history agriculture scotland history agriculture scotland includes forms farm production modern boundaries scotland prehistoric era present day scotland fifth sixth good pastoral land england wales south east heavy rainfall wind salt spray western islands terrain internal communication agriculture difficult period years ago evidence permanent settlements farming main sources food grain cow milk bronze age land spread expense forest iron age hill forts southern scotland associated cultivation ridges fertile plains densely exploited agriculture period roman occupation britain growth trees indicating reduction agriculture early middle ages period climate deterioration resulting land self sufficient farms based single homestead small cluster homes grown corn cattle important animal warm dry summers severe winters allowed cultivation greater heights land productive system infield outfield agriculture introduced twelfth century late medieval period farming based lowland highland settlements handful families jointly farmed area suitable teams organised run heavy wooden iron pulled rural economy thirteenth century immediate aftermath black death severe falling followed slow recovery fifteenth century feudal declined early modern era major orders property rights included free tenants young people left home domestic agricultural servants early modern era saw impact little ice age necessitating shipping large quantities grain baltic commonwealth country relatively highly gained access english markets restoration customs duties england established economic conditions generally favourable landowners promoted better cattle raising closing decade seventeenth century saw slump followed failed seven ill years shortages kind union conscious attempt improve agriculture gentry nobility enclosure displaced run rig system free pasture resulting lowland saw hundreds thousands tenant farmers central southern scotland forcibly removed later highland saw displacement population highlands lands enclosed sheep farming remained living small rented farms indefinite tenure dependent fishing spinning military service scotland suffered major crisis potato reached highlands twentieth century scottish agriculture susceptible world markets dramatic price rises world war slump 1920s 1930s followed rises second world war annual price reviews introduced attempt market drive agriculture greater production late 1970s resulting intensive farming increasing joined european economic community sectors viable subsidies series reforms common agricultural policy 1990s attempted control production limit incentives intensive farming environmental damage dual farm structure emerged large commercial farms small holdings geography climate scotland roughly half size area england wales approximately coastline fifth sixth good pastoral land metres sea level located south east marginal pastoral farming fishing key factors pre modern economy east atlantic position causes heavy rainfall end twentieth century centimetres year east centimetres west encouraged spread blanket combined high levels wind salt spray western islands existence hills mountains marshes agriculture internal communication difficult times period bce europe climate warmer today early humans way scotland archaeologists found traces glaciers way britain ice retreated scotland bce hunter formed known settlements archaeologists dated near bce numerous sites found scotland build picture highly mobile boat people making tools bone stone oldest house evidence britain oval structure wooden posts found south near forth dating period bce period years ago evidence permanent settlements farming includes preserved stone house dating bce village similar houses west mainland years later evidence prehistoric farming includes small plots improved land simple stone boundaries found mainland associated piles rocks cleared fields archaeological evidence pottery settlements human remains indicates main sources food grain cow milk pattern probably remained constant high middle ages limited evidence cultivation period beginning bronze age bce extensive analyses black indicate land spread expense forest iron age beginning seventh century bce europe hill forts introduced forts southern scotland associated cultivation ridges small underground constructions discovered scotland south east dated suggest construction date second centuries usually found close settlements timber frames preserved storing agricultural products aerial photography reveals extensive prehistoric field systems existing boundaries lowland areas suggesting fertile plains densely exploited agriculture period roman occupation northern england occasional advances southern scotland growth birch oak centuries suggesting roman invasions negative impact native population extent agriculture middle ages early middle ages period climate deterioration drop temperature increase rainfall resulting land lack significant transport links wider markets farms produce self sufficient diet meat dairy products supplemented hunter gathering limited archaeological evidence indicates northern britain farming based single homestead small cluster homes probably containing nuclear family relationships likely common neighbouring houses settlements reflecting partition land inheritance climate favourable corn evidence bones indicates cattle far important animal followed pigs sheep goats rare period warm dry summers severe winters medieval warm period allowed cultivation greater heights sea level land productive farming grew significantly common low lying areas high lying areas highlands southern introduced david particularly east south crown authority greatest saw placement land held king superior lord exchange loyalty forms service usually military barons held feudal right hold courts deal matters land ownership continued sit existing systems tenure clear change impacted lives ordinary free workers places tied workers closely land predominantly pastoral nature scottish agriculture system based english model areas obligations appear limited occasional labour service seasonal renders food money system infield outfield agriculture variation open field farming widely europe introduced continue eighteenth century expanded use small enclosed fields continued prehistoric era infield best land close housing farmed continuously receiving crops usually form wheat extensive outfield largely overnight folding cattle summer left recover fertility fertile regions infield extensive small surrounded large amounts outfield coastal areas included major urban refuse yields fairly low times quantity seed reach twice yield main unit land measurement scotland called unit known scottish english speaking simply measured acres km2 divided late medieval period farming based lowland highland settlements handful families jointly farmed area suitable teams allocated run tenant farmers known average land scotland acres km2 lesser free tenants shared rights common pasture occupied small portions land participated joint farming hired labour farms rights grazing ridge usually ran downhill included wet dry land helping offset problems extreme weather conditions heavy wooden iron pulled effective heavy soils cheaper feed horses obligations local lord usually included supplying lord land annual basis resented obligation grind corn lord mill key crops included humans animals cloth production sheep goats probably main sources milk cattle raised primarily meat rural economy appears thirteenth century immediate aftermath black death probably plague reached scotland killed population severe falling seen clerical half compared beginning era followed slow recovery fifteenth century end period average temperatures began reduce cooler conditions limiting extent agriculture particularly highlands early modern era barons held increasingly nominal feudal local tenants chief held legally held land directly king sixteenth century major local area grew significance feudal declined barons tenants chief merged form new identifiable group roughly equivalent english gentlemen variety groups ill defined included later characterised walter scott owning substantial land practice tenant paid entry sum annual duty pass land heirs meant number people holding possession lands previously controlled church nobility expanded probably numbered seventeenth century government defined financial legal local government increasingly fell substantial engaged agriculture majority working population property rights included lesser free tenants early modern era lowland rural society england young people male female left home domestic agricultural servants women acted important workforce unmarried women worked away families farm servants married women worked husbands farm taking major agricultural tasks particular role harvest forming team early modern era saw impact little ice age colder weather peaked end seventeenth century half years second half sixteenth century saw local national necessitating shipping large quantities grain baltic referred scotland emergency particularly poland port danzig later shipping russian grain swedish ports important trade important scottish colonies established ports early seventeenth century famine relatively common periods famine prices english invasions profound impact scottish economy destruction crops disruption markets resulting rapid price rises century commonwealth country relatively highly gained access english markets restoration formal frontier england established customs duties economic conditions generally favourable land owners promoted better cattle raising end century roads stretching highlands south west scotland north east england firmly established routes highland cattle reach english markets closing decade seventeenth century saw generally favourable economic conditions dominated restoration come end slump trade baltic france caused french changes scottish cattle trade followed years failed known seven ill years result severe famine particularly north seen particularly severe partly famine relatively rare second half seventeenth century year shortages kind eighteenth century increasing contacts england union led conscious attempt improve agriculture gentry nobility society founded including members introduced english foreign grasses grass introduced lime combat soil marshes drained roads built woods planted drilling crop rotation introduced introduction potato scotland greatly improved diet began displace run rig system free pasture creating landscape largely rectangular fields today new farm buildings based designs patterns books replaced regional diversity replaced building forms smaller farms retained linear outline dwelling house barn row larger farms sided layout common separating dwelling house servants quarters early improvement carried traditional tools new technology increasingly important lighter adopted including james small cast iron curved mould board adopted south east spread rest country andrew automated mill vital harvesting process increasing regional major centre grain cattle borders sheep result changes lowland hundreds thousands tenant farmers central southern scotland forcibly moved farms small holdings families occupied hundreds years small settlements dismantled occupants forced new purpose built villages built landowners john house displaced outskirts new ranch style farms new industrial centres glasgow edinburgh northern england tens thousands emigrated canada united_states finding opportunities farm land nineteenth century improvement continued nineteenth century innovations included working machine developed patrick bell rival james smith turned improving sub soil drainage developed method break barrier disturbing previously low lying brought production result lowland landscape seen widespread agricultural improvement highlands remained poor traditional handful powerful families owned best lands controlled local political legal economic affairs late families owned nearly half land scotland particularly end boom created revolutionary napoleonic wars needed cash maintain position london society turned money traditional relationship historically sustained clans exacerbated repeal corn laws