kingdom sicily kingdom sicily italian latin spanish state existed south peninsula founding roger prior existence nation italy successor state county sicily founded norman conquest southern peninsula kingdom called kingdom sicily covered island sicily region southern archipelago island divided regions arabic word meaning district revolt rule known threw charles rule island sicily managed maintain control mainland kingdom separate entity styled kingdom sicily commonly referred kingdom naples capital island separate kingdom crown island kingdom called kingdom monarch king king spain holy roman emperor island kingdom sicily merged kingdom naples form kingdom areas northern city states form kingdom renamed kingdom italy history norman conquest 11th century mainland southern powers hiring norman mercenaries descendants roger conquered sicily taking away arab muslims taking roger occupied army knights roger sicily men defeated muslims crucial battle siege led sicily completely norman control norman kingdom norman kingdom created christmas day roger sicily agreement pope innocent united lands roger inherited father roger sicily areas included archipelago conquered arabs sicily county sicily belonged cousin william duke william death norman roger threw support king sicily christmas day rival pope innocent convinced iii holy roman emperor attack kingdom sicily help byzantine emperor john main armies led duke bavaria henry proud invaded sicily river william surrendered opened gates followed count hugh armies united continued campaign roger offered empire refused pressured innocent period army revolted hoped complete conquest sicily gave kingdom sicily roger enemies innocent protested claiming fell papal claims turned north died crossing alps december second council april innocent roger maintaining attitude march roger son roger iii duke ambushed papal troops thousand knights captured pope march innocent forced acknowledge possessions roger treaty roger spent decade beginning coronation ending series laws roger intended government multiple invasions rebellions premier robert vii naples admiral george roger proceeded conquer africa taking unofficial title king africa time roger fleet attacked byzantine_empire making sicily leading maritime power mediterranean_sea century roger son successor william sicily known william bad nickname derived primarily lack popularity supported revolts william suppressed reign ended peace son william minor end boy regency kingdom saw turmoil brought ruling family reign william remembered decades continual peace prosperity nicknamed good died having heirs led kingdom decline seized throne contend revolt distant cousin roger invasion henry holy roman emperor behalf wife daughter roger henry eventually prevailed kingdom fell house blood passed frederick holy roman emperor kingdom accession frederick child holy roman emperor frederick greatly affected immediate future sicily land royal authority king young age caused power vacuum uncle philip moved secure frederick inheritance appointing von regent pope innocent iii papal authority sicily recognised frederick rights pope papal power decrease steadily decade unsure grip power secure walter iii married daughter sicily sister deposed king william iii sicily william decided claim kingdom army led chancellor walter defeated walter iii killed frederick fell control william ally continued war walter mainland death finally frederick gave chancellor walter walter falling captured royal palace besieged captured walter decade wars regency throne ceased reform laws began roger frederick continued reformation known collection laws realm remarkable time created order establish centralized state example citizens allowed carry weapons wear armour public royal command result rebellions reduced kingdom sicily absolute monarchy centralized state europe emerge set precedent written law relatively small modifications remained basis law period built del founded university naples called remained sole southern italy centuries death frederick kingdom ruled henry vii germany germany legitimate heir young period rule sicily illegitimate son frederick took power ruled kingdom years heirs ruling areas germany long wars papal states kingdom managed defend possessions declared kingdom pretext came agreement louis king france louis brother charles king sicily exchange charles recognized pope kingdom paid portion papal debt agreed pay annual tribute papal states rule sicily ended invasion death male heir sicily conflict house led sicily conquest charles duke throne sicily relationship changed instead boy safely alps faced able military leader greatly supported cause battle accordingly negotiations broke pope urban took scheme kingdom offered crown charles papal support charles descended italy defeated battle battle opposition french taxation combined rebellion agents crown byzantine_empire led successful insurrection followed invitation intervention king peter iii resulting war lasted peace dividing old kingdom sicily island sicily called kingdom sicily lighthouse kingdom went frederick iii house ruling territories called kingdom sicily called kingdom naples modern scholarship went charles_ii house likewise ruling peace formal recognition uneasy status quo division kingdom permanent treaty king spain able seize crowns 16th century halves kingdom sicily remained separated reunited kingdom kingdom sicily crown spain sicily ruled independent kingdom relatives cadet branch house crown kingdom naples ruled ruler reunited successful siege naples defeat june eventually divided kingdoms rule gave rule naples illegitimate son ferdinand naples ruled rest crown sicily brother john successive kings france charles viii louis heirs tried conquer naples italian wars failed eventually kingdom naples reunited crown titles held kings crown end spanish branch house malta knights effort protect rome ottoman invasion south charles holy roman emperor charles spain gave islands malta knights perpetual exchange annual fee send souls day sicily islands formed county later kingdom sicily feudal relationship malta kingdom sicily continued rule knights french occupation malta occupation recognized malta kingdom sicily rebellion french malta british protection british crown colony officially recognized treaty paris marked end malta year relationship sicily war spanish succession kingdom sicily ruled briefly house received terms treaty brought end war spanish succession kingdom reward elevated royal rank new king victor travelled sicily remained year returning mainland capital son prince acting regent spain results war truly accepted war quadruple alliance result sicily occupied spain evident strength defend remote country sicily austria stepped exchanged kingdom sicily victor protested exchange sicily rich country million inhabitants poor country thousand unable resist allies spain finally defeated treaty ratified sicily belonged austrian ruled naples victor continued protest years decided recognize exchange royal title subsidiary titles king cyprus jerusalem war war occurred june april pirates military support attacked captured ships main purpose attacks capture christian european slaves muslim arab slave market north_africa defeated forces occupied kingdoms house spain naples sicily king philip spain installed younger son duke charles king charles vii naples sicily starting cadet branch house napoleon conquered naples governed ferdinand naples later ferdinand time formed republic french support british pressure especially lord william commander british troops sicily naples handed ferdinand forced create constitution kingdom sicily chamber parliament naples formed formation parliament brought end kingdom defeat napoleon ferdinand repealed reforms people sicily rebelled defeated spanish austrian forces revolution independence occurred ferdinand day bombardment kingdoms united kingdom unification kingdom italy april revolt regime broke assisted revolt forces launching called expedition thousand arrived announced assuming dictatorship sicily king victor fought battle weeks freed francis tried regain control kingdom june restored constitution kingdom adopted italian national flag promised special institutions kingdom october unification italy conducted overwhelming majority kingdom voters favored unification viewed unification acceptance house belonged victor king italy society norman kingdom sicily local communities maintained privileges rulers kingdom replaced local nobility lords northern italy leading clashes rebellions new nobility cities rural communities revolts resulted destruction areas rise middle class nationalism eventually led urban allies situation continued short rule began country increasing power nobility granting jurisdiction high justice 15th century isolation kingdom renaissance impact period kingdom sicily intensified enforcement feudal bonds relations subjects eruption mount destroyed kingdom population killed earthquakes period plague 17th 18th century era decline kingdom corruption prevalent upper middle classes society widespread corruption lower classes feudal lords led creation groups attacking nobility destroying groups self named mafia foundation modern mafia revolts monarchy eventually led unification italy demographics reign frederick kingdom population million era kingdom towns population loss northern provinces natural disasters like eruption mount population kingdom sicily reduced population kingdom main cities kingdom period syracuse economy high fertility land led norman kings bring settlers neighbouring regions farmers areas cultivation land needed led increase production main sources wealth kingdom sicily period maritime cities important naples local products exported main export hard grain products exported including nuts timber oil bacon cheese skins hides cloth grain dry products measured equivalent litres western kingdom litres eastern divided equivalent litres weight measured equivalent kilograms divided cloth measured meters long end 12th century leading commercial cities kingdom kingdom sicily products went different lands genoa byzantine_empire egypt course 12th century sicily important source raw materials north italian cities genoa centuries went economic relationship sicily modern scholars relationship frankly furthermore scholars believe sicily went decline late middle ages agreed decline occurred argues mistake economic history sicily terms contends decline began second reign frederick iii contrast earlier scholars believed decline set earlier earlier scholars saw late medieval sicily continuous decline stephen argued society experienced revival 15th century treaties genoa secured strengthened commercial power sicily society rule reduced royal wealth treasury dependence north italian commerce financing main factors led decline kingdom economy continuation economic decline combined increased population led decrease production available crops cultivated obsolete cultivation methods escalating problem later period spanish rule trading system inefficient comparison previous periods high taxes exports corporations total control prices norman kings 12th century sicily basic coin weighed gold arab worth byzantine kingdom equivalent thirty worth equivalent circulation copper coin stopped replaced equivalent byzantine defeating frederick holy roman emperor weighed grams sicily equivalent venetian worth worth transactions mainly religion norman reign different religious communities kingdom sicily latin christians roman catholics greek speaking christians eastern orthodox muslims jews local religious practices interrupted fact latin christians power tended favor latin christianity roman catholicism bishops eastern orthodox rite obliged recognize claims latin church sicily muslim communities longer ruled local greek speaking christians latin christians muslims interacted regular basis involved lives economically culturally christians living arabic speaking area adopt arabic muslim names cities religious community administrative judicial order muslims allowed publicly prayer legal issues settled judges ruled accordance islamic law establishment authority greek speaking christians maintained privileges muslim population increasingly oppressed settlements italians brought northern italy wanted muslim property led muslim communities revolt mountainous areas sicily revolts resulted acts violence eventual muslims began frederick eventually government removed entire muslim population paid taxes served agricultural laborers benefit king colony finally disbanded charles_ii naples inhabitants sold slavery jewish community expelled establishment spanish sicily remaining jews gradually converted roman catholicism


