chemical element symbol atomic number element group grey hard metal takes high polish high melting point element derived greek word meaning color compounds intensely colored commercially produced reactions metal processes followed reduction carbon aluminium metal high value high resistance major development discovery steel highly resistant adding metallic form steel steel plating comprise commercial use iii essential nutrient trace amounts humans sugar issue debated metal iii considered toxic toxic abandoned production sites require environmental cleanup characteristics physical remarkable magnetic properties solid shows ordering room temperature changes metal left standing air forming thin protective surface layer layer structure molecules thick dense prevents oxygen underlying metal different forms iron carbon steel oxygen continues migrate reaching underlying material cause enhanced short contact like acid stable removed strong reducing agent destroys protective layer metal metal treated way readily weak unlike metals iron suffer hydrogen suffer nitrogen reacting nitrogen air forming high temperatures necessary work metal parts occurrence 22nd abundant element earth crust average concentration compounds found environment erosion containing rocks volcanic typical background concentrations environmental media atmosphere soil vegetation freshwater sediment mined ore world produced south_africa india russia turkey substantial producers deposits plentiful geographically concentrated southern africa rare deposits native exist pipe russia produces samples native metal pipe rich diamonds reducing environment helped produce diamond relation iii strongly depends properties location cases iii dominating species areas ground water contain total naturally occurring composed stable abundant natural abundance characterized stable half life years half life days remaining radioactive half lives hours majority minute element states decay product half life million years typically compounded useful geology reinforce evidence concerning early history solar system variations indicate initial ratio suggests composition result decay differentiated bodies provides additional evidence processes immediately solar system range atomic mass primary decay mode abundant stable electron capture primary mode beta decay atmospheric oxygen concentration compounds member group transition metals electronic configuration owing lower energy high spin configuration exhibits wide range states stable states common compounds rare following pure water acid iii large number iii compounds known iii obtained like acid acid similar radius radius replace compounds trace replaces aluminium pink red colored formed depending iii tend form complexes color complexes determined attached center commercially available iii dark green complex closely related compounds different colors pale green violet water free green iii dissolved water green solution turns violet time inner coordination sphere replace water kind reaction observed solutions water iii iii acidic solutions form basic solutions form heating form green iii stable crystal structure identical compounds powerful low neutral important exist known include produced ore calcium dominant species law mass action determined solution change visible change yellow orange acid added neutral solution potassium lower values complex possible strong low moderately high compounds solution detected adding acidic hydrogen solution unstable dark blue formed stabilized acid hypothetical formula described chemical despite defined known dark red acid acid sold acid produced mixing acid strong agent state realized compounds reactions involving compound volatile red solid melting point boiling point prepared treating metal bar pressure example state potassium reacting potassium hydrogen low temperatures red brown compound stable room temperature spontaneously compounds state slightly common produced treating corresponding elevated temperatures compounds susceptible reactions stable water compounds known including water stable reducing iii resulting bright blue solution stable neutral known famously red features quadruple bond compounds obtained electron rich complexes complexes contain verified ray bond length described extremely stabilize compound bond reactions compounds known derivatives history discovered element came attention western world red mineral lead discovered initially pigment nearly commercially extracted single commercially viable ore iron principal source weapons found burial pits dating late 3rd century dynasty army near china analyzed archaeologists buried years ago ancient bronze tips bolts swords found site showed unexpectedly little possibly bronze deliberately coated thin layer layer metal plating know minerals came attention west 18th century july found orange red mineral mines mountains named red lead lead compound iron components mineral fact lead formula peter simon visited site found red lead mineral useful properties pigment use red lead paint pigment developed rapidly bright yellow pigment popular louis received samples ore produced mixing acid discovered metallic heating oven credited element able detect traces precious 1800s primarily component russia main source larger deposit discovered near baltimore united_states united_states largest producer products till large deposits found near turkey known polished protective decorative coating car parts fixtures furniture parts items usually applied early use widespread development improved process production approximately million metric tons ore produced converted according john writing leading end use ore steel leading end use largest producers ore south_africa turkey india countries producing rest world production main products ore metallic products ore process differs considerably production ore reduced large scale electric arc smaller aluminium reaction production pure iron separated step process ore heated mixture calcium presence air form iron forms stable subsequent higher elevated temperatures leaves iron converted acid converted iii reduction carbon reduced reaction applications metal account use remainder chemical industries strengthening effect forming stable metal grain boundaries strong increase resistance important material steel high speed tool contain steel main proof metal formed added iron sufficient concentrations usually formation added iron based increase strength formation stable metal particles grain boundaries example contains excellent high temperature properties jet engines gas turbines lieu common structural materials relative high resistance makes good surface coating popular metal coating combined thin layer deposited metallic surfaces techniques deposition methods thin thickness layers deposited plating decorative surfaces wear resistant surfaces needed thicker layers deposited methods normally use acidic solutions prevent energy consuming change state use iii development applications established process conversion coating process strong properties deposit protective layer metals like aluminium self healing properties stored conversion coating able migrate local defects benefits coating method environmental health regulations alternative coating methods development acid type aluminium process lead deposition uses acid solution layer formed aluminium use acid instead normally acid leads slight difference layers high compounds established process strengthening safety environmental regulations demand search change toxic iii compounds pigment mineral lead yellow pigment shortly discovery synthesis method available starting abundant yellow yellow yellow pigment tends formation iii strong color school buses postal service example post europe use yellow declined environmental safety concerns replaced organic alternatives free lead based example bright red pigment red basic lead important pigment widely metal replaced wash formulated replace dangerous practice aluminium aircraft bodies acid solution dispersed solution solution acid added application found easily alcohol essential ingredient thin layer applied turned yellow dark green cured question correct mechanism green mixture prussian blue yellow green iii green color green extremely light fast main ingredient infrared reflecting armed forces paint vehicles green leaves synthetic laser natural aluminum crystals colored red type iii colors gems termed red colored artificial achieved iii artificial crystals making requirement making synthetic synthetic crystal basis laser produced relied stimulated light crystal wood preservation wood example copper timber treatment protect wood decay fungi wood attacking insects including marine contain based united_states metric tons solution iii especially iii leather iii leather cross linking fibers leather contain tightly bound proteins form toxic variety remains interest management industry recovery reuse direct indirect recycling use practiced better manage material high heat high melting point makes iii material high temperature applications like blast cement firing bricks sands casting metals applications materials use declining environmental regulations possibility formation compounds processing example phillips catalyst prepared production half world mixed employed high temperature water gas shift reaction copper useful catalyst use magnetic compound ideal shape high remnant compound superior manufacture magnetic tape high performance audio tape standard audio prevent steel wet conditions added drilling iii metal polish known green acid powerful agent useful compound cleaning laboratory trace organic compounds prepared potassium concentrated acid wash apparatus higher versus respectively use cleaning solutions phased high environmental concerns modern cleaning solutions highly effective free potassium chemical reagent agent fixing agent fabric biological role form iii identified essential nutrient late 1950s later accepted trace element roles action critical storage fat protein precise mechanism actions body fully defined leaving question essential healthy people occurs trace amounts foods wine water contrast highly toxic established solution cause contact involving lack iii body complex tolerance factor controversial studies suggest active form iii called low molecular weight binding substance play role signaling mechanism biological roles unclear include iii iii related materials benefit proven united_states guidelines daily intake lowered adult adult male adult female european food safety authority published report stating intake iii beneficial effect healthy people panel removed list nutrients essential elements content common foods generally low serving content food varies widely differences soil mineral content growing season plant contamination processing addition large amounts food cooked steel reference intake food nutrition board institute medicine updated estimated average requirements ears recommended sufficient information set ears needs described estimates adequate current women ages day age day older pregnancy day day men ages day age day older children ages years increases age day safety food nutrition board sets upper intake levels known minerals evidence sufficient case information collectively ears referred reference european food safety authority reviewed safety question set world health organization tentatively