mid century britain adopted free trade policy grain imports america undermined crop production result changes highland population highlands suffered forced displacement lands enclosed principally sheep farming followed patterns agricultural change particularly notorious result late timing lack legal protection year year tenants scots law change traditional clan system brutality result continuous exodus land cities england canada america australia remained living small rented farms indefinite tenure raise crops animals families fishing spinning military service important sources additional revenue scotland suffered major crisis potato caused irish potato famine reached highlands people food supply mainly potatoes faced disaster rescued effective emergency relief system stands contrast failures relief ireland danger starvation remained 1850s unequal concentration land ownership remained emotional subject violently challenged 1880s highland land league report commission government stepped passing holdings scotland act reduce guarantee tenure break large estates provide homeless explicit security given scottish legal right descendants commission created twentieth century present twentieth century scottish agriculture susceptible ups downs world markets dramatic price rises world war slump 1920s 1930s cent scottish land changed hands followed price rises second world war annual price reviews introduced attempt market series acts parliament followed designed price support grants farmers second world war associated drive agriculture greater production lasted late 1970s resulting intensive farming areas marginal land brought production government subsidies time forest increased factor increasing scottish agriculture horse replaced tractor combine meant farming labour intensive people worked scottish agriculture time fallen leading rural areas helped scottish agriculture efficient europe 1960s 1970s cent output value livestock farming fallen cent farming remains minority sector thirds agricultural land rough pasture result based subsidies impact scottish biodiversity case england farming overwhelmingly membership european economic community later european_union began orientation scottish farming preference commonwealth markets replaced obligations agriculture dominated common agricultural policy cap farming dependent market support direct grants farmers result sectors particularly hill sheep farming viable subsidies cent scottish land qualified extra support favoured area cent payments going cent farmers mainly large commercial farms series reforms cap 1990s attempted control production limit incentives intensive farming environmental damage attempt scottish farming act easier buy farms insufficient support family small farmers turned fish farming tourism supplement dual farm structure emerged agriculture divided large commercial farms small holdings scotland highest average farm size european_union times average


bristol bristol england derived grey robes worn founded time town walls moved site included extensive gardens surrounded stone wall following dissolution monasteries sixteenth century premises leased town council desired use stone repairs town walls harbour facilities succeeding centuries different uses site currently occupied office block bristol dental school history established time known henry iii granted wood fuel year followed grants oak wood fresh fish landed bristol wore long grey coats grey hood grey originally located town walls moved followed diversion river reach area north bank drained clay rock excavations deposited earliest church site approximately metres later enlarged bell tower chapter house added buildings constructed local red sandstone bristol city museum houses stained glass recovered chapter house probably dissolution monasteries writing fifteenth century william worcester described area roughly bounded modern upper street lower street johnny ball lane extensive gardens devoted lime surrounded walls report richard dissolution monasteries describes warden stiff warden held office richmond went great port think marks debt able pay remaining surrendered property dissolved leased green total annual rent shillings henry_viii granted dissolved houses mayor bristol consideration cash yearly fee farm rent mayor earlier petitioned king saying grey bristol foundation town built ancient cost like repair walls wharf post dissolution site redeveloped times subsequent centuries uses church chocolate factory occupied premises currently occupied office development called parts bristol dental school traces abbot house discovered building works small oval window incorporated new building archaeological investigations found graves human remains dating thirteenth fifteenth century medieval similar excavated saint abbey bristol


manchester manchester william philip allen michael michael brien members irish republican brotherhood organisation dedicated ending british rule ireland executed murder police officer manchester england incident known manchester trio members group attacked horse drawn police van transporting arrested leaders brotherhood thomas kelly police sergeant charles travelling inside keys shot killed attackers attempted force van open blowing lock kelly released prisoner van took keys body passed group outside ventilation pair recaptured despite extensive search charged found guilty murder thomas edward death sentences overturned united_states government american citizen evidence given considered unsatisfactory allen brien publicly hanged temporary structure built wall november crowd manchester city police officer killed duty monument ann church allen brien manchester irish community percent population ireland regarded inspirational heroes background ireland british rule end years war irish republican brotherhood founded march james aim establishing independent democratic republic ireland revolutionary organisation conspiracy believed thorough social revolution required ireland people republicans brotherhood founded new_york john ostensibly american wing estimated members carrying frequent acts violence metropolitan britain irish community manchester accounted cent population contemporary estimate number living miles city preparing launch armed uprising british rule plans known authorities key members movement leadership arrested convicted succeeded police thomas kelly travelled ireland britain raise morale groups wake failed uprising irish americans fought distinction american_civil_war kelly achieving rank colonel captain played important roles abortive uprising kelly declared chief executive irish republic secret republican convention commanded brigade county early hours september police arrested men found oak street planning rob shop charged act held custody manchester police initially unaware identities colleagues irish police identified kelly rescue september kelly transferred courthouse road locked separate compartments inside police van escorted squad mounted policemen van contained prisoners year old boy taken women convicted passed railway arch man middle road pointed pistol driver told stop simultaneously party men wall road surrounded van seized horses shot unarmed police described organised attack police van miscellaneous lot apparently embracing long short fat lean manchester force offered little resistance soon fled unsuccessful attempt force open van called police sergeant inside van prisoners open door refused placed revolver van blow lock looked happening outside bullet passed eye brain killed door opened women prisoners took keys pocket passed outside allowing kelly escape manchester police officer killed duty incident known locally manchester investigation police suspected kelly taken considered time area manchester anonymous letters alleged pair sheltered house street armed police raided premises found signs despite reward offered authorities kelly recaptured article published november edition times newspaper reported way liverpool taken passage ship bound new_york police raided manchester irish quarters brought dozens suspects selected random local raids described reign terror irish manchester arrested thomas young royal marine leave unfortunately vicinity attack police van irish zeal police man strong irish accent surrendered means saving arrested proceedings september proceedings heard magistrate establish case accused team defence included leader jones spent years prison making speeches roberts fee paid subscribers defence fund represent men jones representing brien clashed court immediately accused saying appears administration justice men law innocent brought court like couple jones objected presence number soldiers courtroom magistrate refused order prisoners removed marched dramatically courtroom saying member bar decline sit court police magistrate disgrace bar proceeding defence accused allen claimed witnesses testify police van attacked defence argued rescue illegal prisoners kelly imprisoned intention sacrificing human life evidenced single fatality despite presence guns shots fired prisoners sent trial judge jury released unsatisfactory identification trial proceedings began october justice justice appeared court day grand jury found case defendants murder decided charge principal offenders allen brien shore indictment brought courtroom following day trial proper began despite having fired fatal shot allen year old carpenter tailor married member group children brien fought american_civil_war year old shop assistant county born years old fought union american_civil_war thomas royal marine served years returned home leave jury retired fifth day returned verdict guilty defendants asked sentence passed convicted men closing speech allen stated innocence regretted death sergeant prepared die defence republican principles liberty oppressed enslaved people said felt received fair trial counsel defence ended saying look mercy god god forgive sworn life away dying man forgive heart god forgive brien claimed evidence given false american citizen ought facing trial court went length condemn british government rulers ireland interrupted judge appealed cease remarks effect observations tell consider sentence advise sort entirely sake address court considered times excelled zeal cause admitted having organised attack police van role leader north west section movement claimed threw stone fired pistol place attack took place totally false went committed crown england attempted deny end speech shouted god save ireland cry taken companions dock william allen michael michael brien thomas edward sentenced death hanging punishment english law time allowed murder crying god save ireland dock sentence pronounced subsequently pardoned discharged sentence eve execution trial took place described climate anti irish weekly newspaper described deep disgrace english government product panic seized governing classes vengeance said issued aristocratic organ evidence obtained prisoners guilt assumed executions demanded thomas case witnesses identified prisoners testified forefront attack evidence shown false resulted english reporters sending appeal home secretary pardoned widespread doubts conviction government yielded pressure grant pardon led believe hanged convicted evidence witnesses according liz curtis case eminent lawyers tried procedural means halt executions leading figures john bright charles john stuart mill appealed execution crowd estimated gathered outside walls evening november witness public execution convicted men following morning platform built feet ground outside wall jail facing new bailey street support spectators supplied palaces portable beer coffee stalls according father catholic priests attended men crowd city night early morning strains champagne charlie john brown rule irish instructions clergy manchester silent congregations tear stained faces assembled celebration early mass eternal welfare young doomed die death morning authorities took considerable pains discourage rescue attempt regular special police deployed prison augmented military presence included detachment squadron eighth traffic city stopped times newspaper reported time took place shortly mob quiet