australian contribution australian services contingent australian_army contribution united_nations transition assistance group mission australia sent contingents engineers assist special representative secretary general overseeing free fair elections constituent assembly largest deployment australian troops vietnam war australian mission widely reported successful colonel john commander second australian contingent wrote november election observed australian contingent complete wide ranging support critical success election mission fact acknowledged highest level secretary general united_nations wrote evans australia foreign minister remarkable contribution australian military electoral personnel saying dedication widely praised total personnel lost lives australian contingents achieved mission sustaining fatalities military units overall mission assisted transitioning democratic government racial segregation system military forces fire shot operation called possibly successful operation fielded called major successes united_nations years later message annual session united_nations special committee february secretary general ban moon noted process constituted chapters organization history background history conflict southwest africa rich history encompassing war genocide european set foot soil portuguese explorer years country dutch english germans german colony german south west_africa annexation south_africa world war war mandated south_africa league nations world war united_nations asked south_africa place south_africa refused legal arguments continued general_assembly resolved end mandate declaring henceforth south west_africa direct responsibility height cold war conflict escalated border cuban intervention cuba formed alliance people movement liberation portuguese popular led deployment cuban soldiers region war independence year war independence began south west_africa people organisation military wing people liberation army plan began guerrilla attacks south african forces bases attack battle august war classic operation plan initially established bases northern later forced country south african defence force subsequently operating bases southern intensity cross border conflict escalated known south african border war bush war principal protagonists plan groups involved included south west african territorial force national union total independence aligned people armed forces liberation cuban revolutionary armed forces aligned south african aligned forces consisted regular army south west african police forces south west_africa police counter unit coin including paramilitary trained police counter unit known perspective nature closely war independence war independence south african border war typically cross border conflict overshadowed large scale cuban military war independence november eve independence intensified civil war conflict south_africa provided support northern border opposition soviet_union financially backed estimated infantry divisions cuban troops soviet led people armed forces liberation offensive known second cuban intervention september cuban forces came defence besieged army stopped advance battle largest battle africa world war general wrote memoirs campaign marked great victory nelson disagreed asserted turning point liberation continent people battle led security council resolution november demanding withdrawal december force deployed april cuban troops year war mounted cross border operations plan bases extended kilometres units frequently remained southern intercept plan combatants way south forcing plan bases far border plan operations took form small raids political activists armed propaganda activity recruitment raids white settlements disruption essential services united_nations transition assistance group process leading independence began general_assembly resolution october followed passage security council resolution adopted march resolution assumed direct responsibility territory declared continued presence south_africa illegal calling government south_africa withdraw immediately international negotiations peaceful solution problem increased december known protocol south_africa cuba formally accepted security council resolution outlining blueprint independence protocol envisioned phased withdrawal cuban forces year period set april date resolution implementation planned reduce south african forces june resolution established approving report secretary general outlining objective withdrawal south_africa illegal administration transfer power people assistance united_nations resolution authorised total military personnel upper limit south_africa agreed implement resolution signing accord agreement cuba south_africa headquarters new_york_city accord recommended april set date implementation resolution affirmed security council january noted characteristic consent secured force deployed accord place principally south_africa formally established accordance resolution february key participants process south african government represented administrator general wrote south_africa desire smooth transition resulted negotiations occurring locally special representative administrator general directly south african government secretary general security council outcome negotiations south_africa included draft electoral laws enabling free fair elections disbanding force elections carried south african administrator general supervision operation ultimately involved countries highest operation high level credibility recognised legitimate body bring independence australian political context official history australian humanitarian post cold war operations author david stated australian government led robert south_africa 1950s time australia generally opposed anti colonial movements supported soviets china believing world wide communist offensive late australia britain vote condemn south_africa australia voted resolution condemning south_africa actions south west_africa change policy led external affairs minister initially opposition prime minister vocal advocate independence following decades australia played small significant role supporting independence political leaders benches parliament including prime ministers active internationally support independence office result australia involved process start australia voted favour trust fund years later elected council australia pledged support inception plan resolution september important contribution non permanent member security council scenes composition force australia contribute agreed principle late options discussed time force infantry battalion group october prime minister publicly stated wanted send force broadly supported november article bulletin claimed defence department dead commitment january daily_telegraph canberra times reported andrew foreign affairs jim defence involved row plan following month cabinet submission stated proposal reasonable prospect success cabinet approved commitment engineer force officers men national headquarters support element february noted little criticism decision press time decision accepted question leaving government continued play important role international relations respect independence chaired hearings new_york role south_africa chaired commonwealth eminent persons group campaigning end south_africa bob government continued policy governments support independence official history stated australian evans appointed foreign minister september evans australia willingness participate october month appointment said commitment unusual occurred decade government initial decision participate february years consideration government commitment force engineers march concerns size commitment risks deployment prime minister said parliament large important commitment comprising half army construction engineering capability went effort largest commitment country participated difficult unlike commitment soldiers vietnam years earlier deployment support prior deployment south african authorities threatened veto involvement australian troops doubts followed establishment australian government special assistance program south assist south focus education training people south_africa humanitarian assistance provided total million spent official history described australian deployment vital mission major deployment troops war zone vietnam war australia military personnel deployed multinational operations exceptions number australians committed activities changed little years korean war successful deployment engineers pivotal changing australia approach paving way larger contingents sent east deployment significant force profoundly affected australia defence foreign policies australian contingent command large operation nearly men women deployed countries assist process military force numbered approximately commanded lieutenant general india main military headquarters based capital largest city commanders australian contingents richard warren john senior appointments included contingent seconds command lieutenant kevin officers commanding 17th construction squadron majors david mission role mission monitor troop preserve law order supervise elections new government official history described extremely complex mission role assist special representative secretary general overseeing free fair elections constituent assembly elections carried south african administrator general supervision control assembly draw constitution independent tasked assisting ensuring hostile acts ceased south african troops confined base ultimately withdrawn laws repealed political prisoners released refugees permitted return known intimidation prevented law order maintained instance large scale operation military element supported work components concerned border surveillance monitoring reduction removal south african military presence organising return supervising voter registration preparing observing results national elections role australian contingent role australian force broad army engineering unit requiring unit provide combat engineer support included civilian military components role included construction field engineering initially deployment infantry prime minister said parliament time settlement long complex issue independence important international event event australia played continue play substantial large arid sparsely populated country war zone years engineers build roads bridges camps task clearing mines laid forces border organisation composition contingents australian force structured follows headquarters chief engineer operations works accommodations communications finance logistics personnel cells construction squadron group based 17th construction squadron royal australian engineers construction troops 8th 9th troops 14th field troop resources troop plant troop attached royal australian electrical mechanical engineers workshop contingents contained soldiers deployed months consisted members principally drawn 17th construction squadron workshop 14th field troop 7th field squadron brisbane contingents included soldiers royal australian corps signals royal australian_army pay corps australian_army legal corps royal australian corps military police royal australian corps transport royal australian_army ordnance corps australian_army catering corps royal australian_army medical corps consisted personnel members different units second