked submitted prototype answer request army weapons office new gun adopted certain cost saving alterations notably extensive use stamped steel parts called allies weapon designer hugo designed mass produced gun world carried resemblance design development held patent magazine design guns open bolt operated automatic arms mode fire fully automatic relatively low rate fire enabled single shots controlled trigger pulls bolt features return spring guide serves handle permanently attached bolt early late production bolt handle separate served safety pushing head handle separate main opening action locked bolt rear forward position absence feature early resulted field leather small loop hold bolt forward position receiver steel time consuming expensive process save time materials increase production construction receiver simplified stamped steel electro spot possible features longitudinal receiver bolt circular opening magazine housing features eliminated unique feature found guns aluminum steel resting bar support barrel steady weapon firing open armored personnel carriers half track synthetic material derived located magazine housing pistol grip barrel lacked form resulted burns supporting hand incorrectly positioned forward folding metal stock gun resulting shorter overall weapon folded stock design times hard combat use generally reliable major weakness round magazine unlike double column dual feed magazine insert found thompson variants double column single feed insert single feed insert resulted increased friction remaining moving upwards feed lips occasionally resulting feed failures problem exacerbated presence dirt debris problem magazine cause weapon malfunction hand pressure magazine body caused magazine lips line feed magazine magazine firmly locked german soldiers trained grasp underside weapon magazine housing supporting hand avoid feed usage outbreak world war majority german soldiers carried rifles regarded standard weapons choice later experience soviet tactics battle entire russian units armed guns german counterparts short range urban combat caused shift tactics end war derivatives issued entire assault limited basis starting german_army moved replace rifle new revolutionary end world war ended estimated million produced variants post war usage end world war captured surrendered upwards allies paramilitary irregular forces developing countries norwegian army withdrew years replaced variants evacuation british armed forces wanted adopt gun similar royal_air_force sent request ministry supply british copies eventually settled copy known designed reality wooden rifle stock identical found earlier gun saw limited service issued police units supplied germany axis ally romania operators world war anti nazi resistance fighters allied soldiers captured replace supplement weapons decades following world war countries world armed conflicts captured found way guerrilla groups african austria bulgaria china czechoslovakia france greece hungary indonesia israel south_korea malaysia nazi_germany norway poland romania soviet_union captured soviet partisans spain vietnam west_germany yugoslavia printed online


half track half track half track produced international united_states world war lend lease supply allies designed provide similar vehicle half track car body chassis half track built international lend lease radio fit half track served significant time produced end world war world war arab israeli war korean war crisis vietnam war day war war different countries end service development united_states adopted half tracks large numbers built quickly civilian vehicle producers vehicles established armored vehicle manufacturers half track car intended artillery tractor carrying machine gun squads armored infantry regiments reconnaissance units faster better armed armored cars available order supply allies production required possible firms producing larger half track international produce half tracks differences accepted different manufacturing methods components led producing lend lease half track equivalent equivalent design chassis mechanical components laid provide similar access radios inside rear doors pedestal machine gun mount variant matched improvements changing ring mount machine gun mount machine gun mounts lack face hardened armor armor thicker gave protection penetrated armor piercing rifle bullets yards yards armor vehicle heavier performance essentially similar service history started production august manufactured produced total according american military historian defense specialist produced world war arab israeli war korean war crisis conflicts production leased countries like half tracks produced world war leased soviet_union united_kingdom providing countries british commonwealth operators countries united_states sufficient production needs leased half tracks free france governments exile soviet_union received supplies directly following world war second hand market source supply countries including israel half tracks provided military aid program map following countries


fat man fat man type atomic bomb detonated japanese city nagasaki united_states august second nuclear weapons warfare little boy marked man nuclear explosion history built scientists engineers los laboratory site dropped boeing fat man mission piloted major charles fat man refers early design bomb wide round shape known mark iii fat man type nuclear weapon solid core type detonated trinity nuclear test month earlier july bombing gunnery range new_mexico fat man bombs detonated operation crossroads nuclear tests bikini fat man units produced superseded mark nuclear bomb fat man retired early decisions prior army taking wartime atomic research robert held conferences chicago june berkeley california july engineers discussed nuclear bomb design issues gun type design chosen sub critical masses brought firing bullet target richard suggested type nuclear weapon idea attracted consideration feasibility bomb questioned james heard november wallace director british tube project james concluded practical material weapons consulted lawrence arthur acknowledged scientists berkeley chicago respectively knew problem offer ready solution informed director manhattan_project brigadier general turn assembled special committee consisting lawrence examine issue committee concluded problems overcome simply requiring higher purity reviewing options early gave priority gun type weapon threat pre created group los laboratory investigate type bombs determined significantly efficient terms explosive yield unit mass material bomb compressed materials react rapidly completely nonetheless decided gun receive bulk research effort project uncertainty involved assumed gun type bomb easily adapted naming gun type type designs thin man fat man respectively code names created robert student worked manhattan_project chose based design shapes thin man long device came detective novel thin man series movies fat man round fat named sydney character falcon little boy come variation thin man development discarded initial concept assembling series pieces favor hollow sphere explosive shell assisted work hugh charles john thompson brought consultant discussed problem june thompson skeptical sufficiently arranged visit national defense research committee explosives research laboratory near laboratories bureau mines pennsylvania pittsburgh suburb spoke george team efforts july august tubes produce cylinders tended produce objects resembled rocks person