orderly contrast previous night early morning william famous 19th century reportedly nervous executing threats received particularly incompetent unable correct length rope required individual hanging frequently rush pull victim legs death accounts claim allen died broken neck brien fortunate father reported ropes stretched tense breathing ominous distracting movement descended pit finished accomplish killed father refused allow dispatch brien way quarters hour good priest holding dying man hands reciting prayers dying long drawn ended bodies men buried new bailey prison graveyard transferred prison cemetery new bailey prison closed remains cremated cemetery manchester aftermath british press demanded retribution swift stern men irish public demand death penalty simply expression anti irish sentiment product panic popular feelings desire order daily_telegraph instance like contemporaries describing death vulgar murder supported reform ireland hang convicted good conscience thoroughly distinctly english policy supported english power funeral held ireland british cities weeks following executions attracting crowds thousands demonstrations support outraged british public opinion reinforced prevailing sentiment irish moral compass center executions gave rise enormous feeling irish communities world new_zealand instance seven men convicted unlawful assembly high profile trial following mock funeral cemetery seven newspaper editor priest pleaded guilty libel having published succession articles queen government government declared holding manchester martyr funeral procession illegal ireland masses public ones said bishop david prohibited celebration mass diocese archbishop john hand personally assisted high mass cardinal archbishop paul dublin opposing public celebrations instructed priests pray dead mass privately day executions frederick wrote yesterday morning hand accomplished final act separation england ireland thing lacked provided derby hardy execution liberation kelly heroic deed sung irish cradle ireland england america knowledge time anybody executed similar matter country case john brown ferry wished better precedent treat brown rebel transform political attempt common crime cry condemned men inspiration song god save ireland ireland unofficial national anthem officially replaced soldier song executions influence political awakening charles stewart speaking house_of_commons years later told house wish directly believe shall believe murder committed manchester monuments monuments erected honour allen brien stand county county county county county cemetery belfast county cemetery dublin joseph cemetery manchester monument joseph cemetery designed unveiled november commissioned manchester central memorial committee stands feet high takes form celtic cross sides pedestal portraits men originally figures irish removed site monument scene disturbances tradition republican parade anniversary deaths hanged monument suffered attacks structure acts vandalism listed risk public monument sculpture association national recording project commemorate centenary men execution manchester association commissioned artist arthur produce memorial sculpture stand site new bailey prison opposition proposal sculpture let installed produce foot high forms collection working class movement library manchester suggests memorial consist granite base standing steel pillars attached celtic shields bearing martyr detail event significance donated family cooper given police sergeant buried cemetery words duty engraved memorial tablet ann church manchester


latin little book answers papal letter known papal written pope gregory canterbury response questions nascent church anglo saxon england reproduced entirety transmitted widely middle ages encountered students historians today transmitted circulated different early medieval canon law collections company texts nature authenticity notwithstanding suspicions called question mid twentieth century historians hypothesis document england early eighth century shown hypothesis based incomplete evidence historical particular twentieth century scholarship focused presence appeared rule marriage rule thought gregory possibly endorsed known rule fact historians thought rule fully consistent gregory style mode thought today gregory authorship generally accepted question authenticity aside manuscript evidence indicates document transmitted italy early beginning seventh century shortly gregory death england end century creation reply pope gregory questions posed canterbury certain disciplinary administrative problems facing tried establish people following initial success mission modern historians including wood rob seen indicating contact native british christians indicated narrative original questions sent rome gregory reply delayed years illness composed summer brought peter letters king kent wife items mission scholars pointed fact reached intended recipient canterbury paul example noted early anglo saxon copy survives earlier copy appears derive canterbury file copy continental canon law collection strange letter arrived canterbury place document important fledgling mission history canterbury church likely protected preserved carefully canterbury case suggested journey north rome england later arrived england long death theory supported surviving manuscript evidence strongly suggests circulated widely continent nearly century finally arriving england exact time place arrived england fell hands far certain scholars continue explore questions title gregory appear provided title unusual work letter gregory habit letters given letter modern commentators translate nomenclature little book answers little book responses translated letter letter answers possible translation contents consists series questions posed answered gregory different questions asked questions address multiple issues gregory response addresses questions relationship bishop clergy vice versa gifts church divided clergy tasks bishop second reply addresses regional churches differing customs encounters differences reply answer questions proper punishment church fourth fifth responses deal marry including allowed brothers marry sisters man marry step sister step mother sixth response concerns acceptable bishop consecrated bishops present distances involved prevented bishops attending ceremony question dealt relations church england church eighth response concerns pregnant newly delivered woman including allowed enjoy sex husband long child birth wait enter church response deals questions men communion sexual dream priests celebrate mass similar dreams additional chapter included known contains reply gregory request relics local martyr gregory reply says sending relics pope replace local saint remains gregory doubts actual status local saint authenticity occasionally questioned modern historians accept genuine later use early seventh century augmented version collections assembled northern italy canon law collection known today time long series additional papal documents letters including scholars date addition series documents early seventh century suggested half seventh century date addition shortly initial compilation years gregory death dating correct earliest surviving witness far eventually reached england clear known original letter reached intended recipient assumed vague point strength word later historians claimed reached timely fashion mentioned recent scholarship brought assumption question event version letter available england late seventh century quoted archbishop series known today possible found copy canterbury given england previous known likely texts brought england italy known brought numerous books italy books canon law collection like prepared decades earlier speculated introduced type collection canterbury second half seventh century finally delivered originally intended destination hypothesis supported fact shortly tenure canterbury anglo begin demonstrate knowledge inserted entire text book completed makes bulk chapter appears relied writing prose year acquired copy known early eighth century beginning read widely england later middle ages text support claims monks canterbury cathedral chapter chapter included monks founding cathedral explicitly cathedral chapter composed monks monks members chapter live common aspects monastic life controversy authenticity twentieth century scholarship focus doubt expressed authenticity led widely held belief general atmosphere suspicion surrounded middle ages fact appears medieval personality expressed doubt authorship letter missionary peoples europe papal spent later life continental europe encountered canonical traditions unfamiliar anglo appeared step knowledge church tradition represented tradition fact practical reasons questioning witnessed recommendations exploited certain members nobility claimed permitted enter unions unions considered eager controversy wrote archbishop_of_canterbury requesting send canterbury copy presumably hoped canterbury time residence possessed authentic copy preserved ancient readings copies circulating france bavaria serve continental copies nobles relied requested opinion document authenticity inquiries papal archives failed turn official registered copy letter failed attempt locate registered papal copy presumably suggested possibility document fact authored pope gregory concerns wording versions circulating continent lifetime collections canonical documents known encountered helped produce canon law collection included version possible knew version version known letter version known slight differences wording chapter order versions important exception versions contain passage discusses closely man woman related prohibited married letter version passage according michael passage versions authentic absence letter version represents later modification text probably mid seventh century passage versions gregory saying related second degree including siblings parents children cousins prohibited marrying church tradition sets prohibition marrying distant relation gregory method degrees unfamiliar living mid eighth century shown gregory method degrees come known canonical method apparently western_europe followed different method known roman method restriction second degree merely siblings marrying parents marrying children allowed unions came passage mean gregory permitted cousins marry marry opinion believed gregory held unable correct misunderstanding meaning point general error prevailing eighth century readers text fact authorities frequently conflicted subject long series letters written subsequent bishops rome pope gregory pope gregory iii pope periodically brought issue marriage time received slightly different answer permitted prohibited suspicion authenticity ended death chapter continued long medieval authority record having questioning authenticity marriage chapter fact arose vigorous tradition forged documents defended authenticity attempted explain contained supposed ruling marriage doubts revived twentieth century modern historians study historical sources gregory great anglo saxon mission things attempted prove eighth century thought contained relevant terms eighth century theological concerns argued completed year making late work attract scholarly interest margaret paul wrote joint journal article modifying arguments thought taken genuine letters added information theological questions current canterbury presented finished product work argued stages stage named version considered best exemplified manuscript copenhagen second version rearranged form questions paired answers view second version work sent research quasi authentic genuine work gregory based extensively authentic writings thesis successfully refuted work paul following work scholars come accept genuine letter gregory portion accept genuine chapter marriage like believed written gregory pronounced chapter single genuine document subsequent scholarship year followed point showed marriage chapter fact authored gregory explained exactly later historians came meaning