set day united_states supplement companies offer products day food supplement labeling purposes serving expressed percent daily value labeling purposes daily value revised food supplement companies july comply change table pre change adult daily values provided reference daily intake precautions water iii compounds metal considered health hazard properties known long time specific transport mechanisms limited amounts iii enter cells studies indicated high concentrations iii cell lead dna damage acute oral ranges review suggested moderate iii poses genetic toxic risk safety health administration designated exposure limit workplace time weighted average national institute safety health set recommended exposure limit time weighted average immediately dangerous life health value acute oral ranges body reduced mechanisms iii blood enters cells iii body transferred cell transport mechanism enter cell acute strong properties reaches blood stream damages liver blood cells reactions liver failure result aggressive dust known long time publication described elevated cancer risk workers company mechanisms proposed describe mechanism includes highly products reduction iii second process includes direct binding produced reduction cell compounds dna mechanism attributed binding dna end product iii reduction cause reactions people manufacture things leather products cement mortar anti contact products containing lead contact resulting skin referred condition found workers exposed strong solutions producing manufacturers environmental issues compounds leather compounds compounds found soil abandoned industrial sites needing environmental cleanup accordance united_states regulations treatment land paint containing widely automobile applications environmental working group studied drinking water american cities nationwide study study found tap water cities sampled norman oklahoma list cities levels exceeded california proposed limit concentrations municipal drinking water supplies reported likely natural background levels areas tested necessarily indicative industrial pollution asserted factor taken consideration report


neon neon chemical element symbol atomic number group noble gases periodic table neon gas standard conditions thirds density air discovered rare elements remaining dry air nitrogen oxygen carbon dioxide removed neon second rare gases discovered immediately recognized new element bright red spectrum neon derived greek word singular form meaning new neon forms chemical compounds compounds neon include molecules molecules held van der forces cosmic elements large amounts neon built alpha capture fusion process stars neon common element universe solar system fifth cosmic abundance hydrogen oxygen carbon rare earth air volume molecular mole fraction smaller fraction earth crust reason neon relative earth inner terrestrial planets neon highly volatile forms compounds fix result escaped warmth newly ignited sun early solar system atmosphere somewhat depleted neon presumably reason lighter air causing escape earth atmosphere neon gives distinct reddish orange glow low voltage neon glow lamps high voltage discharge tubes neon advertising signs red line neon causes known red light neon neon tube applications commercial uses commercially extracted liquid air air source considerably expensive history neon greek singular form meaning new discovered british sir william morris london england neon discovered sample air liquid warmed liquid captured gases boiled gases nitrogen oxygen identified remaining gases isolated roughly order abundance week period beginning end identified removed gas gave brilliant red light discharge gas identified june named neon greek new suggested son characteristic brilliant red orange color emitted neon excited electrically noted immediately later wrote blaze crimson light tube told story sight forget second gas reported neon having approximately density different spectrum named subsequent analysis revealed contaminated carbon finally team discovered process september neon prompt application lighting lines moore tubes nitrogen early 1900s company air produced industrial quantities neon air business december demonstrated modern neon lighting based sealed tube neon tried briefly sell neon tubes indoor domestic lighting intensity market failed objected color associate began selling neon discharge tubes eye catching advertising signs instantly successful neon tubes introduced large neon signs bought los_angeles car glow arresting red color neon advertising completely different competition neon played role basic understanding nature exploration composition canal rays streams neon magnetic electric field measured streams photographic plate observed separate patches light photographic plate image suggested different eventually concluded neon gas higher mass rest understood time discovery stable device crude version instrument term mass neon second gas neon stable partly partly nuclear reactions particles environment variations natural abundance understood contrast chief stellar known save cluster decay production thought produce small causes variation earth debated principal nuclear reactions generate neon start produce respectively capture immediate alpha particle produce reactions produced secondary reactions alpha particles turn derived series decay chains net result yields trend lower higher observed rich rocks produced reaction natural terrestrial sources addition analysis exposed terrestrial rocks demonstrated cosmic ray production generated reactions aluminium analyzing component resolved neon neon suggests neon useful tool determining cosmic exposure ages surface rocks similar neon content observed samples volcanic gases enriched relative content neon content mantle derived samples represents non atmospheric source neon enriched components attributed exotic rare gas components earth possibly representing solar neon elevated found diamonds suggesting solar neon reservoir earth characteristics neon second noble gas reddish orange vacuum discharge tube neon liquid range element times capacity liquid times liquid hydrogen unit volume basis applications expensive neon intense light discharge normal currents noble gases average color light human eye red orange lines range contains strong green line hidden visual components dispersed different kinds neon lighting common use neon glow lamps generally tiny operating volts widely power circuit testing equipment light dominate applications simple neon devices displays television screens neon signs typically operate higher tubes commonly meters long glass formed shapes letters signage architectural artistic applications occurrence stable neon produced stars created oxygen alpha process requires temperatures masses greater solar masses neon abundant universal scale fifth abundant chemical element universe mass hydrogen oxygen carbon chemical element relative rarity earth like relative high pressure low temperatures chemical properties tend trapped gas dust clouds formed smaller warmer solid planets like earth neon making lighter molecules nitrogen oxygen form bulk earth atmosphere balloon filled neon rise air albeit slowly balloon neon abundance universe sun presumably solar system spacecraft atmospheric entry probe found upper atmosphere abundance neon reduced depleted factor level mass indicate ice brought neon outer solar system formed region warm retain neon atmospheric component heavier gases times found sun neon comprises earth atmosphere volume mole fraction air mass comprises smaller fraction crust produced air august based studies lunar atmosphere dust environment explorer spacecraft nasa scientists reported detection neon moon chemistry neon block noble gas element true case lighter strongly bound neutral molecules containing neon identified near observed optical mass studies solid neon produced water ice neon gas pressures temperatures water freely material extracted placing vacuum chamber days yielding ice dense form water familiar scale relies chemical bond energies values obviously measured neon allen scale relies atomic energies identifies neon element closely followed applications neon signs produces bright reddish orange light tube lights colors called neon use different noble gases varied colors lighting neon vacuum tubes high voltage lightning wave meter tubes television tubes neon neon commercially applications requiring lower temperature range extreme liquid neon liquid gas relatively expensive small quantities price liquid neon times liquid driving neon expense rarity neon unlike obtained air triple point temperature neon defining fixed point international temperature scale


chemical element symbol atomic number rare highly radioactive metal stable similar shows horizontal neighbors lead metallic character short half life natural occurrence limited tiny traces penultimate daughter natural half life days slightly longer lived exist difficult produce today produced quantities intense results chemical bonds immense radioactive self heating chemistry investigated trace scale discovered marie separated ore identified solely strong element discovered named marie homeland poland applications sparse dependent include space devices sources alpha particles intense makes dangerously toxic life characteristics known radioactive atomic masses range half life days widely available longer lived half life years longest lived half life years alpha bombardment lead alpha half life days directly stable daughter alpha particles second grams equals blue glow caused surrounding air alpha emissions causes nucleus results gamma ray maximum energy solid state form radioactive element exists metallic alpha form known example simple cubic crystal structure single basis edge length beta form structure characterized ray electron common ability airborne ease sample heated air hours form molecules melting point boiling point hypothesis exists suggestion small clusters alpha decay chemistry chemistry similar shows similarities neighbor metallic character readily slightly solutions colored pink rapidly yellow alpha radiation converts process accompanied bubbling heat light absorbed alpha particles result solutions volatile days sealed compounds common compounds compounds created known stable class compounds prepared direct reaction elements structure form structure heating melt temperatures example naturally occurring compounds alpha form lead volatile liquid room temperature prone unstable products structure known corresponding hydrogen formed direct reaction elements reduction room temperature obtained reacting dioxide compounds include potassium history tentatively called discovered marie named marie native land poland latin poland time russian german austro hungarian partition exist independent country hope naming element native land lack independence element named highlight political controversy element discovered investigating cause removal radioactive elements radioactive combined spurred search additional radioactive elements separated july months later isolated united_states produced manhattan_project project world war critical type nuclear weapon design fat man bomb nagasaki key ingredients center bomb spherical pit ignited nuclear chain reaction moment prompt ensure bomb basic physics classified war fact classified 1960s atomic energy commission