concentration camp concentration camp concentration camp independent state croatia world war commanded concentration camps war established area kilometres town held thousands serbs jews period days august inmates usually killed pushed deep located near camp estimates number deaths range serbs camp closed august area located later handed kingdom italy italian zones iii replaced greater sized concentration camp facilities camp site remained war depth bodies disposed fact filled concrete yugoslavia communist authorities additional sites containing skeletal remains camp victims uncovered 1980s commemoration ceremonies victims camp organized national council jewish community croatia local anti june designated day remembrance camp croatia monument commemorating killed camp constructed stood years removed replica original monument constructed dedicated disappeared hours inauguration construction new monument planned history background april axis forces invaded kingdom yugoslavia poorly equipped poorly trained royal yugoslav army quickly defeated invasion extreme nationalist fascist exile italy appointed leader led croatian state independent state croatia called croatian combined modern croatia modern bosnia parts modern serbia italian german quasi authorities led militia implemented policies jewish populations living new state aiming entire population sought murder serbs convert roman catholicism force rest country series committed degree cruelty population persecuted shocked germans script banned orthodox christian church schools closed serbs ordered wear identifying similar measures enacted jews required wear yellow black yellow star david identification bore word jew languages german croatian operation located area kilometres town camp formed early stages persecution serbs placed command intended camp established april concentration camps located war inmates camps including croatian serbs victims included jews anti notable inmates included mayor croatian jewish communist immediately site intended exclusively near located mount town contained metres deep dumping grounds camp surrounded croatian difficult gain access characteristic mountain range camp acted way station route pits prisoners work entire day food exhaustion nearest pit camp pit located kilometre away pit inmates executed dumped kilometres camp inmates bound line victims murdered rifle objects entire row inmates pushed cases inmates killed gunfire knives blunt objects inmates thrown hand grenades inside order kill victims dogs thrown feed wounded dead pits vicinity camp filled bodies jewish later inmates killings confined groups bodies disposed fashion end june transferred jewish families camp visited commander opened visit cutting throat year old jewish child forced camp guard murder skull second child foot group inmates killed machine guns camp closed august remaining inmates transferred controlled camps remaining serbs jews murdered work replacement concentration camp started month area camp located later handed italians italian zones iii aftermath legacy camp site remained war depth bodies disposed fact filled concrete yugoslavia communist authorities additional sites containing skeletal remains camp victims uncovered 1980s number deaths camp difficult establish inmates went taken directly edge murdered historian paul lists serbs jews killed children perished camp serbian orthodox priests states total number deaths camp operated period days suggest average people killed day sources generally offer range deaths camp estimates number jewish deaths range military encyclopedia yugoslavia estimates inmates perished camp hand encyclopedia yugoslavia states killed possible final death toll highest recorded estimate deaths reverend claimed inmates killed historian referred claim exaggerated stating based documentation detailed investigation president croatia death denied deaths took place war claim forward book war historical reality philosophy called holocaust including world jewish congress commemoration ceremonies victims camp organized national council representatives jewish community croatia local anti june designated day remembrance camp croatia monument commemorating perished constructed stood years removed prior outbreak ethnic violence croatian war independence replica original monument constructed dedicated disappeared hours inauguration construction new monument planned books websites


demographic history scotland demographic history scotland includes aspects population history scotland scotland occupied period bce earliest surviving archaeological evidence human settlement hunter suggest highly mobile boat people probably low density population farming brought permanent settlements dating bce greater concentrations population evidence buildings suggest growing settled population changes scale woodland indicates roman invasions century negative impact native population written sources reconstruct early medieval scotland probably high fertility high mortality society similar developing countries modern world population grown half million million mid fourteenth century black death reached country fallen low half million end fifteenth century roughly half lived north river cent grew later medieval period inflation prices indicating greater demand suggests population continued grow late sixteenth century probably began grow relative stability late seventeenth century earliest reliable evidence suggests population million probably reduced seven ill years caused severe famine particularly north national census conducted showed population scotland towns populations capital edinburgh largest inhabitants highland lowland led rural areas overall population scotland grew rapidly late eighteenth nineteenth centuries reached grew beginning twentieth century lived cities glasgow edinburgh glasgow emerged largest city population making second city empire despite industrial expansion insufficient jobs mid nineteenth century great depression million scots emigrated north_america australia england scots cent british population provided cent national armed forces eventually accounted cent dead world war end mass migration population reached peak began fall slowly moving decrease urban populations result policies clearance relocation new towns population glasgow falling million rural areas saw loss population particularly highlands prehistoric roman eras times period bce europe climate warmer today early humans way scotland archaeologists found traces glaciers way britain ice retreated scotland bce hunter formed known settlements archaeologists dated site near bce numerous sites found scotland build picture highly mobile boat people making tools bone stone probably low density population farming brought permanent settlements stone house dating bce greater concentrations population roman indicated towns north roman province clear evidence urban settlements found probably evidence forts south clyde forth line majority abandoned roman period evidence distinctive stone type circle stone piers resembling wheel small underground underground galleries store food extensive analyses black indicate land spread expense forest bce time roman advance lowland scotland century suggesting expanding settled population birch oak years suggesting roman invasions negative impact native population middle ages written sources reconstruct early medieval scotland estimates population probably largest region likely fifth sixth centuries saw higher mortality rates appearance plague reduced population examination burial sites period indicates life known conditions taken suggest high fertility high mortality society similar developing countries modern world relatively young demographic profile early large numbers children born woman high child mortality meant relatively low ratio available workers number mouths feed turn difficult produce surplus allow demographic growth development complex societies formation kingdom tenth century black death reached country estimates based land suggest population grown half million million growth probably punctuated occasional crises like recorded chronicles significant series poor affected scotland europe early fourteenth century widespread later reliable documentation impact black death scotland indications immediate effects plague walter recorded died outbreak references abandoned land following decades pattern followed england population fallen low half million end fifteenth century compared distribution population later industrial revolution numbers relatively evenly spread kingdom roughly half living north river early modern era price inflation generally reflects growing demand food suggests population probably expanding half sixteenth century half years second half sixteenth century saw local national necessitating shipping large quantities grain baltic distress exacerbated plague major periods population expansion probably famine prices relatively stable early seventeenth century famine common periods famine prices invasions profound impact scottish economy destruction crops disruption markets resulting rapid price rises century population probably expanded period stability followed restoration evidence different demographic regime operating highlands growth probably continued early seventeenth century late eighteenth century estimates based tax returns indicate population million population seriously affected failed known seven ill years result severe famine particularly north starvation probably killed cent scottish population areas like death rates reached cent seen particularly severe partly famine relatively rare second half seventeenth century year shortages kind approximately scots migrated america europe england ireland reliable figure national population census conducted reverend alexander showed inhabitants scotland persons unlike england village existed