walls walls croatian series defensive stone walls surrounded protected citizens afterward proclaimed maritime city state situated southern croatia city founding prior 7th century byzantium rocky island named numerous additions modifications history considered great fortification systems middle ages breached hostile army time period old city includes substantial portion old walls joined list world heritage sites oldest systems fortifications town likely wooden today intact city walls constructed mainly 12th 17th centuries double line long source pride walls run course approximately metres length old city reach maximum height metres bulk existing walls fortifications constructed 14th 15th centuries continually extended strengthened 17th century complex structure largest complete europe protected freedom safety sophisticated republic flourished peace prosperity centuries walls reinforced circular towers angular fortifications large john fortress land walls additionally reinforced larger smaller ones like fort oldest preserved fort kind europe moat ran outside section city walls armed cannons provided superb city defense capabilities city walls construction limestone forts city began early middle ages end 8th century old chronicles sort castle reliably existed peninsula long time prior certain early town island surrounded defensive walls probably mainly wooden fact managed survive month long invasion 9th century proves city fortified city spread eastern explains current southeast city near john fortress called comes latin statement post means outside town 9th 10th centuries defensive wall enclosed eastern portion city sea channel separating city mainland filled earth 11th century city merged settlement land soon single wall built area present day city core time period surrounding area described croatian entity works famous arab muhammad book english joy wish sail world mentioned southernmost city country croatia basic city plan dates port rebuilt following fire city entirely enclosed 13th century dominican monastery came protection later 14th century modern day city walls city walls preserved present day knowledge skilled construction workers constant care provided city maintained rebuilt structures needed brilliantly reputed diplomacy managed occasions avoid dangerous measures taken enemies republic present shape walls defined 14th century city gained independence venetian peak construction lasted beginning 15th century half 16th century constructed walls generally unaffected strong earthquake occurring largest continued development emergency repairs works fortresses came result danger unexpected attack turkish military forces especially conquered constantinople city danger attack centuries people able preserve city republic maneuvering east west strategic treaty turkey protracted liberty maintained opportunity major trading role ottoman_empire europe irregular surrounding consists strong fortresses significant points north strong circular tower east city port fortress western city entrance protected strong nicely shaped fort strong lawrence fortress known protects western city possible land sea assaults large complex john fortress located southeast city land walls main wall metres metres thick certain locations walls reach meters feet height land walls stretch fort west detached fortress east wall protected additional range supporting walls defense artillery fire especially possible ottoman attacks gates town city gates lead harbor lead mainland time period austrian empire controlled city gates opened wall communication outside world land maintained city main protected city gates placed western city placed eastern entrances constructed communications city carried directly messenger enter multiple doors walk winding evidence security measures taken defense possibility surprise breach entrance unexpected visitors gate pile pile gates fortified complex multiple doors defended fort moat ran outside section city walls entrance gate old town western land walls stone bridge gothic arches designed architect bridge connects bridge wooden pulled republican era wooden pile gate hoisted night considerable ceremony delivered city keys rector today spans dry moat garden offers respite crowds bridges arch town principal gateway statue city patron saint croatian model renaissance city passing pile gate original gothic inner gateway possible reach access points city walls gate eastern land walls stands second major entrance city gate gate protected fortress connected wooden twin spanned stone bridge spanning protective ditch outer gate designed constructed architect bridges fortress built 15th century designed pile gate bridges explains similarities bridges bridge like gate pile statue saint patron saint gate gate meaning hole located northern land walls gate relatively new compared gates constructed early 1900s sea walls main wall sea facing stretches fort west john fortress south fortress land walls meters feet thick depending location strategic importance purpose walls help defend city sea based attacks particularly republic venice considered threat safety city harbour oldest sectors constructed late antique castle sea stretched bit today constructed site pre cathedral rector palace city harbour harbour designed constructed engineer late 15th century notably harbour noticeably painted palm painted artist prominent portion harbour enormous arches fourth original arch walled large arsenal built late 12th century enlarged 15th century harbour oldest shipyard city use today built john fortress built according design order defend harbour protect south eastern winds waves shortened harbour chain stretched night john fortress luke tower constructed huge stone blocks laid wooden foundations today arsenal hosts city café movie theatre harbour pleasant tourist attractions gates city port area significant areas maritime trade city entrances gate port gate entire layout streets range expansions intended fast effective communication forts city walls gate constructed gate situated westwards great arsenal city wall built period leads gate john fortress present day street formed 15th century sewage system completed building houses western city wall longer allowed gate gate built stands eastward great arsenal arches 15th century small arsenal small boats repaired situated bit old tower luke protects harbour east harbour entrance encircled guarded fortress forts forts walls fall constantinople ottomans clear sign cautious citizens ample defensive measures quickly needed strengthening defensive structures foremost issues fall bosnia followed soon works result republic invited architect florence direct improvement city defenses work resulted construction expansion numerous buildings key importance defense tower tower built local builder named italian engineers sent pope height turkish threat originally strong sided fort prominent point defensive system land tower derives family owned ground tower built height impressive volume tower dominates northwestern high city walls middle 15th century earlier fort built new round tower new warfare technique joined new system low walls meter feet thick walls new tower series protected gun ports architect sculptor continued work tower designed built high narrow round tower later addition tower completed symbol city long excavation 16th century cannon discovered tower upper tower museum tower highest point wall considered offer seemingly unforgettable view city fort fort called considered beautiful instances functional fortification architecture built story fortress city walls reconstructed stands medieval wall face protruding space cylindrical volume conceived key point defense gate western fortified entrance city tower second key point defense western land approach city said oldest fortress europe contains small collection numerous cannons john fortress john fortress croatian called tower complex monumental building southeastern old city port controlling protecting entrance fort built mid 14th century modified occasions course 15th 16th centuries seen painter dominican monastery painting shows saint patron saint dominant port john fortress prevented access pirates enemy ships cautious sign danger inhabitants close entry port heavy chains stretched john fortress wall port entries great arsenal today fortress houses ground floor stocked fishes parts adriatic_sea upper floors maritime museum devoted republic maritime period age steam second world war section techniques sailing navigation detached forts fortress period turkish danger fall bosnia turkish rule detached fortress providing additional protection land approach eastern gate built east city derives term military architecture refers work built opposite city gate order afford better protection enemy attack danger venetian assault suddenly increased times holy league necessary strengthen vulnerable point city fortifications senate hired experienced builder fortresses service spanish admiral trusted friend republic senate approved drawings new stronger fortress took years build time construction work city stopped order finish fortress soon possible new strongest city fortresses eastern land approach city shaped form irregular sides descending sea protected deep ditch bridge crosses protective ditch connects gate bridge connects eastern suburb construction work executed perfectly devastating earthquake damage divided large vaulted rooms interior administrative center republic lawrence fortress lawrence fortress croatian called gibraltar located outside western city walls metres sea level fortress court mighty arches height uneven powerful looking south sea defended large cannons largest famous called croatian walls exposed enemy fire meters feet thick large wall surface facing city exceed centimetres feet lead fort inscription non pro freedom sold treasures world gate ensure loyalty troops lawrence fortress rotated days ensure complete loyalty given days rations went fort according old scripts built months today interior stages europe known place william_shakespeare hamlet performances fortifications walls walls originally series defensive stone walls kilometres long despite small size protected republic decided use build line defense point joining mainland wall built today kilometre long wall links small communities shape pentagon completed 15th century towers fortresses wall meant protection precious salt greatly contributed wealth worked today second longest wall europe surpassed wall scotland england falcon fortress falcon fortress croatian largest important fortresses territory republic position mountainous region near inland built location earlier later roman fortifications evident remains roman bricks walls brothers time rulers gave republic authority falcon fortress came republic final possession strategic importance republic constantly invested maintenance fortress contained powder storage wine food boxes military barracks sanctuary buildings accommodate refugees nearby villages event war imperial fortress fortress placed mountain city built marshal called imperial honor emperor napoleon fortress strategically important defend northern city fortress fortress placed end peninsula built mid-19th century fortification system bay time austrian empire unique structure presents exceptional example military architecture time today fortress use badly damaged history city walls siege major arab raid struck laid siege city appealed byzantine emperor responded sending ships finally siege lasted months raised intervention sent fleet command relief city successful intervention byzantine navy sailed coast collecting promises loyalty empire cities damage known fact managed survive month long siege proves city fortified venetian siege weakening byzantium venice began rival needed brought control attempt conquer city failed citizens city attributed saint adopted patron saint city siege territorial disputes war broke grand prince city time norman attacked city laid siege counter attack drove forces according chronicles accepted historians siege ultimately failed help received siege known exactly venetian fourth siege republic venice invaded forces fourth crusade forced pay tribute eventually source supplies venice saving sacked like siege venice naval base southern adriatic_sea 