operation operation operation airborne forces british_army took place june normandy landings world war objective capture intact road bridges normandy river canal providing exit eastwards british forces landing sword beach intelligence reports said bridges heavily defended germans wired demolition captured bridges held counter attack assault force relieved infantry advancing british landing zone mission vital success operation british airborne landings normandy failure capture bridges intact prevent demolition germans leave british 6th airborne division cut rest allied armies backs waterways germans retained control bridges armoured divisions attack landing beaches normandy responsibility operation fell men company 2nd airborne battalion light infantry 6th brigade 6th airborne division assault group comprised reinforced company infantry attached platoon royal engineers flew south england normandy later described outstanding flying achievements war delivered company objective brief exchange fire bridges captured defended tank infantry counter attacks company relief arrived background british forces planning stage normandy invasion decision land 6th airborne division major general richard gale left flank invasion beaches river river primary objective capture road bridges river canal prevent german flanking attack landing area failure capture bridges leave 6th airborne division cut enemy territory 5th parachute brigade defend bridges counter attacks gale decided way capture bridges intact coup main assault asked brigadier hugh 6th brigade nominate best company operation company 2nd airborne battalion light infantry major john howard second command captain brian selected mission company trained hard battalion utilizing bomb damaged inner city areas practice street fighting live ammunition howard expected invasion involve night fighting changed daily routine ensure men task weeks time rose completed exercises drills normal night retiring general gale tested company exercises objective capture bridges apparent company able carry mission asked select battalion join howard chose company commanded fox smith explosive charges found attached bridges responsibility royal engineers airborne field company commanded captain changes operational plan accommodate assigned attack bridge simultaneously infantry overcoming troops guard duty engineers located dismantled demolition charges days nights company carried exercises outside exeter south west england bridges similar objectives found exeter ship canal transport normandy arranged piloted squadron pilot regiment wingspan feet length feet maximum load pounds space pilots troops mixture artillery guns trailers pilot training involved practice landings small strip land instrument flying accurate course changes fitting flight crew dark glass night flying carried training sorties flying day night howard told exact details operation orders seize bridges river canal intact hold relieved relief force initially company 7th parachute battalion howard command remainder parachute battalion arrived hand commander lieutenant colonel richard pine coffin 3rd infantry division 1st commando brigade scheduled land sword beach day advance bridges expected arrive end company left battalion camp wiltshire raf base secured howard mission distributing photographs bridges unveiling model area pilot commander staff sergeant jim told howard load men ammunition assault boats engineers stores dangerously howard decided assault boat leave men platoon minute doctor john replaced injured man june company final preparations mission man issued personal weapons ammunition hand grenades gun magazines platoon inch mortar radio men boarded issued indicated canal bridge captured jam river bridge capture destruction canal bridge signalled jack similar fate river bridge bridges bridge spans river bridge crosses canal west miles coast provided access city main road crosses bridges continues east river feet long feet wide canal bridge opens allow canal traffic pass underneath controls housed nearby cabin canal feet deep feet wide earth stone banks feet high small tracks run banks canal entire length bridges strip ground yards wide broken ditches small streams bridge river feet long feet wide opened allow river traffic pass river feet wide average depth feet mud banks averaging feet high tidal rise fall feet number small houses lie west river connected track feet wide runs banks german forces bridge guarded men belonging german regiment infantry division unit commanded major based miles east river static formation assigned normandy june division infantry battalions deployed defend miles atlantic wall unit poorly equipped mixture foreign weapons manned poland russia france german officer senior non commissioned officers soldiers orders blow bridges danger capture second division 21st moved area regiments commanded colonel von luck east battalion regiment based west bridges colonel von luck trained regiment anti invasion operations identified likely points marked forward routes rest areas anti aircraft gun positions 21st division new formation based unit destroyed north_africa equipped assortment older tanks armoured vehicles division officers veterans men old division filled ranks 12th division division day march area defences place bridges west bank canal bridge machine gun east bank machine gun anti tank gun north machine guns concrete anti aircraft tower equipped machine guns stood south river bridge eastern bank south bridge anti tank anti aircraft guns north bridge machine guns bridges trench systems banks june towed halifax bombers took raf number headed canal carried howard lieutenant den platoon number bore lieutenant david wood platoon number carried lieutenant smith platoon lieutenant platoon river bridge aboard number number carrying lieutenant fox platoon followed number bearing platoon carried royal engineers flying english channel feet bombers crossed normandy coast june released towed controls number crashed barbed wire surrounding canal bridge defences followed minute intervals number broke half came halt edge large pond men fell water drowned casualty operation smith headed bridge wood platoon moved trenches north east bridges captured germans knew invasion imminent exact location major command bridges told critical points normandy defenders alert duty landed sound gunshot alerted bridge platoon attacked ran shouting second fired gun alert nearby defenders shot members platoon cleared trenches grenades alerted german machine gunners opened fire men bridge wounding threw grenade grenade machine gun positions taken gun fire number platoon crossed bridge defensive position west bank royal engineers number searched explosive charges cut fuse wires found smith platoon crossed bridge exchanging fire german defenders smith wounded grenade grenades sub machine gun fire cleared trenches german resistance west bank canal bridge checking area men platoon realised leader wounded failed recover soon died wounds allied soldier killed enemy action invasion east bank wood platoon cleared trenches little opposition woods hit leg machine gun fire ordered platoon storm german defences platoon commanders canal bridge dead wounded 22nd independent parachute company landed area river river brigadier commanding 5th parachute brigade small team accompanied landing heard gun set bridges man locate germans bridge escaped company attack reached reported bridge captured fox number land yards river bridge number reported missing germans opened fire platoon responded inch mortar destroyed gun direct hit crossed bridge opposition number landed yards short bridge left sections west bank moved rest platoon bridge defensive positions east bank newly established command post trenches eastern bank canal near bridge howard learned river bridge taken captain engineers reported bridges prepared demolition explosives attached howard ordered transmit code words jam brought fox platoon canal bridge positioning port crossroads company forward platoon 7th parachute battalion aircraft carrying rest 6th airborne division appeared overhead descended drop zones marked howard began blowing code letter whistle help guide 7th parachute battalion bridges arrive brigadier soldier picked route howard situation heard tanks moving port drop zone men 7th parachute battalion rallying point signal equipment machine guns mortars missing pine coffin aware battalion unit allocated defensive positions west bridges decided wait longer left bridges time major german commander bridge guard force decided needed happening headed bridge motorcycle escort travelling high speed passed forward line company defence drove bridge company opened fire soldier aboard motorcycle killed forced road driver taken prisoner commander infantry division informed parachute landings bridges captured intact actions contact 21st division ordered division attack landing areas tanks delegated support german armoured reserve orders german high command german formations moved direct orders adolf_hitler sleeping time staff refused wake colonel von luck regiment received news airborne landings ordered regiment assembly areas north east waited orders closest large german unit canal bridge 2nd battalion regiment based general ordered recapture bridges attack parachute landing zones west 2nd battalion headed bridges west supported 1st company heavy artillery battalion coming north north reached junction leading bridge leading vehicle hit round company anti tank weapon vehicle exploded setting ammunition tanks withdrew company 7th parachute battalion commanded major taylor arrived bridges howard directed defensive positions west canal port lieutenant colonel pine coffin arrived bridges howard crossed set headquarters church pine coffin men companies positioned companies facing south company port facing company pulled area bridges held reserve check trenches captured number germans 8th heavy company regiment guns guns mortars attacked companies 7th parachute battalion south forced germans established positions unable break british line dug waited tank support moving forward germans fired mortar rounds machine guns attempted small assaults positions night dawn howard summoned platoon commanders meeting senior officers dead wounded numbers commanded howard second command captain number platoon missing fox complement officers landings sword beach began preceded heavy naval bombardment bridges daylight allowed german identify targets moving open danger shot men number platoon taken anti tank gun east bank canal engage possible sniper positions surrounding area german approached canal bridge lead boat fired gun number platoon returned fire hitting leading boat crashed canal bank second boat retreated lone german aircraft bombed canal bridge dropping bomb bomb struck bridge failed detonate 1st commando brigade german 2nd battalion regiment continued attack port assisted tanks mortars infantry attack caused problems 7th parachute battalion leading tank blown bomb blocking road attack tanks trying bridge destroyed reinforced number platoon company platoon moved forward cleared germans house house fighting numbers moved positions opposite cafe west bank canal midday missing men 7th parachute battalion arrived bridges moved original positions midday 21st division received permission attack landings colonel von luck east river moved regiment bridges column quickly spotted engaged hours allied artillery aircraft causing heavy losses 1st battalion regiment 100th regiment attacking west canal success reaching beaches british sword beach canadian beach men bridges heard sound played bill 1st commando brigade arrived crossed bridges joined rest 6th airborne division defending eastern bridges tanks accompanying moved reinforce defences crossed bridges boat loaded german infantry approached engaged anti tank gun manned number platoon hit stern second round fired retreated 2nd battalion royal regiment infantry brigade arrived sword beach began taking bridges defences midnight howard handed