relatively early early modern population scotland highlands housed small isolated dwellings groups houses belonging tenants engaged common agriculture population expanded settlements subdivided create new marginal land settled clusters occupied summer pasture grazing permanent settlements cent population lived grown later medieval period mainly east south country average population smaller largest edinburgh probably population beginning period edinburgh doubled size century particularly plague population probably coming growing reservoir surrounding countryside expanded city walls suburbs suburbs reached population towns end period glasgow scotland higher proportion population living larger towns contemporaneous scandinavia switzerland eastern_europe europe italy low countries england scotland modern era agricultural revolution changed traditional system agriculture existed lowland scotland thousands tenant farmers migrated farms new industrial centres glasgow edinburgh northern england particularly end boom created revolutionary napoleonic wars highland needed cash maintain position london society paid kind turned money displaced farmers raise sheep traditional relationship historically sustained clans exacerbated repeal corn laws mid nineteenth century britain adopted free trade policy grain imports america undermined crop production result changes highland population highlands suffered forced displacement lands enclosed principally sheep farming followed patterns agricultural change united_kingdom particularly notorious result late timing lack legal protection year year tenants scots law change traditional clan system brutality result continuous exodus land cities england canada america australia potato famine 1840s caused potato devastated population ireland reached highlands people faced disaster food supply largely potatoes little herring milk rescued effective emergency relief system stands dramatic contrast failures relief ireland prevented major demographic crisis time census population grew steadily nineteenth century population fell rural areas rose rapidly towns glasgow grew textile town doubled population industrial revolution scotland societies europe cent people scotland lived towns inhabitants cent cent entire population cities glasgow edinburgh glasgow emerged largest city population reaching grown high birth rate immigration countryside particularly ireland 1870s fall birth rate lower rates migration growth longer life glasgow largest cities world known second city empire london mortality rates high compared england european nations evidence suggests national death rate early 1860s mortality tended higher urban rural settlements time measured major cities rural areas mortality probably peaked glasgow 1840s large population highlands ireland combined population provision combining epidemic disease national rates began fall 1870s particularly cities environmental conditions improved national rate rate rural areas growth industry good jobs result million scots emigrated north_america australia scots relocated england population million scotland sent men world war died combat disease seriously wounded scots cent british population cent national armed forces eventually accounted cent dead emigration began tail england wales world war continued scotland scots cent population estimated left country great depression hit 1930s easily available jobs canada emigration fell year bringing end period mass opened mid eighteenth century contributed growth population reached peak began fall slowly moving decrease urban populations result clearance relocation new towns population glasgow falling million rural areas saw loss population particularly highlands early century scotland saw rise population highest recorded census


kings england english royal house 12th early 13th centuries monarchs henry_ii richard john years successive counts son future henry_ii won control vast lands western_europe years referred empire political entity structurally different preceding norman subsequent realms duke normandy died heir henry added virtue marriage eleanor henry inherited claim mother empress daughter king henry english throne succeeded following death king stephen henry succeeded son richard reputation martial prowess won epithet lion born raised england spent little time adult life little months despite richard remains enduring iconic figure england france kings england remembered nickname opposed number richard died brother john henry fifth surviving son took throne john lost continental territories including french crown loss dynasty named rationale john son henry iii england considered derived nickname distinction era subsequent english kings henry_ii king john dynasty continued successfully senior male line reign richard dividing competing cadet branches house lancaster house york terminology especially english history refer kings counts beginning henry_ii descended characteristics descendants period history covered mid twelfth early thirteenth centuries addition pertaining sovereign government derived native ruler counts including kings ancestors cousins held crown jerusalem unrelated later members french royal family granted titles form different house house empire term empire coined kate far known contemporary territories referred clumsy kingdom subject rule kingdom belonged father term proved empire portion proved controversial convention historical specialists concluded state empire term acceptable origins descend count couple inherited county older line dating noble called marriage count surviving legitimate child henry england struggle power tenth eleventh centuries lords normandy brittany maine kings france marriage son henry inherited claims england normandy marks beginning attempt father build political alliance normandy marrying daughter henry heir william drowned wreck white ship married daughter william heir henry older brother robert henry marriage avoid strengthening william rival claim lands inheritance custom practice society prosperous stable 11th century inheritance customs developed allowed daughters absence sons succeed landed estates twelfth century chronicler noted counts extended dominion neighbours marriage conquest marriage daughter king widow emperor occurred context unknown king henry intended heir known threat presented william rival claim normandy negotiating position weak probable marriage childless king henry attempted succeeded norman count champagne stephen event seize king henry english crown king henry great relief birth son couple described heir kingdom light situation following birth second son raised question custom followed maternal inheritance passing born paternal inheritance going brother according william writing plan failed early death dying decided henry paternal maternal needed resources overcome stephen left instructions body buried henry swore oath england normandy secured younger henry brother died soon receive installed count henry aided rebellion citizens previous lord unity henry domains largely dependent ruling family influencing opinion historians instability unlikely endure french custom inheritance time lead political henry_ii sons henry young king brittany died young inheritance fundamentally altered henry richard planned partition deaths attempting provide sovereignty hold lands example henry tried force richard acknowledge allegiance older brother later richard ireland john complicated subjects kings france felt feudal rights homage right allegiance legally belonged particularly true son arthur brittany contended young king death richard heir chief refused john inheritance accident design meant richard inherited john lord ireland arthur duke brittany mid thirteenth century clear unified empire called empire date continental lands lost arrival england henry england named daughter heir died far england maine cousin stephen closer giving advantage needed race england crowned king england husband little interest england commenced long struggle normandy create second landed england challenge stephen civil war known anarchy captured stephen battle lincoln prompting collapse support pushed conquest normandy years threw away position arrogance inability victory forced release stephen hostage exchange half brother robert 1st earl gloucester allowing stephen resumed control england visited england offer practical assistance instead sent henry male beginning henry view england conquered henry king transferred title duke normandy henry retained dominant role governance events allowed henry finally bring conflict successful conclusion count died having time complete plan divide inheritance sons henry received england respectively louis vii france divorced eleanor henry quickly married greatly increasing resources power acquisition stephen son died stephen recently widowed gave fight treaty repeated peace offer rejected stephen king life henry successor preserving stephen second son william rights family estates stephen live long henry inherited late henry faced challenges secure possession father lands required extension old archbishop_of_canterbury died henry saw opportunity establish saw rights church england appointing friend thomas succeed instead proved politician defiance alienated king henry clashed repeatedly church henry brother marriage taxation henry reacted getting members english recognise sixteen ancient customs governing relations king courts church writing time tried leave country permission henry attempted ruin laying number suits relating time chancellor response fled exile years relations later improved allowing return saw coronation henry son archbishop york challenge authority offended heard news henry said miserable promoted household let lord treated contempt low born clerk henry men killed canterbury cathedral resisted attempt arrest christian europe henry widely considered death opinion church henry walked canterbury cathedral monks henry invaded ireland assert following alarm success knights allowed recruit soldiers england wales assumed role autonomous power including pope adrian given henry papal blessing expand power ireland reform irish church originally allowed territory granted henry brother william matters distracted henry william dead instead henry designs plain gave ireland youngest son john henry_ii tried youngest son john wedding gift castles angered year old young king receive lands father prompted rebellion henry_ii wife eldest sons louis vii supported rebellion henry_ii william lion subjects henry_ii joined revolt took months henry force rebels submit authority henry_ii gathered children plan inheritance eldest son called henry inherit england normandy richard brittany john ireland degenerated conflict younger henry rebelled died died tournament accident richard philip france took advantage henry failing health forced accept peace terms including naming richard sole heir days later old king died defeated miserable knowledge favoured son john rebelled fate seen price paid murder decline day richard english coronation mass slaughter jews described richard holocaust coronation richard empire affairs order joining crusade middle_east early opinions richard contemporaries varied rejected king france sister deposed king cyprus sold island insulted refused crusade