manhattan_project funded human experiments people university rochester people administered study occurrence production rare element nature short half life appear decay chain found metric ton approximately abundance amounts earth crust harmful found tobacco smoke tobacco leaves grown present small concentrations isolation natural sources tedious process largest batch element extracted performed half 20th century contained obtained processing tonnes production obtained high energy experiment showed natural bombarded created beta minus decay final followed liquid liquid extraction techniques amounts procedure uses high found nuclear grams produced year practically russia making rare process cause problems lead based liquid metal cooled nuclear soviet navy measures taken deal unwanted possibility released longer lived formed bombardment rich unstable formed platinum carbon applications based sources alpha particles produced soviet_union sources applied measuring thickness industrial alpha radiation intense alpha radiation sample spontaneously heat generating power atomic heat source power generators materials instance heat sources moon internal components warm lunar nights satellites alpha particles emitted converted rate million alpha particles source example trigger nuclear weapons oil wells sources type individual activity annually soviet_union complex tools eliminate static charges photographic plates textile mills paper rolls sheet automotive prior application alpha particles emitted air molecules charges nearby surfaces anti static contain source charged particles static electricity usa devices sealed unit bought general license means buyer need registered authorities needs replaced devices nearly year short half life highly radioactive replaced dangerous beta particle sources tiny amounts laboratory teaching purposes typically order form sealed sources deposited substrate matrix exempt licensing similar authorities considered hazardous small amounts manufactured sale public united_states needle sources laboratory experimentation scientific supply companies layer plating turn material gold allows alpha radiation experiments cloud chambers pass preventing released presenting toxic hazard according united nuclear typically sell sources year biology overview highly dangerous biological role mass times toxic hydrogen average adult compared hydrogen main hazard intense alpha makes difficult handle safely amounts handling extremely dangerous requiring specialized equipment negative pressure alpha glove box equipped high performance filters adequate monitoring strict handling procedures avoid contamination alpha particles emitted damage organic tissue easily absorbed penetrate hazardous long alpha particles remain outside body wearing resistant intact gloves mandatory precaution avoid directly skin delivered concentrated acid easily inadequate gloves latex gloves acid damage gloves reported action similar way mercury living things create compounds studies investigating rats shown volatile acute effects median lethal dose acute radiation exposure generally committed effective dose equivalent fatal dose caused theory poison million people million die actual lower estimates radiation exposure spread weeks biological half life humans days somewhat damaging dose estimated median lethal dose extremely small comparison grain table salt long term chronic effects addition acute effects radiation exposure internal external carries long term risk death cancer general population exposed small amounts daughter indoor air thought cause majority estimated lung cancer deaths year attributed indoor tobacco smoking causes additional exposure regulatory exposure limits handling maximum body burden equivalent particle maximum workplace concentration airborne target organs humans liver liver smaller rest body concentrated vital organs greater threat life dose suffered average body spread evenly body way widely industry readily available little regulation restriction tracking system run nuclear regulatory commission implemented register purchases lethal said considering regulations talk reporting requirement factor alpha material available exempt quantity held radioactive material license compounds handled glove box enclosed box maintained slightly higher pressure glove box prevent radioactive materials leaking gloves natural rubber provide sufficient protection radiation surgical gloves necessary gloves shield radiation better natural rubber known poisoning cases 20th century administered humans experimental purposes injected hospitalised patients given fifth studies funded manhattan_project conducted university rochester objective obtain data human extensive data rats patients selected subjects chosen wanted persons exposed work accident subjects diseases followed autopsy conducted time deceased patient determine organs absorbed patients ages ranged early early experiments described chapter biological studies national nuclear energy series volume hill new_york specified study time readily available submitted experiment reported follow subjects suggested person die radiation effects accidentally exposed sealed capsule element exploded laboratory bench died according book bomb basement deaths israel caused leak discovered institute laboratory traces found hands professor physicist researched radioactive materials medical tests indicated harm tests include bone died cancer students died colleagues died years cancer issue investigated secretly formal admission connection leak deaths existed 21st century cause death murder russian agent defected british intelligence agency alexander determined poisoning according nick priest middlesex university environmental radiation expert speaking sky news december probably person die acute radiation effects high concentrations detected july clothes personal belongings palestinian leader heavy died november uncertain causes spokesman switzerland items analyzed stressed clinical symptoms described medical reports consistent conclusions drawn palestinian leader poisoned way confirm findings body test november body samples taken separate analysis experts france switzerland russia october published group finding high levels element found blood clothes french tests later found stated natural environmental origin following later russian tests head russian federal medical biological agency stated december died natural causes plans conduct tests treatment suggested agents british anti humans experiment rats given fatal dose rats dead days rats treated agent remained alive months detection biological specimens biological specimens alpha particle confirm diagnosis poisoning hospitalized patients provide evidence death investigation healthy persons routine exposure environmental sources normally range day levels excess day suggestive excessive exposure occurrence humans widespread including human tissues position decay chain natural earth crust series solid radioactive including radioactive gas day half life atmosphere steps day half life washed earth surface entering finally decaying stable early 1920s provided colleague marie showed element specific pattern rabbit tissues high concentrations particularly liver kidney recent evidence suggests behavior results containing related molecules similar patterns distribution occur human tissues element naturally present humans contributing natural background dose wide geographical cultural variations particularly high levels arctic residents example tobacco tobacco contributes cases lung cancer worldwide derived deposited tobacco leaves atmosphere product gas appears originate decay applied tobacco soils presence tobacco smoke known early 1960s world biggest tobacco firms researched ways remove substance avail year period results published food found food chain especially


chemical element symbol atomic number group periodic table noble gas abundant gas earth atmosphere twice abundant water averages varies greatly times abundant carbon dioxide times abundant neon abundant noble gas earth crust comprising crust nearly earth atmosphere derived decay earth crust universe far common preferred produced stellar derived greek word singular form meaning lazy inactive reference fact element undergoes chemical reactions complete outer atomic shell makes stable resistant bonding elements triple point temperature defining fixed point international temperature scale produced liquid air gas high temperature industrial processes substances example atmosphere electric prevent burning lighting gas discharge tubes makes distinctive blue green gas laser glow starters characteristics approximately water oxygen times water nitrogen solid liquid gas conditions forms confirmed stable compounds room temperature noble gas form compounds compound hydrogen stable demonstrated neutral ground state chemical compounds presently limited form water trapped water molecules excited state complexes demonstrated theoretical calculation compounds stable synthesized history singular form greek meaning inactive reference chemical inactivity suspected component air henry isolated air lord sir william university college london removing oxygen carbon dioxide water nitrogen sample clean air determined nitrogen produced chemical compounds half percent lighter nitrogen atmosphere difference slight important attract attention months concluded gas air mixed nitrogen encountered independent research observed new lines color spectrum air match known elements noble gas discovered symbol occurrence constitutes volume mass earth atmosphere air primary industrial source products isolated air commonly process produces nitrogen oxygen neon earth crust contain respectively main found earth naturally occurring half life years stable electron capture stable beta decay properties determine age rocks dating earth atmosphere cosmic ray activity primarily environment produced capture alpha calcium created capture followed alpha particle result nuclear explosions half life days locations solar system composition varies greatly major source decay rocks dominant earth produced directly stellar dominated alpha process solar contains according solar wind measurements ratio outer planets contrasts abundance earth atmosphere comparable neon earth measured atmosphere contains probe fly planet mercury found mercury thin atmosphere believed result radioactive decay materials planet crust probe discovered presence exclusively largest moon saturn reason standard atomic weight terrestrial greater element potassium fact discovered positioned elements periodic table order atomic weight suggested placement metal henry later solved problem showing periodic table actually arranged order atomic number history periodic table compounds complete indicates outer energy level makes stable extremely resistant bonding elements noble gases considered unable form compounds compounds heavier noble gases synthesized august compound formed researchers university shining light frozen containing small hydrogen formed stable observed form detected cosmic dust associated crab noble gas detected outer space solid crystal structure phase forms pressures measurements suggest molecules production industrial produced liquid air air separation unit process separates liquid nitrogen liquid oxygen tonnes produced worldwide year radioactive abundant produced decay