believed practical enthusiasm kept project alive brought john von los september fresh look reviewing studies discussing matter edward von suggested use high explosives shaped charges sphere showed result faster assembly material possible gun method greatly reduce material required resulting higher density idea pressures metal compressed came knowledge dense metals behaved heavy pressure influenced pre war theoretical studies earth core george prospect efficient nuclear weapons impressed decided expert explosives required immediately suggested brought project consultant october project remained backup april experiments group los newly produced oak ridge site showed contained form far higher spontaneous rate produced original measurements held lower traces inclusion bred appeared meant spontaneous rate high highly likely blow apart initial formation critical mass distance required accelerate speeds likely need gun barrel long existing planned bomber way use bomb gun type bomb agreed meeting los july gun type work manhattan_project directed little boy enriched gun design los laboratory reorganized research oriented problems fat man bomb idea shaped charges dimensional explosive lenses came james developed von overcome difficulty multiple lawrence invented exploding replace precise system robert credited calculations showed solid sphere compressed critical state greatly task earlier efforts attempted difficult compression hollow spherical shell report solid core weapon referred task determine cast sphere difficulties apparent attempts measure density gave inconsistent results contamination believed cause soon determined multiple phase exists room temperature changes plastic phase higher temperatures attention shifted phase normally exists range found stable room temperature aluminum aluminum bombarded alpha particles pre problem hit stabilized phase hot pressed desired spherical shape found readily sphere coated size bomb constrained available aircraft allied aircraft capable carrying fat man british lancaster american boeing reasons preferred constrained bomb maximum length inches width inches weight pounds removing bomb rails allowed maximum width inches drop tests began march resulted modifications aircraft weight bomb high speed photographs revealed tail fins folded pressure resulting erratic descent combinations boxes fins tested fat man shape eliminate persistent arrangement dubbed california parachute open rear tail box outer surface radial fins inside angled line fall holding outer square fin box bomb rear end approved drop tests early weeks fat man missed target average feet june proficient early model fat man assembled bolts superseded design december redesign work substantial tail design retained later versions included practice bombs final wartime design assembled bolts complicated firing mechanism need previously explosives precision design thought test concept needed scientists military representatives confident perform correctly combat conditions july model fat man known security reasons detonated test explosion remote site new_mexico known trinity test gave yield minor changes design result trinity test philip morrison recalled changes importance fundamental thing course bomb interior bomb inches long inches diameter weighed pounds assembly allow inch diameter pit containing inch diameter late possible device assembly spherical inch diameter depleted surrounded inch thick shell plastic inch diameter cylindrical hole running like hole apple missing cylinder containing pit slipped hole surrounding inch diameter aluminium pit warm touch kilograms core compressed twice normal density added free initiate chain reaction result kilogram kilograms pit material present matter bomb converted active energy heat radiation releasing energy equivalent tnt bombing nagasaki core transported custody project alberta field carrying case designed purpose philip morrison chosen act core departed army air field transport aircraft composite group troop carrier squadron july arrived north field july fat man high explosive pre assemblies designated picked july luke dragon composite group bombardment squadron plus base unit transported north field arriving august arrival partly order check components expended near final rehearsal august bomb dropped nagasaki presumably attack rehearsal august fat man assembled project alberta personnel physics package fully assembled wired placed inside aerodynamic wheeled signed nearly people including rear admiral william brigadier general thomas captain william parsons wheeled bomb bay named normally assigned command pilot captain frederick flew great crew mission flown major charles crew commander frederick project alberta charge bomb lifted morning august primary target nagasaki secondary target weapon armed green electrical safety engaged changed red minutes climb feet order storm clouds pre flight inspection flight engineer notified fuel transfer pump impossible use gallons fuel carried reserve tank fuel carried way japan consuming fuel replacing pump hours moving fat man aircraft long dangerous bomb live composite group commander colonel paul elected continue mission original target bomb city found obscured clouds drifting smoke fires started major raid nearby previous day covered area aiming point bomb runs minutes burning fuel repeatedly exposing aircraft heavy defenses unable drop visually time bomb run japanese anti aircraft fire getting close second lieutenant jacob monitoring japanese communications reported activity japanese fighter direction radio bands proceeded alternative target nagasaki obscured cloud ordered radar approach minute captain found hole clouds fat man dropped following second duration free fall exploded local time altitude feet poor visibility cloud cover bomb missed intended point miles damage somewhat extensive hiroshima estimated people killed outright bombing nagasaki total fatalities resulted including long term health effects strongest risk bomb victims died later related blast burn injuries hundreds radiation illnesses exposure bomb initial radiation direct deaths injuries sustained bombing munitions industrial workers industrial production city severed attack dockyard produced percent capacity months steel works required year substantial production electric works resumed production months capacity months restoration arms plant percent capacity required months ordnance works factory manufactured type torpedoes released attack pearl harbor destroyed blast post war development war fat man bombs operation crossroads nuclear tests bikini pacific known character movie dropped dave dream bomb missed aim point yards second bomb nicknamed helen bikini placed tail fin assembly steel submarine conning tower detonated feet beneath landing craft weapons yielded los laboratory army air forces commenced work improving design north american tornado martin boeing bombers drawing boards bomb bays sized carry grand slam longer wide fat man bombers carry fat man november army air forces asked los fat man bombs time sets high explosive assemblies army air forces wanted improvements design easier manufacture assemble handle transport wartime project continued drop tests resumed january mark iii fat man ordered production high explosives manufactured salt wells pilot plant established manhattan_project project new plant established iowa army ordnance plant mechanical components rock island arsenal electrical mechanical components bombs army air field august available production ended december time available replaced improved versions known contained number minor changes important charge unit firing system released aircraft withdrawn service march july october rebuilt mark iii fat man units added superseded mark nuclear bomb mark iii fat man retired limitations mark iii fat man nuclear strike formidable undertaking 1940s lead acid batteries powered system remained charged hours needed meant bomb took hours batteries removed case days core left longer heat damaged high explosives replacing core required bomb completely required men took hours depending skill bomb assembly team june armed forces special weapons project teams aircraft capable carrying bomb group equipped bombardment group walker air_force base new_mexico fly base collect bombs overseas base strike mounted manhattan_project data leaked spies hall david soviet_union concerned fat man soviet_union nuclear weapon designated united_states based closely fat man design joe detonated august operation lightning