duke austria allegedly arranged assassination cruelty exemplified massacre prisoners acre richard respected military leadership manners despite victories crusade failed capture jerusalem retreating holy land small band followers richard captured return journey transferred henry holy roman emperor percent tax goods income required pay mark ransom philip france overrun normandy john england controlled richard remaining lands richard returned england john established control leaving england permanently richard fought years return holdings seized brink victory wounded arrow siege died days later failure produce heir caused succession crisis brittany maine chose richard nephew arthur heir john succeeded england normandy philip france territories european mainland supporting vassal arthur claim english crown eleanor supported son john victorious battle captured rebel leadership arthur murdered allegedly john sister eleanor spend rest life captivity john behaviour drove number french barons resulting rebellions norman barons ended john control continental possessions facto end empire henry iii maintain claim establishing authority england john planned retake normandy drawing french paris army holy roman emperor attacked north allies defeated battle decisive battles french history john nephew retreated soon overthrown john agreeing year truce philip victory crucial political order england france battle instrumental establishing absolute monarchy france john french defeats weakened position england rebellion english resulted limited royal power established common law form basis constitutional battle 13th 14th centuries barons crown failed leading barons war rebel barons provoked invasion prince louis historians use john death william marshall appointment protector year old henry iii mark end period beginning dynasty marshall won war victories lincoln dover leading treaty louis renounced claims victory marshal reissued basis future government legacy house historians use period prince louis invasion mark end period beginning dynasty outcome military situation uncertain john death william marshall saved dynasty forcing louis renounce claim military victory philip captured possessions france collapse causes including long term changes economic power growing cultural differences england normandy particular fragile nature henry empire henry iii continued attempts reclaim normandy john continental losses consequent growth power 13th century marked turning point european history richard york adopted family descendants 15th century nickname emblem common medieval latin uncertain richard chose emphasised richard status english kings descendant wars roses retrospective use male descendants popular tudor period encouraged added legitimacy gave richard great grandson henry_viii england descent john descent legitimate illegitimate widespread includes subsequent monarchs england united_kingdom legitimate children isabella henry iii king england 13th century richard noted european leader king romans holy roman empire joan married alexander scotland queen consort isabella married holy roman emperor frederick eleanor married william marshal son called william later english rebel simon john illegitimate children number including sons richard oliver john henry probably philip daughters joan probably joan best known married prince great wales contemporary opinion chronicler wales borrowed elements legend demonic origin kings said tell jokes stories henry unpopular king death william wrote time hated widely criticised contemporaries court henry son richard contemporary image nuanced king knight known competent generous military leader criticised clergy crusade ransom clergy usually exempt taxes richard william roger generally john behaviour richard tolerant earliest years john reign accounts middle later years reign limited canterbury satisfied john performance king later negative reputation established writing king death roger matthew paris claimed john attempted convert islam believed modern historians constitutional impact changes henry introduced rule long term consequences legal innovations form basis english law pleas forerunner common bench westminster henry justices influenced contemporaries legal reforms philip creation example drew henry model henry intervention brittany wales scotland significant long term impact development societies governments john reign despite flaws signing seen whig historians positive steps constitutional development england progressive course political economic development medieval england winston_churchill said long tally added seen british nation english speaking world owe far john reissued marshal later foundation future government architecture language literature distinct culture distinguish set apart neighbours period robert recorded henry built renovated castles domain normandy england maine patronage distinctive style use circular octagonal type similarly multiple french english literature french secular elite latin church closely associated abbey henry aunt retired nun abbey originally site grave eleanor richard daughter joan grandson vii john wife isabella henry iii visited abbey tombs requested heart buried historiography according historian john henry reign attracted historians years richard reputation fluctuated wildly remembered largely military exploits volume history wrote bad son bad husband bad king splendid soldier eighteenth century historian david wrote pivotal creating genuinely english monarchy ultimately unified britain interpretations role rebel barons revised charter symbolic constitutional value later generations historians failed peace agreement factions john opposition promotion royal rights won favour 16th century john william robert barnes viewed john early protestant hero included king book john speed great praised john great renown king blaming biased medieval king poor reputation similarly later protestant historians view henry role thomas death disputes french worthy praise similarly increased access contemporary records late victorian era led recognition henry contributions evolution english law william called henry legislator king responsibility major long term reforms england contrast richard bad son bad husband selfish ruler vicious man growth british_empire led historian kate begin detailed research henry continental possessions create term empire 1880s 20th century historians challenged conclusions 1950s john focused nature henry empire french scholars particular analysed mechanics royal power period aspects histories henry reign challenged beginning 1980s efforts unite british french historical analyses period detailed study henry written records cast doubt earlier interpretations robert volume tracing henry pipe rolls example criticised acknowledging uncertainty henry royal charters identified interpretation financial information pipe rolls broad economic data reign proven challenging thought significant gaps historical analysis henry remain particularly rule south france interest morality historical figures scholars victorian period leading increased criticism henry behaviour death historians relied judgement focus john wrote john downfall military failures james blamed john family background innate cruelty downfall richard sexuality controversial 1940s john harvey challenged saw conspiracy silence surrounding king homosexuality chronicles richard behaviour public confessions childless marriage opinion remains divided arguing richard homosexuality jean acknowledging possibility according recent biographers turner lewis warren john unsuccessful monarch exaggerated 13th century jim echoes contemporary consensus john hard working administrator able man able general turner suggests dangerous personality traits john author biography richard agrees judges john effective general turner warren takes middle view suggesting modern historians overly evaluating john flaws popular historian frank wrote king modern reputation historians bizarre monarch john fails tests legitimately set popular culture henry_ii appears character modern plays films king central character james play lion winter depicting imaginary encounter henry family philip christmas philip strong character contrasts john film henry fiery determined king henry appears jean play filmed conflict basis play murder cathedral exploration death religious interpretation tudor period popular representations john emerged appeared protestant martyr anonymous play troublesome reign king john john morality play john attempts save england evil agents roman church shakespeare anti catholic king john draws troublesome reign offering balanced dual view complex monarch protestant victim rome weak motivated ruler anthony plays downfall death robert earl demonstrate john negative traits approve king stand roman_catholic_church richard subject operas george richard invasion cyprus plot wrote richard lion robin hood earliest ballads robin hood compiled associated character king named edward setting usually attributed scholars 13th 14th century historian notes time 16th century tales robin hood started mention contemporary supporter richard robin driven john narratives richard largely absent away crusade plays robert king john developed works century john transferring role protestant champion barons graham noted unfavourable 19th century depictions john influenced sir walter scott historical romance turn influenced children author howard merry adventures robin hood cast john principal villain robin hood narrative 20th century john appeared fictional books films robin hood sam john film version commits atrocities acts torture rains john version began cinematic trend john arrogant stay home john character highlights richard virtues contrasts guy villain opposing robin disney cartoon version john voiced peter lion medieval folklore 13th century developed richard singing song known richard find richard prison story foundation opera richard lion inspired opening richard film version sixteenth century tales robin hood began describing contemporary supporter richard robin outlaw reign richard evil brother john richard fighting crusade