half life years electron capture potassium dating determine age rocks applications desirable properties gas alternative nitrogen sufficiently low thermal electronic properties spectrum desirable applications noble gases equally suitable applications far inexpensive occurs naturally air readily obtained air separation production liquid oxygen liquid nitrogen primary constituents air large industrial scale noble gases produced way plentiful far bulk applications arise simply relatively cheap industrial processes high temperature industrial processes non substances example atmosphere electric prevent burning processes presence nitrogen oxygen gases cause defects material types arc gas metal arc gas arc processing elements atmosphere growing crystals industry birds mass following disease means slaughter humane electric bath air oxygen close ground non nature makes suitable food product replaces oxygen dead bird shelf life fires valuable equipment damaged water foam scientific research liquid target experiments direct dark matter searches interaction hypothetical particle nucleus produces light detected tubes phase containing gas detect produced nucleus scattering noble gases high light yield transparent light relatively easy compared cheaper distinct time profile allows separation electronic nuclear hand beta ray background larger contamination uses underground sources contamination earth atmosphere produced electron capture long lived present natural potassium earth activity atmosphere maintained production similar reactions half life years result underground shielded rock water contamination dark matter currently operating liquid include warp experiments include use high purity liquid time projection chamber fine dimensional imaging interactions displace moisture containing air packaging material extend shelf lives contents european food code aerial chemical reactions products prevented entirely high purity chemicals packed sealed variety activities provide barrier oxygen liquid surface wine acid bacteria standard chemistry cans products paint displace air preparing container storage opening american national archives stores important national documents declaration independence constitution filled cases degradation preceding decades gas escapes pores containers regularly replaced laboratory equipment gas lines preferred expensive nitrogen cases nitrogen react apparatus carrier gas gas mass gas choice preferred coating specimens scanning electron gas commonly deposition thin films cleaning medical use procedures use liquid destroy tissue cancer cells procedure called enhanced form beam procedure carries risk producing gas resulted death patient blue surgery destroy correct eye defects replace nitrogen breathing mix known speed elimination dissolved nitrogen blood lighting lights filled preserve high temperature specific way light experimental particle physics gas discharge lamps filled pure provide violet light mercury blue light blue green miscellaneous uses thermal energy efficient windows technical diving dry suit low thermal development variable specific impulse rocket compressed gas allowed expand cool heads missile missiles use cooled thermal heads gas stored high pressure half life years number applications primarily ice core ground water dating potassium dating date rocks athletes agent simulate conditions august world anti agency added list prohibited substances methods time reliable test abuse safety non toxic air considered dangerous closed areas difficult detect incident man entering filled section oil pipe construction alaska highlights dangers tank confined spaces emphasizes need proper use storage handling


artificial chemical element symbol atomic number extremely radioactive synthetic element element named laboratory nuclear reactions joint institute nuclear research russia element discovered laboratory turn honours russian physicist adopted periodic table elements element block member 7th period heaviest known member carbon group initial chemical studies performed indicated unexpectedly volatile group element preliminary results exhibit properties similar noble gases recent results reaction gold similar showing volatile element standard temperature pressure metallic properties consistent heavier lead metal group observed synthesized directly rest radioactive decay heavier elements shown mass numbers stable known half life seconds possible nuclear longer half life seconds longest half lives element predicted near centre island stability expected heavier especially possibly magic longer half lives history pre discovery late 1940s early 1960s early days synthesis heavier heavier elements predicted heavy elements occur naturally shorter shorter half lives spontaneous stopped existing altogether element known initial work synthesis appeared confirm nuclear shell model introduced late 1960s stated formed shells nucleus somewhat analogous forming electron shells noble gases having electron shells elements nuclear shells having called magic numbers stabilized radioactive decay magic having magic numbers especially stabilized calculated magic form centre called island stability island stability supposedly ranging element come long sea instability elements speculated half lives excess million years took thirty years synthesized recent work suggests local islands stability respectively deformed resistant spontaneous true island stability spherical occurs discovery synthesized december team scientists joint institute nuclear research russia led bombarded target accelerated single decaying alpha lifetime seconds detected decay energy measured giving expected half life observation assigned published january experiment later repeated decay properties found exact identity activity unknown possible scientist lawrence berkeley national laboratory involved work elements said december longest lasting dreams magic elements told synthesis colleague albert soon publication later recalled wanted know went told thought saw eye day went visit didn remember seeing scientist died stroke died month later february road confirmation march team replaced target order produce time produced decaying alpha half life assigned activity seen unclear nucleus produced possible stable confirmed discovery june team repeated reaction time element produced alpha decayed half life different result activity initially assigned error confusion previous observations assumed come work december finally allowed positive june joint working party published report discovery acknowledged discovery implied discovery data synthesis decay discovery confirmed january berkeley followed confirmation july germany evaluated team experiments found early data inconclusive accepted results element officially recognized having discovered naming nomenclature unnamed elements called lead published recommendations according element called corresponding symbol systematic element discovery element confirmed permanent decided scientists field called element symbol according recommendations new element right suggest discovery recognized june asked discovery team suggest permanent names elements team chose element symbol russian laboratory nuclear reactions named soviet physicist spelled earlier reports claim element directly proposed honour accordance proposal received officially named laboratory nuclear reactions older known writing april pointing silence scientific journals field nuclear united_states great_britain germany research classified information countries work led development ussr atomic bomb project predicted properties nuclear stability physical basis chemical governing periodic table electron shell noble gas atomic numbers enter new shell higher energy closed shell electron configurations markedly stable leading relative noble gases known arrange closed nuclear shells effect happens shell happen specific numbers dubbed magic numbers known magic numbers magic numbers termed magic stable decay property increased nuclear stability important elements half lives expected range element reached increasing electromagnetic forces positively charged overcome limited range strong nuclear force holds nucleus closed shells magic numbers thought centre long sought island stability half lives alpha decay spontaneous initially analogy magic number shell expected occur element far away synthesis capabilities mid-20th century achieve theoretical attention new values potential spin orbit interaction region periodic table contradicted predicted shell occur instead element region stable spontaneous heavy expected closed shells region number making candidates magic estimates predicted half life year expected near large island stability longest half life years comparable synthesis elements turn 21st century found synthesized stabilized region centred additionally new theoretical models showed expected gap energy filled element filled element smaller expected element longer appeared stable spherical closed nuclear shell magic nucleus expected expected low half life low production cross section makes synthesis challenging island stability expected exist region periodic table nearer centre approached closely beta decay daughters found decay electron capture centre island expected high barriers nucleus island stability exclusively alpha decay electron capture beta decay bring closer beta stability line island expected electron capture needed reach island problematic certain electron capture major decay mode region chart experiments performed laboratory nuclear reactions studying characteristics compound nucleus bombarding target accelerated compound nucleus loose combination arranged nuclear shells internal structure held collision forces target results revealed predominantly magic nearly magic fragments found yield fusion similar projectiles indicating possible future use projectiles element formation suggested rich formed partial fusion followed massive nucleus recently shown multi transfer reactions collisions rich located island stability production rich likely theoretical alpha decay half lives supports experimental data survived long expected magic predicted alpha decay half life days direct synthesis nucleus fusion currently impossible known combination target stable provide compound nucleus radioactive projectiles half life fourteen seconds needed quantity intensity currently possibility synthesis expected long lived near middle island include heavier targets fused produce decay products alpha decay close centre island possibly undergo electron capture centre cross sections small little known decay properties near beta stability line best hope currently island stability speculative work practice possibility use controlled nuclear explosions achieve high necessary create amounts mimic process produced nature gap instability bypassed bypass gaps instability mass number atomic numbers especially synthesized nature decayed away far quickly half lives thousands years produced far small quantities abundance lead today outside cosmic rays atomic physical member group periodic table carbon tin lead previous group element shell forming electron configuration case trend continued electron configuration predicted behave similarly lighter respects differences likely arise largely contributing effect spin orbit interaction mutual interaction motion spin especially strong elements