multiple gun motor carriage multiple gun motor carriage known half track american self propelled anti aircraft weapon built world war equipped inch machine guns produced white motor company march half tracks converted chassis derived chassis earlier version based half track chassis replaced half track early aircraft advanced reduced korean war relegated primarily ground support role service army nicknamed meat famous downing low flying aircraft making extremely popular soldiers united_states_army british commonwealth south_korea similar version based half track exported lend lease soviet_union specifications specifications similar half track long wide high weighed short tons suspension consisting vertical spring suspension tracks leaf springs wheels powered horsepower white cubic inch cylinder gasoline engine compression ratio fuel tank reach speed mph range miles power weight ratio horsepower main armament machine guns millimeters armor sides development improvement twin caliber heavy machine gun equipped built half track chassis respectively based earlier model mount replaced half track chassis replaced chassis prototype originally designated trials accepted multiple gun motor carriage pilot vehicle early including addition gun shield production started total produced white motor company period march half tracks converted production ceased favor production built half track chassis service history multiple gun carriage entered service early taken action soon nicknamed meat deadly firepower extremely popular troops addition anti aircraft role infantry support role frequently accompanied half track primarily served soviet_union operation battles saw service forces italian campaign operation overlord battle offensive northern europe small numbers supplied united_kingdom france lend lease vehicle widely korean war south korean army united_states marine_corps army aircraft advanced lifetime role mobile anti aircraft weapon limited korean war served mainly ground support role highly effective late declared limited standard largely taken service army korea examples served end war declared obsolete army operators united_states united_states_army marine_corps united_kingdom received lend lease program free french forces seventy received lend lease program captured japan ground self defense force lent republic korea army lent variants mount half track chassis half track chassis equipped mount mount replaced mount half tracks mount supplied lend lease ussr total produced international december march half soviet_union air defense forces consisted


winchester model winchester model known model trench gun pump action shotgun external hammer tube magazine manufactured winchester repeating arms company model evolution winchester model designed john million produced model offered numerous barrel lengths grades gauge solid frame gauge guns standard barrel length inches gauge guns furnished inch length barrels special length barrels ordered lengths short inches long inches time model manufactured american soldiers police departments hunters history winchester model designed famous american firearms inventor john moses model listed sale november winchester catalog gauge solid frame gauge added october gauge february originally produced tougher stronger improved version winchester takeoff early pump gun identical forerunner receiver thicker allowed use powder shells common time introduced design barrel taken standard pump today like series time model popular shotgun american market established standard performance kinds makes judged including expensive imported articles winchester model production time frame modern designs common like winchester model model superseded winchester model gun found today regular use improvements new model weaknesses present model taken account improvements included frame strengthened longer handle gauge shell shell frame covered fired shell entirely added great strength frame gun allowed use inch shell danger gun constantly gun opened slight forward movement slide handle released action slide lock firing gun gave slight forward motion slide handle released action slide lock enabled immediate opening gun absence slide handle pushed forward manually order release action slide lock cartridge guide placed right carrier block prevent escape shell gun turned sideways act loading stock longer drop improvements slide lock gun safer improved slide lock kept gun locked actual firing occurred prevented gun case slide lock stands relation body firing pin prevent firing pin reaching pin moved forward sufficient distance locking breech bolt prevents action sleeve retracted hand gunner firing rendering fire arm safe description winchester model evolved winchester model model designed john model external hammer shotgun lacking trigger means user hold trigger cycling shotgun action returned battery gun fires gun classified slide action pump shotgun truly successful pump action shotgun produced time period model production million type produced grades barrel lengths gauge guns standard barrel length inches gauge guns furnished inch length barrels special length barrels ordered lengths short inches long inches grades barrel lengths model came different gauge gauge shells inch inch model shells larger recommended average model held shotgun shells magazine tube including shell held chamber average model held total shotgun shells vary grade grade working action model fore grip pulled forcing breech bolt rear extracts spent shell simultaneously external hammer pushing rear slid forward breech bolt pushes fresh shell gun chamber locks place action sliding forth pumping gun classified slide action pump gun chinese company effort reproduce exact copy winchester produced trench riot grades lacking fit finish originals grades model original prices model introduced price depended grade purchased features added specific gun purchase plain finished shotgun cost buyer engraved receiver finer wood included cost expensive grades model standard trap tournament grades grades normally equipped engraved receiver finer wood expensive grades brush brush riot trench grades given higher valued wood special designs guns designed built hard abuse grades stood higher chance badly damaged need extra money appearance purposes functions performed grades required lightweight beneficial use heavy expensive wood designing grades purchased purchased high numbers designing grades standard wood finish kept prices lower level military