command bridges regiment company left join rest battalion finally located battalion positions found captain number platoon joined battalion platoon landed river miles away spent previous day fighting way bridges trying rejoin company aftermath forward point british advance june men infantry engineers pilots company involved capture bridges killed fourteen wounded june german air_force attacked bridges aircraft british positioned light medium sized anti aircraft guns bridges face intense anti aircraft fire attack failed claim bridges destroyed direct hit 6th airborne retained control area rivers june 51st highland infantry division took southern days followed division reinforced dutch princess brigade 1st belgian infantry brigade period static warfare ended august division crossed river days advanced miles mouth river june august pulled line division casualties killed wounded missing operation engineers pilots company men returned parent formations company played division defence advance river september division withdrawn england remained company men remaining officer howard officers junior having casualties pilots group leave company expertise required planned operations particular operation included coup main operation eighteen capture bridges netherlands mission carried 1st airborne division brigade allocated defend bridge scheduled september delayed cancelled plans adapted operation market garden involving airborne divisions coup main assault plans carried prior withdrawn july howard awarded distinguished service order presented field general bernard montgomery awards military cross smith military medal sergeant lance corporal lieutenant posthumously mentioned dispatches air chief marshal royal_air_force praised pilots involved saying operation included outstanding flying achievements war feat recognised award distinguished flying medal pilots involved legacy canal bridge renamed bridge emblem british airborne forces river bridge bridge road major john howard end war bridge adjacent café place british veterans conflict visiting normandy bridge replaced new structure old bridge added displays museum original model area bridge brief troops taking assault preserved airborne assault museum parachute regiment airborne forces located imperial war museum number books written mentioned assault operation featured film longest day based book title ryan major john howard played richard officer 7th parachute battalion battle attack bridge recreated highly successful lauded video game duty player joins assault 6th airborne division capturing holding bridge film bridge begins filming covers events operation fighting bridge fighting port written directed lance nielsen


massacre massacre known hospital massacre massacre killing croatian prisoners war civilians yugoslav people army farm southeast november croatian war independence massacre occurred shortly capture croatian territorial defence neighbouring serbia largest massacre war worst war crime europe world war time final days battle evacuation hospital negotiated croatian authorities european community monitor mission cooperation international committee red_cross subsequently refused access hospital despite agreement removed approximately people premises group largely consisting including serbs hungarians muslims foreign nationals fought croatian national_guard initially transported barracks prisoners identified hospital staff removed group returned hospital rest transported farm south farm prisoners beaten hours pulled troops site leaving prisoners custody croatian serbian prisoners taken prepared site shot groups buried mass grave mass grave discovered october guarded united_nations protection force deployed area earlier year sets remains grave international criminal tribunal yugoslavia investigators croatia believes buried different grave site prosecutors believe figure stands convicted officers connection massacre tried serbian president number war crimes including committed died prison trial completed trial croatian political leader war crimes including committed ongoing members croatian serbian paramilitary units tried serbian judiciary convicted involvement massacre february international court justice ruled massacre constitute genocide site mass grave marked monument storage building farm hold prisoners captivity execution rebuilt memorial centre centre visited half million tourists background ethnic tensions serbs worsened electoral defeat government socialist republic croatia croatian democratic union croatian yugoslav people army serbian latin confiscated croatia territorial defence croatian weapons minimize resistance august tensions escalated open revolt croatian serbs centred predominantly populated areas approximately kilometres miles north east split parts eastern croatia january serbia supported montenegro serbia provinces unsuccessfully tried obtain yugoslav presidency approval operation croatian security forces request denied skirmish insurgents croatian special police march prompted ask federal presidency wartime authority declare state emergency request backed serbia allies request refused march serbian president preferring campaign expand serbia preserve yugoslavia croatia federal unit publicly threatened replace serbian army declared longer recognized authority federal presidency threat caused abandon plans preserve yugoslavia favour expanding serbia came control casualties conflict occurred end march early april leaders revolt croatia declared intention unite areas control serbia areas viewed government croatia regions beginning croatia regular army bolster defence croatia doubled police numbers effective croatian police force strong special police comprising battalions organised military lines organised reserve police battalions companies lacked weapons response deteriorating situation croatian government established croatian national_guard croatian garde expanding special police battalions professional guards brigades control croatian ministry defence commanded retired general martin guards brigades comprised approximately troops reserve police expanded attached reorganised brigades independent battalions guards brigades units fully equipped small arms lack heavier weapons poor command control structure brigade level shortage heavy weapons severe resorted world war era arms taken museums film studios time croatian weapon consisted small arms purchased abroad previously owned police replace personnel lost guards brigades new strong special police established prelude croatia launched battle barracks capture facilities croatia september launched small scale operation relieve city garrison time began large scale preparation campaign croatia met widespread refusal personnel report designated units overall lack enthusiasm campaign resulted low troop availability forcing deploy fewer infantry units response particularly poor central serbia percent called reported service offensive operations directly associated campaign east croatian region launched september assault croatian positions gradually main effort campaign repeatedly unable capture city fighting lasted months eventually drew main armoured force previously slated advance west held areas western addition relieving garrison wished dissipate croatian forces city pose threat rear event campaign progressed west forces reinforced local manned units serbian paramilitary volunteers meant replace failed respond volunteers motivated ethnic hatred looted countless homes committed numerous atrocities croatian civilians months fighting croatian forces city surrendered november suffered great destruction artillery rocket town end battle shells missiles fired rate day timeline evacuation arrangements november major general commander 5th military district notified european community monitor mission accepted principle quick evacuation vulnerable persons time estimated people trapped city hospital actual number later discovered included patients receiving treatment severe injuries sustained preceding days patients recovering wounds suffered earlier addition individuals civilians taken shelter hospital final days battle moved expecting evacuated city hospital subjected daily artillery attack furthermore number croatian troops took refuge hospital posing patients staff november commission consisting representatives croatia discussed methods evacuation representatives international committee red_cross international night november croatian health minister signed agreement evacuation agreement guaranteed travel route suburb junction handed international authorities junction hospital placed oversee entire operation notified hospital director agreement told teams arrive evening radio reporter covered entire course siege city broadcast final report hospital hoped leave city fearing life capture takeover hospital morning november aware organised resistance ceased receive information fate hospital patients consequently head ambassador jan van contacted asking intervene behalf day unit arrived hospital taken meet colonel mile according told evacuation agreement granted access officers scene early evening november representative managed reach hospital claiming appointment general found captain charge facility agreed grant access rejoined convoy moving hospital evacuate hospital toured french reporter day recorded interview jean wounded fought alongside croatian forces offered press pass try city refused morning november convoy reached stopped bridge near hospital armoured vehicle blocked access bridge leading hospital officer scene major refused let pass order facilitate negotiations scene bbc reporter martin bell volunteered interpreter confrontation recorded television cameras told personnel country conquered yugoslavia command personnel arrived junction meet returning convoy informed instead turned northern bosnia november held convoy prisoners smuggled hospital buses direction total approximately people taken away hospital farm later november colonel informed press provide buses transport wounded instead buses took prisoners barracks southern edge men separated group returned hospital identified hospital staff stay barracks croatian serbian threatened prisoners croatian leaders opposed moving prisoners detention facilities serbia claiming wished prosecute alleged crimes committed serbs spending hours barracks buses took prisoners farm near village group largely consisted included ethnic serbs muslims ethnic hungarians french national german national fought defence included nephew worked hospital time group taken consisted people sources disagree group included women months pregnant age prisoners ranged youngest year old reached kilometres miles away captives ordered buses forced run past dozens troops farm storage building mayor armed men involved beating prisoners captives beaten stripped personal belongings money jewelry course day military police failed prevent soldiers croatian serbian beating prisoners storage building beaten sticks rifle chains baseball bats instance wounded prisoner beaten men beaten death addition captors shot prisoners including presumed seven men returned orders presumably released intervention neighbours ultimately ordered military police withdraw farm leaving prisoners custody croatian unit led commander croatian paramilitary unit volunteer unit set serbian radical party serbian serbia 1st guards brigade prisoners divided groups group loaded truck transported metres yards building wooded prisoners reached previously prepared execution site shot buried mass grave minutes truck return pick group final group prisoners executed outside farm building evening prisoners killed sources variously report number total croatian authorities believe total figure stands prosecutors asserted approximately victims massacre severe individual war crime committed europe world war point aftermath croatian forces turned prison camp early october aside massacre male prisoners temporarily held camp point autumn transported prison local barracks transit point serbian detention