contingent included 15th field troop 18th field squadron fourteen members corps royal new_zealand engineers australian_army reserve members royal_australian_air_force officer flight lieutenant new_zealand engineers lieutenant spread squadron second contingent included detachment royal australian corps military police led sergeant tim addition military force number australians served including observers australian electoral commission duration deployment australian department foreign affairs trade defence agreed jointly fund temporary australian liaison office manned personnel headed nick warner force preparation deployment years australian_army involvement february cabinet approved plan commit 17th construction squadron royal australian engineers workshop main force deployment squadron supplemented field troop members posted units army bringing squadron deployment strength headquarters formed supporting chief engineer military headquarters total strength force ranks known plan unit placed weeks notice july reduced week notice february agreement settlement south_africa order issued official history noted weeks passed unit found difficult continue training vehicles equipment plant boxes state ready notice reverted days june pushed days september unit formally released standby notice increased days march days november july remaining specific readiness requirements removed activation wrote government following course negotiations view history false inclined react cuba south_africa signed protocol geneva august weeks later wrote asking australia previous commitment month cabinet reaffirmed commitment decade earlier chief defence force general peter placed unit days notice notice reactivated detailed planning essentially scratch changes organisation force approved years earlier minor years notice skepticism deployment occur government army cautious timing commitment funds significant funding released late months deployment squadron equipment deficiencies valued million need buy equipment immediately initially estimated cost entire operation billion equivalent budget reluctance commit funds ultimately reduced training deployed forces senator said parliament operation nearly fell apart lack advance funding senator newman called general_assembly approve budget march weeks advance party deployed deployment start team authorised operation march addition lack funds little intelligence region generally unknown australian public policy makers troops civilians deployed buildup deployment staff posted new contingent headquarters barracks september time major deployed liaison officer new_york october formally tasked chief general staff raise train equip support force december units comprising raised thirty different units australian_army trained prepared deployment equipment vehicles weapons transferred army prepared included painting vehicles major equipment items packing items transport buildup recognised families required support deployment network established support sydney based soldiers officers families sent member start team arriving february warren attended contingent commanders briefing february flew frankfurt west_germany meet senior members advance party comprising officers men deployed galaxy raaf diego arrived march met australian ambassador south_africa warren 17th construction squadron advance party deployed road march squadron advance comprising personnel including 14th field troop arrived galaxy march remainder commended prime minister bob farewell parade barracks april main body deployed raaf boeing aircraft april force deployed large quantity construction equipment including land terrain vehicles heavy trucks trailers variety road building equipment support workshop added vehicles tonnes stores shipped contingent equipment total wheeled tracked vehicles trailers large quantity dangerous cargo demolition explosives ammunition hired deployment departed sydney march equipment bay mid april moving road rail south african defence force logistics base operations operations safe passage march 14th field troop completed awareness training lieutenant stephen alexander remained main base north country early hours april aircraft began dropping mortar rounds landed near base signalled start intense period conflict alexander team quickly withdrawn occurred large number plan combatants entering accounts differed stated interviewed time clear enter war seek reported demanded right establish bases large size plan forces small number deployed forces time meant little intelligence unable respond force wrote informed high probability occur australians know found informally church sources pastoral centre accommodations headquarters staff police observers north country time south african government pressured allow forces leave bases respond april authorised leave bases responded force april reported troops north country including australians april reported louis assured safe passage war torn north country fighting ceased called surrender police warned respond police option pursue means disposal reported killed april single action later estimated week period following plan combatants killed loss members security forces complex political issue led week tense negotiations considered emergency bring territory united_states offered aid april agreement reached mount mount declaration calling rapid deployment forces outlining withdrawal procedure plan soldiers operation safe passage leave country operation australian operation wrote play role ending fighting obvious australians key component complex required defence minister kim australian troops supervise withdrawal forces required australian_army engineers british work infantry manning border internal assembly points time units quickly northern aim operation facilitate withdrawal plan combatants south african foreign minister confined south african troops base hours allowing leave country assembly points established soldiers military observers assembly points led australians captain richard contingent signals officer charlie sergeant squadron workshop captain mark squadron operations officer juliet lieutenant stephen alexander field troop commander delta beacon west lieutenant mark plant troop officer lieutenant pat liaison officer assembly points intense media scrutiny intention operation plan combatants assemble points escorted border north 16th parallel bases confinement operation unsuccessful plan combatants passed points withdrew border walking independently estimated plan members remained absorbed local community agreement subsequently reached late april personnel restricted bases april effect hostilities ended date time australian soldiers deployed south determined forces casualties occurred immediate vicinity south set force immediately adjacent pointed machine guns australians demanded hand soldiers surrendered australian british soldiers outnumbered despite fact appeared points operation political success lieutenant colonel commander british contingent said world press showed australian british soldiers standing bunch south african said fact australian soldiers completed operation casualties tribute training standards australian_army bit good luck conclusion operation meant australians able begin engineering tasks return refugees plan required exiled given opportunity return country time participate electoral process implemented united_nations high commissioner refugees supported number agencies programmes council churches implementing partner returning returned came small number came countries proclamation general amnesty logistics managing largely delegated australian contingent air land entry points established reception centres centres designed consult incorporated constructed australian contingent centres located near administered auspices reconstruction committee 8th construction troop lieutenant constructed camp managed reception centre kilometres border 9th construction troop lieutenant andrew constructed similar camp managed reception centre continued attempts australians disrupt operations actions little effect late april aircraft dropped night 9th construction troop base explosions possibly mortar rounds heard nearby security services logistics reception centres provided military component number secondary reception centres established movement centres quick programme successful official report stated psychological impact return country problems reported north elements searched villages reported kept constant surveillance police monitors end process returned exile accommodation works remainder deployment contingent focused efforts providing accommodations electoral centres police stations typically manned police civilian electoral staff small remote villages buildings leased large number purchased deployed buildings constructed locations resources troop lieutenant stuart graham centrally controlled squadron construction officer captain shane miller largest plant task undertaken deployment construction squadron commander major david described road network better expected retrospect squadron brought heavy road making equipment squadron deployed members plant troop captain period months sergeant constructed weather remote parts force rotation contingent returned australia september october warren reporting amazed men killed seriously hurt tour duty planning second contingent begun soon contingent deployed colonel john appointed contingent commander given task raising force unlike contingent built 17th construction squadron maintained unit structure second contingent built scratch deployed september early october election preparation operation poll security environment changed lead election including violence increase fighting troops border wrote australian contingent directly involved dealing violence increased violence changed nature mission initially envisioned military component provide communications support election september role include hundreds electoral monitors october detailed planning reconnaissance polling stations australian contingent deployed ready reaction force time 15th field troop lieutenant deployed making entry live minefield australian troops vietnam war operation poll given largely operation support elections activities began onward primary task service support support provided approximately electoral centres police stations erection permanent portable accommodations provision essential services deployed polling stations australian contingent constructed provided support including facilities stations northern areas west construction engineering included construction modification upgrade working living accommodations provision essential services power water air traffic control facilities maintenance upgrade roads ready reaction force squadron formed reinforced field troop soldiers proof vehicles ready reaction force deploying sensitive locations practising actions hostile violent situation australians involved occasions november election ready reaction force disperse australian military electoral monitors australian contingent provided team thirty monitors headed lieutenant colonel peter legal officer second contingent colonel john commander wrote mission particularly lead election members worked away bases security environment best termed uneasy occasions definitely hazardous deeply divided political factions included thousands soldiers sides easy access