castle located bank river france founded count 11th century castle property counts henry_ii england member house took castle brother rebelled second time henry favoured residence standing structure attributed reign died early 13th century king philip france harassed english lands france captured siege lasted months castle remained french control king philip accused knights decade 14th century leading members order imprisoned charles vii 15th century prison second half 16th century fell use left decay recognised monument french ministry culture castle contains museum owned managed general council major tourist attraction early 21st century restored cost million history background settlement bank river kilometres joins prehistoric times settlement originated rivers formed major trade routes joins fertile southern plains city site fortified early 5th century roman established count built earliest known castle mount 10th century fortified use stronghold count died battle iii count marched capture away arrived castle garrison immediately sought terms surrendered count captured exchange release agreed recognise ownership tours early 13th century descended heirs counts according contemporaneous chronicler robert death count second son called inherited castles robert specify historian warren speculated numbered castles territory traditionally inheritance second oldest son rebelled older brother henry henry negotiated castles surrender laying siege following loss surrendered brother control year war rebelled henry second time intervening years brother crowned king henry_ii england end long running civil war henry besieged captured castles summer kept control giving compensation presence treasury henry_ii main marked particularly important castle 12th century primary residence henry_ii responsible construction massive castle henry_ii youngest son prince john daughter count influential lord john land arrangement henry promised castles henry_ii eldest son called henry crowned king england alongside father land angered situation discontent grew henry young king demanded land promised handed claiming support english barons father law king louis vii france king informed conspiracy involving wife sons overthrow choosing eldest son henry_ii set north normandy ensuring way castles prepared war route stayed cover darkness henry young king escaped set paris join court louis vii henry young king brothers richard joined rebellion barons france england war followed lasting key henry_ii defence revolt ended relations henry_ii sons continued strained henry young king dead richard line inherit henry_ii brink war philip june year richard travelled paris philip struck friendship french king concerned son turn henry_ii asked return richard went raided castle treasury fund repair castles richard philip havoc maine capturing henry_ii castles king ill went left briefly july meet richard philip agree truce died july king body taken abbey richard king john succeeded brother king england lands france threat philip france threatening east barons brittany january john sent band mercenaries retrieve queen threat rebels spring 1st earl kent took commander garrison war going john favour august year ordered demolition castles including prevent enemy castles valley fell french force easter siege months damage castle meant garrison longer able hold meet french outside castle walls injured taken prisoner event remain captivity soon captured philip took normandy england crown french king prolific castle builder responsible building cylindrical tour round typical french design period departure usually square keeps repeated philip castles french rule reason built castles prisons instance 14th century illustrates aspect history founded holy land military order early 12th century knights close 13th century gained lands europe particularly france king philip france members order kingdom arrested accusing practices leaders order including grand master imprisoned tour built philip century earlier graffiti carved imprisoned knights seen walls tower august pope sent cardinals hear leaders confessions outcome pope issued bull suppressing order property given knights leaders sentenced life imprisonment apart burnt stake years war 14th 15th centuries fought kings england france succession french throne war ended english finally ejected france early 15th century english king henry significant territorial gains treaty henry heir apparent french throne french king charles henry died space months issue succession uncertain english supported henry son henry child french supported recognised charles vii france residence charles virtually territory left france rest occupied english march joan arc arrived claimed hear heavenly voices said charles grant army relieve siege staying castle resided tour charles met days arrival sent cross examined ensure telling truth joan returned april charles granted supplies sent join army came briefly possession turned state prison henry france cardinal given castle prevent coming control forces allowed fall ruin abandoned reign terror castle temporarily occupied royalist soon castle decay 19th century saw increasing public interest france heritage efforts undertaken preserve historic buildings newly crowned louis created role inspector general historic monuments better known writer assumed position helped halt decay set instigated repairs structure castle recognised monument french ministry culture castle subject massive excavation restoration project costing million hoped restored castle attract tourists year visitor centre built fort george entirely excavated advance visitor centre built fort george subject archaeological excavation covered nearly square metres entire interior fort royal years restored inside given mock 15th century interior addition metres restored tour today owned managed general council major tourist attraction description standing rocky river natural defences sides ditch dug fourth writing 12th century chronicler william commented came control henry_ii strength nature human art defending said 12th century henry_ii undertook project rebuilding castle extant remains date period stone build castle site castle divided length separated deep dry moat similarities built richard closing years 12th century consists sits nearby town easternmost enclosure known fort central middle castle westernmost known fort fort george built henry_ii contained chapel dedicated england patron saint added philip early 13th century built 12th 14th centuries round tour built philip parallels guarded bridge linking fort curtain wall stands places buildings survive extent cases little said location foundations possible use