faster lighter comparable speed light relation electron energy levels corresponding electron energy levels stabilized called pair effect effect tearing stabilized stabilized parts called splitting split change second quantum number stabilized stabilized parts respectively theoretical purposes electron configuration represented reflect split effects cause chemistry somewhat different lighter neighbours spin orbit splitting large fact filled seventh shell stabilized electron configuration considered completely filled shell making noble metal energy highest group electron levels able participate chemical reactions later elements allow behave ways like transition metals allow higher states stable state following periodic trends stable closed shell electron configuration results metallic bonding metallic weaker preceding following elements expected low boiling point recently suggested possibly metal melting boiling points predicted significantly lower values lighter group elements lead respectively continuing trend decreasing boiling points group earlier studies predicted boiling point considered unlikely expected weak metallic bonding group trends expect low solid state expected dense metal high atomic weight density variously predicted electron hydrogen like electron expected fast mass times stationary electron effects comparison figures hydrogen like lead tin expected respectively form weaker metal metal bonds lead surfaces chemical heaviest known member group periodic table lead projected second member series chemical elements members group group state members increasingly prominent chemistry onset pair effect tin represents point stability states similar lead stable understood group elements state highly stabilized large required achieve state expected stable lead strongly predominant state state highly unstable example dioxide expected highly unstable constituent elements formed direct reaction oxygen bond lengths predicted unstable spontaneously hydrogen gas stable compound expected gas gross example unfortunate compounds useful gas phase chemical studies corresponding unstable solution predicted form containing solutions possible share approximately energy making higher states like possible extremely elements general spin orbit lead smaller bond lengths larger bond angles theoretically confirmed electron configuration state stable lead begin exhibit mild pair effect neutral state bring similarities behaviour noble gas expected relative compounds lower energies corresponding lead compounds lead lead scale lead value stable lead compounds types expected form readily able form unstable expected stable water spin orbit effects solution form solution analogous water water standard potential reduction metallic estimated confirming increased stability neutral state general expected properties intermediate lighter experimental chemistry currently heaviest element chemistry investigated experiments performed april joint psi collaboration aiming study chemistry experiment involved reaction second reaction reactions produce short lived daughters studied properties resultant gold surface compared expected shell electron configuration lead noble gas like behaviour noble gases interact metal surfaces weakly metals experiment allowed detection seemingly detected result surprise given transport time product produced decayed second reaction possibly detected displayed characteristics associated volatile noble gas like element suggested predicted recent calculations experiments provided independent confirmation discovery comparison published decay data experiments confirm important result detected single supported previous data showing having noble gas like interaction gold experimental support noble gas like soon weaken abruptly psi collaboration synthesized follow studies particular synthesized study suggested noble gas like character complete set taken resulted ambiguous interpretation unusual metal carbon group fully like noble gas character paper scientists calling chemical properties close noble gases previously study measured interactions gold surface provided indications comparable mercury simultaneously investigated shown study volatile noble metal heaviest group element known pointed volatile behaviour expected usual group metal later experiments chemical properties revealed metallic noble gas like specifically named belonging new category volatile metals speculated standard temperature pressure volatile metals category expected fall normal metals noble gases terms properties contrary results shown experiments interactions respectively gold equal studies showed contradiction previous experiments predictions


chemical element symbol atomic number moderately hard metal readily air typical member series usually assumes state compounds known notably sms compound common reducing agent chemical synthesis significant biological role slightly toxic discovered french chemist paul named mineral isolated mineral earlier named russian official colonel person chemical element named albeit indirectly classified rare earth element 40th abundant element earth crust common metals tin occurs concentration minerals including common commercial sources element minerals found china united_states brazil india sri_lanka australia china far world leader mining production major commercial application permanent second compounds withstand significantly higher temperatures losing magnetic properties higher point radioactive major component drug kills cancer cells treatment lung cancer cancer breast cancer strong added control rods nuclear formed decay product operation important factors considered design operation applications include chemical reactions radioactive dating ray laser physical properties rare earth metal having density similar boiling point volatile property separation mineral ore ambient conditions normally assumes structure form heating crystal symmetry changes close packed transition temperature depends metal purity heating transforms metal body centered cubic phase heating combined compression results double close packed structure applying higher pressure order hundreds thousands series phase particular phase appearing study phase produced compression regime rapid temperature change confirming character phase thin films obtained deposition contain phases ambient conditions room temperature corresponding effective magnetic moments 3rd lowest metal transforms state cooling individual isolated molecules molecules solid rendering temperatures iron based recent class high temperature allows enhance transition temperature highest value achieved far series chemical properties prepared air slowly room temperature spontaneously stored mineral oil gradually develops grayish yellow powder mixture surface metallic appearance sample preserved sealing gas slowly cold water quickly hot water form readily acid form solutions containing yellow pale green iii exist complexes exhibit state blood red solution compounds stable compounds exists phases form obtained slow cooling melt melting point high melting usually achieved direct heating induction heating radio frequency crystals symmetry grown flame fusion method process powder yields cylindrical centimeters long centimeter diameter transparent pure defect free orange heating converts stable phase cubic described form golden yellow compound obtained reducing metal elevated temperature pressure lowering pressure resulted incomplete reaction cubic rock salt structure forms sms cubic rock salt crystal structure known remarkable converting metallic state room temperature application pressure transition continuous occurs abrupt sms requires effect results spectacular color change sms black golden yellow crystals films polished transition change symmetry sharp decrease crystal volume shows pressure released sms returns state lower pressure metal forming reduction metals elevated temperatures yields prepared heating reacting metal room temperature addition reduction produces numerous non defined crystal structure reflected table change crystal structures type substituted uncommon behavior elements major crystal phases composition significantly stable formed compression heating followed ambient conditions example usual releasing pressure results type structure density similar treatment results new phase density vacuum yields powder containing phases volume ratio controlled mixing proportion powder converted larger crystals certain arc melting zone melting techniques relying different melting temperature materials hard dark gray increasing content volatile produced methods requires high pressure low temperatures stabilize growth increasing temperature results formations typical intermediate compound present ratio belongs class high temperatures properties typical metal metallic electrical characterized strong electron scattering low temperatures non magnetic narrow band gap cooling induced metal transition accompanied sharp increase thermal peaking reason increase contribute thermal low temperatures dominated decrease electron concentration reduced rate electron scattering new research compounds prepared melting metal mixture atmosphere synthesis unstable air studied atmosphere high electrical type prepared evacuated containing mixed highly volatile high temperatures explode heating rate kept min similar procedure adopted synthesis temperature higher numerous compounds known element metallic form large group prepared mixed corresponding elements resulting compounds non nominal compositions ratio varies compounds forms prepared reacting contrary rings bridge forming ring edges neighboring creating chains structure accurately expressed bridges replaced instance hydrogen nitrogen groups replaced ring resulting compound similar structure solid contrary rings parallel obtained reaction group stands naturally occurring composed stable extremely long lived half life years years years abundant natural abundance listed sources stable radioactive long lived primarily decay alpha particles lighter unstable primarily decay electron capture heavier ones convert beta decay alpha decay half life years serve dating half lives years days respectively remaining half lives days majority half lives seconds nuclear stable half life minutes seconds seconds history detection related elements announced scientists second half 19th century sources priority french chemist paul isolated paris mineral identified new element sharp optical absorption lines swiss chemist announced new element latin meaning misleading later demonstrated mixture elements identical found remote russian region late 1870s deposits located places making mineral available researchers particular found isolated contained comparable pure element produced named element mineral turn honored chief staff russian corps mining engineers granted access german brothers rose rose study mineral samples sense chemical element named person later transformed conform element names refer analogy etc symbol suggested alternative frequently instead 1920s prior advent exchange separation technology 1950s commercial uses pure form product mixture acquired mix company material thought nuclear control rods early nuclear similar product concentrate prepared extraction mixed isolated heavier greater affinity easily extracted bulk relatively small proportions rare earth producers