weapons including machine guns grenades situation resulted series violent incidents including killings culminated deaths civilians wounding street battles northern town election land mines ammunition continued cause injury death week election incidents post election return australia election contingent able focus exclusively construction tasks addition ongoing maintenance included taking barracks accommodations non tasks support local community nation building exercises included airfield major task completion airfield upgrade begun contingent detachment captain kurt plant troop supported section 9th construction troop worked christmas complete works included shaping runway drainage installing catholic mission hydroelectric plant team lieutenant nick upgraded metre supply channel hydroelectric plant classrooms rear squadron constructed number classrooms anglican school black neighbourhood funds provided australian liaison office tasks carried squadron included operation safe took place february march field troop conducted reconnaissance known minefields repaired perimeter fences installed signs contingent began preparations return australia december january new works stopped manning forward bases reduced stores equipment packed prepared sea australian forces returned sorties chartered commercial aircraft departing february contingent equipment loaded aboard left bay february withdrawal included support australian logistics experts psychologist conduct end tour finance officer demolition task undertaken march elements rear party left april deployment fatalities soldiers treated malaria injuries honour distinction award number governments linked award nobel peace prize operation award shared operations worldwide secretary general mentioned number operations including nobel lecture oslo january senator graham richardson similar comments australian senate australian contingents awarded chief general staff award presented contingents defence minister march parade served operations april army chief lieutenant general david morrison approved recommendation award honour distinction 17th construction squadron awarded units sub units recognition service operational conditions security related peace enforcement similar operations award presented unit governor general operational issues force chief engineer appointment colonel richard warren chief engineer opposed general special political affairs director office special representative secretary general planned civilian filling role working primarily civilian contractors subsequent missions senior engineer civilian resisted appointing warren minute final approval given march warren recalled gave abnormal authority remarkable degree responsibility weapons rules engagement contingents faced number issues concerning weapons rules engagement rules engagement major issue contingents concerned rules engagement orders opening fire doctrine area unable develop mission australian contingent standard prepared deployment machine guns required australians deploy belt fed machine gun standard section level automatic weapon time instead contingent required deploy world war vintage light machine guns round magazine weapons rebuilt accept ammunition deployment weapons number occasions soldiers asked deploy weapons civilian officials early deployment asked conduct unarmed reconnaissance permission refused near election australian military electoral monitors asked deploy civilian clothes weapons land mines land mines major feature war triggering development protected vehicles typically laid marked anti personnel minefields perimeter protection bases vital assets laid reported mines conflict arrived mines intimidation mines laid individually clusters anti tank mines stacked mines obtained south_africa ussr czechoslovakia yugoslavia initial training 25th field squadron early task field troop conduct awareness training contingents remainder deployment work field engineers clearing exposed mines marking minefields clearing routes wrote time vietnam war australian hand cleared way live minefields seven separate occasions destroy exposed mines similar mines killed civilians animals mission field engineers contingent destroyed items ordnance ranging artillery shells rpg rockets grenades legacy year bush war posed major hazard local inhabitants northern provinces personnel area support deployment leased number protected vehicles smaller numbers wolf vehicles leased vehicles excellent mobility suited operations harsh terrain contingent thermal technologies thought operational use technology radio communications major difficulties early deployment poor radio communications australian contingent equipped radios manufactured issued australian_army output power limited radio communications frequently impossible early month deployment primary factor march storm exacerbated skip zone ground plane effects resulting sandy environment high water table detachments radio contact extended periods satisfactory alternate means communication australian force operated large distances troop deployments kilometres squadron force headquarters communications took days later deployment provided contingent higher powered state art equipment controversy intimidation number observers noted soldiers particularly popular white residents shortly australian advance party arrived pro newspaper accused australian officers attending cocktail party leading members present incident widely reported international press soon australian british soldiers beaten large crowd kilometres squadron headquarters weeks deployment number occasions soldiers discharged firearms direction australian contingent pointed firearms australians means intimidation corporal paul shepherd reported operation soldier threw grenade explode assembly point near night south fired direction putting bullet holes truck concerns deployment controversy government non resolution coverage veterans act decided deployment considered operational service pay issues resolved conditions service issues identified resolved deployment issues brought parliament attention issue mail censorship raised second contingent rotation soldiers families time welfare officer tasked supporting deployment issues appropriate service conditions awards recognition took years resolve serving required day period contingent members entitled australian service medal non service years return australia government changed status operation contingent members eligible returned active service badge upgraded australian active service medal decision major wrote army newspaper calling pointless upgrade saying award truly deserve letter compared operation subsequent operations 1st battalion royal australian regiment deployment operation deployment service personnel international force east operations involved robust rules engagement appropriate intervention forces sanctioned australian led multi national way contrast classic operation led relatively environment rules engagement focused force protection questioned half hearted approach implementing decision eligible people apply upgrade saying failed test timeline australian involvement timeline key dates presented following table


battle battle fought british 6th airborne division german infantry division june early phases invasion normandy second world war june units infantry division occupied les village watershed rivers point observe positions 6th airborne division defending river canal bridges british sword beach following german attacks british positions les capture village essential secure 6th airborne division positions protect allied british attack occurred night june major general richard nelson gale committed reserves 12th yorkshire parachute battalion company 12th battalion regiment 22nd independent parachute company support attack tank squadron 13th 18th royal regiments artillery assigned division assault negotiate british german artillery fire killed wounded men including senior officers attackers eventually reached secured village officer sergeant major took attack killed wounded capture germans seriously attempted break airborne division lines british division subjected sporadic artillery mortar fire lasted august germans started withdraw 6th airborne division advanced river background june 6th airborne division landed normandy secure left flank british landing zone division objectives capture intact canal bridge river bridge destroy gun battery position engage troops landing nearby sword beach bridges crossing river prevent german reinforcements approaching landings east division parachute brigades landing early hours june scattered countryside parachute drop battalions muster cent total strength drop zones carry objectives 6th brigade arrived reinforce evening 6th airborne division 1st special service brigade command defend easy task face elements 21st division south infantry divisions east airborne division brigades prepared hold positions captured 5th parachute brigade division depth formation dug east river bridge 6th brigade south remaining brigades dug ridge high ground lost offered germans position look british landing zone 1st special service brigade north line plain brigade 3rd parachute brigade defensive line incomplete small village les 3rd parachute brigade held germans located ridge line gave germans view heart british position captured bridges distance sword beach battle june june 9th parachute battalion ninety men time marched arrival 3rd parachute brigade position parachute battalion ordered dig northern end brigade line responsible defending area saint come clearing woods house known stretch open land leading les road les shortage numbers left large gap 9th parachute battalion commando southern unit commando defensive position north german infantry division reached area base attack regiment 1st special service brigade attacking strength near breaking line commando counter attacked drove later morning commando came artillery mortar fire attacked cleared village germans capturing prisoners machine guns artillery pieces withdrew original position germans village formed defensive positions facing ridge line defended airborne division positions isolated 9th parachute battalion cut rest division day patrol 9th parachute battalion saint come found abandoned presence clothing equipment half eaten meal payroll containing french betrayed recent german occupancy units regiment infantry division attacked battalion position midday appeared attack easily fought company later day germans attacked companies time repelled vickers machine gun fire counter attack battalion anti tank platoon machine gun group command regimental sergeant major june german attack dawn june heavy mortar barrage landed 9th parachute battalion positions companies attacked simultaneously taking heavy casualties germans retreated woods surrounding reformed attempted unsuccessful attack hour later brigade headquarters attacked force germans woods informed attack lieutenant colonel commanding officer 9th parachute battalion collected company headquarters staff small group armed captured german machine guns approached germans rear trapped killing nineteen capturing afternoon infantry attacked company fought counter attack company position flight luftwaffe attacked causing little way damage soon afterward royal_air_force short bombers arrived carry parachute resupply division included parachute