use model popular world war war broke sales model picked produced meet demands military united_states entered world war need service weapons issued troops clear united_states brutal trench warfare great need large close range firepower fighting trench observed war years model trench grade evolution idea pre existing winchester model modified adding steel heat shield barrel protected hand user barrel heated bayonet bayonet model ideal close combat efficient trench warfare inch cylinder bore barrel ammunition issued trench grade war round ammunition contained caliber gave considerable firepower individual soldier round fired shorter barrel large firepower grade ideal trench warfare model american troops purposes world war force american soldiers skilled trap shooting armed guns stationed fire enemy hand grenades grenades falling american trenches protect american soldiers unlike modern pump action winchester model versions type classified model short fired time action closed trigger depressed lacks trigger coupled shot capacity effective close combat troops referred trench characteristic allowed troops fire magazine great speed model effective feared german government protested vain outlawed combat model limited numbers world war united_states_army marine_corps largely superseded similarly version model military uses shotgun included execution security interior guard operations rear area security operations guarding prisoners war raids military operations urban terrain selected special operations world war protests model popular american troops world war germans soon began protest use combat september german government issued diplomatic protest american use alleging shotgun prohibited law war german protest read especially forbidden employ arms projections materials calculated cause unnecessary suffering defined convention land warfare known occasion legality actual combat use shotgun raised united_states interpreted use shotgun differently germany judge advocate general army secretary state robert carefully considered reviewed applicable law promptly rejected german protest france britain considered trench warfare weapons world war shotgun question double shotgun unable obtain high powered ammunition type gun slow close combat german response rejection protest greatly upset german forces believed treated war shortly protest rejected germany issued threats punish captured american soldiers found armed shotgun led united_states issuing retaliation threat stating measures taken captured american soldiers lead equal act united_states captured german soldiers uses war shorter version model marketed winchester riot gun american express company armed weapon police departments differences riot version trench version riot version lacked heat shield bayonet trench guns equipped riot guns


arabic palestinian village central west bank palestine located kilometers north kilometers north jerusalem village people retained christian majority 6th century total land area consists designated built areas remainder covered olive governed village council led chairman known hebrew time jewish roman war conquest roman regional capital later town grew significant politically prospered byzantine arab rule location trade route george church built 6th century fell disrepair rebuilt arrival late 10th century fell ruin driven modern times ruins george church tourist attraction period ottoman control palestine tower ancient roman structure location jail house local traditions legends relating holy family village water spring locally known harvest festival year late spring period hundreds travel village harvest fruit brief season history biblical era roman byzantine rule suggested edward robinson benjamin mentioned book cities recorded history time roman conquest 1st century bce appears records described second city jerusalem account jewish roman wars 1st century town depicted map situated north mentioned ben city priests portion derives hebrew root word meaning vine known romans regional capital province roman empire bce roman general sold population slavery failure pay taxes freed mark shortly came power area command jewish roman war headquarters minor realms roman emperor occupied town established army garrison concentrated city jewish priests local surrendered future roman emperor passed march jerusalem building church dedicated saint george 6th century indicates time byzantine rule christian town church remains era located including jewish tomb tower ottomans prison roman villa olive oil press middle ages palestine annexed ibn battle town politically significant arab remained major regional center trade commerce location jerusalem road known arabs sources vague likely george church fell disrepair early decades islamic rule unfavorable circumstances christian population prevented rebuilding partially rebuilt old materials conquered area built large courtyard building monumental gate large vaulted hall thick walls fine masonry defeat church fell ruin document dated signature indicate christian presence time according american biblical scholar edward robinson remains massive walls center village filled houses relics castle built masonry characteristics period remains display arab architectural style post period likely 18th century judging dressing stones ottoman era succeeded ottoman_empire conquered palestine came control following years appeared tax registers jerusalem jerusalem population households villagers paid fixed tax rate agricultural products including wheat olive trees fruit trees goats addition occasional revenues total administration larger jerusalem district ottoman rule christian village district period main olive oil ottoman activity village minimal remains castle known jail house 19th century early 1830s egypt conquered levant including palestine revolt egyptian authorities area residents subsequently exiled egypt alleged participation uprising joined voluntarily prominent local priests eastern orthodox church built village larger latin roman catholic church dedicated joseph built adjacent ruins george church courtyard george church george church continued serve place worship modern era site archaeological excavation mid-19th century mass held altar certain occasions palestine exploration fund survey western palestine described important christian village latin church convent 1880s frequently ottoman authorities came consistent armed conflict christian village incident resulted deaths men village retaliation residents uprooted burned olive modern times world war ottomans defeated british arab forces brief period military rule region came control league nations british mandate united_nations proposed palestine separate jewish arab states projected arab state arab israeli war west bank region including annexed form kingdom jordan arab state israel occupied west bank victory day war interim agreement west bank strip palestinian national authority israel placed area administrative civil affairs transferred security matters remained israeli control ongoing second began experienced violence extent parts west bank nearby residents face travel restrictions economic july year old resident shot dead sniper allegedly throwing army outpost geography climate located slope hill standing elevation meters sea level situated intersection ancient trade routes mountainous north south route east west route connecting jordan valley mediterranean land area consisted classified built area today total jurisdiction designated built