peter great peter great called nicholas scaled warship discovered peter great royal estate restored peter learned sail boat waters near moscow stored moscow peter later peter continued use state ceremonies ordered boat sailed river august year state ceremonies later russian monarchs including wedding catherine great peter iii russia centennial celebration catherine built store boat important soviet rule objects russian_empire patriotism outbreak second world war led renewal importance peter great boat moved soviets central naval museum remains today boat left russia time displayed world financial center construction design small boat constructed england russia english design called nicholas boat originally belonged peter great grandfather earlier theory held boat gift queen elizabeth terrible remnant fleet wooden boats maintained peter father rest neglect destroyed rebellion boat shallow draft single mast measures metres metres steered connected rudder attached miniature cannons unlike russian vessels time boat designed ability sail wind history discovery boat rediscovered royal estate peter great aged sixteen derelict boat pulled pile debris barn peter asked dutch advantage newly discovered boat russian boats responded boat sail wind peter direction sought dutch restore peter learned sail ship waters near moscow peter great peter stored cathedral peter referenced boat draft preface naval statute published preface written archbishop wrote served childhood cause building navy wonder illustrated metaphor great oaks little grow september year gave sermon praise russian fleet stated boat navy seed tree boat worthy clad gold peter great ordered boat displayed honor peace moved alexander monastery peter sailed boat river birthday convoy ships admiralty august year peter sailed boat baltic fleet boat placed peter paul fortress inscribed words amusement child came triumph man boat took ceremonies anniversary peace august peter ordered sailed rowed alexander monastery year august later russian monarchs state ceremonies later russian boat appeared wedding peter iii russia catherine great wearing naval uniform empress elizabeth escorted catherine built inside fortress house major tourist attraction centennial celebration alexander boat featured flotilla referred grandfather russian navy originally given peter boat brought moscow led brother alexander russia celebration peter birth received gun salute displayed great moscow fair soviet era importance boat like memorials imperial russia reduced early soviet era time reference boat boat moved remained world war outbreak world war patriotism related peter great resurfaced referenced germans founder soviet navy importance boat increased moved central naval museum september post soviet era boat foray outside russia displayed winter garden world financial center new_york_city displayed cultural celebration festival boat attended attempted identify species oak boat country origin determined addition dirt cracks


concentration camp concentration camp pronounced nazi concentration camp world war located belgrade site near town independent state croatia camp organized operated units stationed occupied serbia operational september officially opened october year germans dubbed jewish camp german end beginning thousands jewish women children old men brought camp jewish men women children serbian towns women children placed makeshift barracks suffered numerous kept conditions provided inadequate amounts food death winter march germans gas van sent berlin kill thousands jewish inmates complete renamed concentration camp german served hold group jews arrested surrender italy september time held captured yugoslav partisans greek resistance movements peasants villages parts estimated prisoners serbs passed camp period killed died hunger disease conditions poor began comparing large concentration camps europe evidence atrocities committed camp destroyed units paul thousands corpses mass graves germans transferred control camp closed july estimates number deaths range number jewish deaths estimated thought half serbian jews perished camp germans responsible operation camp captured brought trial yugoslavia executed camp commander deputy arrested 1960s years hiding given short prison sentences west_germany austria respectively served time given old age poor health background site concentration camp world war originally exhibition centre built belgrade municipality attempt attract international commerce city centre modernist featured elaborate displays industrial progress design european countries including germany architectural centerpiece large tower transmit earliest television broadcasts europe centre stood unused axis invasion yugoslavia april country following invasion serbia reduced borders placed government german military occupation milan pre war politician known pro axis selected germans lead government national salvation territory military commander serbia civilian administration country headed turner commanded originally led later august deputy group responsible ensuring internal security fighting opponents occupation dealing jews extreme nationalist fascist exile italy appointed leader led croatian state independent state croatia called croatian combined modern day croatia modern day bosnia parts modern day serbia italian german quasi authorities led militia subsequently implemented policies jewish populations living borders new state territory belgrade municipality divided occupied serbia area located came croatian control occupation late saw district non population especially serbs jews end war quarter municipality pre war population perished large scale uprising erupted serbia following axis invasion soviet_union june took rebellion jews targeted execution germans germans soon implemented number anti jewish laws end august serbian jewish males interned concentration camps primarily belgrade history establishment fall turner ordered jewish women children serbia concentrated camp germans considered creating jews gypsy quarter belgrade idea quickly dismissed area considered plans intern jewish populations belgrade failed concentration camp established peninsula surrounded sides river located view belgrade central square camp positioned manner escape impossible located near administrative police centres belgrade central railway station allowed efficient transport jews camp towns region purpose jewish women children germans claimed endangered public safety germans dubbed jewish camp german camp intended hold people captured rebels areas occupied yugoslavia derived german word austro hungarian frontier town camp located despite located territory controlled german military police apparatus occupied serbia authorities object establishment told germans located territory long guards german soon camp established belgrade commander initially held male jewish inmates given task running camp called self administration responsible distributing food dividing labour organizing jewish guard force patrolled camp exterior camp guarded rotation basis members reserve police battalion october male jewish inmates male inmates killed executed major waves frequent killings occurring mid september october occasion inmates told transported camp austria better labour conditions instead taken firing range outskirts belgrade killed officially opened wider scale october initial male jewish inmates killed november end beginning approximately jewish women children old men brought camp jewish men women children people outlying serbian towns primarily women children placed makeshift barracks barely heated windows shattered german bombing raids carried invasion yugoslavia originally constructed fair largest barracks held prisoners inmates suffered numerous slept wet straw bare provided inadequate amounts food starvation widespread jewish inmates appealed unsuccessfully serbian authorities food provided camp consequently high number especially children died late early inmates freezing death winters record inmates kept far miserable conditions jewish counterparts slept straw hall kept separate non prisoners majority inmates released weeks detention jewish inmates remained detained exception jewish women married christian men january appointed replace inexperienced commander camp subsequently deputy month german military authorities demanded camp cleared jews order accommodate growing number captives taken battles partisans february camp held inmates percent early march informed gas van sent camp berlin van delivered request german military administration chief serbia turner stricken guilt having play central role murder jewish inmates developed good relations requested transfer denied order ensure efficiency announcements intended convince prisoners going transferred better equipped camp went far post fictitious camp regulations announced prisoners allowed bags registered supposed transfer hoping escape camp terrible living conditions inmates volunteered leave previous evening climbed van day groups drivers van distributed candy children order win affection doors van sealed shut van followed small car driven crossing border german occupied serbia drivers exited van underneath exhaust interior vehicle killing inmates carbon gas van taken firing range corpses dumped mass graves dug serbian prisoners routine gas van arrived day sunday rumours quickly circulated news reaching german troops stationed belgrade consequently gas van nicknamed soul killer serbian population exposed rumours thought took lives inmates women children seven serbian prisoners participated unloading murdered inmates van shot stopped named survived eighty eighty trenches prepared helped dig recalled people fit trench ones truck dug different set shot inmates remained camp stopped non jewish women married jews released days later sworn secrecy apart inmates patients staff belgrade jewish hospital jewish prisoners nearby concentration camp killed gas van jewish prisoner killed gas van camp returned berlin june received technical upgrade transferred gas jews shortly leading jewish inmates assigned different security police roles later received iron cross 2nd class running camp won promotion original jewish inmates completed camp renamed concentration camp german served hold group jews arrested surrender italy september held captured yugoslav partisans greek resistance movements peasants villages croatian controlled regions detained concentration camp period leader camp administrator conditions deteriorated extent began comparing large concentration camps europe camp main transit point yugoslav prisoners way labour locations concentration camps germany estimated prisoners passed period killed died hunger disease alarmed fact easily seen late new german ambassador serbia proposed camp moved deeper territory continuing existence eyes people belgrade politically reasons public feeling requests ignored german authorities end germans effort traces atrocities committed camp burning records corpses destroying pieces evidence task undertaken paul arrived belgrade november arrival ordered head local form special detachment responsible burning bodies detachment led lieutenant composed security policemen military policemen digging battalions composed serbian jewish prisoners occurred december april thousands bodies burned prisoners present shot serbs managed escape allied aircraft bombed april killing inmates inflicting heavy damage camp germans transferred control camp camp closed july aftermath legacy war yugoslavia new communist government announced held total prisoners war half killed yugoslav state war crimes commission later estimated killed camp including jews according committee human rights serbia overall death toll greatly exaggerated communists political purposes real number inmates killed estimated half serbian jews killed memorial estimates people perished camp jews germans responsible operation camp captured brought trial prominent german officials occupation serbia including turner yugoslavia allies war executed camp commander managed escape assistance roman_catholic_church helped flee south_america returned austria venezuela 1960s subsequently tried minor charge murder sentenced half years imprisonment deputy 1960s sentenced half years imprisonment sentence carried old age poor health german guards suspected executing serbian prisoners tried served witnesses trials west_germany belgrade jews murdered holocaust including commemorated yugoslavia post war communist government thirty years events croatian author caused considerable controversy suggested serbs germans responsible running camp claim denied jewish historians belgrade jewish community present old marked small plaques monument commemorate detained killed camp plaques dedicated respectively granted cultural landmark status government yugoslavia monument high created artist erected banks memorial centres museums built today area camp located state run facility housing low income residents belgrade february estimated people live grounds camp