drop pounder anti tank guns delivered 9th parachute battalion missing men arrived position bringing battalion strength men june reconnaissance patrol 13th parachute battalion reported large gathering germans suspected attack imminent massive artillery mortar bombardment fell 1st special service brigade lines regiment gathered village attacked commando attack commando driven left win hand hand fight germans withdrew twice day attacked unsuccessfully north battalion regiment crossed drop zone approached 5th parachute brigades positions forward units 7th parachute battalion 13th parachute battalion held fire germans yards away survivors onslaught escaped nearby woods early june group thirty men arrived 9th parachute battalion position arrived night brought battalion strength men germans attacked company time attack ill coordinated easily repelled shortly battalion killed germans started digging defences view british position company ambushed german patrol causing casualties afternoon strong force germans occupied base start infantry self propelled gun assault british battalion mortar ammunition left british use machine guns stop attack german attack force 2nd battalion regiment 1st 2nd battalion regiment companies regiment tank armoured car support attempted force gap british lines 3rd parachute brigade reach infantry companies attacked company 9th parachute battalion position assault determined naval gunfire support inch guns hms stop attack reached british position hand hand fight ensued germans killed prisoners taken commander 2nd battalion regiment informed captors regiment destroyed fighting airborne division rest german assault came 1st canadian parachute battalion stopped artillery bombardment later attacks suffered fate later company 9th parachute battalion fought way occupied fought small attacks night parachute brigades commando brigade heavily engaged major general richard gale contacted corps armour support decided clear woods germans objective given 7th parachute battalion squadron 13th 18th royal tanks advance open ground cover crashed company clear woods fighting british casualties wounded parachute battalion men killed stuart tanks destroyed germans regiment killed men surrendered driven woods german attacks convinced lieutenant general john commander corps reinforce 6th airborne division 51st highland infantry division ordered southern sector time 5th battalion black watch attached 3rd parachute brigade black watch informed prepare assault capture formed rear 9th parachute battalion ready begin attack day june black watch attack south west attack sent company defence supported guns mortars airborne highland divisions attack began reach battalion cross yards open ground neared village british artillery ceased fire germans opened fire artillery mortars machine guns company completely wiped german machine gun fire advanced open ground met heavy concentrated fire battalion suffered casualties attack repulsed survivors retreated immediately counter attacked 3rd battalion infantry regiment suffered heavy casualties afternoon troops tanks 13th 18th royal sent reinforce black watch started tanks destroyed hidden german self propelled guns tanks withdrawn unable deploy wooded ground rest day night passed attack germans sent reconnaissance patrols establish exact location british positions german armoured vehicles heard moving night june midday june entire 3rd parachute brigade position came artillery mortar fire prior major attack scheduled start german battalion attacked 1st canadian parachute battalion supported tanks self propelled guns attacked 9th parachute battalion 5th black watch battle cost black watch gun carriers destroyed anti tank guns unable resist forced pull joining 9th parachute battalion attacked german armoured vehicles tank company hit rounds remained action tank destroyed company machine gun posts hit anti tank withdrew attack killed wounded men machine gun platoon anti tank platoon reduced detachment german infantry danger running battalion contacted brigade headquarters informing able hold longer brigadier james hill personally led counter attack men canadian battalion drove germans area defended battalions cleared opposition line restored night attack gale concluded relieve pressure division units available attack division reserve consisted 12th parachute battalion men company 12th battalion regiment eighty men unit 22nd independent parachute company division stand respond german counter attack provide fire support gale given squadron tanks 13th 18th royal field artillery regiments armed pounder guns medium artillery regiment inch guns division artillery 53rd worcester light regiment attack start timed catch germans tired guard following days fighting start line outskirts secured commando lieutenant colonel johnny johnson 12th parachute battalion command assault decided company secure crossroads company clear north village time company advance company secure south east rear company battalion reserve attack cross yards open ground reach village support assault destroy german position yards start line troop tanks accompany british artillery opened fire germans responded artillery mortars forced british cover minutes german fire allowed continue lead company crossed start line officers company sergeant major casualties senior non commissioned officer took command company continued advance artillery mortar bombardment guided objective rounds tanks repeatedly hit artillery tanks flames time company survivors reached village battalion company suffered similar fate officer commanding wounded crossing start line time member 2nd platoon killed wounded assumed command company killed reached company second command bringing rear reached village found 3rd platoon men left managed clear village 1st platoon cleared grounds company moving artillery round landed wounding men crossed start line shell landed nearby killing johnson company commander major wounding lord commando brigade hugh brigade observing attack colonel parker deputy commander brigade commanding officer 12th parachute battalion wounded shell went forward command attack crossroads secured remained company eighteen survivors company south eastern buildings north east village survivors company captured objective stopped company reached village unopposed occupied abandoned german trenches church fearing german counter attack weakened battalion parker ordered defensive artillery bombardment misunderstanding order reached artillery heavy bombardment landed british positions village causing casualties including surviving officers june 13th 18th royal squadron arrived company position crossroads later followed men 22nd independent parachute company british control time landings june numbers defend german counter attack 1st battalion royal rifles 6th brigade moved village survivors attack aftermath final attack cost 12th parachute battalion killed left rifle companies thirty men 12th company thirty killed casualties officer warrant officer killed wounded german defenders 3rd battalion regiment numbered men british assault time village captured left left flank invasion zone secure june 51st highland infantry division took responsibility southern sector releasing 6th brigade strengthen 6th airborne division position ridge line months period static warfare august division crossed river advanced north french coast august reached mouth river capturing prisoners square miles km2 france battle claimed important battles invasion division lost battle germans position attack landing beaches battle germans attempted attack division accomplishment battle honours awarded parachute regiment normandy campaign


operation ferdinand operation ferdinand military deception employed allies second world war formed operation bodyguard major strategic deception intended confuse german high command allied invasion plans ferdinand consisted strategic tactical intended draw attention away operation landing areas southern france threatening invasion genoa italy planned eugene june july operated early september described successful force strategic helped allies achieve complete tactical surprise landings pinned german troops genoa region late july background operation ferdinand formed operation bodyguard broad strategic military deception intended confuse axis high command allied intentions lead normandy landings early main thrust middle eastern theatre contained operation including sub plan developed threats greece southern france operation royal flush ran political spain turkey june allies committed landing southern france operation royal flush scaled tone threat france decided new plan ferdinand required cover intended invasion allied nations invaded italy september pushed germans gothic line north country ferdinand intended develop threat genoa expected allied assault gothic line august september german forces french originally threatened relative ease left feeling secure moved normandy planning operation handled force department charge deception middle_east large operation planning handed major eugene irish american career officer joined department late express task learning arts deception war ended working advanced west helped implement notable operation cover plan operation battle john head london controlling section met colonel clarke head force early june decide outline ferdinand days returned london leaving force work draft july draft approved field marshall henry wilson supreme allied commander mediterranean theatre july seventh army army group moved algeria naples moved head newly formed tasked colonel clarke focus entirely planning ferdinand worked plan final form july despite completed end month ferdinand went effect soon draft approved operation ferdinand complex plan involving extensive physical deception underlying plot allied forces surprised find germans moved forces mediterranean normandy plans invade southern france balkans looking appealing instead allied commanders decided focus resources italian campaign real force assigned corps land genoa formations seventh army british 5th airborne division support pushes italian threaten targets balkans ferdinand recycled threats turkey fictional british ninth twelfth armies key ferdinand threat genoa intelligence showed german military intelligence listed main areas expected allied attack possible hide buildup naval amphibious forces region easily accessible german aerial reconnaissance german commanders identified genoa southern france logical targets task allied double agents convince true goal deception maintained invasion date tactical deception fleet travelled course genoa late night august turned west real target ferdinand threat continued september support allied efforts france italy force major operation brief follow called designed implemented overall bodyguard strategy late august related operations time ferdinand ran deception built threat east italy support alexander proposed assault centre gothic line developed movement tandem ferdinand threat west gotten underway major buildup dummy armour alexander changed plans decided push clarke hastily implemented double bluff revealed hope distract attention sector impact ferdinand successfully led west german military intelligence western referred expect landing genoa late july early august buildup forces italy clear invasion imminent deception successful creating realistic threat genoa result landings achieved complete tactical surprise history british wartime intelligence historian michael howard calls successful force strategic operations howard states overwhelming force operation meant element surprise important day