camps following series political agreements concluded croatia early united_nations protection force deployed certain parts croatia including surroundings began deployment march discovery mass grave forensic clyde snow learned massacre visit october snow travelled united_nations team member sent investigate reports war crimes meeting snow dean university school medicine introduced soldier claimed survived massacre told snow took place days later snow went drove accompanied royal canadian mounted police sergeant larry moore deployed region site moore spotted human skull mud days later declared site crime scene deployed russian troops guard snow man team including conduct preliminary investigation site winter team arrived site december examined site guard russian troops excavated skull spotted moore rest body set partially covered remains team excavated metre feet trench site allowed detect bodies size grave information obtained led snow conclude grave contain bodies investigators found spent consistent standard yugoslav built grave bullet holes trees opposite leading conclude firing squad stood pit fired croatian authorities launched initiatives bodies buried unsuccessful member commission experts appointed secretary general came victims october prevented carrying work local croatian administration croatian authorities blocked attempts investigate mass grave constant guard russian site visited ambassador january occasion stress support international criminal tribunal yugoslavia set political situation area change year croatia militarily defeated croatian serbs flash storm august respectively left eastern remaining croatian held area gradual restoration area croatian rule agreed november agreement united_nations transitional administration eastern western mission deployed implement agreement remains began september site constant guard conducted personnel physicians human rights croatian observers site excavation works uncovered mass grave encompassing approximately square metres square feet containing bodies bodies exhibited evidence multiple gunshot wounds october sets remains recovered grave remains transported forensic examination university school medicine years preceding croatian authorities collected information presumed victims built modern school medicine trained dna analysis allow identification identified investigators traditional methods october victims identified largely dna analyses figure increased remains croatian authorities suspect individuals killed buried suspect additional mass graves exist general area bodies originally buried site moved secondary grave croatian author book claims additional shallow grave excavated november buried according croatian authorities moved secondary location early grave shallow body parts ground surface war crime trials november indicted captain war crimes related massacre group subsequently termed media charged mayor time war crimes connection massacre sealed indictment march arrested troops operation little flower transferred airfield june operation arrest person indicted force yugoslavia trial produced verdict hanged prison cell june days verdict announced linked paramilitary formations massacre assassinated belgrade brought trial surrendered netherlands arrested serbia june respectively arrests shortly deadline set congress linking financial assistance serbia cooperation convicted acquitted received year prison sentence sentenced years prison sentence increased years prison appeal finally reduced years following review judgment indicted serbian state security service croatian political leader leader serbian radical party war crimes including committed trial ended verdict death march related charges dropped pair acquitted counts march acquitted counts pending appeal trial ongoing serbian authorities convicted people connection massacre deputy commander croatian convicted sentenced years prison members croatian sentenced years prison milan sentenced years prison sentenced years sentenced years milan sentenced seven given year prison sentences december convictions set aside constitutional court serbia case returned court appeals new trial february released custody based decision supreme_court pending court appeals separate trial completed serbian authorities convicted sentenced years prison participating massacre member february international court justice ruled siege ensuing massacre constitute genocide confirmed crimes taken place commemoration victims battle events occurred immediate aftermath commemorated annually november procession starting hospital reaching city memorial cemetery event drew participants monument sculpted marks site mass grave unveiled december monuments design subsequently mark mass graves croatian war independence massacre come referred massacre massacre hospital massacre far largest massacre committed croatian war independence memorial centre designed opened site farm centre opened storage building prisoners held november executed dim interior building accessed glass features illuminated photographs victims mass grave missing executed concrete floor contains spent spiral evil croatian sculpture displaying names victims ceiling contains lighting fixtures number victims centre contains exhibition personal belongings documents found mass grave completion centre funded city cost million euro july centre visited half million people year croatia launched education programme visits centre eighth grade pupils pupils scheduled visit centre annually serbian president visited memorial centre mass grave site serbian head state laid site apologized behalf serbian state victims massacre honoured individually monument father killed october battle bridge city named city schools named


interception interception training exercise military aviation achievement united_states_army air corps prior world war tracking location ocean going vessel flying fortresses major event development doctrine led united_states_air_force independent army mission ostensibly training exercise coastal defense united_states conceived planners publicized demonstration capabilities heavy bombers long range instruments power flight conducted coastal defense maneuvers held air corps participation united_states_navy apparently understanding purpose army chief staff continuing disagreements leaders air corps roles missions navy maritime mission army seeking limit role supporting ground forces characteristic flair creating publicity air corps general headquarters air_force combat organization successfully interception sea exploited live radio news coverage dramatic photographs publicity resulted short term setback air corps ambitions year president franklin roosevelt future army chief staff george marshall new proponents long range air power background july promoting concept independent air_force billy mitchell staged series aerial bombing exercises resulted sinking german battleship air service incurred navy considered achievement publicity stunt mitchell continued discredit value battleship main weapon projection power sinking obsolete ships years air service limited army policy auxiliary ground forces unable obtain role employ use long distance bombers disaster air service renamed air corps joint army navy board process service responsibilities coastal defense chief air corps major general mason patrick rear admiral william chief navy bureau resisted restrictions range missions respective services aircraft resulting joint action statement vague air corps actions water left door open navy interpretation authority shore based coastal patrol mission efforts war department clarify issue rebuffed navy extent secretary war warned president situation national defense january army chief staff douglas navy william reached agreement modifying joint action statement assigning coastal defense role land based aircraft air corps came time air corps seeking mission justify development metal bombers air corps tactical school advocating use long range heavy bombers august year garner publicity generate favorable public opinion col frank staff outgoing chief air corps james proposed bomb ship joint maneuvers navy coast north_carolina mission col roy base commander field cautioned reporters operation bombing exercise small bombs spectacular expected united_states shipping board available world war cargo ship gross ton uss mount tied james river decade army vessel towed hulk sea nautical miles beach light morning august major led bombers 2nd bombardment group little different martin destroyed locate attack mount combination bad weather failed communications resulted planes unable locate ship worse failure witnessed dozen reporters movie crews broadcast team nbc radio observers army navy aboard find ship navy responded immediately public mocking effort second attempt days later scored hits small pound bombs failed sink mount pair united_states_coast_guard ocean going small guns sink despite earlier subsequent explanations air corps highly embarrassed incident referred bombing flop service navy captain dubbed disaster new_york evening post commented navy old score baldwin military editor new_york_times naval academy graduate land based pilots water result subordinates replaced incoming chief air corps benjamin secretary war recommended air corps budget col henry arnold executive officer air division wright field expressed concerns apparent lack capability possible failures air corps training demonstrated months later second opportunity presented old ship sank shallow water towed tree island hazard navigation 2nd bombardment group completely destroying derelict air visible target foot square float marker accomplishment went entirely regardless agreement navy gone ahead development land based patrol aircraft expansion naval air stations formally agreement retired september joint board behest navy issued revised joint action statement limited role air corps missions including coastal defense auxiliary mobile army long range bomber advocates interpreted language mean air corps conduct long range reconnaissance attack approaching fleets reinforce distant bases attack enemy air bases mission prevent air attack america joint air exercise march 2nd bombardment group commanded col robert olds received newly developed flying fortress heavy bombers delivered spring summer designated prototype status flying fortress multi engine long range bomber acquired air corps despite resistance army general staff necessity centerpiece general headquarters air_force air_force significant operational contribution joint air exercise army navy summer maneuver conducted sea west san_francisco california authorized directive president roosevelt issued july exercise target ship utah represent hostile fleet battleships aircraft carrier destroyers patrol wing navy planes commanded rear admiral king assigned locate fleet force air corps bombers including seven operating march field attack war department orders limited air corps aircraft operating nautical miles offshore directive specified exercise area nautical miles exercise began noon august scheduled end hours hours searching extended nautical miles offshore navy planes found utah nautical miles coast tracked heading northwest air corps bombers sent attack ship searched evening locating admiral king found error navy position reports later attributed clerical error utah actually nautical miles west search area provided air corps worse ship disappeared extensive low fog night breaking contact navy scout planes poor weather prevented early morning search utah brig commander air_force 1st wing dispatched bombers august search area square miles km2 entirely covered low clouds olds utah san_francisco reversed course attack industrial los_angeles area accompanied frank commanding air_force flew lead clouds patrolling area nautical miles offshore navy patrol aircraft located utah steaming southeast nautical miles coast 2nd bombers responded position report located utah shortly noon termination exercise altitude feet attacked battleship navy supplied water