roughly planted olive fruit trees village located kilometers northwest kilometers north jerusalem palestinian refugee camp built southern lands connected village road villages located adjacent east northeast respectively nearby include southwest southeast east north northwest connected main highway road eastern village experiences temperate mediterranean climate based data nearby average monthly high temperatures range january july august corresponding lows rain usually restricted winter season november end april months receive precipitation january december annual rainfall inches demographics according edward robinson population consisted people adult males land population survey carried inhabitants modern inhabitants belong mainly families originally village times migrated countries syria experienced wave emigration half population leaving town pursue better census carried palestinian central bureau statistics shows population classified refugees gender distribution males females age distribution population continues grow according mid year population estimate informal estimate autumn gives population jerusalem find jobs census listed population males females religion remains byzantine era church existence christian community prior muslim conquest continued exist middle ages village inhabited mainly christians names christian inhabitants appeared 10th century inscription stone gate george monastery ottoman tax records late 16th century reveal christian population time informal survey found inhabitants catholics remainder reportedly christians denominations palestinian christians residents remaining muslims refugees certain christian residents 12th century local inhabitants apart local christians settlement attested ruins manor built lower village like sites palestine built settlement heart local christian settlement economy land covered olive trees agriculture longer village main source income village farmers living businesses including restaurants small family owned industries simple commerce unlike west bank unemployment minor issue average income low unstable political situation palestinian territories israeli west bank barrier freezing israel funds palestinian territories longer applies west bank according households connected electricity public network percentage connected sewage system pipe water provided households primarily public network residents receive water private system village home women charitable society offers health services recreational activities women children small businesses restaurants restaurant red valley restaurant garden restaurant hotel pension family opened leisure complex called dream day resort village complex containing half olympic size swimming pool children pool frequented residents surrounding area restaurant known palestinian cuisine contains café palestinian culture hall situated center village restaurant site old city international funding local youth club restored area adding bright accents stone masonry restaurant center tourism complex provides tours rooms olive oil presses ancient restaurant founded palestinian refugee family initially known bar received current owners employees restaurant family culture traditions number local traditions prominent legend inhabitants holy family rested near oak tree town way jerusalem legend origins location ancient jerusalem road nearby mountain named mount traditional story according tradition jew lived visited jerusalem passion seeing jesus rise dead man immediately converted told wife saw wife refused believe killed come life instantly flew away mountain story recited monasteries holy thursday biblical readings legend exists spring village centuries concerning periodically runs low water popular belief work female spirit according palestinian researcher priest occasions dry spring repeat prayers burn reconcile force let water flow like palestinian villages women traditional dress costumes village known greek white greek black dresses hand woven motifs preparing sweet like dish grain wheat feast saint barbara tradition centuries festivals april hosted annual international artists workshop palestine festival known spring held rural village instead major city festival dozens artists world collaborated projects including stone sculptures photography mural paintings installation pieces works influenced qualities dealt subject palestinian identity locally famous harvest hosts annual day festival week hundreds west flock participate harvest festival palestinian politicians opportunity speeches praising palestinian farmers encouraging israeli products reliance domestic agriculture government governed village council consisting members including chairman council founded prominent resident pressured authorities recognize institution village normally required population inhabitants permission establish village council decision approved jordan prime minister representatives largest families formed original council body appointing chairman vice chairman elected chairman alternative list represents leftist alliance democratic liberation palestine palestinian people party won council seats education contains gender mixed primary school founded latin jerusalem managed catholic_church school staff comprises teachers teachers students graduated school daily secondary education university students attend nearby university


hebrew hebrew pronunciation hebrew pronunciation arabic largest city state israel population people live towns directly adjacent city including areas form urban area home nearly residents makes inner core metropolitan area populous metropolitan area israel home world centre world heritage site destination pilgrims built slopes mount settlement history spanning years earliest known settlement vicinity tell small port city established late bronze age 14th century bce 3rd century known making center centuries city changed hands conquered ruled romans byzantines arabs ottomans british establishment state israel municipality governed city city major located israel mediterranean coastline bay covering square kilometres lies kilometres north major regional center northern israel respected academic institutions university located addition largest school israel hebrew school city plays important role israel economy home oldest largest high tech parks country bay center heavy industry petroleum chemical processing functioned western terminus oil pipeline iraq jordan etymology earliest named settlement domain modern day city known hebrew meaning mound arabic tell tell meaning mound fish preserved transformed ancient mentioned composed wild fruits grow locals refer coastal tell foot mountains contains remains appears roman rule time end 1st century roman fortress small jewish settlement established far tell mentioned times book central judaism 4th century work said names explained writes twin ancient settlements calls gradually expanded twin city known greek names references city end byzantine period 6th century mentioned writings william tyre lies area covered modern settlement situated south following arab conquest 7th century refer site established tell ruins mentioned century persian chronicler 13th century arab muhammad captured briefly 12th century believe related simon peter said referred benjamin 12th century jewish traveller chronicler said attributed city founding jewish high priest time jesus english included arabic ancient locals refer tell site hamlet residents moved new fortified site founded miles kilometres