operation operation russian english operation spark soviet military operation world war designed break german siege planning operation began shortly failure offensive german defeat battle late weakened german january soviet forces planning conducting offensive operations entire german soviet especially southern russia northern wider soviet winter counter offensive operation conducted red army fronts baltic fleet january aim creating land connection soviet forces linked january january line operation successfully opened land corridor kilometres wide city rail road swiftly built corridor allowed supplies reach city road life frozen surface lake significantly reducing possibility capture city german finnish success led ambitious offensive operation named polar star weeks later operation aim decisively defeating army group north lifting siege altogether achieved minimal progress soviet forces attempts renew offensive completely lift siege modest gains corridor remained range german artillery siege january background siege started early autumn september german finnish forces surrounded city cutting supply routes suburbs original drive city failed city subjected siege attempts breach blockade failed attempt offensive defeat offensive line returned offensive kilometres separated city despite failures earlier operations lifting siege high priority new offensive preparations began november december operation plan approved received spark operation begin january january situation looked good soviet german defeat battle weakened german soviet forces planning conducting offensive operations entire especially southwestern russia amidst conditions operation offensive operations aimed inflicting decisive defeat german_army group north preparations area south lake heavily forested area wetlands especially deposits closer lake addition forest shielded sides visual observation factors greatly hindered mobility artillery vehicles area providing considerable advantage defending forces key locations heights metres higher surrounding flat terrain dry clear areas addition provided good observation line changed little blockade established german forces built dense defensive network strong points trenches protected extensive obstacles artillery mortar fire river marshes partially frozen winter allowed infantry cross heavy vehicles german preparations germans aware breaking blockade important soviet reverse soviet offensive south army group north ordered defensive stripped troops 11th army lead assault september thwarted soviet offensive transferred army group center october divisions reassigned sectors start soviet offensive german 18th army led consisted divisions spread kilometres wide army stretched thin result division level reserves instead division tactical reserve battalions army reserves consisted portions infantry division 5th mountain division 1st air fleet provided air support army divisions guarding narrow corridor separated soviet fronts corridor kilometres wide called german divisions fortified area line virtually unchanged september hoping repel soviet offensive soviet preparations plan operation approved december orders meant opening kilometres corridor fronts rest days resume offensive southward operations biggest difference earlier offensive location main attack september soviet forces attacking south town allowed potentially german divisions left army open flanking attacks north ultimately caused offensive fail january offensive conducted north closer lake shore removed threat flanking attacks increased probability success forced soviets abandon idea german forces offensive conducted army 2nd shock army commanded major general lieutenant general respectively 8th army commanded lieutenant general conduct limited offensive 2nd shock army flank defend 13th 14th air armies provided air support fronts spent december training preparing offensive received significant reinforcements included additional rifle divisions brigades significant additional artillery engineer units vital heavy german defenses specialized winter units included ski brigades battalions ensure soviet forces air superiority lacked previous offensive air strength area increased total planes predominantly fighters large tank forces operate terrain tank forces primarily battalions reinforcing divisions slightly larger brigades operate independently originally operation begin january poor ice conditions caused offensive delayed january number measures taken prevent details operation revealed germans limited number senior officers involved planning took place bad weather night simulated attack preparations confuse german january sent representative coordinate battle rifle divisions occupied jumping positions january tanks moved advanced positions early january battle start battle january night start operations soviet night bombers attacked german divisional headquarters artillery positions disrupt german command control bombers attacked german airfields communication centres disrupt flow reinforcements operation began january soviet fronts began artillery preparation lasted hours minutes western hour minutes eastern soviet attack started minutes artillery preparation finished barrage fully exploit effects forces achieved greatest success soviet rifle divisions supporting tanks artillery captured approximately kilometres wide kilometres deep constructed bridges near allow second troops advance attacks south near resulted capture line german trenches attack north failed evening command decided exploit formed troops attacking started attacking south attack saw success forces 2nd shock army managed destroy german strong points workers settlement impressive defensive position garrison men heavy flanking fire strong points prevented advance 2nd shock army penetrated german defenses kilometres points south workers settlement grove advance kilometres deep south flanking attacks 8th army managed capture line german trenches german reacted deploying reserves region night improvised battle group consisting battalions infantry division supported artillery tiger tanks moved reinforce infantry division west similar battle group battalions infantry division sent workers settlement support infantry division soviet advance january days saw heavy fighting soviets slowly advanced heavy german defences repelled german january bad weather prevented soviet employing air_force day gained ground incurred heavy losses german failed throw soviet troops started reinforcing area assembling battle groups portions divisions quiet parts included battle groups 1st infantry division 61st infantry division 5th mountain division police division january weather improved allow air support soviet advance resumed albeit slow pace speed strong point soviet 12th ski brigade crossed ice lake attacked german rear lines end day german forces areas completely cut rest german forces january soviet fronts fought capturing strong points workers settlements nos end january kilometres apart workers settlements nos january promoted colonel general land corridor january january lead elements army rifle division 2nd shock army rifle division linked near workers settlement technically breaking blockade marking important date siege german forces north settlement cut group battle groups lieutenant general commander 61st infantry division supposed hold corridor workers settlements nos longer able later day soviet forces captured workers settlement strong german counterattack lead elements army rifle division 2nd shock army 18th rifle division linked north settlement group cut ordered break forested area main soviet forces arrived breakout impossible group abandoned artillery heavy equipment ran fire reaching january breakout costly sides early afternoon soviet forces cleared german forces started forces remaining forests south lake january soviet forces eliminated encircled german forces tried expand offensive southward 18th army significantly reinforced positions police 21st infantry soon 11th infantry 28th mountain divisions soviet forces captured workers settlement unable advance line railway construction january changes line january result operation soviet forces unable advance instead started area german attempt establishing blockade january work started rail line linking rest country captured corridor plan written january ordered construction finished days work completed ahead schedule trains began delivering supplies february operation officially ended january aftermath operation strategic victory soviet forces military perspective operation eliminated possibility capture city german finnish link supplied reinforced able operate closely civilian population operation meant food able reach city improved conditions possibility evacuating civilians city breaking blockade significant strategic effect overshadowed surrender german 6th army days later notably tiger tank captured soviets taken battle undamaged evacuated soviet forces evaluation victory led promotions promoted colonel general january promoted marshal soviet_union january addition awarded order 1st class january rifle divisions awarded designation 63rd guards rifle divisions 61st tank brigade designated 30th guards tank brigade german battle left 18th army stretched exhausted lacking sufficient reinforcements command army group north decision line evacuating pocket held despite encircled months important strategic evacuated spring potentially large number soviet forces situation developed retaining longer possible despite conditions knew operation incomplete corridor opened narrow range german artillery important heights strong point german control led plan ambitious offensive operation named polar star operation aim decisively defeating army group north early soviet forces carried area slowly expanding corridor making small gains finally capturing september city subjected partial siege air artillery bombardment january offensive broke german lines lifting siege completely