bombs navy protested low altitude attack claiming action avoided attack repeated mission day found utah bombed bombing feet air corps produced photographs bombing data showed achieved higher percentage hits near misses earlier navy tests navy subsequently exercise classified secret joint report sent president navy war omitted information showing success navigation bombing despite secrecy restriction success leaked radio commentator carter disclosed public attempt overcome bypassed chain command january memorandum minor joint air exercise held november virginia found successfully bombed navy target vessels sent memo directly roosevelt military aide col watson included confidential navy confirming accuracy army bombing northeast maneuvers air corps conducted largest maneuvers history officers enlisted men aircraft drawn wings air_force based airports northeast united_states new_york maryland westward pennsylvania included bombardment group assigned blue force defending new_england black force attacking aircraft carrier fleet navy involved fleet exercises west_coast provide ships play role black force army publicized resulting scenario depicting simultaneous attacks america hostile fleets coasts air corps tasked defend attached exercise col chief air corps information division degree journalism completed course news photography university oklahoma maneuvers platform capabilities deficiencies air corps assistant harris hull temporary duty exercise reporter washington_post civilian life newspapers including los_angeles_times criticized maneuvers mythical fleet target hull suggested ocean liner substituted naval vessels learned italian line bound new_york pass nautical miles mark recommended interception liner concurred received approval office army chief staff hull arranged receive position reports officials line olds deployed field given assignment locating far sea possible assigned major vincent commanding officer 20th bomb squadron act nominal head black force olds selected aircraft 49th bomb squadron mission afternoon olds crews flew staging base field long_island assigned lead navigator 1st curtis finding utah participant goodwill mission south_america february won group trophy chief division photographic section george flew pilot aircraft document mission specially modified camera reporters invited accompany mission included baldwin possibly earlier disaster radio crew national_broadcasting_company april live minute broadcast field broadcast aboard lead aircraft interception blue force bombers crews noon position report conjunction known routes speeds ocean liners bound new_york intercept point day based ship expected noon position updated position report calculations expected evening received weather conditions deteriorated night forecast ceilings vicinity anticipated interception interception begun taxi rain morning position report relayed indicated liner nautical miles new_york farther east original placed original flight plan incorporated area search necessary weather conditions ship distance long_island possibility took field cruised east sandy hook mph true course degrees rain hail intense reduced ground speed mph unable check effect winds ground speed drift heavy overcast limited altitude feet emerged good weather lasted hour took double separate transit cold clear weather checked course calculated intercept time pilot turn passed schedule live radio broadcast noon encountered area scattered rain spreading line abreast formation aircraft nautical miles apart increase chances spotting bombers broke line immediately sighted transmitted radio pilots clock predicted flew nautical miles east sandy hook aircraft reversed course came ship port flying wing smoke stack level pilot seat took series photographs waist position voice contact radio ship captain invited members flight come lunch ship passengers filled decks waving bombers group americans singing star banner bad weather returned individually field flying fortress encountered severe hail damaging forward surfaces plane ice caused temporary engine result landing morning bombers took return spotted passing statue liberty entered new_york harbor nbc radio crew aboard lead bomber live broadcast coast coast bombers flew army low altitude photographs featured day pages hundreds newspapers exploited trust americans radio broadcasts photography particular era bolster credibility air corps claims air power essential defending western hemisphere addition episode maneuvers conducted publicized mock attack new_york_city arranged voluntary united_states planned mock raid new_york aftermath impact response war department curb expansion air corps roles day raid army deputy chief staff stanley approved request air corps chief oscar substitute single boeing advanced design boeing ordered project development program long range bomber june secretary war harry approval endorsed weeks august army went cancel orders authorized balanced plan forth march instead funds buy smaller combat aircraft forbade spending long range bombers january president franklin roosevelt issued public statement calling expansion air corps anticipation coming world war needs united_states defending western hemisphere army policy reversed george marshall soon head war plans division army chief staff received personal instruction capabilities strengths long range bombers new air corps chief henry arnold operational restriction day rendezvous chief staff general issued order restricted air corps aircraft operating nautical miles coast arnold olds col believed complaints navy motivated order personally answered recorded requested order issued writing arnold states saw written order air corps historians state evidence exists navy order explained believed air corps violated war department policy publicity second asserted unhappy provided details mission publicly announced issued order ensure granting exceptions restriction deputy chief staff claim restriction issued safety measure history air corps doctrine firmly attributes restriction navy noting november achieved new modification joint action statement specifically granting authorization long range land based flights army denied immediately prepared major bases conduct fourth historian biography arnold stated restriction actually september insistence navy enforced incident event restriction air corps navy world war navy specifically included nautical miles limit plans joint maneuvers deleted objected marshall replaced deputy chief staff succeeded commander air_force complained report annual tactical inspection dated july operational restriction navigation training air corps suffered despite exceptions restriction quickly norm month interception intercepted ton liner queen bermuda nautical miles sea june aircraft based hawaii twice located army transports similar distances summer march arnold chief air corps given specific authority chief staff grant exceptions saw fit provided notified war department advance subsequent history participants commander general headquarters air_force term expired march exactly happened billy mitchell returned rank colonel permanent establishment rank assigned air officer eighth corps area san_antonio texas exile san_antonio brief august prospective army chief staff marshall promoted objections secretary general beginning climb higher command culminated promotion lieutenant general appointment commander european theater operations senior airmen believed possibly command normandy invasion killed crash long range bomber iceland returning washington smith promoted colonel world war commanded bomb group prisoner war july continuing career war united_states_air_force died crash oregon april colonel commanded group england relieved command col frank armstrong combat finished war commanding 21st bombardment wing processing unit personnel returning overseas seven participants general officers hull recalled active duty intelligence officer world war remained air_force career retired brigadier general served brigadier general air transport command retired recognized principal aerial photography expert retired brigadier general crew won trophy flying earthquake relief mission chile delivered overseas early assigned initially tenth air_force commander burma china ferry command operation flying supplies china went command bombers china air task force claire brigadier general commanded india air task force retired major general olds son brig robin olds fighter pilot icon promoted major general commanded second air_force died heart related condition april age important roles commanders strategic bombing campaigns world war took command eighth air_force mediterranean allied air forces retired lieutenant general promoted retired list star general recognition accomplishments autumn led bomb group pioneer groups eighth air_force advanced higher commands eighth air_force holding series commands pacific culminating command twentieth air_force commanded reorganized strategic air command instrument national policy fifth chief staff united_states_air_force laid harbor italy war seized nazi_germany italy surrendered september attacked twice royal_air_force south african air_force set fire rolled sank struck numerous rockets cannon shells purpose attack prevent block harbor entrance wreck partially scrapped 1950s remains quickly obsolete transferred october 19th bomb group march field california acquired newer models world war operated field air corps mass production beginning july time attack pearl harbor service produced war backbone air war germany iconic symbol 2nd bomb group received newer served mediterranean theater operations twelfth fifteenth air forces air_force assumed designated wartime role november renamed air_force combat command june went existence march major reorganization united_states_army air forces operation august 2nd bomb wing successor 2nd conducted operation training mission commemorating interception flying air_force base louisiana radio signs intercepted military command ship 2nd john east bermuda test capabilities new targeting system


action july action july minor engagement french frigate british forces southern ceylon napoleonic wars french operating indian_ocean islands france threat british trade indian_ocean wars british deployed numerous methods including warships merchant vessels lure unequal engagements powerful warships cruising near little reef southern coast ceylon gun sighted gun british brig hms began chasing larger french vessel ship sighted south proved gun ship line hms powerful disguised east normally faster large british warship light winds determined pursuit prevented escaping powerful close open fire despite uneven nature combat unexpectedly resisted british attack hour minutes causing damage powerful received later taken british service sixth rate frigate prize money paid captured vessels action prompted questions subsequent histories lack efficiency british gunnery background french revolutionary wars napoleonic wars followed british dominance indian_ocean repeatedly challenged french vessels sailing isolated protected french colonies later france french_navy cruisers periodically stationed islands majority ships preyed british commerce islands independently funded armed ships issued letters giving permission attack military civilian ships belonging enemies france french naval strategy indian_ocean reliant entire squadrons developed including powerful force wealthy captain robert small carrying cannon large professional warships size ship carried guns crew nearly men commanded captain notorious caused significant damage british trade indian_ocean gained significant notoriety capture valuable east lord nelson august principal target east huge armed merchant vessels operated honourable east india company controlled british operations east africa ships weighed tons carried cannon crews military men usually resist determined attack trained warship despite size power vessels primary target french ships operating indian_ocean carried goods worth thousands pounds