walls constantinople walls constantinople series defensive stone walls surrounded protected city constantinople today istanbul turkey founding new capital roman empire constantine great numerous additions modifications history great fortification system antiquity complex elaborate systems built initially built constantine great walls surrounded new city sides protecting attack sea land city grew famous double line walls built 5th century sections walls elaborate manned medieval saving city byzantine_empire arabs constantinople advent gunpowder siege cannons rendered fortifications vulnerable cannon technology sufficiently advanced capture city walls repaired ultimately city fell sheer weight numbers ottoman forces week siege walls largely maintained intact ottoman period sections began dismantled 19th century city medieval boundaries despite subsequent lack maintenance parts walls survived standing today large scale restoration program way 1980s land walls walls greek roman byzantium according tradition city founded byzantium greek colonists led eponymous time city consisted small region located easternmost hill corresponding modern site palace according late byzantine constantinople ancient byzantium enclosed small wall began northern edge extended west tower went south west continued south area known byzantine times turned area loop northeast crossed regions known reached sea later quarter wall protected towers gates survived known arch monument later located wall lower author asserts wall dated time french researcher thinks likely reflects situation city rebuilt general conquered city wall known repaired tomb stones leadership certain leo attack philip byzantium relatively early roman period contemporaries described wealthy fortified came end support war according account roman history city held forces years inhabitants throwing bronze statues ran projectiles punished city harshly strong walls demolished city deprived civic status reduced mere village dependent city strategic importance eventually rebuilt endowed monuments including new set walls located west old ones little known wall save short description course new history main gate located end avenue later shortly entrance later forum constantine wall extended near modern bridge quarter south vicinity mosque curve southern wall going northeast meet old walls near mention existence wall siege byzantium constantine great conflict text mentions fore wall running near located middle later city suggesting expansion city wall time wall constantine like constantine began punish city siding defeated rival soon realized advantages byzantium location city thoroughly rebuilt inaugurated second rome eventually prevailed common usage constantinople city constantine city constantine protected new wall west wall constantine fortification consisted single wall reinforced towers regular distances began constructed completed son approximate course wall known began church anthony golden horn near modern bridge ran southwest southwards passed east great open ended near church coast later sea gates early 5th century constantinople expanded outside wall area known wall survived byzantine period replaced walls city primary defence ambiguous passage refers extensive damage city inner wall earthquake september likely refers wall reports renewed earthquake damage appears large parts survived relatively intact 9th century 11th century historian records wall likely portion wall collapsed earthquake traces wall appear survived later ages van states parts survived region early 19th century recent construction transfer center unearthed section foundation wall constantine gates names number gates wall survive scholars debate identity exact location old golden gate latin ancient greek known gate gate mentioned states city wall region decorated gate stood southern slopes seventh hill construction attributed constantine fact uncertain age survived 14th century byzantine scholar described built wide marble blocks opening crowned kind late byzantine times painting allegedly placed gate leading later ottoman gate jesus destroyed earthquake approximate location known presence nearby mosque identity location gate unclear identifies old golden gate van places seventh hill height probably corresponding later gates wall area places north near point river passed wall earlier centuries decorated statues including constantine fell earthquake gate location known certainty aside old golden gate gate saint named turkish lay sea walls served communication coast according church mary rod moses kept stood gate old gate named nearby church john baptist called forerunner greek unclear case van identifies old golden gate considers located northern slope seventh hill known gate gate location debated van considered gate wall gate recently refuted suggesting located wall identifies gate considers corruption quarter places gate west authors identified gate gate walls double walls greek located west old wall erected reign emperor named work carried phases phase erected minority direction east finished according law inscription discovered records work lasted years indicating construction begun reign emperor initial construction consisted single curtain wall towers forms inner circuit walls original walls severely damaged earthquakes september november especially powerful destroyed large parts wall including towers subsequent earthquakes including major january compounded damage ordered constantine supervise repairs urgent city threatened presence balkans employing city circus factions work walls restored record days according byzantine inscriptions found date majority scholars believe second outer wall added wide moat opened walls validity interpretation questionable outer wall possibly integral original fortification concept history walls damaged earthquakes floods river repairs undertaken numerous occasions testified numerous inscriptions commemorating emperors servants undertook restore responsibility repairs rested official variously known domestic walls count walls employed services city populace task latin conquest walls fell increasingly disrepair revived byzantine state lacked resources maintain times direct threat course topography present state walls stretch south north marble tower turkish known tower constantine coast area palace quarter outer wall moat terminate earlier height gate section golden horn survive line walls later brought forward cover suburb original course impossible lies buried beneath modern city sea wall turns sharply northeast reaches golden gate sea level gate wall follows straight line north climbing city seventh hill wall turns sharply northeast climbing gate located near peak seventh hill sea level wall descends valley river reaches lowest point sea level climbing slope sixth hill wall rises gate gate height gate walls fall level later walls project sharply west reaching coastal plain golden horn near called prisons construction walls consist main inner wall mega great wall separated lower outer wall small wall terrace outer wall moat stretched outer terrace low crowned moat eastern access possible sides walls towers inner wall solid structure thick high faced carefully cut limestone blocks core filled mortar lime crushed bricks seven bands brick approximately thick traverse structure form decoration strengthening structure bonding stone façade mortar core increasing endurance earthquakes wall strengthened towers mainly square octagonal ones single tall wide placed irregular distances according rise terrain intervals vary curtain wall sections measure meters tower terrace interior usually divided floor chambers communicate lower chamber opened main wall city storage upper entered wall walkway windows view firing projectiles access wall provided large ramps lower floor accessed small generally speaking surviving towers main wall rebuilt byzantine ottoman times foundations original construction furthermore period largely remained true original model later modifications ignored windows upper store focused tower terrace sole fighting platform outer wall thick base featured arched chambers level crowned walkway reaching height access outer wall city provided main gates small base inner wall towers outer wall likewise towers situated approximately midway inner wall towers acting supporting role spaced average distance outer wall towers survive exceptions square crescent shaped tall wide featured room windows level crowned terrace lower portions solid featured small allowed access outer terrace outer wall formidable defensive right byzantines allies hold lines wall concentrated defence outer wall moat situated distance outer wall moat wide deep featuring tall wall inner serving line defence transverse walls cross moat tapering bridges shown contain pipes carrying water city hill country city north west role interpreted filling moat dams dividing compartments allowing water retained course walls according alexander van little direct evidence accounts city suggest moat actually flooded sections north gate slopes valley construction maintenance moat problematic probable moat ended gate resume gate weakest section wall called middle wall modern scholars agreement extent portion wall variously defined narrowly stretch gate fifth military gate broad gate fifth military gate gate gate van gates wall contained main gates pierced inner outer walls number smaller exact identification gates number reasons byzantine provide names number gates original greek names fell use ottoman period literary archaeological sources provide contradictory information gates golden gate gate gate established directly literary evidence traditional nomenclature established gates distinguished public gates military gates alternated course walls according theory given names open civilian traffic leading moat bridges known numbers restricted military use led outer sections walls today division retained convention sufficient reason believe military gates civilian traffic addition number proper names established sequence numbering based perceived correspondence names certain city quarters lying walls numerical origins shown erroneous instance second quarter located southwest gate second military gate expected northwestern city military gate gate small lies tower land walls junction sea wall features known late ottoman times golden gate following walls south north golden gate greek latin turkish gate encountered main ceremonial entrance capital especially occasions entry emperor capital occasion military victories state occasions rare occasions mark honor entry gate allowed non imperial visitors papal pope constantine gate entries period occasion