east new village nucleus modern originally named arabic new construction locals called arabic new simply early 20th century predominantly arab christian neighborhood expanded outward new location ultimate origin remains unclear theory holds derives high priest christians believe named saint peter theory holds derived hebrew root meaning cover shield mount covers point possible origin hebrew word meaning shore meaning beautiful shore history early history small port city known today tell established late bronze age 14th century bce 6th century bce greek told city bay reference locality area persian period times city moved new site south bat port harbour blocked sand 3rd century city mentioned literature jewish fishing village home jewish scholars greek speaking population living coast time engaged commerce located near town center making traditional high priests temple archaeological site southwest bat mount river mentioned bible mount known cave traditionally linked prophet apprentice arabic highest peak range called place burning burnt offerings sacrifices early times early believed occupied area extends present day hospital jewish cemetery street inhabitants engaged fishing agriculture byzantine rule continued grow assume major importance following arab conquest palestine largely overlooked favor port city began develop 9th century established trading relations egyptian ports city featured shipyards inhabitants arabs jews engaged trade maritime commerce glass production making marine city lucrative industries rule prosperity ended besieged blockaded conquered fierce battle jewish inhabitants garrison reduced small fortified coastal stronghold kingdom jerusalem following victory battle army captured mid july city fortress destroyed richard retook 12th century religious started inhabiting caves mount 13th century formed new catholic monastic order muslim rule church built mount turned mosque later hospital 19th century restored monastery monastery altar church today stands cave associated prophet army captured destroying fortifications rebuilt king louis france majority city homes prevent european returning rule city period 13th 16th centuries information period scarce rule 14th century wrote served port featured fine harbor anchorage vessels ottoman era appeared ottoman tax registers population muslim households paid taxes wheat goats hamlet inhabitants located tell site ancient arab ruler acre moved population new fortified site miles kilometres east laid waste old site according historian new established event marked beginning town life modern location death town remained ottoman rule exception brief periods napoleon conquered unsuccessful campaign conquer palestine syria soon withdraw campaign final proclamation napoleon took credit having razed fortifications spelled time acre egyptian muhammad ali governed son control ottomans egyptian occupation ended acre declined importance rose arrival german settled known german colony turning point development built operated steam based power station opened factories inaugurated carriage services acre playing key role city major jewish immigration took place middle 19th century morocco small immigration turkey years later wave european jews arrived end 19th century romania central jewish society romania purchased acres km2 near jewish settlers city hired tenants agriculture important faith remains founder faith forerunner faith moved acre interred shrine built mount consider shrine second place earth shrine acre precise location mount shown eldest son planned structure designed completed years later grandson separate room remains buried november branch railway known valley railway built event accelerated growth township centre end ottoman rule institute technology established time british mandate captured ottomans september indian horsemen british_army ottoman positions armed spears swords september british troops heading reconnaissance report received indicating turks leaving british preparations enter city came fire district today british elite unit indian horsemen sent attack turkish positions flanks overrun artillery guns mount british mandate industrial port city faith today administrative spiritual centre decades number jews increased steadily immigration especially europe arab immigration hand influx arabs coming mainly surrounding villages syrian arab immigration mainly came result prices salary drop muslim jewish christian populations rose respectively development owed british plans central port hub middle east crude oil british government palestine developed port built rapid development city center country heavy industries towns fully electrified palestine electric company inaugurated electrical power station opening door considerable state run palestine railways built main workshops population shifted percent muslim percent christian percent jewish arabs muslims christians jews living christian community greek catholics partition plan late november designated proposed jewish state arab protests decision evolved violence jews arabs left dozen people dead december december members jewish underground militia threw bombs crowd arabs outside gates consolidated killing injuring response arab employees company killed jewish employees known oil massacre jewish militia raid arab village arab workers lived known massacre control critical ensuing civil war major industrial oil port british palestine british forces april withdrawing city maintaining control port facilities days later downtown controlled combination local foreign arab assaulted jewish forces operation brigade commanded operation led massive displacement arab population according economist time city arabs remained october contemporaneous sources emphasized jewish leadership attempt stop arab exodus city arab leadership factor refugees flight according british district superintendent police effort jews persuade arab populace stay carry normal lives shops business open assured lives interests safe time magazine wrote mass evacuation prompted partly fear partly orders arab leaders left arab quarter ghost city withdrawing arab workers leaders hoped morris said arabs left combination threats encouragement arab leaders writes culminated attack palestinian crowd old marketplace inch mortars april levy mayor city jewish leaders urged arabs leave according jewish heard city ordering arab residents leave late morris quotes british sources stating battles april arabs killed wounded adds total higher state israel declaration establishment state israel gateway jewish immigration israel arab israeli war neighborhoods contested war jewish immigrants settled new neighborhoods hospital hospital central date period master plan created transportation future architectural layout group jews jews claiming state demand bread work directed state institutions viewed elite labor party gained status suffered decline role regional capital opening port exacerbated tourism israeli ministry tourism placed emphasis developing tourist centre population reached early 1970s mass immigration soviet_union boosted population historic ottoman buildings demolished 1990s major section old city razed way new municipal center palestinian suicide attacks took place maxim restaurants bus killing civilians hit rockets second lebanon war killing civilians leading half city population fleeing end week war places hit rockets train depot oil complex demographics israel largest city consisting households population immigrants soviet_union