process large scale continue onward separation components typically makes percent original ore producers making view marketing specialized manner valuable content ore rescued use manufacture follows removal expensive commercial scale relative abundance ore suggest occurrence production average concentration parts million 40th abundant element earth crust fifth abundant common elements tin concentration soils varies oceans contain parts distribution soils strongly depends chemical state sandy soils concentration times higher surface soil particles water trapped ratio exceed found free nature like rare earth elements contained minerals including occurs concentrations commercial sources world resources estimated million tonnes located china brazil india sri_lanka australia annual production tonnes country production reports usually given rare earth metals combined far china largest production tonnes mined year followed tonnes india tonnes usually sold price usd mixture rare earth metals containing long relatively pure isolated recently exchange processes extraction techniques deposition metal prepared mixture iii calcium obtained reducing product separate boiling point domination minerals unique minerals essential dominant include rare produced nuclear yield total number events synthesized capture added control rods nuclear consequently present spent nuclear fuel radioactive waste applications important applications nominal composition high permanent times iron second based higher resistance stable temperatures found small motors high end magnetic guitars related musical instruments example motors solar powered electric aircraft solar challenger electric guitar bass important application compounds catalyst chemical reagent assist iii efficient lewis acid promoted crafts reaction common reducing agent organic synthesis example reactions total total synthesis reaction reductions usual form added glasses increases absorption infrared light minor found flint device radioactive beta half life hours kill cancer cells treatment lung cancer cancer breast cancer purpose injected prevents accumulation radioactive body result excessive generation new cancer cells corresponding drug names including trade high cross section capture control rods nuclear advantage compared competing materials stability absorption fusion decay products good example cross section order hundreds natural mixed decay products nuclear regarded second important design operation abbreviated recently shown potential applications quantum computing non commercial potential applications calcium crystals active medium solid state designed constructed peter inventor laser research early laser emitted red light cooled liquid find practical applications based laser saturated ray laser operating shorter provided suitable applications high resolution biological specimens dense related confinement fusion saturated operation meant maximum possible power extracted medium resulting high peak energy active medium produced coated glass infrared glass laser change electrical pressure memory device triggered low resistance high resistance state external pressure devices developed commercially generates electric voltage moderate heating applied power analysis relative concentrations allows determination age origin rocks dating elements similar physical chemical properties dating marker elements geological processes understood modeled involved elements potential use warm white light offers high narrow bands generally low quantum efficiency insufficient absorption blue region commercial application recent years demonstrated prepared precipitation serve efficient ray storage precipitation leads order size sensitivity ray storage increased times specific arrangements density defect centres comparison samples prepared high temperature mechanism based reduction trapping created exposure radiation host lines efficiently excited allowed transition ideal efficient blue violet laser transition electric allowed relatively intense potential applications personal imaging medical imaging biological role stimulate unclear effect present total adults liver dissolved blood absorbed plants concentration normally human diet plants vegetables contain million non toxic ones slightly toxic absorbed remainder blood goes liver deposited surface bones remains years balance


chemical element symbol atomic number like found earth crust combined form save small deposits found natural iron free element produced hard silver gray metal based blue blue ancient times jewelry distinctive blue glass color later thought known metal miners long ore german ore blue pigment producing minerals named poor known metals gave poisonous containing found new metal discovered ancient times ultimately named today produced specifically metallic example main source element product copper mining copper belt democratic republic central african republic yields mined worldwide primarily preparation magnetic wear resistant high strength compounds blue distinctive deep blue color glass occurs naturally stable commercially important radioactive production high energy gamma rays active center called common example essential trace mineral animals form bacteria algae fungi characteristics metal specific gravity temperature magnetic moment relative thirds iron metallic occurs structures ideal transition temperature structures practice energy difference small random common weakly reducing metal pure metallic form protected film attacked heating oxygen produces loses oxygen metal producing equivalent react hydrogen gas nitrogen gas heated react carbon ordinary temperatures slowly mineral slowly moist dry air compounds common states include compounds states ranging known common state simple compounds form pink colored metal complex water addition gives intensely blue flame test shows deep blue reducing flames oxygen compounds known green structure readily water oxygen brown iii temperatures blue iii structure black iii known low temperature temperature temperature analogous mixture states principal include black adopts like structure iii known pink blue green blue black exist forms blue red reduction potential reaction consequently iii result iii reduced reduction potential high iii simple stable iii compounds iii reactions vigorously water coordination compounds metals molecular compounds classified coordination complexes molecules contain linked principles series explain usual state example complexes tend softer nitrogen tend feature softer example harder stabilize derivatives potassium alfred nobel prize winning pioneer coordination chemistry worked compounds formula determined iii coordination complex typical type complex consists central coordinated place gives iii coordination complexes resolved optical complex exists left handed forms bladed propeller complex isolated yellow gold needle like crystals compounds structural analog place iron sensitive catalyst reactions compound found nature contains metal stable exist naturally earth characterized stable half life years half life days half life days half life days remaining radioactive half lives shorter hours majority shorter second element states half lives shorter minutes range atomic weight primary decay mode atomic mass unit values abundant stable electron capture primary mode decay greater atomic mass units beta decay primary decay products element iron primary products element history compounds centuries rich blue color glass detected egyptian sculpture persian jewelry millennium ruins destroyed china dating dynasty dynasty color glass bronze age excavation yielded blue glass cast 14th century blue glass items egypt colored copper iron oldest colored glass eighteenth dynasty egypt source unknown word derived german meaning term ore miners attempts copper failed yielding simply powder instead primary contain ore highly toxic volatile adding notoriety ore swedish chemist credited discovering circa showing previously unknown element different traditional metals called new semi metal showed compounds metal source blue color glass previously attributed found metal discovered pre historical period known metals iron copper silver gold mercury tin lead recorded 19th century significant world production blue compounds glass use pigment purposes painting carried norwegian mines production 16th century located norway sweden hungary discovery ore new mining europe declined discovery ore deposits ontario canada discovery larger deposits province mining operations shifted conflict started copper mines province nearly stopped production impact world economy conflict smaller expected rare metal pigment highly toxic industry established effective ways recycling materials cases industry able change free alternatives john discovered famously columbia_university 1950s establish violation radioactive beta decay world war wanted guaranteed supply ore military uses germans border adequate supply ore found idaho near canyon mountain firm mining company started production site occurrence stable form produced process comprises earth crust transition metals free native metal found earth oxygen atmosphere ocean oxygen abundant upper layers earth crust prevent formation native metal recently delivered iron pure native metal form unknown earth element medium abundance natural compounds numerous small amounts compounds found rocks soil plants animals nature frequently associated characteristic components iron abundant iron iron protected oxygen moisture remain free metal element seen form ancient terrestrial crust compound form occurs minor component copper minerals major metallic component combination ass minerals mineral similar occurs copper deposits province contact atmosphere occurs minerals form pink production main obtained reducing products copper mining copper deposits province province democratic republic producer world share reports british geological survey political situation influences price significantly mountain project operated central african mining exploration company richest reserve world estimated able produce total global production july announced long term agreement deliver entire annual production concentrate mountain materials china methods exist separation copper depend concentration exact composition ore separation step involves different ore components leading subsequent converts copper iron water extracts acid yielding solution copper copper products mentioned processes transformed reduced metal reaction reduction carbon blast human rights activists child labor african countries portion worldwide supply applications main application production high performance based consume produced temperature stability makes suitable turbine blades gas turbines jet aircraft engines based single crystal surpass performance based wear resistant making useful medical wear time development wear resistant started decade 20th century containing varying quantities carbon hard wear resistant special like prosthetic parts hip knee replacements dental useful substitute high speed contain increased heat wear resistance special aluminium iron known permanent platinum jewelry yielding suitable fine casting slightly magnetic batteries widely battery material composed layers discharge released metal batteries include improve battery compounds chemical reactions conversion acid precursor bulk