entry michael viii city august progressive decline byzantium military fortunes gates walled reduced size later period complex converted citadel refuge golden gate emulated cities naming principal entrance instance known gate gate built monumental golden gates entrance san_francisco bay california similarly named golden gate middle nineteenth century distant historical tribute byzantium date gate construction uncertain scholars divided earlier scholars favored current majority view tends meaning gate constructed integral walls debate carried latin inscription metal letters lost stood doors commemorated celebration defeat unnamed post english translation adorned places downfall brought golden age built gate gold legend reported byzantine author investigation surviving holes metal letters verified accuracy showed line stood western face arch second eastern according current view refers according supporters traditional view indicates gate construction free standing arch commemorate defeat later incorporated walls gate built large square blocks polished white marble fitted cement form arch arched gates middle larger gate flanked large square towers form 9th 10th towers inner wall exception central portal gate remained open everyday traffic structure richly decorated numerous statues including statue elephant drawn echoing rome survived fell earthquake sculptures large cross fell earthquake victory cast reign michael iii crowned fortune city installed captured bronze city gates place original ones main gate covered outer wall pierced single gate later centuries flanked ensemble reused marble according descriptions english travelers 17th century arranged tiers featured mythological scenes including hercules lost 17th century exception fragments istanbul archaeological museum probably place 9th 10th centuries form appearance gate according descriptions outer gate topped statue victory holding crown despite ceremonial role golden gate stronger positions walls city attacks addition transverse walls inner outer walls formed virtually separate fortress military value recognized john records virtually capable holding provisions years city need repaired marble towers garrisoned fort loyal soldiers surrender john john repairs left rebuilt expanded fortress towers gate extending wall sea walls forming separate fortified inside city serve final refuge event john soon forced flee coup led grandson john vii fort held successfully subsequent siege lasted months cannons possibly employed john compelled fort sultan threatened blind son held captive emperor john viii attempted rebuild thwarted sultan according greek legends constantinople fall ottomans turks entered city angel rescued emperor constantine turned marble placed cave earth near golden gate waits brought life conquer city christians legend explained later gate turkish precaution prophecy fortress conquest constantinople sultan built new fort adding larger towers pre existing ones towers inner wall formed fortress seven towers turkish lost function gate ottoman era treasury archive state prison eventually museum gate gate known belgrade gate lies towers alexander van identified second military gate located north derives fact led wooden circus outside walls gate complex approximately wide high gate spans according story related gate walled emperor according prophecy gate western emperor frederick enter city opened closed siege remained closed leading early ottoman closed gate second military gate gate located towers little remains original gate modern reconstruction accurate gate spring gate spring gate named popular monastery outside walls life giving spring modern suburb modern turkish gate appeared byzantine sources shortly lies towers extensively rebuilt later byzantine times southern tower bears inscription dated commemorating repairs carried john viii gate arch replaced ottoman period addition subterranean basement 4th 5th century tombs discovered underneath gate van identifies gate early byzantine gate recent scholars proposed identification gates city original wall gate forces empire general entered retook city july military gate military gate named quarter lies situated shortly gate exactly shaped section walls known towers turkish middle late byzantine construction corresponding gate outer wall preserved early 20th century disappeared likely gate identified gate gate modern located towers commonly referred gate early modern texts allegedly named suburb modern gate faction reds supposed taken repair byzantine texts appears correct form gate named according 10th century ancient general greek byzantium identifies gate place men possibly reference proximity cemetery best preserved gates retains substantially original 5th century appearance fourth military gate called fourth military gate stands towers currently walled recently suggested gate actually gate evidence uncertain gate gate named nearby church lies towers known turkish cannon gate great ottoman cannon placed opposite siege gatehouse second largest gate golden gate constantine byzantine emperor killed fifth military gate fifth military gate lies immediately north stream towers named quarter fifth heavily damaged extensive late byzantine ottoman repairs evident identified byzantine gate church called water tower gate assault gate turkish decisive breakthrough achieved morning late 19th century appears walled gate earlier scholars like bury kenneth identify gate gate mentioned texts final siege fall city gate gate named nearby early byzantine monastery founded golden gate second important gate turkish known gate entry conquered city gate stands sixth hill highest point old city meters suggested gates identified gate led cemetery outside walls byzantine emperor constantine established command minor gates known small fort towers gates towers walled byzantine times north opinions vary origin scholars consider date byzantine times consider ottoman addition according historian morning small called left open accident allowing ottoman troops enter city ottomans raised banner atop inner wall opened fire greek defenders spread panic beginning rout defenders leading fall city remains located outer wall end walls tower called palace discovered identified greek scholar later historians like van accepted theory excavations site uncovered evidence corresponding gate inner wall vanished area story invention derived earlier legend concerning gate earlier scholars later history walls doubt important defensive systems late antiquity words cambridge ancient history successful influential city walls built allowed city emperors survive thrive millennium strategic logic edge extremely unstable dangerous world advent siege cannons fortifications obsolete massive size provided effective defence demonstrated second ottoman siege final siege led fall city ottomans defenders severely outnumbered managed repeatedly counter turkish attempts walls frontal attacks restore damage siege cannons months finally decisive attack launched general wounded withdrew causing panic defenders walls taken capture city walls repaired short order massive public works projects kept repair centuries ottoman rule walls walls connect walls terminate height palace turkish sea wall golden horn consist series single walls built different periods cover suburb generally meters height thicker walls closely spaced towers situated steep slope lacked moat lower end golden horn emperor john dug question original fortifications area examined scholars theories proposed course known region comprised stood apart enclosed wall recorded originally late siege burned important nicholas lay outside quarter fortifications traces quarter walls preserved running area palace straight line called prison original fortified quarter roughly traced comprised northern spurs city seventh hill triangle stretching palace prison church palace fortifications apparently older walls probably dating 4th century connected new city walls western wall forming outer face city defenses eastern wall fell disrepair today walls connected vicinity palace short wall features probably recorded john extends palace tower called wall recorded historian wall built emperor protection imperial palace late 11th century emperors preferred residence excellent fortification consisting series arches closed outer face built masonry larger usual thicker walls measuring features round octagonal towers square wall stretches beginning right angle line walls going westward tower turning sharply north quality wall construction shown final ottoman siege repeated attacks intensive bombardment including large bombard attempts came wall lacks moat difficult terrain area makes unnecessary wall features second towers large gate gate sixth seventh towers turkish comes sharp bend road pass tomb supposed belong companion muhammad died arab siege city usually identified byzantine gate gate quarter latin tower wall called prison stretches wall length square towers probably later date markedly inferior quality wall thick smaller stones brick tiles utilized construction bears inscriptions commemorating repairs walled second tower commonly identified gate named silver lake stood head golden horn probably serviced palace evidenced decoration imperial suggests refer comes outer wall prison connects double stretch walls outer wall known wall leo constructed leo armenian safeguard siege bulgarian ruler wall extended south michael wall relatively light structure thick arches support featuring towers numerous wall lies inner wall renovated strengthened additions particularly fine towers emperor walls stand apart pierced gate comprising gate walls form fortified enclosure called byzantines known ottoman capture city greek towers allusion fortress inner wall traditionally identified scholars like van wall built emperor siege protect church identified wing built time cover northern flank alternate designation prison golden horn consequently transferred identity wall short stretch sea wall directly attached east displays distinct architecture identity remains unresolved question modern scholars short wall added later times probably reign stretching junction land sea walls sea pierced called wooden gate wall gate demolished preservation restoration work land walls land walls run heart modern istanbul belt flanking course pierced intervals modern roads leading westwards city sections restored 1980s financial support restoration program criticized destroying historical evidence focusing superficial restoration use inappropriate materials poor quality work apparent earthquakes restored sections collapsed original structure underneath remained intact threat posed urban pollution lack comprehensive restoration effort prompted world monuments fund include watch list endangered sites world sea walls walls greek enclosed city sides sea gulf golden horn original city byzantium certainly sea walls traces survive exact date construction medieval walls matter debate traditionally walls attributed scholars constantine construction main land wall actual reference construction comes urban cyrus sources confused constantine ordered repair city walls complete activity certainly unconnected fact year fell event signaled emergence naval threat mediterranean phase construction remains general