14th century liberation venetian supremacy extensive work walls ensure republic liberty siege powerful regional lord attacked laid siege city earlier nobleman consequently government proclaimed traitor reward palace worth annual income offered kill promise hereditary nobility helped hold promise deed scared threat finally raised siege russian siege republic highly organized network offices eighty cities ports world republic surrendered forces french empire end months long siege russian fleet fell city french lifted siege saved french army led napoleon entered marshal abolished republic amalgamated territory french provinces duke anglo austrian siege austria declared war france august autumn royal_navy enjoyed unopposed domination adriatic_sea working conjunction austrian armies invading provinces northern italy rear admiral thomas ships able rapidly transport british austrian troops point forcing surrender strategic ports december captain william ship hms guns hms gun brig arrived blockaded pro austrian forces led british austrians able imperial fortress positions island hauling cannon hill bombarded city french general joseph decided best surrender british troops entered city pile gates shutting rebels yugoslav army siege siege croatian term marking battle siege city surrounding area croatia croatian war independence besieged attacked forces dominated yugoslav people army late major fighting ending early croatian counterattack finally lifting siege area international criminal tribunal yugoslavia prosecution alleged objective forces area croatia annex montenegro american institute architects condemned bombardment city buildings institute protection cultural monuments conjunction found buildings old town percent hit projectiles siege buildings completely destroyed major fires occurred siege institute rehabilitation estimated total cost restoring public private religious buildings streets squares gates bridges end spent restoration testament ancient walls buildings old town destroyed bombardment ancient walls fact effective resisting modern weaponry contemporary structures city periphery main sources


history polish lithuanian commonwealth history polish lithuanian commonwealth covers period history poland lithuania joint state subjected devastating wars middle 17th century union established polish lithuanian commonwealth closely unified federal state replacing previously existing personal union countries union largely run polish increasingly lithuanian nobility system central parliament local assemblies led elected kings formal rule numerous european countries nobility constituted sophisticated early democratic system contrast absolute prevalent time rest europe polish lithuanian union influential player europe vital cultural entity spreading western culture eastward second half 16th half 17th century polish lithuanian commonwealth huge state central eastern_europe area approaching million square kilometers following reformation gains warsaw confederation culmination unique europe religious processes catholic_church embarked ideological counter offensive counter reformation claimed converts protestant circles disagreements difficulties eastern populations commonwealth clearly earlier stage late 16th century manifested religious union brest split eastern christians commonwealth military series uprisings commonwealth militarily king stephen suffered reigns kings iii playground internal conflicts kings powerful factions nobility main actors commonwealth fought wars russia sweden ottoman_empire commonwealth height powerful neighbors experienced difficulties polish lithuanian state sought domination eastern_europe particular russia allied monarchy directly participate thirty years war russia undertook hostilities region resulted takeover area caused polish lithuanian involvement war successful counter offensive led king jan resulted peace territory contested russia swedish forces establishing far north estonia estonia declared commonwealth iii gave rise war sweden war lasted producing definite outcome russia entering period instability commonwealth proposed union russian state failed followed similarly unsuccessful adventurous attempts involving military invasions diplomatic differences societies proved end formidable overcome polish lithuanian state ended truce greatest expansion territory time weakened huge military effort ottoman_empire sultan declared war commonwealth disastrous battle killed commonwealth situation respect turkish invasion forces poland lithuania followed jan army fierce enemy assaults battle situation improved southeastern warfare ottomans followed vast commonwealth subjected incursions slave taking expeditions period war sweden resumed attack followed swedish occupation control baltic_sea coast blockade danzig commonwealth exhausted warfare taken place mustered response utilizing military talents help austria pressure european powers campaign stopped ended truce leaving swedish hands conquered war russia followed concluded change status quo king proceeded recover lands lost sweden conclusion hostilities sweden evacuated cities ports royal prussia kept remained commonwealth assumed lithuania baltic trade frederick william prussian homage polish king commonwealth position regard prussia rulers kept getting weaker monarchy republic nobility outset polish lithuanian commonwealth second half 16th century poland lithuania monarchy king elected hereditary nobility king serve monarch died time country election monarchy commonly referred republic high degree influence noble classes seen single non class king dynasty died heirs political system prepared method choosing new king debate determined entire nobility poland lithuania decide king nobility gather near warsaw vote royal election election polish kings lasted poland elected kings chronological order henry anna stephen iii john michael john iii strong iii august polish royal election held men running office henry brother king charles france russia austria king john iii sweden henry ended winner serving polish king months received news brother king france died henry abandoned polish post went france succeeded throne henry iii france elected kings left lasting mark commonwealth stephen determined deteriorated royal cost powerful noble families iii john swedish house foreign affairs prevented making major contribution stability poland lithuania john iii commanded allied relief vienna operation turned great victory republic nations august polish kings controversial figure hand driving force substantial reforms undertaken commonwealth weakness lack resolve especially dealing imperial russia doomed reforms country supposed help polish lithuanian commonwealth following union absolute gaining power europe quasi democratic political system golden liberty albeit limited nobility unprecedented history europe constituted fundamental precedent later development european constitutional series power struggles lesser nobility higher nobility elected kings undermined citizenship values gradually eroded government authority ability function provide national defense infamous veto procedure parliamentary proceedings beginning second half 17th century series devastating wars middle 17th century notably uprising poland lithuania stopped influential player politics europe wars commonwealth lost estimated population higher losses world war economy growth damaged nobility reliance agriculture combined weakness urban class delayed country beginning 18th century polish lithuanian commonwealth largest populous european states little neighbors russian_empire prussia austria interfered domestic politics second half 18th century commonwealth repeatedly neighboring powers ceased exist economic social developments agricultural trade boom eastern_europe showed signs approaching crisis food prices stopped increasing followed gradual decline agricultural products prices price depression initially present western_europe negative consequences process economies east reached culmination second half 17th century economic resulted europe wide currency caused influx silver western hemisphere time massive amounts polish grain exported danzig commonwealth nobility took variety steps combat crisis high production levels particular heavy obligations nobles forcibly buying taking properties affluent far peasant categories phenomenon especially pronounced mid 17th century capital energy urban affected development mining earlier commonwealth period shops turn 17th century great built half century mining silver copper lead developed expansion salt production taking place industrial enterprises increasingly taken land owners labor led neglect decline second half 17th century danzig remained practically autonomous adamant protecting status foreign trade monopoly statutes gave polish kings control maritime commerce stephen resorted armed intervention city able enforce polish cities held steady prosperous half 17th century war disasters middle century devastated urban classes rigid social separation legal system intended prevent inter class mobility matured half 17th century nobility goal self contained newcomers fully realized practice peasants occasions acquired noble status later numerous polish clans illegitimate beginnings found justification self appointed dominant role peculiar set attitudes known adopted union accelerated process massive lithuanian general nobility lithuania eastern process national development local populations allowed eastern orthodox lithuanian nobility access highest offices time act little practical consequence orthodox nobles standing left catholic counter reformation soon gains magnate families east origin inclusion enlarged crown magnate class stronger politically economically regular increasingly dominated great land owners lacked align settlers ukraine magnate power area acceptance integration rights resorted delayed ineffective half measures subjected heavier oppression reasons way polish lithuanian commonwealth expansion took place developed caused social national tensions introduced fundamental instability system ultimately resulted future crises republic nobles western eastern christianity counter reformation union brest increasingly uniform case ethnic minorities commonwealth returned roman catholic religion catholic remained catholic course 17th century agreement early expression protestant later prominent europe poland self defensive character intensification counter reformation pressure time agreement strengthened protestant position warsaw confederation religious freedom guarantees possible reformation commonwealth end 16th century thousand protestant congregations nearly half half century later survived suffering lesser losses dominated polish greatest closing academy printing facility charges trouble come counter reformation offensive happened somewhat mysteriously country religious wars state catholic_church limiting competing denominations factors responsible low protestant involvement masses especially pro catholic position kings low level involvement nobility religious emancipation accomplished internal divisions protestant movement rising intensity catholic_church propaganda listed ideological war protestant catholic camps enriched intellectual life commonwealth catholic_church responded challenges internal reform following directions council trent officially accepted polish church implemented 17th century earlier efforts reform originating lower clergy bishop lone time church hierarchy ardent reformer turn 17th century number rome educated bishops took church administration diocese level clergy discipline implemented rapid intensification counter reformation activities took place brought poland founded college numerous jesuit educational institutions established following decades vicinity centers protestant activity jesuit priests carefully selected educated noble urban origins soon highly influential royal court working hard segments society jesuit educational programs counter reformation propaganda utilized innovative media techniques custom tailored particular audience hand time tried methods instruction preacher bible translator count prominent jesuit