minefields croatia minefields croatia cover square kilometres square miles territory minefields usually known suspected areas located cities municipalities counties areas thought contain approximately land mines addition ordnance left croatian war independence land mines extensively war sides conflict million deployed intended strengthen defensive positions lacking sufficient weapons manpower played limited role fighting war square kilometres square miles territory initially suspected contain mines estimate later reduced square kilometres square miles physical inspection programmes coordinated governmental bodies croatian action centre hiring private companies employing september croatia plans clear suspected minefields areas marked warning signs april people killed injured land mines croatia war figures including seven croatian army engineers killed operations immediate aftermath war civilian casualties year gradually decreased year awareness education programmes croatia spent approximately million process taken private contractors coordinated croatian action centre cost complete estimated million economic loss croatia loss land use suspected minefields estimated million year background following electoral defeat communist regime croatia croatian democratic union ethnic tensions serbs worsened elections yugoslav people army confiscated croatia territorial defence weapons minimize potential resistance august tensions escalated open revolt croatian serbs stepped preventing croatian police intervening revolt centred predominantly populated areas city parts regions eastern croatian settlements significant population area subsequently named republic serbian declared intention join serbia result came viewed government croatia region march conflict escalated known croatian war independence june croatia declared independence yugoslavia january held square kilometres territory borders claimed croatia territory ranged kilometres miles depth kilometre line croatian controlled territory wartime use land mines early withdrawal croatia protect military barracks facilities facilities located urban centres secured way mines directional anti personnel croatian army croatian police began laying land mines late relying heavily stop advances army early early minefields laid little documentation increased use mines secure line largely limited number troops consequently constructed static defensive lines consisting trenches large numbers mines designed protect manned defences delay approach necessitated limited depth territory lack reserves available counterattack block defensive line meant unable employ defence depth tactics combination poor documentation minefield locations lack markings fencing led frequent injuries military personnel caused mines laid friendly forces estimated total million land mines laid war successfully anti tank mines obstacles combination infantry anti tank weapons destroying tanks particularly defensive operations conversely anti personnel mines deployed proved effective operations flash storm operations crossed bypassed minefields based information land based aerial vehicle reconnaissance movement patrols civilian populations activation mines wildlife personnel killed operations flash storm fatalities caused land mines similarly wounded injured land mines casualties april total people killed injured land mines incidents croatia civilian casualties land mines war immediate aftermath approximately civilian casualties land mines year croatia number gradually decreased year war troops killed injured mines killed injured operations flash storm troops involved seven engineers killed injured land mines clearance operations civilian casualties include killed croatia established extensive framework assist injured mines families victims assistance includes emergency ongoing medical care physical rehabilitation psychological social support employment social integration assistance public awareness access public services institutions organizations supporting victims include wide range governmental bodies non governmental organizations existing minefields november square kilometres square miles croatian territory suspected contain land mines areas located counties cities municipalities thought contain approximately land mines ordnance left croatian war independence areas suspected contain land mines marked warning signs areas thought contain ordnance land mines marked warning signs suspected minefields primarily located forests percent remainder agricultural land percent percent social economic impacts land mines safety issue populations living near minefields estimated people croatia endangered proximity mined areas percent population land mines significant problem development substantial portion minefields croatia agricultural land forests drainage channels consequently inaccessible maintenance resulting intermittent flooding particularly severe areas bordering hungary similar problems caused mines laid banks rivers presence land mines adversely affected post war recovery rural areas reducing available agricultural land development affecting quality life people mined areas addition agriculture significant economic problem caused mines croatia impact tourism especially forested areas hunting areas inland adriatic_sea coast estimated economy croatia lost million million year effects suspected areas economy importance tourism croatian economy areas frequented tourists near major tourist routes given priority safety related areas receiving priority settlements commercial industrial facilities documented minefields agricultural land infrastructure forests grouped priority categories depending economic significance national parks croatia priority areas areas significant fire protection theft minefield signs significant problem particularly pronounced areas concerns local population signs harm tourism signs regularly replaced concrete masonry structures display instead metal poles 1990s tourist injured land croatia government croatia established bodies address problem land mines croatia foremost office action croatian action centre office action government agency tasked providing expert