battle britain day battle britain day given large scale aerial battle took place september battle britain german england june nazi_germany conquered western_europe scandinavia time major power standing way german dominated europe british_empire commonwealth having peace offers rejected british adolf_hitler ordered luftwaffe destroy royal_air_force raf order gain air superiority air supremacy prelude launching operation sea lion amphibious assault german armed forces british mainland july luftwaffe started closing english channel merchant shipping august operation eagle attack launched raf airfields southern england week september luftwaffe gained results desired hitler frustrated germans turned strategic bombing cities offensive aimed british military civil industries civilian morale attacks began september reach daylight climax september sunday september luftwaffe launched largest concentrated attack london hope drawing raf battle aircraft took air battles lasted dusk action climax battle britain raf fighter command defeated german raids luftwaffe formations dispersed large cloud base failed inflict severe damage city london aftermath raid hitler postponed operation sea lion having defeated daylight luftwaffe turned attention blitz night campaign lasted 15th september known battle britain day annual commemoration battle united_kingdom canada commemoration takes place sunday september background battle britain began july luftwaffe bomber fleets began attacking convoys royal_navy forces english ports channel results positive germans succeeded forcing british abandon channel convoy route shipping ports north eastern britain achieved luftwaffe began second phase air offensive attacking raf airfields supporting structures british mainland offensive operation eagle attack august flew missions regard august luftwaffe carried largest attack date mainland christened eagle day attack failure raids continued great cost sides impact german offensive raf airfields fighter command disputed historians believe attacks having effect germans losing attrition battle believe raf way hitler dissatisfied progress prompted raf raid berlin late august ordered luftwaffe concentrate attacks london thought draw raf fighter command large decisive battle initially change strategy caught british guard daylight attack type occurred september caused extensive damage civilian casualties long tons shipping damaged thames estuary civilians killed injured hitler critical luftwaffe failure destroy fighter command quickly dismissed optimistic reports der luftwaffe high command air_force particularly chief luftwaffe general staff asserted raf legs confident raf nearly defeated requested terror bombing enacted final blow hitler refused allowed attacks industry communications public utility targets days bad weather prevented large attacks september smaller raids carried gave hugh air officer commanding fighter command chance prepare reinforce forces british possibly use ultra intelligence recognised german change strategy duly prepared attacks capital ultra contribution preparations september disputed intelligence ultra stage war tended fragmented germans launching attacks clear weather difficult raf fighter command predicted attack september clear day german strategy afternoon september hitler command held conference berlin discuss future direction war present instead luftwaffe units belgium replaced hitler praised attacks caused heavy damage raf london blamed failure achieve decisive results weather clear hitler victory attained luftwaffe circumstances operation sea lion place commander chief kriegsmarine agreed argued sea lion carried resort regardless gaining air superiority hitler wanted maintain threat invasion continuing air attacks military targets british capital pushed attacks civilian morale argued military civilian industries located far apart achieve collapse morale attacking instead pressed attacks residential areas hitler refused ordered military targets london attacked luftwaffe period good weather france belgium southern britain prepared attack lines set hitler staff officers based brussels began planning offensive september targets purely military target selected railway station west london extension railway district tracks abreast places linked london heavy industries west industrial cities north south east britain lines included rail rail bridges vulnerable air attack air planners referred choke points cut enemy communication efficiency second target larger second attack afternoon dock areas thames estuary including warehouse east end london surrey commercial docks south river royal docks royal victoria dock west india docks royal albert dock king george dock intelligence strategy valid intelligence assessments correct german intelligence raf verge collapse attacks london far confirm assumption luftwaffe bomber formations encountered organised effective ferocious defence characterised battles august german intelligence correct striking vital choke points london raf forced defend luftwaffe opportunity destroy remaining raf fighter forces attacks allow air superiority eliminate vital rail network destroy shipping supplies brought north_america affect civilian morale demonstrating london vulnerability air power policy attacking london successful september raid quickly counter productive matter luftwaffe suffered resulting intelligence service crews told raf reserves assault clinch victory incorrect meant bomber crews shock september raf given needed rest intense operations shift german strategy british radar having virtually untouched able follow slow german build ups france long german aircraft reached british rested fighter command units plenty warning choosing attack london exposed bombers greater danger forcing fly greater distances hostile air space german crews forced fight way london happened german bomber units intercepted september scattered withdrew hitler satisfied reasoning luftwaffe sound bombing achieve aim offered considerable strategic value strike london meant fighting september place albert keith park group raf british strategy debate fighter command battle britain centred strategy pursue luftwaffe hugh group keith park favoured strategy non attrition perspective raf remain intact win battle luftwaffe felt trying fight battle attrition numerically superior enemy chance destroy large parts command playing hands park advocated tactic sending small numbers fighters intercept raid providing opposition raid offered chance inflicting continued attrition german formations avoiding decisive damage fighter command park equivalent commanders group held opposite view large forces win battle destroying large numbers enemy attrition strategy use concept big wing basis big wing air vice marshal squadron leader douglas came play significant roles september fighting commanded squadron flying hurricanes group defended vital industrial targets west source frustration way squadrons luftwaffe attacks south east england group units tasked protecting group sector stations north thames estuary believed units action south thames criticised way park conducting battle popular image outnumbered hurricanes meeting enemy huge numerical strength preyed mind favoured reverse image bored frustrated left major actions south sense group apparently sit idle group suffered heavy losses fought numerical disadvantage advocated group fighters soon german aircraft detected forming france belgium asserted group quick reach thames estuary enemy reached area planned use large forces squadrons engage enemy succeed group following attacks found broken enemy formations crews lost determination press targets implied reduce losses fighter pilots group war insisted wanted big wing tactic enacted group believed according impractical use group command located close enemy time assemble saw group protector reserve group wanted ignore defence keeping reserve order commit group battle essence proposed opposite resolved commit reserves line units method spared group problems wanted stop enemy hit raf airfields time took position large formations interception meant big wing failed achieve instead engaged enemy withdrew prompted supporting comment effect matter long accounted large number enemy aircraft announced destroy german bombers hitting targets argument strong losses act damage sustained occasion germans offset later occasions care try counter arguments stronger assumption germans losses wrong taken severe losses change mind target selection targets vital airfields supported squadrons field loss vital sector stations crippled defence system possibility allowing bulk german bombers reach target unscathed unacceptable idea big wing inflict heavier losses achieved based numbers aircraft shot big wing douglas based opinions claims raf units battle particularly large number aircraft engaged possible aircraft claimed pilot result raf claimed german aircraft shot day occasions analysis luftwaffe losses shown occasions luftwaffe lost aircraft lose day known aware claims raf big wings exaggerated certainly tried use potent tool remove park command pursue big wing tactic non attrition keith park endorsement opted opposite strategy park maintained inflict large losses germans comparison forces park believed germans achieve aim air superiority simply meant avoiding destruction fighter command primary factor air defence achieved sending small numbers fighters intercept losses air remaining offer constant air opposition raf ensured luftwaffe win long sort cost imposed enemy dropped bombs impaired defence system raf remain intact meet threat day end park favoured bomber kills attack shot strategy suggested enemy felt getting losses remained moderate suffer casualties return park strategy circumstances choice forces involved luftwaffe forces luftwaffe suffered heavy attrition opening battle britain month earlier possessed operational aircraft august september aircraft drop percent losses good production battle luftwaffe undergone major reorganisation norway sent medium bomber units bomber wings passed units based netherlands belgium france according luftwaffe order battle dated september nearest date covered list air fleets contained aircraft machines including reconnaissance medium bomber aircraft dive bombers order battle luftwaffe readiness ideal august pilots killed including fighter pilots bomber pilots missing pilots amounted fighter bomber pilots respective loss wounded effect operational ready crews significant units crews authorised strength bomber units units crews ready increase level week september september units possessed crews authorised aircraft units fell bomber units dropped week later figures respectively raf forces weeks intensive combat raf strength maintained extent far greater luftwaffe intelligence believed possible evening september fighter command muster hurricane fighters vital groups fighters group raf fighters including hurricanes group raf field hurricanes group raf come battle hurricanes committed compared august fewer hurricanes battle raf suffered loss experienced pilots mid september fighter command operational pilots establishment pilots ineffective led battle experienced men air chief marshal hugh policy fresh squadrons areas replace losses units south east exhausted early september system breaking squadrons depleted fresh units formed place reluctantly defined categories category units bear fighting kept strength aircraft pilots units suffered exceptionally high losses replaced units relief units maintained operational strength absolutely necessary units generally stripped pilots units devoted training new pilots fit fighter fighter action defend areas system potentially fatal results fighter command units effective system running long september impact fighter command strength replacement units sufficient number effectiveness continue replace exhausted units september units good account battle preliminary engagements luftwaffe began eighth consecutive night bombing london september soon midnight unidentified light bombers attacked capital followed 51st bomber wing unidentified unit bombed city bombed city strike planned bad weather forced cancellation taken damage residential areas westminster people killed injured heaviest casualties caused bomb fell church killing injuring small raiding forces bombed cardiff liverpool leicester slight damage rail tracks facilities west dock sea attacked sank long tons freighter river torpedo soon freighter sunk method area flew thames estuary dropped magnetic anti