personalities catholic efforts win population countered protestant idea national church catholic_church commonwealth introducing variety native elements accessible attractive masses church hierarchy went notion changes took place 17th century defined character polish catholicism centuries come apex counter reformation activity fallen turn 17th century earlier years reign iii iii cooperation church circles attempted strengthen power monarchy king tried limit access higher offices catholics anti protestant riots took place cities rebellion supported anti king opposition large numbers massive wave return catholicism stopped attempts common protestant orthodox congregations failure protestant movement form alliance eastern orthodox christians inhabitants eastern portion commonwealth contributed downfall polish catholic establishment miss opportunity form union orthodox goal eastern rite christians pope help bringing control commonwealth catholic centers power orthodox establishment perceived security threat eastern rite bishops dependence constantinople time conflict ottoman_empire recent development establishment moscow moscow claimed ecclesiastical jurisdiction orthodox christians polish lithuanian commonwealth development accept alternate option union west union idea support king iii polish nobility east opinions divided church lay leaders eastern orthodox faith union brest act negotiated concluded merged roman catholic eastern orthodox denominations led establishment slavic language church eastern catholic_church greek catholic churches presently ukrainian greek catholic greek catholic new church byzantine rite accepted papal supremacy retained respects eastern rite character compromise union flawed beginning despite initial agreement greek catholic bishops like roman catholic counterparts seated senate eastern rite participants union granted general equality expected union brest increased ukrainian communities commonwealth orthodox church remained potent religious force added prominent ethnic class reason internal republic eastern orthodox nobility branded deprived legal standing led commenced fight rights prince leader orthodox intellectual revival polish ukraine founded elite liberal arts secondary academic school academy instruction academy instrumental publication bible bible scholarly orthodox church edition result efforts parliamentary statutes recognized orthodox religion equal eastern churches restoration orthodox hierarchy administrative structure proved difficult bishops orthodox replacements recognized commonwealth officially reign facing rebellions end decades efforts aimed church instrument attempted elimination orthodox religion time orthodox nobles catholics orthodox leadership fell hands townspeople lesser nobility organized church new power east warrior class metropolitan peter organized influential academy contributed greatly rebuilding reform orthodox church church created population commonwealth administrative dealings gradually switched polish language use majority church archival documents generated polish variety language culture early baroque baroque style dominated polish culture building achievements renaissance mid 18th century initially baroque artists intellectuals torn competing views world enjoyed wide latitude freedom expression soon counter reformation instituted binding point view invoked medieval tradition imposed censorship education index prohibited books poland straightened convoluted ways middle 17th century doctrine firmly religious norm artistic tastes acquiring increasingly oriental character contrast tendencies previous period nobility cultural spheres went separate ways renaissance publicist provided foundations baroque political thinking time jesuit colleges secondary schools scattered commonwealth sons lesser degree jan chancellor crown built town established academy functioned gymnasium death kings known arts sciences commonwealth science experienced general decline paralleled wartime decline class mid 16th century poland university academy entered crisis stage early 17th century counter took advantage established university college efforts aimed taking academy unsuccessful circumstances elected pursue studies abroad jan rector university scholar worked number theory promoted work banned church anti jesuit pamphlet publicly burned worker worked system measurements based physical phenomena famous europe wrote number languages beginning editions translations 17th 18th centuries member emperor circle scientists believed authorities pioneer chemist oxygen long works studied leading scientists including newton early baroque period produced number noted poets wrote mystical religious poetry representing passive current poet samuel participated military historic events genres pursued epic poetry urban poetry vital middle 17th century poets criticized existing social order continued elements renaissance style creations john contained dose social wrote symbolic poem setting river craft floating work portrayed hardships life jesuit highly appreciated europe latin poetry wrote prose period written preacher severely criticized nobility state expressing support system based strong monarchy writing memoirs highly developed 17th century holy land beginning progress war written greatest polish military commanders best known examples form art particularly baroque purposes theater theatrical shows staged conjunction religious occasions commonly utilized folk school theaters common protestant catholic secondary schools permanent court theater orchestra established royal castle warsaw actor troupe dominated italians performed primarily italian opera ballet repertoire music secular kept developing baroque period high quality church pipe organs built churches 17th century fine specimen preserved iii supported internationally renowned ensemble musicians working orchestra adam contemporary chief composers courts iii jan royal secretary published popular music martin court painter worked stephen iii produced number known royal portraits jan commissioned venetian architect build city town fortifications designed consistently implement renaissance aesthetic given period art history late renaissance early baroque poland quarter 16th century quarter 17th century polish art remained influenced italian centers increasingly rome increasingly art netherlands fusion imported local elements evolved original polish form baroque baroque art developing great extent patronage catholic_church utilized art facilitate religious influence purpose substantial financial resources disposal important context art form architecture features accompanied time progressively elaborate lavish facade interior design concepts beginning number churches patterned church rome built gothic older churches increasingly supplemented baroque style architectural additions sculptures wall paintings ornaments conspicuous polish churches today royal castle warsaw main residence monarchs enlarged rebuilt castle polish kings turned influential design having followed number baroque magnate role baroque sculpture usually subordinate decorative elements interiors famous exception column iii warsaw royal castle realistic religious painting entire series related works served purpose nudity mythological themes banned fancy collection western paintings vogue iii brought venice prolific painter spend rest life rise school polish painters working influence danzig center graphic arts painters han worked compared previous century wider circles society participated cultural activities catholic counter reformation pressure resulted diminished diversity catastrophic wars middle century greatly weakened commonwealth cultural development influence region union senate general commonwealth augmented lithuanian high officials position lay ecclesiastical lords served life members senate strengthened outnumbered middle high office holders fewer representatives upper chamber senate convened separately king traditional capacity royal council apart formal attempts limit upper chamber role successful formal union addition deputies grand royal prussia fully integrated crown regional deputies lower chamber referred senators deputies legislative work generally able act pleased regional assemblies summoned sessions general local nobility provided representatives instructions proceed protect interests area involved called conclusion time deputies report constituency accomplished important commonwealth parliamentary life role general provided detailed general legislative decisions periods session times communicating directly monarch little significant parliamentary representation class peasants jewish communities sent representatives council lands narrow social base commonwealth parliamentary system detrimental future development future polish lithuanian ordinary general convened years period weeks king summon extraordinary weeks necessitated circumstances extraordinary prolonged union republic centrally located warsaw remained location coronation turn 17th century brought permanent migration royal court warsaw order proceedings 17th century lower chamber statute preparation work days spent working senate king final versions agreed decisions finished legislative product consent estates realm senate monarch lower chamber rule enforced half 17th century general highest organ collective consensus based state power supreme_court presided king decided legal cases second half 17th century variety reasons including abuse rule veto effectiveness declined void increasingly filled practice bulk government work getting nobility rule royal election system noble democracy firmly rooted death following union wanted personal power lack agreement concerning method timing election successor casualties situation conflict strengthened senate magnate camp monarch death protect common interests moved establish territorial provincial governments public order protected basic court system provided able push candidacy regent hold office new king sworn person senate took election preparations establishment proposition universal participation election appeared time right idea factions reality subsequent elections directed especially poorer prepared set rules limitations future monarch obey safeguard ensure new king going complied commonwealth political system respected privileges nobility henry sign rules known articles articles specified free election way monarch successor assume office possibility hereditary monarchy future articles summarized accumulated rights polish nobility including religious freedom guarantees introduced restrictions king henry signed called accepted additional specific obligations newly crowned henry soon embarked course action intended free imposed outcome power struggle determined year election june learning brother death henry secretly left france stephen nobility commenced new election process tried force candidacy emperor december archbishop announced election effort thwarted execution movement party led jan choice stephen prince quickly arranged december proclamation anna sister reigning queen added husband king supported selection arms took couple ceremony took place stephen reign marks end reform movement foreign king skeptical polish parliamentary system little appreciation execution movement activists trying accomplish relations soon deteriorated leaders advanced nobility ranks senators preoccupied careers managed poland lithuania date court system monarch domain crown lithuanian run nobility system hoc lack efficient mechanisms implementation laws escaped attention thought nobility rule approached perfection jan distinguished personalities period king principal adviser manager highly educated cultivated individual talented military chief accomplished politician promoted fellow fact typical magnate manner accumulated multiple offices royal land grants removing far reform movement ideals professed earlier king great military leader far sighted politician confrontations members nobility famous case involved brothers samuel executed orders sentenced property court hungarian like foreign rulers poland concerned affairs country origin failed enforce statutes unable