annual convoy china worth million combat ships british naval authorities madras tried number solutions including french island colonies failed huge distances involved armed military convoys escorting valuable ships small fast cruisers patrolling dangerous trade routes solution tried disguise royal_navy warships east resembled hope french ships attacking unaware true identity december french squadrons departed brest orders disrupt british trade atlantic_ocean beginning atlantic campaign british squadrons pursuit including vice admiral sir john thomas originally assigned blockade december discovered french squadrons vice admiral jean mid-atlantic gave chase days squadrons sailed westwards atlantic abandoned pursuit believing dispersed squadron danger defeat force aftermath pursuit turned south atlantic urgent need supplies turned northwest british west_indies concerned attempt pass cape good hope operate indian_ocean ships augment rear admiral sir edward small squadron madras ship hms powerful gun ship line commanded captain robert battle july small british brig hms commander john cruising southern coast british colony ceylon search french attacking small british traders known country ships region notorious known operating area early afternoon spotted sails near little reef approached ship turned wind fled southwest immediately gave chase soon came close identify vessel larger british warship captain unwilling risk vessel confrontation making effective withdrawal large ship came sight directly ahead immediately obvious men new arrival powerful arrived indian waters june finding trace elected remain atlantic briefly anchored madras subsequently cruised ceylon following intelligence sent captured gun french near hour chase information possibly supplied prisoners removed possibly merchant ship sailing learned operations arranged meet little reef hope confrontation disguised large warship look like east rapidly saw disguise noticed wind remained strong coast powerful sea appeared realising option sail powerful shore turned eastwards wind gradually strengthened powerful ship line range bow faced overwhelming opposition surrender maintaining steady approaching ship line stern occasionally turning release broadside variable winds prevented joining battle delayed powerful approach succeeded causing casualties deck failed damage ship line rigging sails facilitated escape hour minutes battle continued ship able land decisive blow clear powerful soon range main broadside surrendered ship destroyed aftermath defeat overwhelming force professional warships inevitable resistance given french considered impressive time subsequent historians largely undamaged powerful suffered men killed wounded compared french losses dead seven wounded largely undamaged surrendering powerful position open broadside battle taken port subsequently commissioned hms albeit reduction class gun sixth rate frigate head money reward men captured killed aboard enemy ships subsequently paid men powerful head money cases delay payment january especially delighted capture writing reflect pleasure capture particular superior sailing uncommon success present preceding war commerce indian european seas historical reaction engagement focused aspects bravery attempting combat vastly superior british force gunnery contemporary historian william james described actions extraordinary notes second engagement indian_ocean british gunnery proven ineffective citing inconclusive engagement april gun hms tremendous french frigate frigate escaping pursuit damaging larger vessel rigging notes powerful able guns regular use engagement opposed concluding better use extra cannon later historian william writing agreed james assessment commenting action serves illustrate decline british gunnery


battle battle engagement north korean forces early korean war fighting continuing august city south_korea battle perimeter large engagements fought simultaneously battle ended victory united_nations forces able drive offensive north korean divisions attempting cross river assault city north korean army divisions city preparing cross river assault north west defending city 1st cavalry division corps series engagements north korean divisions attempted cross attack defending forces success attacks varied region attacks 1st cavalry division sector repulsed attacks south korean sector successful battle north korean troops able surprise troops hill capture late battle troops machine hill massacre despite setbacks forces successful driving north decisive battle secure city occur battle bowling alley background outbreak war following invasion republic korea south_korea northern neighbor democratic people republic korea north_korea outbreak korean war june united_nations security council voted send armed forces defend south_korea united_states permanent member security council immediately deployed armed forces army navy air_force units southeastern south_korea immediate availability bases japan okinawa military occupation japan effect reinforcements countries australia canada greece new_zealand turkey united_kingdom took longer arrive overseas goal american armed forces reinforce remnants south korean army fighting north korean invasion southeastern south_korea major prevent complete collapse south korean army south korean government american armed forces orient decreasing steadily end world war august orders emperor japanese people presented trouble american occupation forces japanese set peacefully rebuilding devastated country american troops south_korea american force japan drastically time north korean invasion closest american ground force 24th infantry division based japan division fewer normal contingent soldiers equipment old congress reductions military spending case 24th infantry division army available quickly reinforce south_korea 24th infantry division american armed force sent south_korea mission blunt advance north korean army set defensive perimeter perimeter aid air_force navy marine_corps aviation forces supreme united_nations military commander area general douglas decided american south korean troops dig hold assemble powerful force american 10th corps amphibious counterattack northwestern coast south_korea near seoul later 24th infantry division south korean allies nearly weeks americans south held inside perimeter awaited reinforcements north american units reinforced perimeter soon arrive 1st cavalry division course 7th infantry division 25th infantry divisions units eighth army provided logistical medical intelligence support advance units 24th infantry division badly defeated battle july encounter american north korean troops month defeat 24th infantry repeatedly pushed forced southeastward larger numbers north korean troops equipped rugged soviet tanks heavily armored primary soviet weapon nazi german invasion troops 24th infantry systematically pushed southeast battle battle battle smaller 24th infantry desperate stand north battle heavily delayed north korean advance july time eighth army force combat troops roughly equal numbers north korean forces attacking perimeter new forces arriving america australia new_zealand etc nearly day north korean advance city captured korean people army kpa began surrounding perimeter north west attempt crush 4th 6th north korean infantry divisions advanced south wide flanking maneuver north korean divisions attempted turn american south korean left flank order capture southwest north dispersed process exposed repeated air attacks air_force navy north attacked troops superior numbers rugged tanks despite local defeats troops help aviation naval units able extend perimeter way south east china sea blunt north korean attacks american air supremacy airfields japan aircraft carriers 7th fleet sea japan probably decisive ingredient enabling perimeter hold american forces pushed repeatedly finally halting north korean advance series battles edges perimeter forces 3rd battalion 29th infantry newly arrived country wiped coordinated ambush north korean forces july opening pass area soon north korean forces took west pushing 19th infantry regiment leaving routes open north korean attacks formations subsequently able defeat push north flank battle notch august suffering mounting losses kpa force west withdrew days equip receive reinforcements granted sides prepare attack perimeter meantime eighth army commander lieutenant general walker established eighth army headquarters right center perimeter stood entrance river valley area north korean forces advance large numbers close support natural barriers provided river south mountainous terrain north major transportation hub major south korean city aside remain hands south north city defended 1st cavalry division 1st division 6th division corps 1st cavalry division spread long line river south 5th cavalry 8th cavalry regiments holding metres line river south facing west 7th cavalry held position east reserve artillery forces ready reinforce crossing attempted 1st division held northwest facing line mountains immediately north city 6th division held position east guarding narrow valley holding road perimeter area north korean divisions amassed oppose south north 10th 3rd 15th 13th 1st divisions occupied wide line north korean army planned use natural corridor valley main axis attack push south divisions eventually moved valley crossing different areas low ground elements armored division supported attack battle night august north korean 13th division began crossing river miles northwest crossing discovered august artillery mortar fire called crossing course nights soldiers division regiments crossed river carrying weapons equipment heads entire division august assembling miles 1st division prepared defenses time 1st division crossed river barges 6th division sector august attack discovered quickly american reconnaissance planes 1st division immediately engaged forces divisions locked battle august north korean division facing resistance heavy air attacks heavy casualties opening moves troops attacked 13th division immediately completing crossing forcing scattered north korean troops mountains division east launched night attack broke defenses began advance carried miles southeast main road week 1st 13th divisions area miles north 15th division divisions line south received replacements august brought strength troops day 45th regiment marched northeast river regiment passed august crossed river southeast town attack american river regiment headed mountains initially encountering opposition regiments 48th 50th departed later began crossing dawn august constructing underwater bridges vehicles north supported crossing direct tank fire western river tanks carried river crossing day 15th division seized hills east river crossing site advancing eastward mountains miles away day 1st division regained high ground crossing sites driving forces eastward mountains august regiments 15th division united east river vicinity san miles east crossing site miles northwest 13th division quickly locked combat san 1st division south enemy divisions stood ready cross coordinated attack divisions north experienced 3rd division concentrated vicinity 10th division concentrated area mobilized attack divisions crossed american 1st cavalry division sector 3rd division 7th regiment started crossing hours august near miles south bridge discovering crossing units american 5th cavalry regiment directed automatic weapon fire north korean units called pre registered artillery fire crossing site enemy regiment suffered casualties bulk reached east bank moved inland hills minutes later 8th 9th regiments began crossing river south 5th cavalry regiment supporting mortars artillery fully alerted spotted troops regiments turned west bank small number north reached eastern captured troops hid night retreated river hill dawn august division commander major general gay 1st cavalry division headquarters learned enemy river crossing area division south reports vague gay decided counterattack learned situation