analysis advice croatian action centre public sector body tasked planning conducting surveys accepting cleared areas marking suspected areas quality assurance research development victim assistance work croatian action centre supervised office action refugees flee europe syria middle eastern nations migrating croatia hungary recent closing borders immigrants trying cross europe seeking croatia help finding safe routes passage awareness education croatia implemented awareness educational programme aimed reducing frequency related accidents ongoing information campaign programme conducted croatian red_cross ministry science education sports number cooperation croatian action centre croatian action centre actively supports develop programmes possible attract new awareness educational activities maintains accessible online database information location suspected areas croatia awareness campaign involving billboard advertising attracted criticism ministry tourism croatian national tourist board signs placed tourist areas far suspected areas ministry tourism welcomed effort humanitarian aspect considered signs potential source negative reaction tourists tourist croatia include warnings danger posed mines country provide general information location end croatian war independence approximately square kilometres square miles country suspected containing land mines war immediate aftermath performed engineers supported police civil defence personnel wartime focused clearance tasks support military operations safety civilian population parliament croatia enacted act police organization government owned company april approximately square kilometres square miles cleared mines initial estimate minefield areas reduced inspection entire territory croatia reviewed minefield area reduced square kilometres square miles croatian action centre tasked development plans projects technical cleared area quality assurance expert assistance coordination clearance activities performed licensed companies employing professionals auxiliary personnel companies work metal detection dogs clearing machines include locally designed models produced ing typically earn square metre square feet cleared month funded government donations donations amounted million percent total million spent period donations foreign contributors including foreign governments japan germany united_states european_union significant contributor period providing million croatian action centre allocated approximately million million year estimated million needed remove remaining land mines croatia deadline land clearance set ottawa treaty croatian action centre spends approximately year maintain minefield warning signs including replacement stolen signs

Fortifications and military installations


fort fort known historically west artillery fort north bank river_thames england earliest version fort comprising small artillery covering river constructed king henry_viii protect london attack france device programme reinforced spanish invasion scare reinforced parliamentary forces help secure capital english civil war following naval raids anglo dutch wars fort enlarged sir bernard onwards form star shaped defensive work angular water filled lines guns facing river addition protecting thames 18th century began transit depot storing gunpowder continued essential defence capital new artillery battery added south east corner napoleonic wars fort increasingly significant defensive structure military technology developed 19th century redeveloped hold heavy artillery providing second line defence river changes technology meant obsolete end century instead strategic depot forming logistical hub storing moving troops world war fort limited role second world war fort operated heritage agency english_heritage tourist attraction receiving visitors modern military features demolished 1950s restoration work taking place 1970s ahead site opening public 17th century defences considered historian paul best surviving example kind britain fort includes surviving early 18th century gunpowder magazines britain history 16th century permanent fortification essex built consequence international tensions england france holy roman empire final years reign king henry_viii traditionally crown left coastal defences local lords communities taking modest role building maintaining fortifications france empire remained conflict maritime raids common actual invasion england unlikely basic defences based simple towers existed south west sussex coast impressive works north england general fortifications limited scale henry broke pope paul iii order long standing marriage wife catherine catherine aunt charles holy roman emperor took personal insult resulted france empire declaring alliance henry pope encouraging countries attack england invasion england appeared certain response henry issued order called device giving instructions defence realm time invasion construction forts english coastline river_thames strategically important city london newly constructed royal vulnerable attacks arriving estuary major maritime route carrying percent england exports mouth estuary thames narrowed considerably forming natural hub communications long ferry took passengers capital cross ferry moved traffic river point invasion force able easily thames point sides estuary landings difficult temporary defences constructed early 14th 15th centuries little known design king new programme work thames protected mutually reinforcing network south river west east opposite bank west inner line initially called site dissolved king designed james christopher supported prior work estimated cost given allowing stone timber bricks tonnes long tons short tons chalk shaped curved storeys gun ports probably additional gun platforms stretching river buildings placed rear site protected ditch extensive creeks giving additional protection east initially commanded captain francis grant deputy garrisoned porter soldiers gunners equipped artillery pieces including cannon invasion threat passed ordered return guns demolished summer fresh threat invasion spanish army protect mouth estuary emergency improvements fortifications earl leicester queen elizabeth visited fort barge august rode procession nearby army camp gave speech assembled forces fears invasion continued defeat course year italian engineer reinforced probably concentric ditches boom stretched river cost 17th