typical known drying agents drying improve steel rubber steel radial tires based reactions involving carbon steam reforming useful hydrogen production uses base catalyst fischer process carbon liquid uses catalyst replaced efficient based process petroleum uses catalyst derived process helps clean petroleum interfere liquid coloring 19th century predominantly pigment middle ages production blue colored glass produced melting mixture mineral potassium yielding dark blue glass finely ground production widely coloration glass pigment paintings discovered green louis discovered blue blue blue green mixture violet artist superior stability yellow largely replaced yellow useful gamma ray source produced predictable quantity high activity bombarding produces gamma rays energies external beam medical supplies medical waste radiation treatment foods cold industrial integrity density measurements concrete density measurements tank fill height switches metal unfortunate property producing fine dust causing problems radiation protection machines hazard discarded properly worst radiation contamination accidents north_america occurred discarded unit containing mistakenly mexico radioactive half life years loss requires periodic replacement source reason machines largely replaced linear modern radiation therapy medical tests test source possible sources ray devices nuclear weapon designs intentionally incorporate activated nuclear explosion produce dispersed nuclear fallout creates called bomb uses attractive appearance resistance base coat biological role essential animals key constituent known primary biological reservoir element bacteria animals convert compound produced bacteria minimum presence soils markedly improves health grazing animals day recommended source early 20th century development farming north island volcanic plateau new_zealand cattle suffered termed bush sickness discovered volcanic soils lacked essential cattle food chain cured adding small amounts form time derived canadian sources coast disease sheep ninety mile desert southeast south_australia 1930s found originate deficiencies trace elements copper overcome development bullets dense mixed clay given lodging animal non produce bacteria simple absorbed non obtain nutrient non follow habits animal products benefit simple proteins based use hold features bond reactions humans types promotes group transfers version hydrogen directly transferred adjacent exchange second carbon oxygen alcohol converts important step extraction energy proteins far common iron known aside proteins include occurs humans mammals use ring directly non bacteria precautions essential element life minute amounts value estimated person single dose grams safety health administration designated exposure limit workplace time weighted average national institute safety health set recommended exposure limit time weighted average immediately dangerous life health value chronic caused health problems far lethal dose addition compounds stabilize beer foam canada led peculiar form induced came known beer major cause contact effectively absorbed pigs bones process copper greater bone


platinum platinum chemical element symbol atomic number dense highly precious gray white transition metal derived spanish term literally translated little silver platinum member platinum group elements group periodic table elements naturally occurring elements earth crust average abundance approximately occurs copper native deposits south_africa accounts world production earth crust tonnes produced annually given important uses highly valuable major precious metal platinum metals remarkable resistance high temperatures considered noble metal consequently platinum found native platinum occurs naturally sands rivers pre south american natives produce artifacts referenced european writings early 16th century published report new metal origin began investigated scientists platinum laboratory equipment electrical contacts platinum resistance equipment jewelry heavy metal leads health issues exposure resistance metallic platinum linked adverse health effects compounds containing platinum applied certain types cancer characteristics physical pure platinum silver white metal platinum gold silver copper pure metals gold metal excellent resistance stable high temperatures stable electrical properties platinum oxygen slowly high temperatures vigorously form attacked platinum acid hot regia form acid physical characteristics chemical stability useful industrial applications resistance wear suited use fine jewelry chemical common states platinum states common stabilized metal bonding species expected platinum compounds tend adopt electron square platinum generally hot regia acid soft acid platinum great affinity numerous complexes reported care taken choice reaction platinum naturally occurring abundant comprising platinum stable non zero spin spin satellite peaks observed complexes abundant naturally occurring unstable half life years causing activity natural platinum undergo alpha decay decay observed half life known longer years considered stable platinum synthetic ranging atomic mass making total number known stable half life stable half life years platinum decay combination beta decay alpha decay decay primarily electron capture double beta decay paths occurrence platinum extremely rare metal occurring concentration earth crust mistaken silver platinum found native platinum platinum group metals iron native platinum found secondary deposits deposits deposits pre people department colombia source platinum group metals large deposit mountains russia mined copper deposits platinum group metals occur end copper platinum major source platinum associated basin deposit ontario canada platinum alaska mined ceased operations rare mineral contains platinum occurs reef complex south_africa identified region south_africa followed discovery platinum largest known primary reserves complex south_africa large copper deposits near russia basin canada large deposits basin huge quantities ore processed fact platinum present ore smaller reserves found united_states example range montana south_africa producer platinum share followed russia world production platinum deposits present state tamil india signed geological survey india tamil minerals ltd platinum exists higher moon platinum found slightly higher sites impact earth associated resulting post impact mined economically basin example compounds acid mentioned probably important platinum compound serves precursor platinum compounds applications photography ink plating mirrors coloring catalyst treatment acid salt gives relatively solutions heating salt presence hydrogen reduces platinum potassium similarly acid determination potassium acid heated platinum platinum platinum reactions occur reactions platinum platinum known platinum strong capable oxygen platinum known adams catalyst black powder solutions concentrated common heating platinum formed following reaction compounds unlike platinum commercially available base desired conjunction use platinum reported synthesized platinum exhibits negative states ranging include dark red transparent compound shown contain platinum exhibits negative states surfaces reduced negative states exhibited platinum unusual metallic elements attributed salt containing compounds discovered platinum commercially available complex contains easily complex convenient starting points platinum chemistry series square platinum drugs including compounds capable dna kill cells similar pathways agents effects include hair loss hearing loss history early uses archaeologists discovered traces platinum gold ancient egyptian tombs early extent early knowledge metal unclear possible recognize platinum gold metal pre americans near modern day ecuador produce artifacts white gold platinum employed relatively sophisticated system powder platinum objects pure element naturally occurring mixture platinum group metals small amounts european discovery european reference platinum appears writings italian description unknown noble metal found mexico fire spanish able encounters platinum spanish generally saw metal kind gold treated simply thrown away official decree forbidding gold platinum charles wood british found samples platinum jamaica sent william investigation credited discovery platinum returned spain french mission having years historical account expedition included description platinum anticipated discovery platinum mines publishing report continue investigate new metal sent mercury mining operations studying platinum sent wood presented detailed account metal royal society stating seen mention previous accounts known minerals note platinum extremely high melting point europe soon began studying platinum including william lewis published detailed scientific description metal referred white gold including account succeeded platinum ore aid described platinum gold similar resistance means von researched platinum extensively succeeded making platinum gold hot regia platinum resulting finely divided platinum platinum worked platinum later platinum family members discovered platinum list false assumption slightly pure iron platinum relatively non material times fact close gold assumptions avoided platinum experimented highly contaminated minute amounts platinum family elements platinum platinum called gold solution time obtain compound pure platinum available extremely long wires drawn pure platinum easily structure similar soft metals charles iii spain provided library laboratory aid research platinum succeeded removing ore including gold mercury lead copper iron led believe working single metal truth ore contained platinum group metals led inconsistent results experiments times platinum metal entirely months succeeded producing kilograms pure platinum form white hot realized platinum lend value objects started business producing platinum started known platinum age spain won nobel prize chemistry determining detailed molecular mechanisms carbon platinum production platinum rest platinum group metals obtained commercially product copper mining processing copper noble metals silver gold platinum group metals settle cell mud forms starting point extraction platinum group metals pure platinum found deposits isolated methods platinum significantly lighter removed simply floating away liquid platinum iron removed running mixture platinum higher melting point substances burned melted away melting platinum finally platinum resistant substances readily attacked metal removed stirring mixture recovering remaining platinum suitable method raw platinum contains platinum gold platinum group metals process regia gold platinum dissolved stay gold precipitated addition iron gold platinum precipitated addition converted platinum heating reduced similar method suitable small scale recovery platinum laboratory applications tonnes platinum sold tonnes vehicle emissions control devices tonnes jewelry tonnes chemical production petroleum tonnes electrical applications hard disk drives remaining tonnes went minor applications medicine equipment investment drugs oxygen sensors spark turbine engines catalyst common use platinum catalyst chemical reactions platinum black employed catalyst early 19th century platinum powder hydrogen important application automobiles allows complete low