quickly learned infantry troops gathered hill known hill miles southeast miles northwest gay ordered division counterattack enemy gathering force river walker thought attack north planning larger attack north furthermore hill important proximity lines supply main korean north south highway main seoul railroad base hill gay ordered 1st battalion 7th cavalry counter army penetration battalion moved area outside accompanied tanks company heavy tank battalion force proceeded foot hill 61st field artillery battalion shelled hill heavily artillery fired preparation hill 1st battalion attacked orders continue southwest hill hill covered thick brush feet trees feet high day hot american soldiers collapsed heat exhaustion attack coordinated artillery fire north repulsed attack morning august air raids artillery hill devastating north korean battalion afternoon gay ordered american tanks road fire hill northwest reverse slope tank gun fire caught troops unprepared hiding artillery fire trapped started vacate positions american infantry attack reached crest hill trouble battle american artillery mortar fire shifted westward cut retreat troops white shells fired 61st field artillery battalion caught north korean troops village attempted retreat troops routed american infantry suffering killed evening 1st battalion 7th cavalry returned serve division reserve elements 5th cavalry finished securing hill 7th regiment 3rd division destroyed hill 1st battalion 7th cavalry suffered men killed wounded day battle men 7th regiment crossed hill casualties artillery mortars inflicted casualties regiment crossing east enemy regiment received food ammunition supply estimated survivors retreated river night august 3rd division attempted crossing south ended survivors 7th regiment rejoined division august powerful 3rd division reduced disorganized unit troops army placed division reserve rebuilt replacements crossing north korean plan attack west southwest demanded 10th division coordinated attack 3rd division 10th division far combat started rail july left trains continued south foot arriving opposite august division ordered cross river vicinity penetrate east cut main supply route troops division assembled area august regiments 10th division 29th south 25th north assault crossing 27th regiment reserve 2nd battalion 29th regiment unit division cross river troops night august west occupied hill northern spur hill miles southwest set machine gun positions battalions followed occupied hill north hill soon ambushed patrol 21st infantry regiment 24th infantry division moving north trying establish contact 7th cavalry regiment battle occurring simultaneously south north 25th regiment started crossing august vicinity road 2nd battalion 7th cavalry regiment covered crossing site miles southwest daylight north korean force penetrated 2nd battalion company engaged close combat grenade automatic weapons attack north overran advance positions company mortar observation post heavy machine gun positions north apparently attempting control high ground east order provide protection main crossing follow 2nd battalion supported field artillery battalion air strikes drove north troops dispersed second attack days august river dropped feet depth shoulder deep places lack rain weather attempt crossing river considerably easier determined north korean crossing vicinity blown bridge began early morning august north korean soldiers penetrated far minutes later 2nd battalion 7th cavalry soldiers engaged north mile east crossing site general gay ordered 1st battalion 7th cavalry area support 2nd battalion north korean artillery tank fire west river supporting infantry crossing large number north korean reinforcements crossing barges near bridge fire american air strikes artillery attack stalled deepest north korean penetration reaching miles blown bridge combined fire light weapons mortars artillery drove river noon large groups north trying river west american artillery continued causing heavy casualties nightfall 7th cavalry regiment eliminated north korean fight major place crossing site 25th 27th regiments 10th division suffered losses 7th cavalry estimated north korean troops succeeded crossing river killed days battle company reported buried enemy dead lines position company counted enemy dead contrast company suffered men killed wounded battle combat mission crossing 10th division suffered casualties hill simultaneously 10th division crossing southern 1st cavalry division sector taking place northward near boundary division sector 1st division sector northernmost unit 1st cavalry division company 5th cavalry regiment held hill position eighth army extreme right flank days intelligence sources reported heavy north korean concentrations opposite 1st division early morning august north korean regiment crossed miles north 1st division sector underwater bridge shortly midnight night forces high ground north army boundary attacked force daylight air strike partially destroyed underwater bridge north korean attack spread south north korean small arms fire fell company 5th cavalry regiment hill instead moving east mountains landings force turned south headed early morning august company men hill spotted north korean infantry supported tanks moving south river road base hill spotted column moving rear quickly engaged company small arms fire order escape enemy company withdrew south company north completely surrounded supporting platoon company hill relief column composed company 5th cavalry platoon tanks tried reach company unable penetrate north korean force surrounding hill later day company tanks tried retake hill estimated contain man battalion 61st field artillery battalion elements field artillery battalion fired hill day night company succeeded escaping hill dawn 17th troops 1st 2nd battalions 5th cavalry regiment supported company tank battalion attacked hill heavy north korean mortar fire stopped edge morning heavy artillery preparations north korean positions hill air strike came planes bombarded hill conventional bombs rockets machine guns strike artillery preparation successful pushing north korean forces hill strike infantry attacked hill unopposed secured combined strength companies hill men artillery preparations air strike killed wounded estimated enemy troops hill survivors fleeing complete rout air strike regaining hill august 5th cavalry regiment discovered bodies company hands tied gunshot wounds knowledge event came afternoon scouts brought man hill roy heavy mortar platoon wounded automatic weapons fire hill saw scouts attacking force men shot north event survived total number men executed hill unclear men subsequently discovered locations hill evidence execution angered general army douglas commander forces korea broadcast warning north korean leaders held intercepted documents north korean command concerned conduct troops issued orders limit killing prisoners war carpet bombing mountains northeast hill 1st division continued suffer north korean attacks mid august north korean pressure division ceased long command brigadier general sun division fought extremely bloody defense mountain approaches planners believed main north korean attack come west command forces west command mistakenly believed north korean troops near number actual troop numbers north_korea men entire perimeter american artillery fire 1st cavalry division sector supported south area division 13th regiment held positions river 11th 12th regiments battled north high mountain masses san san west northwest miles miles east river north continued use underwater bridge miles north major route supply reinforcements forces continued target bridge scoring direct hit seriously damaged middle august north korean forces attacked sectors occupied 13th regiment 5th cavalry assault increasingly heavy pressure main force 1st division area began control august korean police stationed outskirts city reinforce military lines refugees swollen normal population crisis developing people august north korean artillery shells landed shells falling near railroad station damaged destroyed yard engine killed korean civilian wounded korean provincial government subsequently ordered evacuation president moved national leaders following ordered evacuation panicked korean refugees began pour roads leading city threatening stop military traffic eighth army eventually halted evacuations august general ordered lieutenant general george conduct carpet bombing square mile km2 rectangular area west river opposite 1st division intelligence estimates placed greatest concentrations enemy troops area estimates high enemy divisions armored regiments men reportedly area stage attack general gay commanding 1st cavalry division repeatedly requested bombing include area northeast request denied fear bombing cause casualties 1st cavalry 1st division troops think aircraft successfully carpet bomb area larger miles square complied order august 19th 22nd bomber groups arrived target area far_east air_force bases japan okinawa planes cleared target bombers feet dropped approximately tons pound bombs attack required entirety bombing component dropped pounds bombs pounds bombs comprised largest air_force operation battle normandy world war general walker reported general day damage north bombing evaluated smoke dust ground forces reach north korean fire information obtained later north korean prisoners revealed enemy divisions far_east command thought west crossed east bombed area evidence found bombing killed single north korean soldier bombing destroyed significant number north korean artillery batteries ground air commanders opposed future massive carpet bombing attacks enemy tactical troops precise information enemy concentration situation critical instead recommended fighter bombers dive bombers better support ground forces subsequently canceled second bombing area east scheduled august aftermath battles saw repeated attempts divisions attack city troops repeatedly stopped slowed american troops air attacks north korean divisions suffered heavy casualties finally collapsed strain mounting losses lack supplies division troops able disperse mountains troops later assembled different battles final elements army finally defeated battle bowling alley casualties american 1st cavalry division relatively light division suffered total casualties killed action including hill american forces established positions able north korean units crossing open artillery fire air attacks exact numbers soldiers captured executed compared killed combat difficult determine conflicting accounts prisoners actually held hill troops suffered higher casualties higher percentage killed action included hill hill places total troops exact number casualties unknown carpet bombing operation patrols troops unable area later