century early england peace france spain result coastal defences received little attention surveys reported multiple problems fort including flooding caused estuary tides ferry passengers animals making way fort civil war broke supporters king charles parliament controlled parliament placed forts command military governor control traffic entering london search spies saw military action war remained use having garrison officers men charles_ii restored throne began wide ranging programme work coastal defences dutch fleet attacked thames june going fear fortifications reality forts poorly prepared resist dutch attack guns ready action dutch struck english fleet instead giving time government improve defences thames mount guns forts wake conflict king instructed chief engineer called sir bernard develop fort defences prepared plans king iteration designs submitted given royal approval work began year took complete project work carried skilled contractors supplemented large teams pressed men brought region workers employed site timber piles brought norway project support foundations ground resources needed king multiple defence projects stretched planned originally planned face river cancelled save money total cost project unknown significantly original estimate result large sided star shaped fort angular brick outer curtain defences including new defended entrance north gun lines gun platforms facing river stretched alongside fort incorporated defences earthworks destroyed interior fort raised level marshes prevent flooding barracks buildings constructed inside writer john praised new fort royal work work replaced wooden gun platforms alongside river stone 18th 19th centuries start 18th century fort powerful britain number artillery guns varied cannon mounted west gun platform cannons east following year reported guns total fort poor repair addition role protecting thames fort military uses 18th century onwards board ordnance began use gunpowder depot safety restrictions moving gunpowder london docks instead large magazines built able hold barrels powder old buildings converted act magazines eventually fort hold barrels gunpowder transit depot soldiers rising prison hold prisoners war prisoners kept gunpowder magazines died sent london trial living conditions fort poor surrounded marshes poor road network garrison survive collected trader called built house inside southern entrance growing vegetables south west enjoying effective monopoly selling food soldiers new barracks officers enlisted men rebuilt officers preferred live river urban setting near military headquarters cricket match men essex sides thames reportedly ended guns seized newspapers recounted essex man sergeant shot dead soldier sides fled scene uncertain accurate newspaper account historians andrew charles american revolutionary war fears french attack london army carried practice attack fort soldiers guns left fort poor condition thomas page inspected reported defences facing thames seriously inadequate consequence new battery built south east corner defences armed pounders pointing river new battery new tavern fort built river east fears continued french revolutionary napoleonic wars smaller batteries constructed river continued essential capital defences control crossing point thames guns upgraded new traversing platforms volunteer artillery formed man forts sides river invasion scare royal trinity house volunteer artillery manned armed placed river barrier size garrison varied half century fort space officers enlisted men despite construction new range facilities living conditions soldiers remained poor men sharing bed rooms barracks running water site 19th century pump installed bring water metres surface nationwide investigations standard army barracks led investment better facilities water run site improved amenities installed 1850s advent steam ships meant enemy vessels sail thames far quickly reducing time available forts intercept rifled guns turret mounted weapons new armour plating meant enemy warships fire forts downstream easily protected guns fears potential invasion napoleon iii france led establishment royal commission defence united_kingdom commission reported following year recommended new powerful forts built downstream defences fort forming second line defence work began strengthening direction captain charles gordon focusing adding heavier gun positions able fire upstream support new forts west north east east south east curtain wall altered house thirteen rifled muzzle loading guns protected brick walls earthworks iron shields initially ton inch guns deployed upgraded inch weapons supported heavier ton inch gun old tudor block house destroyed way new guns naval defensive technology continued improve decades rendering fort design government considered defences thames sufficient improved largely redundant defensive fortification end century use strategic depot onwards formed centre support mobile strike force event invasion wider london defence scheme large storage buildings built site store 20th 21st centuries fresh concerns grew thames vulnerable attack torpedo boats armoured cruisers quick firing pounder cwt guns positioned south east curtain wall supplemented inch breech loading guns government decided royal_navy forts downstream gave sufficient protection capital removed artillery leaving machine guns place continued function store outbreak world war house transit soldiers supply new army camps established mansion initially manned 2nd battalion royal dublin reserve units rest war fort store munitions depot built west bridge built thames troop movements guarded fort guns house headquarters infantry battalions electric lighting installed narrow gauge railway steam crane added help material fort raids june anti aircraft guns mounted fort played role shooting german_navy disputed site area fired shell brought inter war years government concluded fort longer militarily useful unsuccessful attempts sell development second world war fort initially housed improvised anti aircraft operations room controlling defences thames north gun zone trenches dug surrounding area prevent airborne attack enlisted barracks facilities block probably house bombed damaged demolished war fort transferred military use relatively early post war period ministry works took site restoration work took place including construction replica wooden bridges opened public 21st century