consensus doubts existence fortifications late antiquity specifically mentioned extant contemporary sources later year sea walls similar walls simpler construction formed single wall considerably lower land walls inner circuits locations enemy access walls facing golden horn prevented presence heavy chain boom installed emperor leo iii supported floating barrels stretching mouth inlet end chain tower modern suburb large square tower basement later turned underground mosque time coast city defence helped strong currents attack fleet impossible according reason fourth crusade attack city early centuries existence constantinople faced naval threats especially wars mediterranean roman lake siege city time naval engagement fought city arab conquests syria egypt new naval threat emerged response sea walls renovated early 8th century iii michael initiated wide scale reconstruction eventually completed successor increased height repairs coincided capture crete expense spared constantine wrote gold coins realm spent freely worthless extensive work essentially rebuilding sea walls testified numerous inscriptions found recorded bear emperor despite future changes walls essentially protect city end empire siege city fourth crusade sea walls nonetheless proved weak point city defences managed storm following experience michael viii took particular care strengthen walls immediately byzantine recapture city latin attempt recover city regarded imminent furthermore installation golden horn agreed treaty posed potential threat city time short latin attempt recover city expected sea walls heightened addition meter high wooden hide covered screens years later facing threat invasion charles second line walls built original maritime walls trace survives today walls restored successor iii february major storm caused wall forced gates open empire war john repaired walls opened moat wall facing golden horn repairs recorded years leading final siege fall city ottomans partly funds provided serbia george golden horn wall wall facing golden horn later times traffic conducted stretched total length metres cape land walls wall demolished 1870s construction railway line course position gates towers known accuracy built inland shore metres tall according featured gates towers gates known byzantine origin northern shore city cosmopolitan major focal point commerce contained quarters allocated foreigners living imperial capital muslim traders including mosque time emperors granted italian maritime extensive trading quarters included sea walls known gates golden horn wall traced order eastwards point follows gate near land walls gate rolled gate turkish shortly stood gate located near mosque turkish close proximity outer walls lay church nicholas served cathedral patriarch constantinople coast gate known turkish palace gate preceded close order large served gates shore harbour serviced imperial palace gates known existed vicinity byzantine times gate gate hunter quarter named gate john forerunner baptist clear distinct gate variously identified gates golden horn known imperial gate south gate turkish named local light tower greek gave local suburb gate marked western entrance fort formed double stretch walls gate gate turkish according byzantine tradition area named peter leading minister small gate western end fort inner wall near gate led city called gate gate personal leadership scaled walls entered city sack siege ottoman attack place repelled gate new gate saint byzantine replaces earlier byzantine entrance constructed great ottoman architect shortly lies older gate saint known greek gate great church identified mosque gate known latin del modern named looked quarter springs shore golden horn demolished gate follows rendered italian called turkish gate flour depot named local quarter plate broad place signifying broad shoreline place gate gate holy probability ottoman era structure gate gate modern wood gate byzantine derives high official known watch marked western end venetian quarter followed gate forerunner known john named nearby chapel turkish known dungeon gate destroyed gate lay suburb crossing ferry sailed marked eastern limit venetian quarter city beginning quarter east map labelled account held preserved modern turkish gate fish market gate identified gate jews latin sources apparently applied time gates vicinity probably gate mark recorded single venetian document identity unclear question gate named honour patron saint venice pre existing opened fall city east gate gate derived imperial gate marked eastern end quarter city western edge quarter east lay gate recorded gate beautiful gate late byzantine ottoman times names led leading main harbour ancient byzantium oldest naval arsenal city early ottoman period known turkish hebrew gate modern garden gate eastern limit quarter located bit eastwards gate 12th century quarter city extended east documents privileges finds mention gates gate bonus probably greek gate old rector likely names refer gate probably named unknown rector bonus located modern district finally gate golden horn wall gate leading harbour close proximity 4th century tower great chain closed entrance golden horn kept suspended gate called marble gate covered marble featured statue emperor julian usually identified ottoman destroyed wall wall built shoreline exception height metres thirteen gates towers total length metres metres comprising inner wall harbour sections wall damaged construction kennedy coastal road wall proximity sea strong currents meant eastern southern shores peninsula comparatively safe attack conversely walls protected sea placed base marble shafts bonds walls base enhance structural integrity cape edge ancient city modern point south west marble tower wall gates went follows gate demolished eastern gate gate barbara nearby church turkish gate cannon palace takes unique gates like golden gate flanked large towers white marble construct nearby marble sultan twice served entry point emperor return john returned recapture ancestral returned victorious campaign hungary gate known turkish mill stone gate byzantine unknown close north stood great tower intended hold end chain planned probably actually installed close end tower erected island modern maiden tower modern known byzantine times gate known iron gate ottoman era structure greek known known gate stood byzantine times gates extended quarter arsenal numerous monasteries famous george church christ palace small pairs stand southern edge quarter probably serviced numerous churches names identity recorded small gate named respective monasteries located near probable identified michael south point shore turns westwards gates gate fish house stable gate names derive buildings inside palace led byzantine names unknown gate southeastern corner city gate imperial palace known byzantine times gate lion latin marble lions flanked entrance gate bear depictions animal turkish known broken gate west palace lies church city southern shore named wife emperor known originally port julian small situated church larger gate gate iron gate opened harbour turkish known gate harbour gate modern sand gate opened late byzantine harbour intended replace long harbour harbour west large harbour area known known park immediately east stands gate known turkish new gate latin inscription commemorates repair earthquake usually identified jewish gate late byzantine times immediately west harbour lies gate gate usually identified gate saint known stood junction sea wall city original wall view disputed junction walls occurred considerably west modern gate location west shoreline turns sharply south stood gate modern leading suburb south west lies gate known today gate byzantine unknown prominent account proximity famed monastery garrisons city existence byzantine_empire garrison city small imperial guards small city watch urban permanent armed force available threat city dealt field armies provinces approach city times need earthquake raids early 7th century general population organized factions armed additional troops brought provincial armies early centuries imperial guard consisted units late 7th century declined parade ground troops time established new guards units protect imperial palace 8th century emperors faced successive revolts thematic armies pursuing deeply unpopular policies established imperial elite force loyal form core imperial expeditionary armies present near city palace guard units established remained permanently stationed constantinople garrisoned palace district locations disused churches capital units present city time numerous numbering thousands best complemented detachments stationed capital small size city garrison emperors populace alike permanent large military force fear military uprising considerable financial burden maintenance furthermore large force largely unnecessary inherent security provided city walls historian john notes providing gates secured defenses provided skeleton force city safe large forces pre gunpowder period fortifications constantinople fortifications built periods vicinity constantinople forming defensive system greatest long wall long wall built century outer defence constantinople westwards city thick high effectiveness apparently limited abandoned time 7th century want resources maintain men garrison centuries materials local buildings parts especially central northern sections extant addition wall city small towns fortresses like great suburb seventh modern named distance seven roman miles city mile marker site major military long walls towns covered northern approaches strategically situated main routes city formed outer defenses constantinople history serving muster forces confront enemy invasions buy time capital defenses brought order notable final ottoman siege surrendered fall constantinople asia minor role mirrored cities large field camp walls suburb integral city early 5th century names city 13th region probably fortified walls 5th century granted status city settlement declined disappeared 7th century leaving great tower modern guarded chain extending mouth golden horn sack city venetian quarter later colony effectively outside byzantine control despite byzantine opposition managed surround quarter moat joining castle like houses walls created wall colony tower called tower christ stretch walls north built expansions followed area larger originally allocated stretching modern district north ottoman conquest walls maintained 1870s demolished facilitate expansion city today tower visible historical constantinople remains intact smaller fragments fortresses twin forts lie north istanbul point built ottomans control strategically vital preparation final assault constantinople turkish fortress called beautiful fortress earlier times constructed sultan initially consisted high roughly surrounded wall larger elaborate fortress built sultan months consists large small towers connected wall reinforced small seen bird eye view walls towers placed accordingly write muhammad arabic letters cannons mounted main towers fort gave ottomans complete control passage ships role evoked clearly original cutter conquest constantinople served customs prison notably states war empire suffering extensive damage earthquake repaired continuously late 19th century