concentrations exhaust carbon dioxide water platinum petroleum industry catalyst number separate processes especially reforming straight run higher gasoline rich compounds known adams catalyst catalyst specifically vegetable platinum strongly hydrogen water oxygen fuel cells catalyst reduction oxygen standard meter defined length platinum bar known international prototype meter bar previous bar platinum international prototype kilogram remains defined cylinder platinum standard hydrogen uses platinum resistance attributes investment platinum precious metal currency code coins bars traded collected platinum finds use jewellery usually purpose prestige inherent value jewellery trade publications advise present minute surface term desirable feature attempt enhance value platinum products companies use platinum producing limited edition watch series appreciate unique properties platinum wears quality relative gold price platinum like industrial volatile gold price platinum dropped loss nearly value contrast price gold dropped time frame loss value periods sustained economic stability growth price platinum tends twice price gold periods economic uncertainty price platinum tends decrease reduced industrial demand falling price gold gold prices stable slow economic times gold considered safe haven gold industrial applications demand driven industrial uses 18th century platinum rarity king louis france declare metal fit king uses laboratory platinum wire platinum supports analysis stringent requirements chemical heating high temperatures platinum agent metal products including fine wires laboratory containers medical instruments dental electrical contacts platinum roughly parts platinum relatively strong permanent platinum based ships steel piers symbol prestige platinum rarity metal caused associate wealth platinum credit cards greater privileges gold cards platinum awards second highest possible ranking gold silver bronze diamond example united_states musical album sold million copies credited platinum album sold million copies certified diamond products vehicles white color identified platinum platinum considered precious metal use common use gold silver frame crown queen elizabeth queen mother manufactured coronation consort king george platinum british crown particular metal health issues according centers disease control prevention short term exposure platinum cause eyes nose throat long term exposure cause respiratory skin current standard cubic meter air averaged hour work shift national institute safety health set recommended exposure limit platinum hour platinum based agents good activity platinum catalyst manufacture rubber components types medical breast joint replacement artificial discs access ports etc possibility platinum enter body cause adverse effects study food drug administration institutions reviewed issue found evidence suggest


chemical element symbol atomic number fourteenth penultimate element series basis relative stability state like common state seen compounds solution like compounds late compounds form complexes water molecules closed shell electron configuration density melting boiling points differ swiss chemist jean charles separated rare earth independent component called village sweden near found new component suspected compound new element called total elements named village new earth separated element extracted von charles james discussion retained relatively pure sample metal obtained present mainly steel active laser media gamma ray source natural mixture seven stable altogether present concentrations parts million element mined china united_states brazil india form minerals concentration low element found rare earth elements abundant ones extracted prepared somewhat hazardous eye skin metal fire explosion hazard characteristics physical properties soft chemical element displays bright pure form rare earth element readily attacked dissolved strong mineral slowly cold water slowly air labeled greek letters alpha beta gamma transformation temperatures exact transformation temperature depends pressure stress beta exists room temperature face centered cubic crystal structure high temperature gamma body centered cubic structure alpha structure stable low temperatures normally beta metallic electrical exposed pressure electrical increases times compression drops room temperature contrast rare earth metals usually properties low temperatures temperatures alpha melting point boiling point smallest liquid range metals contrary close packed face centered cubic structure result density significantly lower neighboring elements melting boiling points significantly lower properties stem closed shell electron configuration causes available metallic bonding contrast available chemical properties metal slowly air finely dispersed readily air oxygen burn green flame hydrogen form non slowly water quickly hydrogen gas slowly cold water quickly hot water form iii white white white white iii light near infrared range visible light mineral white color readily acid form solutions contain iii exist complexes iii usually readily forms compounds behavior unusual exclusively form compounds state state electron configuration fully filled shell gives stability yellow green strong reducing agent water releasing hydrogen gas iii occurs solution behave way state stable solution metal similarly metal earth metals form blue natural composed seven stable abundant natural abundance observed stable ones half life days half life days half life hours remaining radioactive half lives hours half lives minutes states stable seconds range atomic weight atomic mass unit primary decay mode lighter abundant stable electron capture primary decay mode heavier beta decay primary decay products lighter primary decay products heavier occurrence found rare earth elements rare minerals recovered commercially sand element found main mining areas china united_states brazil india sri_lanka australia reserves estimated million tonnes normally difficult separate rare exchange extraction techniques developed mid- late 20th century simplified separation known compounds rare characterized abundance earth crust numbered accordance rule significantly abundant immediate neighbors occur concentrate levels world production tonnes year reflecting fact commercial applications microscopic traces laser solid state laser element undergoes stimulated electromagnetic radiation production somewhat difficult separate similar properties result process somewhat long minerals dissolved acid separated exchange solution applied different bond different matters dissolved agents different types bonding exhibited different possible compounds separated rare exchange reduction method acidic solution rare treated mercury reduces treated acid metal extracted solution converted heating reduced metal heating aluminium high vacuum metal collected condensed plate compounds chemical behavior similar rest compounds found state state nearly like reduced hydrogen dust addition metallic state occurs solid compounds ways similarly earth metal compounds example shows structure calcium forms susceptible room temperature metallic high temperature organic synthesis example iii lewis acid catalyst reactions like reducing agent reactions iii non toxic tooth filling continuously releases good dental health good ray contrast agent oxygen form iii rare earth type structure related structure quarter removed leading different coordinate non environments iii reduced structure history discovered swiss chemist jean charles year examining samples found new component earth known named swedish village near found new component suspected compound new element called french chemist separated components later known element later known element austrian chemist von independently isolated elements time called american chemist charles james independently isolated elements time accused publishing results based party commission atomic mass consisting frank clarke responsible new element names settled dispute granting priority adopting names official ones based fact separation described names recognized reverted chemical physical properties determined precision nearly pure metal produced exchange processes price relatively stable applications source gamma rays half life days created short lived half life days activation nuclear radiation source portable ray machines like rays gamma rays emitted source pass soft tissues body blocked bones dense materials small samples gamma rays act like tiny ray machines useful small objects experiments taken source roughly equivalent taken rays having energies nuclear medicine world stable atomic clock hold record stability stable parts developed national institute standards technology rely rare earth cooled degree absolute zero trapped optical series shaped wells laser light laser times second transition energy levels large number key high stability steel help improve grain strength mechanical properties steel rarely active media material active laser media specifically solid state double clad fiber highly efficient long generate short easily incorporated material laser commonly band pumped host application small quantum defect makes prospective efficient power scaling materials simple described concept effective cross sections laser materials pumped gain media relation holds application composite materials discussion usually low concentrations high concentrations materials glass fibers switch crystals instead efficient laser action effect related conditions charge compensation high concentrations progress power scaling produced optical fibers power levels increased regimes components fibers low large mode area fibers enable achievement near perfect beam qualities power levels greater configuration fibers advantages larger mode field diameter impacts effects stimulated scattering stimulated scattering limit achievement higher power levels provides distinct advantage single mode fibers order achieve higher power levels based fiber systems factors fiber considered achieved fiber parameters ranging core background losses properties order reduce losses cavity power scaling requires matching passive fibers optical cavity glass host glass modification plays large reducing background loss glass improvements slope efficiency fiber improved performance contribute increased power levels systems metal increases electrical subjected high stresses property stress monitor ground earthquakes explosions visible light waves faster optical precise atomic working optical model single caught trap highly accurate optical clock based exact point pair experimental atomic based national institute standards technology set new record stability report august issue science express stable parts followed roughly times better previous best published results atomic accurate second period comparable age universe currently investigated possible replacement high density infrared iii significantly higher infrared range higher intensity obtained based comparison commonly based mtv precautions fairly stable stored containers atmosphere nitrogen filled dry box protect metal air moisture compounds treated highly toxic initial studies appear indicate danger minimal compounds known cause human skin eyes metallic dust spontaneously resulting hazardous fires extinguished water dry chemical class fire fires