fort controlled english_heritage operated tourist attraction receiving visitors site protected law scheduled ancient monument officers barracks grade listed building architecture fort remains largely reconstruction late 17th century direction sir bernard 19th century additions designed predominantly dutch style ring outer inner defences intended allow fort attack hostile warships protected attack land heritage agency historic england describes england spectacular example late 17th century fort historian paul considers defences best surviving example kind britain outer defences outer defences comprise outer inner water filled fed thames separated ring defensive inner moat metres wide relatively shallow banks repeatedly strengthened piles protect erosion fort entered north triangular defensive work known defend entrance causeway links outer defences form complex pattern protecting covered way stretching defensive line north west north east corners triangular spurs originally equipped cannons project defences west east sides assembly points infantry soldiers inside replica wooden bridge runs outer defences water island called turn linked inner defences replica bridge protected formed physical barrier incoming artillery fire aimed entrance inner defences directed fire enemy forces breached outer defensive line south outer defences facing river west east lines gun positions built 18th century subject considerable erosion original gun positions west line remain east line survived lines designed allow delivery supplies thames remains tracks narrow gauge railway built world war gate south west corner managed water allowed drained completely surfaces begin freeze winter provide advantage attackers west outer defences world end pub originally local ferry house dating inner defences inner defences largely follow design defensive positioned central parade ground south fort entered water gate gatehouse dates late 17th century monumental stone facade featuring carved displays classical 17th century weapons built niche probably held statue king charles_ii building originally acted house master gunner inside fort taken parade ground area covering acres central parade ground raised current height 17th 19th centuries chalk dirt early 20th century occupied large warehouses destroyed moving east water gate south eastern curtain defences south east rebuilt start 20th century hold quick firing guns inch guns underground tunnels linking underground magazine artillery pieces dating display facing parade ground officers quarters terrace houses probably dating current form late 18th century stables northern end originally hold commandant horses holds bernard collection military memorabilia north east redesigned contains earth covered magazine inch rifled muzzle loading guns north parade early 18th century magazines altered 19th century specially designed avoid use iron generated sparks set explosion instead built wood copper remaining examples type britain gate lies magazines gatehouse called dead house leading interior fort past north west soldiers barracks stood opposite officers destroyed war foundations building remain south west magazine holds covered magazine similar north east west water gate fort chapel dating late 17th century oldest surviving places worship british artillery fortress


fort washington fort fort constructed northwest district_of_columbia defenses washington american_civil_war faced major opposition conflict decommissioned following surrender robert lee army northern virginia named brigadier general george killed battle site fort boundary park located intersection river road western avenue washington maintained national_park_service trace fort remains marker commemorating existence constructed park service pre war use prior outbreak civil war district_of_columbia predominantly rural area city washington today synonymous district_of_columbia washington occupied portion district remaining portions district considered washington county region forts defending washington including fort constructed washington county characterized rural district occupied farms sizes grand estates site fort owned philip farmer home fourth ward washington county construction process valued land approximately continued live farmhouse near fort wife children servants course war exchange use land site fort received year rent war department nearby family owned substantial tracts land district maryland forts portions forts built property fort fort battery bailey despite loss land family continued operate local general store sold items garrison fort planning construction following virginia state joining confederacy federal troops marched washington arlington region northern virginia intended attempt virginia militia confederate states army seize capital city united_states seven weeks forts constructed banks river approaches major bridges chain bridge long bridge bridge connecting virginia washington georgetown river forts built planning surveying ordered enormous new ring forts protect city unlike fortifications construction new forts defend city directions direct route arlington mid july work interrupted battle bull run army northeastern virginia marched south soldiers previously assigned construction duties marched instead battle days followed union defeat bull run panicked efforts defend washington perceived imminent confederate attack makeshift trenches earthworks resulted largely confined arlington direct approaches washington july days battle george named commander military district washington subsequently renamed army arriving washington appalled condition city defenses quarter defense offer vigorous resistance respectable body enemy position numbers troops number character defensive works single defensive work commenced maryland prevent enemy city heights easy range occupied hostile column resistance remedy situation orders taking command greatly expand defenses washington points compass forts constructed sufficient strength slow attack buy time reinforcements arrive bolster city defenses brigadier general john named chief engineer department washington supervise construction maintenance forts named chief engineer armies field grant prior outbreak war great falls known river road important traffic trade entering district_of_columbia western maryland connected village city washington roughly paralleled river turning northward strategic position river formed