control foreign trade danzig highly negative economic political consequences republic cooperation chancellor later jan largely successful war time commonwealth able increase magnitude military effort combined campaign armed forces sources available men strong king initiated creation important peasant infantry military formation agreed george frederick mentally ill albert frederick duke prussia brought german closer commonwealth long term interests war russia king program aimed securing poland access control portion baltic region ports country vital interests protecting led commonwealth participation conflict stage series lithuania poland confrontations russia took stettin peace involved powers including sweden denmark commonwealth remained control main including undertook great expedition taking vassal duke coastal areas success polish lithuanian counter offensive possible able secure necessary funding nobility polish forces recovered middle king opted attacking directly inland russian territory necessary keeping russian communication lines open functioning fortress fell attempted able defend city despite months long siege armistice arranged jam papal russians evacuated castles captured gave area left lithuanian hands swedish forces took estonia contributed victory commonwealth ended possession continuous baltic coast iii reign candidates commonwealth crown considered death stephen including austria anna proposed pushed election nephew son john iii king sweden catherine swedish heir apparent faction supported faction led family wanted separate elections took place civil war resulted army entered poland attacked repulsed retreating crushed forces organized jan battle taken prisoner meantime arrived crowned initiated long commonwealth reign iii prospect personal union sweden raised polish lithuanian ruling circles political economic hopes including favorable baltic trade conditions common russia expansion concerning control estonia soon bone contention ultra catholicism appeared threatening swedish protestant establishment contributed sweden inclined form alliance polish crown pursue ambitions sweden conducted secret negotiations married anna accused breaking iii deepened resentment bent strengthening power monarchy counter promotion catholic_church supporters indifferent increasingly common warsaw confederation religious instances violence king opposed religious minorities brought fruitless confrontation king supporters coalition opposition nobility royal court proposed fundamental reform body adoption majority rule instead traditional practice unanimous deputies present jan public address reduced defense setting stage dominate commonwealth political culture decades royal faction hoping advantage glorious battle victory successes submitted comprehensive reform program instead preoccupied religious disturbances directed non catholics advised king refused proposed statute nobility opposition attempt liberties called armed confederation tens thousands led ultra catholic august near giving rise called rebellion articles produced rebels concerned placing limitations monarch power threatened royal forces entered agreement backed demanded king deposition ensuing civil war resolved battle defeated magnate leaders pro king faction sure position remain leaving arbitration powers senate left execution movement thwarted elements compromise solution crisis authority arrived victorious lords council disposal effective political machinery necessary commonwealth golden age prefer silver age john allowed commonwealth inherit prussia death albert frederick duke prussian line branch led reforms execution movement clearly established central dominant organ state power situation reality lasted long destructive tendencies steps taken kings progressively functionality central legislative organ resulting void filled late 16th 17th centuries increasingly active territorial provided accessible direct forum activists promote narrowly conceived local interests established effective controls practice limiting authority taking broader range state matters local issues addition central authority role period unpaid army begun establishing rebellions terror attempted recover compensation pursue political aims reforms pursued wanted expand role monarch magnate faction expense elected kings iii later rule making sure session body produced badly needed statutes increased efforts areas taxation maintenance military forces possible positive outcomes armed conflicts took place reign rebellions weren mid 16th century south eastern lithuania poland companies light cavalry incorporated polish armed forces time reign iii problem beginning play role internal challenge 17th century conscious planned colonization fertile region pioneered poles jan penetrated area economically active end 16th century area polish fortunes began develop clans great ukrainian dominated families outset great civil war polish settlers comprised barely middle petty nobility example researched early rebellions social uprising national anti polish movements class warfare stamped state leaders warsaw execution semi nomadic settled east slavic people river area practiced renowned fighting prowess early history assumed military organization originated run away peasants eastern areas commonwealth russia significant elements townspeople nobility came region migrated ukraine considered free independent followed elected leaders originated affluent strata society tens thousands early 17th century frequently clashed neighboring turks raided black_sea coastal settlements executed formal subjects polish king point view foreign relations commonwealth violated peace interfered state current policy ottoman_empire earlier period polish lithuanian commonwealth separate ukrainian national consciousness formed influenced context heroes uprisings legacy recognized heritage east slavic language felt members orthodox nation church practically eliminated region seeing members polish republic dealt kings subjects nobility recently subjects grand lithuania formally connected russia leaders uprisings ukrainian personalities period included samuel hired participate wars waged commonwealth status resulted privileges constituted form social upward mobility resented periodic reductions enrollment rebellions uprisings typically assumed form huge social movements ottoman_empire demanded total power commonwealth needed south east provided effective incursions way quell unrest grant nobility status substantial portion population commonwealth power structure solution rejected political economic cultural reasons time reform disasters struck polish lithuanian establishment instead shifted allowing limited varying numbers called register serve commonwealth army rest converted help area brutally military force attempt subdue oppressive efforts led poles including crown tenants jewish nobles commonwealth upper rank officers exploit economically territories population region resulted series uprisings early ones served warning legislators ukraine undergoing substantial economic development peasants large process suppressed uprising led new fighting took place uprising large portions ukraine defeated units executed temporary relations followed early 17th century wars fought commonwealth necessitated greater involvement registered union brest resulted new tensions dedicated adherents defenders eastern time troubles period russia resulted peasant rebellions led contributed peasant unrest commonwealth uprising confronted concluded signing treaty fighting soon erupted culminated night rebels turned army units noble estates uprising control events followed increase registry treaty rejection demands elders wanted participate free elections members commonwealth religious rights eastern christians restored voted instead restrictions authorized construction fortress facilitate effective control territories round fighting uprising followed defeated leader executed new anti limitations statutes imposing rose uprising suppressed existing land properties taken commonwealth struggles paid attention moscow late began potent source fundamental instability polish lithuanian rival neighbor russian efforts polish kingdom successful elders raised possibility union pressure poland ruling russia place refuge persecuted failed uprisings regiments russian registered following commonwealth example eventually established harsh measures restored relative calm decade seen establishment golden peace peasants period brought worst oppression time private ukrainian families rapidly expanded economy later parts polish crown introduced ukraine caused unprecedented levels exploitation affair perceived weak spot commonwealth increasingly issue international politics son iii ruled commonwealth born raised poland prepared office early years popular educated free father religious promising chief executive candidate like father life ambition attaining swedish throne royal status power poland lithuania serve purpose attempted strengthen ruled help prominent chancellor crown middle leader unable attract wider following plans lack support increasingly tolerance non catholics opposed catholic clergy years reign sought enhance position assure son succession war ottoman_empire prepared despite lack nobility support secure end king worked forming alliance encouraged improve military readiness intended use turks moving direction cooperation predecessors war took place king explain offensive war designs son died king weakened resigned disappointed seeking eastern_europe turn 16th 17th centuries brought changes time weakened commonwealth powerful neighbors russia austrian monarchy ottoman_empire resulting opportunity polish lithuanian state improve position depended ability overcome internal tendencies prevailed ruling class rivalry nobility leaders elected kings intent restrictions authority articles nearly continuous wars decades new century resulted modernization treasury limitations commonwealth army total military forces available ranged thousands battle thousands plus mobilized campaign remarkable half 17th century development artillery resulted publication amsterdam book pioneer science despite superior quality commonwealth heavy light cavalry increasing proportions infantry peasant mercenary formations contingent foreign troops resulted army respective components heavily represented reigns war fleet developed fought successful naval battles sweden usual fiscal difficulties impaired effectiveness military treasury ability pay soldiers continuation earlier plans anti turkish offensive death jan intervened backing commonwealth army assumed throne commonwealth vassal army repelled subsequent assault ottoman_empire forces confrontation area took place acted michael brave meantime removed michael michael defeated battle brother new brief period entire region danube commonwealth turkey soon role politics actions constituted earlier stage magnate wars prolonged poland influence interfered effectively simultaneous plans ambitions europe military involvement southern ceased feasible forces needed north war sweden iii sweden took place amid tensions instability caused religious controversies returned poland uncle charles regent took lead anti swedish opposition attempted resolve matter militarily expedition country origin defeated battle taken prisoner agree harsh conditions imposed return poland estates deposed sweden charles led swedish forces estonia proclaimed incorporation estonia commonwealth declaration war sweden height involvement region von given command commonwealth forces larger army brought area charles quick offensive resulted river welcomed local population time increasingly dissatisfied polish lithuanian rule succeeded battle swedish advances reversed including jan brought substantial force army having unpaid returned poland clearing action continued jan small contingent troops left defeated swedish charles charles king sweden launched new offensive efforts crossed victories polish naval successes war continued decisive resolution produced armistice commonwealth able majority contested areas variety internal foreign difficulties including inability pay mercenary