battle river battle river july fought final days korean war united_nations forces primarily australian american chinese communist people volunteer army fighting took place key position line known hook saw defending troops including 2nd battalion royal australian regiment 28th british commonwealth brigade 7th marine regiment fight numerous assaults chinese division night attacks inflicting numerous casualties chinese heavy artillery small arms fire action larger divisional sized chinese attack 1st marine division assaults mounted australians peace talks reaching conclusion chinese eager gain minute victory forces battle war official signing korean armistice action chinese attempted breakthrough river divisional boundary 1st marine division 1st commonwealth division order turn marine division flank coordinated indirect fires divisional artillery including 16th field regiment royal new_zealand artillery support british tanks 1st royal tank regiment successfully thwarted assaults holding key position known hook later estimated chinese casualties numbered killed majority inflicted new_zealand gunners left flank marines endured attack chinese onslaught infantry artillery suffering casualties process hours later armistice agreement signed ultimately ending war sides subsequently withdrew kilometres hours create kilometre zone background military situation following battle san early october 28th british commonwealth brigade remained defence rest month amid heavy fighting afternoon november chinese recaptured hill held 1st battalion king scottish action private bill later awarded victoria_cross hill remained chinese hands end war operation commando subsequently proved actions war manoeuvre peace talks ongoing fighting replaced static war characterised fixed defences trench lines patrols parties minefields reminiscent western construction defensive sited round defence arcs fire began immediately operations confined reverse slopes day artillery mortar fire operations hazardous patrolling sides began order prevent gaining control man land 1st commonwealth division included british australian canadian new_zealand indian troops subsequently occupied line defensive position extended kilometres central korea corps sector eighth army left flank war bloody division remained line remaining nineteen months war january 3rd battalion royal australian regiment defence line 28th british commonwealth brigade going reserve april remained end june early australian government agreed american request increase forces korea second infantry battalion join fighting september 1st battalion royal australian regiment arrived korea april battalions forming 28th british commonwealth brigade command australian brigadier brigade entered line june spent following fourteen weeks patrolling raiding 28th british commonwealth brigade went reserve october brigade returned line early november taking defences hill canadians australians subsequently forced clean large quantities rubbish left canadians repairing defences recently attacked chinese implemented aggressive patrol program effort regain control man land chinese allowed establish hides close perimeter chinese outposts subsequently destroyed raids company size took defences hill december remained 1st commonwealth division went reserve end january march replaced korea 2nd battalion royal australian regiment nearly months operational service heavy fighting occurred march chinese moving limited offensive corps sector attempt regain initiative following winter heavy fighting occurred hook held 2nd division following relief 1st commonwealth division old hill features held 7th division western sector held 1st marine division outposts peace talks finally resumed april agreement soon exchange sick wounded prisoners consequently chinese north korean prisoners subsequently repatriated operation little switch april including australians tempo operations returning small scale raids winter months final months war chinese launched series prior signing agreement early april 1st commonwealth division returned line time division commanded major general michael west british officer taken command september previous year 28th british commonwealth brigade subsequently occupied north eastern sector occupied hill june held hill period relieved june remained hill july hook key position left flank line held 1st commonwealth division division threatened sector line held 29th british infantry brigade position consisted group hills west river dominated river kilometres south provided observation fields fire bend river turned seoul loss hook force troops withdraw nearly kilometres defensive line high ground south river result chinese repeated attacks 1st battalion princess canadian light infantry chinese attempt late march 1st battalion black watch november 1st battalion duke wellington regiment fought heaviest battle battle hook western sector american outposts detroit berlin east berlin contested previous months 1st marine division turkish brigade june positions captured chinese subsequently returned usual defensive routine following temporary break negotiations release anti communist chinese north korean prisoners war south korean president chinese renewed large scale attacks june concentrating south korean divisions eastern central sectors chinese launched offensive june attempt convince south korean leader come terms fighting continued end month chinese drove elements 9th division corps sector 1st division corps sector early july chinese launched major offensive corps corps sectors americans south subsequently responded series counter attacks regain ground lost met limited success july chinese attacked elements 7th division hill corps right flank succeeded gaining crest americans reinforced counter attacked following days success following chinese assault july americans counter attacked gained clear advantage following day chinese launched series company battalion sized assaults repulsed americans unprepared accept casualties limited tactical gain evacuated hill july prelude opposing forces peace talks resumed early july position apparently proved impetus final chinese offensive sought influence talks improve defensive positions time july elements chinese armies struck south korean divisions july capitol division 3rd division practically destroyed exposing weaknesses despite years american training south fell line penetrated depth kilometres american intervention restored situation ultimately south korean divisions required stem chinese offensive regain lost ground following counter attack corps new defensive line established south river conjunction main offensive chinese 19th army group conducted series limited corps 46th army conducting separate assaults 1st marine division june july chinese losses heavy nonetheless sustained casualties temporary gain second week july west brigades allow 29th british infantry brigade 1st commonwealth division central sector reliable 28th british commonwealth brigade command australian officer brigadier john subsequently took battered defences hook july division left brigade strongest division consisting australian battalions british battalions 1st battalion durham light infantry 1st battalion royal supporting artillery armour direct support later 16th field regiment royal new_zealand artillery squadron british 1st royal tank regiment equipped tanks 25th canadian brigade subsequently handed responsibility equally exposed positions hills right 1st division held line 1st commonwealth division right flank 1st marine division overall command major general held nevada complex left flank having taken line july american right 7th marine regiment colonel funk occupied linear defensive position battalions forward 5th marine regiment occupied central sector 1st marine regiment held rear divisional reserve indirect fire support provided 11th marine artillery regiment chinese 1st 46th 63rd armies 19th army group operating corps overall command deployed stronger australian battalions forward occupying left forward position hook deployed right overlooking river opposite held reserve brigade counter penetration force commanded lieutenant colonel george command lieutenant colonel arthur deployed companies forward reserve counter attack force centre hook held company company held left company right company reserve deployed companies forward depth company occupied hill boundary company held south eastern tip ridge companies held reserve british tanks deployed forward support australians directly confronting australians hook division chinese 46th army line february command positions occupied australians badly damaged chinese assaults june recent rain collapsed trenches weakened wire obstacles extensive tunnel system dug canadians previous winter remained intact afforded protection efforts repair defences assert control man land began immediately aggressive patrolling program australians leading numerous clashes chinese patrols endured heavy time day hot humid making conditions uncomfortable night defenders worked hard digging laying minefields chinese focused attention 7th marine regiment occupying positions south west having relieved turkish brigade allowed australians time prepare light hit july soldier killed instantly millimetre shell observed walking crest line chinese position metres australian perimeter gun crew subsequently australian sniper fire patrolling australians continued order prevent chinese forward positions small clashes occurred nights july suggesting chinese preparing major attack aerial reconnaissance subsequently detected build chinese forces supplies west river response australians marines stepped defensive preparations time rumours peace talks started spread regardless chinese artillery mortar fire intensified causing constant stream casualties australians intense chinese struck hill hook night july rounds wounding members company damaging defences night marines driven berlin east berlin features left flank exposing hook july expected chinese assault 5th marine regiment sector failed occur sightings chinese troops 1st marine division declined fighting entered july company relieved hook company subsequently moved reserve following day believed imminent limited patrols considered essential security forward positions rumours spread quickly troops truce expected signed july july chinese grown intensity large bodies chinese infantry increasingly seen forward slopes australians similar concentrations chinese reported marines chinese eager gain minute victory forces tactical advantage offered held hook truce simultaneous attacks soon launched 7th marine regiment left flank major actions nights july battle night july evening july strong chinese force forward outposts dark attacking company hill surrounding bunker left flank marines similar contact left flank forward australian standing patrol company subsequently clashed heavily chinese probe losing wounded directing tank artillery fire dispersed attackers attacks preceded heavy artillery mortar fire chinese companies mortar platoon heavy bombardment waves chinese attacked australians penetrating company hill nearest marines hill turned amidst driving rain attack followed barrage repelled reaching wire fierce fighting grenades small arms assault failing largely weight defensive artillery fire chinese mortar artillery rounds fell australian positions night australians killed wounded night attack later estimated chinese regiment men defenders wet exhausted held positions despite weight chinese attack australians main objective hill strong point american sector metres south west hill known boulder city held 7th marine regiment chinese engaged marines boulder city preparatory fire mortars artillery minutes later chinese troops observed assault north west berlin feature subsequently shelled americans chinese right flank held 3rd battalion 7th marines striking hill boulder city forward chinese hid fields immediately american positions barrage rapidly assaulted soon artillery lifted attack coincided ongoing relief place defenders 1st marine regiment command colonel wallace nelson subsequently succeeded temporarily penetrating american positions hill chinese main effort fell boulder city battalions subsequently succeeded occupying portion american trench line positions chinese threatened cut company 3rd battalion 1st marines hill repeatedly assaulting berlin gate feature company left flank east berlin gate right effort exploit gains fighting marines strongly supported heavy mortar artillery tank fire prevailing weather conditions aircraft able fly night limited effectiveness indirect fire available support marines hill ordered company occupy reserve position left rear 1st marine division ultimately remained rest evening reserve company order ready respond emergency americans eventually drove chinese artillery broke attack forced abandon forward positions attack likely effort bulk chinese begun withdraw hill fighting hill continued heavy bombardment fell american positions followed second assault hill chinese companies succeeded penetrating marine perimeter hand hand combat developed forward trenches ensuing fighting company reduced half strength ammunition began run low pressure midnight americans forced metres