shipping mines mines dropped bristol channel liverpool bay haven raf night fighter defences infancy fighters lacked radar case radar short range unreliable instead flew outside anti aircraft guns fields fire likely approach routes pilots vision locate enemy aircraft later years night fighter defences highly sophisticated effective sorties flown nocturnal raids air activity german held territory raf bomber command flew sorties german invasion targets antwerp remaining sorties directed brussels yards armstrong failed return lost ground fire netherlands total sorties flown overall september invasion barges sunk combat daylight began long range reconnaissance group based near paris intercepted shot channel hurricanes squadron raf air sea rescue aircraft dispatched found trace crew flights high altitude photographed raf raf raf managed reach manchester liverpool interception managed photograph thames haven raf raf royal_navy base chatham dockyard interception high altitude aircraft difficult lost september noon attack offensive got underway morning major group commander led entire formation experienced combat veteran having won knight cross iron cross effective low level attacks france iii took base time north took usually group field bombers weeks attrition field work bad shape worn intensive operations groups proceeded cap pick fighter escort attacks britain caused heavy losses luftwaffe german crews experimented innovative ways defend pilot fitted infantry flame tail failed fighter got close drive enemy worked fitted bombers formation broke cloud delayed minutes allow reforming bombers failed returned base british reaction initially operations room raf disturbed visit prime minister winston_churchill plotting tables bare save plots indicating german reconnaissance machines women auxiliary air_force spite churchill presence ordered behave differently german aircraft triggered alarm chain home radar station dover filter room recognised formation hostile detailed group sector commands south plus enemy aircraft entering reached wing commander lord broke park senior fighter controller watched prime minister park germans moved closer broke problem way knowing plots represented bombers fighters bombers intercepted fighters ignored trick strike balance time interception possible hand scramble early allow time favourable attack position hand avoid early fighters run short fuel met enemy park joined broke brief discussion decided commit squadrons raf hill park realised raid trap target london aircraft comprising number advanced guard sent clear skies disrupt fighter defences sent squadrons action squadron raf squadron raf hill orders cover air space canterbury broke time coming main attack decided met force ordered squadrons raf raf raf stand ordered raf raf north group raf middle air park squadrons canterbury hill squadrons plan nos engage high escort squadron raf arrive scene afterward close escort pair north bombers got run london despite park reservations big wing ordered time tested germans attempted use thames estuary navigation aid fighters group raf meet height advantage west bombers attack sun time order sent squadron raf squadron raf leader wing commander douglas led assault fighters airborne close contact supported german fighter aircraft sent advance main strike flew london flew cover bombers flew close escort bombers travelling slowly forcing fighters lower flaps stay bombers sitting ducks crossed coast fighters demonstration wing form escort flew advance main force drop bombs resume role fighters strong head wind slowed meant germans took longer reach target burning limited fuel supplies raf fighters coming north took bombers crossed english coast bombs expected overhaul bombers attack london minutes main raids began park interpreted raid major thrust determined meet second wave saw squadrons kept reserve squadrons raf forces closed facing hurricanes combat park plan worked hill squadrons squadrons contact enemy canterbury arriving found covering german fighters canterbury attacked sun taken surprise hit squadron tried charge fighter screen blocked soon squadron joined fight park broken level escort hurricanes nos squadrons arrived height bombers delivered head attack crews experienced formation held nerve remained intact turn attacked hurricanes squadron squadron raf arriving engaged squadrons hurricanes collided bombers reached formation isolated escorts embroiled kent half raf fighters engage engaged squadrons nos squadron raf led broke away delivered fighter attack scoring hits bombers suffered casualties possibly squadron claimed british fighter day claimed fighters loss successfully blocked attacks bombers park tactics attacking germans route forced fighters use fuel quickly outskirts london came view began depart north north pair squadrons engaged hurricanes german pilot robert developed engine trouble half mile main bomber stream set shot set aircraft landed near oval severely wounded civilian mob rescued british_army died wounds flew attracted fighters eventually ray holmes squadron bullets rammed bomber tail came air pressure snapped outer wings short engines bomber crashed london victoria station spinning dive force caused bombs released hit landed near buckingham palace nearby damaging building holmes survived directly target wing arrived attacked germans bomb run thirty seconds release bombs hit target area rail lines park thames south bank bombs carved run long wide fell high density civilian housing bombs missed junction fell rail network tracks connected victoria station north thames main line heading north east south river damage cut tracks places collapsed rails rail traffic halted bombs delayed repairs rail lines action days minutes formation reduced aircraft damaged shot attempting run home remainder dropped bombs met covering force landed france combat gone saw rail station released bombs returned home saw british fighter squadron pilot officer reported formation park decided ignore raid overall attackers lost bombers strength british claimed aircraft wing claimed times german casualties day flame throwing device tested high altitude black oil holmes attracted attention british fighters park pleased despite stripped protection small force bombers lost quarter strength surrounded fighters operation victory fighter command lost fighters claimed interlude german formations plotted making way france churchill delighted results change shift scheduled relief time place operation fighters ground began immediately return machines battle ready status soon possible pilots wrote combat reports including filing claims details battle best big wing landed owing battle damage fighters operational afternoon time german bombers touching badly damaged written crash landings bringing total losses bore battle machine sustained hits afternoon raf bomber command abandoned attacks invasion ports insufficient cloud cover bristol undertook armed reconnaissance north_sea raf coastal command flew sorties anti invasion anti submarine laying reconnaissance missions photographed port antwerp returned evidence gradually increasing buildup amphibious forces command aircraft returned mid afternoon attack touched wave getting airborne iii saint antwerp took target west india docks royal victoria dock north thames warehouses surrey commercial docks south adolf escort bombers fighters met bombers formed german bombers headed head couple miles came finally couple miles came followed present bombers battled german fighter pilots kept close escort tactic handed initiative british attack bounced long accelerate throttle order escape german fighter escort consisted flew cover adolf conducted fighter sweeps advance main bomber stream sake appearances morale bomber crews destroyer wing flying flew close escort twice small formation hit london september instead having fighters bomber german pilots complain tied bombers sufficient numbers fighters allowed free ranging patrols chain home radar picked german raids group raf channel coast flown squadron pilot officer wright job climb quickly possible sea act report direction height composition strength german formation radar operators assessed strengths largest formations plus smaller formations added plus fact british estimate aircraft proved small german force aircraft strong shortly german formation left french coast park ordered forces repeat earlier interception tactic pairs squadrons ordered patrol raf raf scramble group released fighters squadron raf committed squadrons fail find went action singly squadron raf squadron raf sent hurricanes dispatched squadrons hurricanes north ordered squadrons cover minutes later german bombers began splitting groups heading coast dover park decided scramble squadrons apparent concentrations taking direct route london free hunting patrols park squadrons group dispatched hill squadron raf followed squadron force directed canadian squadrons sent hurricanes north sent hurricanes squadrons london docks hill sent wave squadron raf hill called action ordered squadron raf beginning dispatched squadron raf hurricanes guard airfield raf action time sending nos squadron raf hurricanes defend hill largest contingent came group big wing squadrons hurricanes ordered middle committed squadron hurricanes area time park decided launch wave engagements taking place ordered group polish squadron hurricanes squadron raf hill group raf ordered action request squadron climb squadron left middle raf hurricanes air germans outnumbered british raid seriously raf fighters initial clashes marsh nos squadrons engaged losing number second wave raf fighters arrived scene comprising squadrons hurricanes initiated head attack hurricane collided going best break attacks bombers held tight formation putting cross fire permitted leave bombers chase enemy fighters time forced break return bomber stream allowing raf fighters return repeat process soon squadron arrived hurricanes fighter hit return fire pilot aimed aircraft fighter collided destroyed bomber german bomber crews way knowing crashes british desperate thought tactic effective losses closed ranks gaps continued target reached thames british aaa defences opened bombers forced evade fire damaged lost following area park churchill watched battle operations room prime minister saw squadron asked reserves available park said referring group aircraft nearby sectors point park stretched park request sent squadrons group adjacent group capital luftwaffe launched follow attack squadrons available group based norfolk kent region day squadrons based far away involved park knew low cloud base raf raf hill low level accurate strike germans option high altitude attacks possibly create reserve park ordered squadrons return early airborne minutes plenty fuel left ammunition short vast bulk remaining squadrons heading london total fighters squadrons ready engage battle involve aircraft main battle vicinity right hand german formation comprising trailing bear attack fighters nos squadrons nos hurricanes went action pass saw including leading 5th squadron escorting watch forbidden leave charges attack finished squadron led squadron leader robert stanford attacked hurricanes escorts work cut scattered targeted badly protected bombers engaged came attack canadian squadrons attacked followed climbed bombers seek cover british surprised unidentified formation