soldiers union new involvement russia comprehensive victory attempts subordinate russia deaths son dynasty russia entered period severe economic social crisis instability encountered resistance peasant masses opposition commonwealth ideas turning russia ally union ruler dependent polish lithuanian establishment rapidly coming play led commonwealth mission moscow propose union russian state patterned polish lithuanian union granted rights comparable commonwealth nobility decision single monarch postponed death current king time engaged negotiations charles sweden wasn interested close relationship year truce agreed order continue efforts took advantage earlier death mysterious circumstances appearance false claiming false able secure cooperation help family promised vast russian estates marriage daughter marina catholic leading army raised commonwealth support iii entered russian state death murder son false russia remained capacity killed popular turmoil eliminated polish presence moscow russia new remained unstable new false marina recognized thought dead husband new army provided largely commonwealth false approached moscow futile attempts city seeking help king charles sweden agreed territorial concessions sweden favor russo swedish anti anti commonwealth alliance able remove threat moscow strengthen alliance swedish involvement russian affairs caused direct military intervention polish lithuanian commonwealth instigated led king iii support roman polish army commenced siege russo swedish relief expedition defeated battle victory strengthened position compromise oriented faction russian interested offering moscow throne son iii patriarch moscow leaders arrangements negotiated deposed accepted return peace annexation russia commonwealth prince conversion orthodox religion privileges including exclusive rights high offices granted russian nobility agreement signed declared commonwealth forces entered iii subsequently rejected compromise solution demanded throne mean complete russia rejected bulk russian society refusal demands intensified chaos proposed candidate took result situation ruthless commonwealth occupation moscow russia popular russian anti polish uprising heavy fighting moscow siege polish garrison occupying meantime commonwealth forces long siege stormed took situation poles despite occasional reinforcements massive national religious uprising spreading russia prince effectively led russians new rescue operation attempted failed capitulation polish lithuanian forces terminated involvement son imprisoned poland rejection iii demand russian throne patriarch new war effort rebellious confederation established unpaid military continued turkey threatened polish territorial gains involved peace russia sweden agreed fearing new alliance commonwealth undertook major expedition took arrived walls moscow attempt impose rule city open gates military strength brought attempt forced despite disappointment commonwealth able advantage russian weakness territorial advances accomplished reverse eastern losses suffered earlier decades truce granted regions polish lithuanian commonwealth attained greatest geographic extent attempted union russia achieved cultural religious proved territorial conducted wars left legacy injustice suffered desire revenge russian ruling classes people huge military effort weakened commonwealth painful consequences adventurous policies court allied soon felt commonwealth thirty years war iii reached understanding holy roman emperor based sides agreed cooperate mutually provide assistance suppressing internal rebellions pact monarchy regard commonwealth war russia resulted consequences bohemian revolt gave rise thirty years war czech events weakened position large concentrations polish inhabitants ties interests time placed protestant camp numerous polish lutheran parishes schools centers cultural activity established heavily polish areas eastern numerous cities towns region including threat posed potentially monarchy situation polish felt voices king circle including brought attention poland historic rights options area king ardent catholic advised involve commonwealth catholic decided end act support unofficially thousand men strong mercenary division highly effective military force returned moscow campaign having major available assignment abroad sent south assist emperor ferdinand court intervention greatly influenced phase war helping save position monarchy critical moment entered northern hungary slovakia defeated forces battle prince laid siege vienna hurry country peace ferdinand seriously compromised situation czech insurgents crushed course aftermath battle white mountain fought suppress emperor opponents region germany breakdown bohemian revolt residents including polish gentry upper subjected severe counter activities including forced thousands ended poland later war years province repeatedly ravaged course military campaigns crossing territory point protestant leader duke john christian appealed assuming supremacy king tolerant ruler including matters religion like father involve commonwealth thirty years war ended getting emperor years later reclaimed empire peace allowed pleased completely ruined war resulted intense persecution including polish lower communities forced subjected conflicts ottoman_empire formally participated directly thirty years war alliance monarchy contributed getting poland involved new wars ottoman_empire sweden russia led significant commonwealth influence course thirty years war polish lithuanian commonwealth reasons continuation struggles powers 16th century commonwealth suffered series invasions 16th century raids began descending black_sea area turkish settlements lands retaliation ottoman_empire directed vassal forces based areas commonwealth regions red area south east state semi permanent warfare 18th century researchers estimate altogether million people captured enslaved time greatest intensity raids reaching far turkey fell period ukrainian continued traditional involvement kept trying install relatives family throne samuel ottoman chief destroyed magnate forces compelled consent treaty poland border commonwealth obliged involved matters concerning turkish poland influence russia consequences expedition ottoman burning caused empire young sultan declare war commonwealth aim breaking conquering polish lithuanian state actual hostilities bring demise initiated old polish small force entered hoping military reinforcements aid faced superior turkish force led aftermath failed battle killed captured commonwealth left opened disagreements turkish commanders prevented ottoman army immediately effective follow convened warsaw royal court blamed country high taxes thousand men army agreed number registered allowed reach thousand commonwealth forces led jan helped raised turks participated upcoming campaign practice regular army faced larger ottoman force fierce turkish attacks fortified commonwealth positions lasted september repelled exhaustion forces ottoman_empire sign treaty kept old territorial status quo river border commonwealth ottoman combatants favorable polish outcome killed coup ratification treaty obtained successor response attacks incursions continued reaching far west attendant taking captives effective defense freed defeated occasions quarter army supported general population warfare ottomans took place ended peace treaty defeated army death planned invasion king ideas grand international war crusade ottoman_empire thwarted state inability control activities contributed semi permanent instability danger commonwealth south eastern baltic area territorial maritime access losses acute threat polish lithuanian state came sweden balance power north shifted sweden favor baltic neighbor led king highly able aggressive military leader greatly improved effectiveness swedish armed forces taking advantage protestant commonwealth exhausted wars russia ottoman_empire lacking allies poorly prepared face new challenge continuous diplomatic maneuvering iii situation look like stage king swedish affairs reality swedish power resolved hold entire polish controlled baltic coast profit commonwealth maritime trade control basis independent existence chose attack grand foremost trade center late august ottoman army approaching tying polish forces city stormed times surrender month later moving inland south entered commonwealth lost important baltic region entry northern river crossing truce gave poland possession eastern north lithuanian forces able suffered heavy defeat battle losses impacted severely trade customs income great lithuania crown lands affected july took forced duke george william vassal commonwealth attacked prussia assume neutrality stance swedish advance resulted baltic coastline danzig remained loyal commonwealth subjected naval blockade poles completely surprised swedish invasion september attempted counter offensive defeated battle forces required modernization passed high taxation defense collections situation partially saved city danzig embarked construction modern fortifications accomplished commander eastern fighting quickly learned maritime affairs contemporary methods european warfare promoted necessary naval fleet modernization army fitting military abilities led spring military campaign trying swedish army prussia moving danzig intending block reinforcements arriving holy roman empire moving quickly recovered destroyed battle forces intended forces kept near access danzig preventing reaching main objective battle polish ships defeated swedish naval squadron danzig saved year strengthened prussia swedish army took early defeated polish units baltic coast position laid economic siege commonwealth ravaged conquered point allied forces von brought help check forced combined polish austrian action withdraw process defeated taken prisoner battle addition militarily exhausted commonwealth pressured european suspend military activities allow intervene holy roman empire truce left north prussian danzig hands allowed charge duty trade danzig compromised power assuming commonwealth crown working organizing anti polish coalition including sweden russia turkey died russians undertook action attempting recover lands lost truce fall prepared russian army took number strongholds lithuanian border commenced siege fortified city able withstand general onslaught followed month overwhelming force led time commonwealth rescue expedition comparable strength arrived highly effective military command months fierce fighting february treaty confirmed territorial arrangements small adjustments favor relinquished monetary compensation claims russian throne having secured eastern king able concentrate recovery baltic areas lost father sweden wanted advantage swedish defeat fight territories swedish claims poles suspicious designs war preparations king able proceed negotiations claim weakened commonwealth position according treaty evacuated royal prussia cities ports meant return crown lower possessions stopped collecting custom duties sweden retained kept having assumed lithuania baltic trade entered period prosperity position commonwealth respect prussia kept getting weaker power taken closely linked harmful political interests commonwealth iii left administration hands frederick john acquired right succession consent king actually duke prussia death albert frederick followed george william frederick william warsaw time paid prussian homage polish king successive nominal concessions satisfy commonwealth justify granting privileges shift relations taking place duke died slavic dynasty sweden acquired rule commonwealth able land land land sought peace conference ended peace controlled adjacent border commonwealth extending south met lands portions populated slavic thirty years war period brought commonwealth mixed legacy losses gains polish lithuanian state retaining status great powers central eastern_europe country enjoyed period peace internal progressively dysfunctional legislative processes prevented substantial reforms taking place commonwealth unprepared deal grave challenges middle century

History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)