constitute population according israeli central bureau statistics israeli arabs constitute population majority living neighborhoods commonly portrayed model existence arabs jews tensions hostility exist city declining aging population compared jerusalem young people moved center country education jobs young families migrated bedroom communities suburbs result new projects improving infrastructure city managed reverse population decline reducing emigration attracting internal migration city positive net immigration city shown time years religious ethnic communities population jews comprise population christians majority arab christians muslims includes communities arab population aged compared jewish population groups trend continues age group arab population found age group population jews age groups respectively nineteen percent city jewish population compared arab population continues jews aged age comparison respectively arab population jews city compared national scale community growing fast high fertility rate secular compared national average significant portion immigrants soviet_union lack official religious ethnic classification non jews mixed marriage families jewish origin scandinavian seamen protestant church established norwegian nations pastor center liberal palestinian culture british colonial rule palestinian neighborhoods mixed muslim christian near sea jewish neighborhoods higher elevation active palestinian cultural life developed 21st century geography situated israeli mediterranean coastal plain historic land bridge europe africa asia mouth river located northern slopes mount bay city split tiers lowest center commerce industry including port middle level slopes mount consists older residential neighborhoods upper level consists modern neighborhoods looking lower tiers views western region israel border kilometers north city large number beaches mediterranean flora fauna mountain main valleys undeveloped natural corridors run city coast mountain marked hiking paths traverse areas provide habitat wildlife wild golden egyptian climate hot summer mediterranean climate hot dry summers cool rainy winters climate classification spring arrives march temperatures begin increase late temperature warmed considerably herald warm summer days average temperature summer winter snow rare temperatures occur usually early morning humidity tends high year round rain usually occurs september annual precipitation approximately millimeters neighborhoods developed tiers lower upper city oldest neighborhood modern old city center near port major road razed way government buildings stretches center arab life today 19th century ottoman rule german colony built providing model urban planning buildings restored colony turned center buildings constructed start 20th century cultural center marketplace 1920s 1980s arab neighborhoods today stretches port area near bay approximately halfway mount german colony houses commercial centers port area midway mountain surrounded city older neighborhoods neighborhood located second tier mount founded 1920s west port neighborhoods bat beach west east arab neighborhoods built 1960s 70s south mount road neighborhoods david affluent neighborhoods french general divisions arab jewish neighborhoods increasing trend wealthy arabs affluent jewish neighborhoods neighborhoods home national headquarters israel muslim community located near overlooking coast urban development recently residential construction concentrated new residential construction approximately non residential construction highest lower town bay construction city private currently city modest number high rise buildings additional high rise buildings planned approved construction buildings rising stories built mount past municipality banned construction new buildings taller stories mount july neighborhood located heart downtown redeveloped jewish arab residents considered gradually evicted years economic corporation ltd developing square meter lots office commercial use historic buildings renovated redeveloped especially theaters palace turkish middle eastern music dance club converted theaters offices new massive development plan announced waterfront according plan western section city port torn port activity moved east west port transformed tourism center point arrival sea travel construction public spaces beach renovation commercial buildings train tracks currently city separate city beach rest buried park developed border river cooling towers turned visitors center bridges lead port rest city massive renovations currently underway lower town turkish market paris square city business center addition tank bay industrial zone dismantled new built alternative location plan seeks turn western section port major tourism center functioning point arrival sea travel port activity moved western area redeveloped public spaces beach developed commercial buildings renovated development plans israeli navy large presence withdraw shoreline bat kilometer mile long shoreline constructed include bicycle path possibly small bridge navy vessels pass way sea addition square meter entertainment complex contain disney theme park cinemas shops screen theater built check post exit tunnels new major plan city proposed extensive development residential business leisure areas place target increasing city population plan new neighborhoods built new high tech parks addition existing employment centers renovated new leisure areas large park built economy common israeli saying works jerusalem plays reputation city workers industry industrial region eastern city river home oil oil israel located processes million tons million barrels crude oil year unused twin meter high cooling towers built 1930s tallest buildings built british mandate period short scientific industries center largest oldest business park israel southern entrance city hosting manufacturing facilities large number israeli international tech companies microsoft google yahoo campus university home port leader passenger traffic israeli ports major cargo harbor seen dominance challenged port shopping centers include center mall center center colony center tower mall mall grand magazine identified city promising business potential greatest investment opportunities world magazine noted massive head toe regeneration starting impact cranes town renovated new smart places eat municipality spent million roads infrastructure number building permits risen previous years announced technology focused stock exchange established compete stock exchange currently hotels hotels planned approved construction municipality seeking turn city northern israel tourist center travelers embark day trips acre new life sciences industrial park containing buildings square meters space acre site built adjacent industrial park tourism hotels total rooms city kilometres shoreline kilometres beaches main tourist attraction world centre golden shrine surrounding gardens visited shrine gardens designated world heritage site restored german colony founded cave draw tourists located district artists colony artists studios exhibitions mount national park caves early remains found report commissioned municipality calls construction hotels ferry line acre development western anchorage port recreation entertainment area expansion local airport port accommodate international travel cruise ships arts culture despite image port industrial city cultural hub northern israel 1950s mayor special effort encourage authors