continue interfering forced france shot providing close escort eventually turned protect bombers claimed canadian hurricane squadron left hand column came attack hurricanes nos squadrons alert danger shot hurricane damaged squadron head attack damaging bomber park hoping wing turn deliver promised results soon wing arrive intercepted arriving varying altitude emerged cloud vicinity stream directly reversal roles hurricanes engaged went bombers failed deliver anti bomber attacks drew escorts free hunting german fighters making easier raf fighters reach bombers squadron lost hurricanes adolf battle confusing mess bombers reached london lost destroyed damaged suffered damaged bomber central column lost forced turn owing battle damage machine forced despite british presence bombers tons bombs prepared drop bombs reasons bombers sustained little damage cloud base density difficult raf fighter controllers direct squadrons accuracy cloud helped shield bombers obscure target area base started reached bombers reached victoria docks targets covered skies clear west bombers concentrated borough particular bow gas works dropped bombs targeted area square miles extent bounded north ground railway district line west river east marshes south royal victoria dock gas works targeted heavy high explosive bombs severely damaged plant park tube station hit electric sub station hit causing black residential areas badly damaged unable find surrey commercial docks turned away dropped bombs wide area according west borough records people killed died wounds sustained attack seriously injured slightly injured germans retreated channel bomber groups scattered formed uneven formations pursued raf fighters fuel headed france unable help hard pressed bombers german bombers forced formation attempted france cloud cover virtually destroyed shot fighters air space main formations withdrew raf squadrons closed escort plan held met withdrawing units gaps formation nos squadrons exploited hurricanes engaged shot squadron took shooting raf fighters lost escorts source indicated german fighters sent cover retreat little impact hardly noticed raf fighters appears formed withdrawal force lost polish squadron raf squadron claimed claimed seven bombers fighters raf claimed german losses claimed bombers fighters german losses raid heavy lost seven damaged personnel losses unit amounted crew killed captured wounded fared little better losing destroyed damaged personnel losses killed captured wounded suffer lightly lost crew captured damaged crewmen wounded lost damaged lost killed captured wounded including major max group commander german fighter screen suffered battle lost single lost seven damaged lost damaged lost having lost raid lost owing pilots running fuel shot combat total luftwaffe lost bombers destroyed scores damaged lost fighters raf lost fighters destroyed damaged source puts german fighter losses iii took led major headed southampton bomb royal_navy targets portland british radar reported actually fighter escort intercepted squadron raf bombers dropped ordnance fell naval installations causing minor damage raf fighters claimed destroyed damaged lost survivor suffered bomber damaged crew killed evening night actions noteworthy operation germans ceased attacks day aircraft took picked peninsula way central channel isle reached catherine point nos squadrons patrolling nearby kept duration raid squadron flying airfield southampton squadron way middle patrol portsmouth time german operation virtually british completed squadron took middle patrol airfield german target factory arrived near southampton guns engaged entire time target germans retired raf fighters appeared fortunately british germans missed factory manage number gas water damaging nearby residential areas slight damage yard southampton harbour according german records short tons bombs dropped succeeded hitting factory seriously impacted british fighter production civilians killed seriously injured slightly injured attack formation unclear eye witness air alexander drinking tea cafe attack began went outside hearing enemy planes counted aloud straight southampton barrage gunfire alfred saw bomb released handed glasses aircraft twin bomber version thought use time fast shallow pulled feet dive bombing attack proper soldiers passing remarks live barrage germans living barrage good brought quickly efficiently germans formed disappeared cloud seen better bit flying nazi pilots sic german got formation like team teeth guns nos squadrons engaged germans south west british reported support bombs dropped suggested fewer bombers claimed raf fighters claimed fact remains germans penetrated interception came close inflicting critical damage factory radar job alerted group minutes bombs started fall fault lay group controllers late ordering squadrons scramble took place evening interception separate near london signalled engagement daylight likely reconnaissance missions assess damage attacks interception squadron raf chased sea seen flying engine likely belonged reported destroyed crash landing france combat small groups german bombers attempted attack london afternoon causing little damage crash land near combat crew bomber percent damaged lost fighters crashed france force landed combat lost damaged lost crews reported missing bombed liverpool night widespread damage caused city neighbouring casualties inflicted damage reported cardiff manchester preston raf night fighters flew sorties intercepted bombers fighters ground defences claimed successes aftermath propaganda claiming aerial warfare uncommon second world war pilots claimed aircraft shot actually case air ministry released press statement september german aircraft shot actual number aircraft destroyed lower significantly number german losses august hardest day luftwaffe lost respectively churchill returned downing street received bad news navy atlantic sinking shipping bad secretary informed day air battle told raf downed enemy aircraft losses september british flying boat arrived new_york delivering news record bag enemy aircraft german embassy tried vain correct total germans ignored new_york_times ran excited stories calling military alliance britain commonwealth germans slower putting story september nazi party newspaper announced attacks caused considerable damage london claimed luftwaffe destroyed raf aircraft losses severe claim raf losses amounted fighters group keith park claim returns far concerned claiming day nonsense placed particular blame big wing claimed victories total claims morning afternoon damage german bombers target destroying military threat way coast complained inexperienced leaders missed things needed park lesson september park aware ratio losses british favour decent performance fighter command best evaluation day events main engagements fighter losses equal big difference bombers losses fighter command greater success afternoon attack morning assault numbered ratio german fighters bombers morning afternoon targets bombers sent lost started park handling actions masterpiece aggressive defence pressure battles august air battles confusing hard control big set piece offensive played hands claimed big wings destroyed entire formations enemy aircraft seeing claimed raf outnumbered opponents engagements afternoon battle claimed wing position break bombers time intercepted german fighters true claimed units shot enemy aircraft probably destroyed claimed damaged loss pilots claims massive big wing proven physically ineffective biggest contribution day use psychological weapon german bomber units seen big wing form shocked crews badly hit units including witnessed head collisions german aircraft badly shaken german victory battle britain day unlikely possible park errors caught ground stephen loss rates reversed replaced reinforcements units carried major engagements fighter command strength able meet luftwaffe met staff following day conference assessments air battle pure fantasy concluded raf withdrawn available fighter units country concentrate london fact western afternoon raids ports led believe enemy breaking days thought sure break believed british fighters produced stop fighter production factories bristol attacked london subjected round clock bombing pointed formations british big wing use september raids delighted news british committing mass formations battle big wing use allow german fighters engage destroy raf fighters large numbers germans realised means uniform strategy fighter command confident victory blamed bad weather raf minute change strategy summer operations luftwaffe bomber crews ordered prepare winter quarters campaign turned london duration witness large scale daylight air battles gradually turned campaign night known blitz hitler reaction strategic overview hitler overly bothered outcome air battle sea lion huge risk air superiority convinced end august luftwaffe achieve war britain maintain threat invasion use strategic bombing turn soviet_union eliminate britain possible ally europe soviets defeated believed british negotiate september sent directive armed services informing sea lion delay date date day september postponed notice likely hitler want new found military prestige launching hazardous venture channel luftwaffe crushed opposition beginning december hitler told der forget sea lion formally cancel operation march believed sea lion hitler believed achieve victory sea lion went ways hitler needed pressure britain willing september hitler ordered barges added sea lion ports assembly continue damage raf bomber command meant sustaining army readiness strain invasion forces broken moved east understanding weeks notice clear solution britain air given hope winning victory airborne assault discussed possibility invading ireland fall operation green kurt student january order surround britain land sea air operation shelved instead luftwaffe varying degrees success carried strategic bombardment british industrial cities lack raf night defences stage war enabled german bombers inflict extensive damage suffering heavy losses daylight campaign estimated luftwaffe lost blitz comparison battle britain lost killed wounded captured overall losses cut daylight operations perennial problems meant rates remained luftwaffe bomber crews trained bad weather night operations support navigation aids form leg available allowed german crews navigate effectively targets crews confident exception poorer quality replacement crews systems responsible successful attacks operation november operations liverpool successful port capacity reduced point lost long tons shipping air attacks long tons damaged minister home security morrison worried morale breaking noting expressed civilians operations london severe impact morale campaign ultimate limitation poor military strategy types targets selected operation differed radically sustained pressure type british target luftwaffe strategy increasingly disputes staff revolved tactics strategy method condemned offensive britain failure begun end result air campaign britain decisive failure end war hitler committed germany increasing military adventures increasingly unable cope multi war allies ready launch operation overlord invasion western_europe battle britain ensured western allies base launch campaign western allied presence battlefield meet soviet red army central europe end war