reverse slope subsequently left exposed forward chinese elements moving metres battalion area surrounded position risk company 3rd battalion 1st marines ordered reinforce boulder city lost heavily chinese intercepted coded message adjusted mortar artillery fire marines approached rear hill response 11th marine artillery regiment launched intense counter battery barrage chinese launched assaults central sector 5th marine regiment commanded colonel harvey striking outposts regimental right flank reinforced chinese company regiment concentrated outpost held marines company amid heavy fighting sides reinforced early morning chinese seized parts forward american trench line moved position indirect fire patrols penetrated outpost main defensive position rear marines controlled rear trenches defence succeeded checking chinese assault defending strongly marines machine guns mortars supported tanks artillery fire following hours fighting chinese attack finally broken indirect fire entire chinese battalion committed attack following day marines reported secure artillery mortar rounds fallen outpost night marine casualties included killed wounded chinese loses included dead counted position believed killed estimated wounded 7th marine regiment sector heavy small arms fire hand hand fighting continued boulder city early morning july chinese infantry succeeded breaking occupying large trench line forward slopes temporarily occupied crest companies 3rd battalion 1st marines launched rapid counter attack american perimeter established subsequently reinforced hill secured marines scattered groups chinese remained forward slopes attempted reinforce left flank sporadic fighting heavy continued hill early morning hours fight developed position controlled americans tanks boulder city dispersed chinese concentrations high explosive machine gun fire marine infantry assault teams inch rocket launchers subsequently cleared remaining chinese total chinese troops assaulted held 1st marine division night july night 11th marine artillery regiment heavily engaged regiment battalions operational control 1st marine division sector firing total rounds including batteries 25th division artillery corps artillery 1st commonwealth divisional artillery weight indirect fire available defenders significant 1st commonwealth divisional artillery guns engaged fighting firing support australians hill marines left flank defending hill boulder city restrictions ammunition usage applied marines period supporting fires british commonwealth inch pounder field guns proved considerable assistance liaison officer sent subsequently marine artillery regiment night establish communication rounds fired british new_zealand gunners night close defensive fire having devastating effect assaulting chinese infantry artillery effectively halted chinese assault hill resulting fair degree frustration australian infantry later expressed disappointment prevented getting chinese accurate new_zealand artillery fire battle section medium machine gun platoon stationed american perimeter near hill provide covering fire area positions occupied marines australians commanded sergeant brian cooper soon found thick fighting firing vickers machine guns support australian positions defend weight chinese main attack fell marines men wounded night machine gunners continued fire support remainder section repelled chinese assaults left ultimately chinese unable australians calling artillery positions repeated chinese attempts overrun marines withdrew past position leaving isolated dawn came dozens chinese bodies found australian machine gunners marines worked clear chinese position australians chinese soldier bunker resisted forced kill grenade cooper later awarded military medal leadership defence australians contributing break chinese attack stage threatened overrun marine position large groups chinese remained occupying number trenches finally marines following afternoon second night july morning july chinese assaulted marines hill company strength soon halted american artillery mortar fire inflicted heavy losses continued remainder day major assaults hill occurred heavy barrage chinese targeted position provided air support marines day american tanks continued engage chinese targets support defenders hill boulder city finally chinese infantry forced forward slopes boulder city marines chinese casualties estimated americans included killed wounded chinese continued heavily shell american positions late afternoon mortar artillery rounds fallen sector held 7th marine regiment americans fired counter battery missions response firing rounds ongoing relief 7th marine regiment continued day australian positions hook heavily shelled day forcing defenders underground network tunnels extended team new_zealand realising faced series previous night major attack actions preparation heavier attack vigorous defence subsequently prepared australians reserve companies moved blocking positions strengthen forward defences defenders endured steady fire dark hook time group chinese force subsequently engaged australian standing patrol company forced withdraw leaving dead cost australian killed wounded chinese fire intense heavy blow launched chinese marines hill shortly beginning elements 1st 7th marines attacked chinese companies heavy concentration entire corps artillery fired response chinese forced withdraw chinese intensified thirty rounds minute followed minutes later determined charge chinese infantry marines left flank hill boulder city furious attack australian positions directly attacked night company engaged chinese man land sporadically long range support americans previous night attacked total mortar artillery rounds fired chinese night australians killed wounded contrast marines heavily engaged fighting occurring close quarters hour repelled attackers counter attacked australian bunker marines hill company hill scene heavy fighting chinese penetrated space positions manned australians command lance corporal kenneth position attacked chinese simultaneously sides following determined charge bitter hand hand fighting trenches bunker strength australian section ejected chinese prevented advancing directed artillery fire position break subsequent attacks chinese launched hills early hours july succeeded temporarily seizing parts american trench line heavy fighting continued chinese driven position marines ordered company occupy position company support marines required placed company minutes notice blocking position american casualties killed wounded chinese losses included men countered dead estimated killed wounded machine gun platoon hill found heavily engaged suffering badly wounded chinese managed establish artillery forward observer hill marine casualties particularly heavy result critically injured americans subsequently evacuated urgent medical treatment small arms fire continued exchanged marines chinese hours marines finally driving chinese company subsequently released returned battalion main defensive position australian outpost section succeeded holding night following morning found chinese dead positions fighting repeatedly exposed chinese fire run man land provide situation reports marine command post hill later awarded military medal actions dawn activity hook chinese collecting wounded subsequently allowed australians 1st marine division sector fighting ceased small groups chinese moved reinforce positions engaged rifle machine gun fire night indirect fire played crucial role defence new_zealand gunners firing rounds divisional total rounds support australians marines dug east forced fire minimum crest clearance australian lines order bring effective fire bear assaulting chinese pounders variable time proximity time set new_zealand gunners air bursts break chinese assaults causing heavy casualties despite risk causing casualties soldiers casualties incurred australians suffered broken shoulder brass nose cone faulty time flight fused shell exploded position high explosive provided company mortar operated chinese man land despite exposed unprotected fire mortars provided battlefield illumination allowed australian machine gunners bring accurate fire bear chinese crossing attack hills chinese suffered heavily fighting dead counted hill following day australians observed steady stream chinese casualties evacuating hill crossing fields left flank later group armed chinese attempted withdraw engaged anti tank platoon resulting casualties area held 1st marine division chinese continued sporadically 1st marine regiment assumed operational control right sector aftermath casualties battle illustrated power concentrated artillery fire attacks infantry modern firepower hundreds chinese dead lay positions valley floor covered dead chinese later recounted approaches bodies literally ground deep later estimated chinese casualties numbered killed majority inflicted new_zealand gunners chinese battalions believed involved attacks fighting july cost australians killed wounded previous weeks hook lost total men killed wounded bitter struggle end testimony fighting royal australian regiment subsequently granted battle honour australians later awarded bravery decorations actions new_zealand gunners played crucial role stemming chinese assault final actions commander battery major james positioned forward order effectively indirect fires guns subsequently awarded military cross member tactical party gunner arthur later mentioned despatches total nights rounds fired commonwealth divisional artillery final month war heavy fighting occurred central eastern fronts commonwealth sector chinese attacks holding hook nights july action larger attack 1st marine division assaults mounted australians 1st commonwealth division intelligence staff believed chinese attempting breakthrough river divisional boundary order turn 1st marine division flank coordinated indirect fires divisional artillery support british tanks able successfully assaults marines endured divisional size attack chinese onslaught loss killed wounded nights total marine casualties july included killed wounded chinese determined gain local territorial advantage prior signing united_nations command suffered casualties final months war chinese lost subsequent operations july ordered lieutenant colonel peter prepare counter attack recover ground lost chinese night preparatory fire failed clear chinese objective assault cancelled chinese subsequently attempt marines hill night july lacked weight previous nights easily repelled final attempt capture boulder city chinese platoon advanced wire hill defended company 2nd battalion 1st marines midnight chinese platoon sized assault halted marines chinese platoon marines hill hour minutes checked despite clashes nearby hill australians suffered casualties armistice agreement subsequently signed july sporadic fighting continued new_zealand gunners fired counter battery tasks engaging chinese guns commonwealth divisional artillery fired rounds day evening largely silent hours war chinese fired artillery rounds eighth army positions 1st commonwealth division attacks came effect day following day soldiers sides moved forward man land exchange relatively australians marines orders communicate chinese war sides required withdraw kilometres hours create kilometre zone preparations began hastily evacuate forward positions august september 1st commonwealth division subsequently engaged clearing minefields defended field defences new battle positions established rear similar process occurred entire terms agreement prisoners wished repatriated returned chinese north korean prisoners subsequently exchanged period including australians new period followed proved uneventful forces required maintain combat readiness ability react quickly case north violated april returned australia replaced remained south_korea march finally returned australia september years continuous service korea years japan british commonwealth forces remained korea finally withdrawn august chinese elements leave korea