poets city founded theatre theater municipal theater founded country principal arabic theater northern arab population theater theaters city include centre performing arts art culture center congress center hosts exhibitions concerts special events new symphony orchestra established subscribers people attended concerts founded hosts annual international film festival intermediate days holiday movie theaters city publishes local newspaper radio station radio 1990s hosted rock blues festival featuring bob_dylan nick cave harvey festival held crow faith museums dozen museums popular museum israel national museum science technology space recorded visitors museum located historic building neighborhood museum art houses collection modern classical art displays history museum japanese art museum middle_east dedicated solely japanese art museums include museum national maritime museum city museum museum archaeological museum grain handling railway museum clandestine immigration navy museum israeli oil industry museum artists house campaign bring culture mayor provided artist building mount house collection museum educational zoo park houses small animal collection including syrian brown bears extinct israel zoo house biology institute close vicinity northern bar wild life operated israel parks reserves authority purpose breeding species extinct israel persian deer government industrial port city traditionally labor party stronghold strong presence dock workers trade unions earned nickname red addition prominent arabs israeli communist_party recent years drift center best legislative elections party receiving votes labor municipality fairly unusual developed cooperation mixed arab jewish community city representatives groups involved city management mayor city_council arab jewish representatives city run mixed municipality overall arab control greater cooperation introduced adopted positive attitude city jews gave senior posts municipality jewish mayor levy elected levy deputies arab muslim christian remainder council jews arabs today governed 12th city_council headed mayor results municipal elections decide makeup council similarly elections city_council legislative council city authority pass auxiliary laws 12th council elected members liberal ticket holding seats coming second decisions passed city_council results recommendation municipal committees committees non municipal organs meet representatives city_council committees spontaneous mandatory security committee tender committee financial committee medical facilities medical facilities total hospital beds largest hospital government operated hospital beds hospital hospital beds hospitals city include italian hospital hospital beds medical center beds beds family health centers total hospital medical center direct line fire second lebanon war forced special precautions protect patients wings hospital moved large underground shelters education home internationally acclaimed universities colleges university founded campus designed architect united_nations headquarters new_york oscar floor story tower provides view northern israel museum important art collections campus university israel institute technology described israel mit founded research original building houses science museum hebrew school founded largest school israel students branches city technological high school israel established academic institutions gordon college education religious teachers college academy design education college design college management open university israel branches city nursing college practical engineering school elementary schools middle schools academic high schools high schools pupils municipal elementary schools middle schools academic high schools high schools comprehensive district high schools students attended hebrew speaking schools attended arab schools special education municipal libraries books prestigious arab schools orthodox school run greek orthodox church school catholic institution transportation served railway stations currently israel subway system construction coastal railway main line israel railways runs coast gulf stations city south west north east stations bat railway station northern suburb form suburban line direct trains ben international airport jerusalem locations trains stations bus connections operated exclusively bus company operates central bus station adjacent railway station central bus station adjacent railway station lines north country use central bus station coverage includes towns north israel lines heading south use central bus station destinations directly cbs include jerusalem ben international airport intermediate communities lines terminus neighborhood run jerusalem gender segregated lines urban lines run share run bus routes official schedule implemented trial network neighborhood mini buses named run december app taxi service allows users hail cab contacting taxi station identifying closest taxi current initial phase service operating suburbs new concept bus rapid transit system called buses operating hybrid engines follow optical strips embedded designated lanes roads providing like public transportation services consists meter buses capacity passengers operating designated roadways new system officially opened august serving lines cities israel buses operate bus lines operate city reduced schedule late saturday morning onwards connect intermediate communities summer night buses operated line suburbs line summer lines operated nights week winter schedule limited thursday friday saturday nights making buses israel operate friday night city israel operate saturday bus service beaches summer time lines run saturday neighborhoods bat beaches afternoon underground railway system called subterranean rails running downtown paris square mother park mount single track stations trains listed world records world shortest metro line cable car cable car lift consists connects bat coast observation deck monastery atop mount serves mainly tourists currently plans add kilometre commuter cable car service public transport system running central bus station foot mount university air sea transport airport serves domestic flights international charters cyprus greece jordan operates flights currently plans expand services cruise ships operate port primarily destinations eastern mediterranean southern europe black_sea roads travel center country possible road highway main highway coastal plain beginning ending furthermore highway runs coast north south inland highway past traffic highway north pass downtown area city tunnels opened traffic december route traffic mount reducing congestion downtown area sports main seat stadium thomas stadium athletic stadium seats construction stadium approved seat stadium completed city main football clubs currently play israeli premier league share stadium home pitch won israeli titles won city american football club israeli football league play stadium team lost championship game league inaugural season won title american football israel merged israeli football league city clubs regional leagues including bet fourth tier fifth tier professional basketball club recently promoted israeli basketball super league division team plays arena seats hawks ice hockey team based city participate israeli league level israeli ice hockey city hosted world championship tennis club near southwest entrance city largest israel john olympic horse owner triple cup champion born twin towns sister cities following cities