border confederate state virginia union state maryland great military value likely route attacking army proved years outbreak war battle fort stevens prevent confederate force advancing washington forts constructed hills near river guard river road direct route city army engineers built small round fort point river road crossed district_of_columbia perimeter yards mounting guns located forward fort largest fort protecting area details actual construction process scarce letter member ninth new_york heavy artillery regiment democratic press newspaper indicates fort partially built labor regiment april fort named honor recently deceased brigadier general george killed december battle time dedication fort roughly complete round shape surrounded trenches fort guns faced north overlooking river road service road crossed trenches southern half fort connecting river road fort rifle pits extended northeast fort southwest fort small battery guns named battery fort covered blind spot northwest fort wartime use accordance plan laid october report general john rear line forts receive man yard fort perimeter fully garrisoned line forts receive men yard needed forts kept fully garrisoned times location north river fort considered rear line fort fort needed fully garrisoned impending attack difference actual garrison plan good washington man reserve force general december report seldom necessary infantry supports attached works plan applied men manning walls fort serving fort guns man guns fort washington forts designated crews gun crews permanently located fort unlike men assigned walls fort plan affected needs war fighting dragged casualties mounted commanders army repeatedly raided washington garrison trained infantry replacements washington stripped total half recommendation report general howe inspector artillery union_army found fort garrison consist single company seventh new_york heavy artillery regiment thirty seven men ranks manned pound field pound rifles addition howe found fort single magazine dry good order ammunition supply garrison fort howe complimentary examining garrison company drill artillery infantry tactics reported artillery drill ordinary needs improving infantry drill indifferent needs improving discipline fort overall indifferent infantry new_hampshire pennsylvania ohio new_york stationed fort times war following general howe unfavorable review seventh new_york garrison replaced company men ohio infantry battle fort stevens course war fort came attack battle fort stevens july confederate general early launched man raid maryland hope drawing general grant troops pressing hard army northern virginia siege raid hoped attack washington distracting grant potentially allowing confederate forces time rest morning july confederate cavalry infantry command brigadier general john advanced washington goal capturing fort defended village drove skirmish line fort confederate cavalry met heavy barrage cannon fire supporting forts discouraged resistance brigade moved join rest early force grouping assault fort stevens day additional reinforcements arrived fort confederate attack took place remainder war fort fire shot anger postwar use surrender robert lee army northern virginia april primary reason manned defenses protecting washington ceased exist initial recommendations col alexander chief engineer washington defenses divide defenses classes kept active class kept reserve state second class abandoned entirely class owing position north river small size fort fort fell class category abandoned months end war fort park abandoned fort remained constantly deteriorating condition commissioners district_of_columbia pushed congress pass bill consolidate sites aging forts fort circle system parks ring growing city washington envisioned commissioners fort circle green ring parks outside city owned government connected fort drive road order allow washington citizens easily escape confines capital bill allowing purchase forts turned private ownership war failed pass house_of_representatives senate despite failure similar bill passed house senate allowed creation national capital parks commission oversee construction fort circle parks similar proposed duty purchasing land constructing fort parks changed hands times 1920s 1930s eventually culminating department interior national_park_service taking control project 1940s time site fort purchased remains fort demolished homes built site budget cuts world war repeatedly postponed fort circle park plan growth city washington eventually killed plan president john kennedy began pushing congress finally build fort circle drive washington national_park_service openly questioning plan time washington grown past ring forts protected century earlier city surface roads connected parks albeit linear route envisioned plan link fort park fort parks grand drive quietly dropped years followed today park bordered western avenue river road 46th 47th streets washington contains field soccer field maintained year round national_park_service neighborhood residents established friends fort park inc non profit corporation goal assisting national_park_service maintaining fort park end organization hosts annual cleanup park holds order build improvements park


fort fort artillery fort built 1860s guard lower thames attack stands point essex north bank river location vulnerable raiders invaders series fortifications dating 15th century direct successor smaller mid-19th century fort built site constructed period tension france location ground caused problems start led lengthy construction process fort equipped variety large calibre artillery guns modern defensive facilities time including shell proof casemates protected granite facing cast iron shields lengthy construction rapid pace artillery development time meant virtually obsolete original purpose years completion fort armament revised times seventy years military usage role evolved river defensive system initially line fortification supported fort fort located south east respectively kent shore time batteries forts line thames defences fort stripped main weapons fabric altered support smaller quick firing guns intended fast moving surface aerial targets military usage training facility years second world war decommissioned fort time shoe company purchased local council surrounding land developed public park fort fell despite historical architectural significance leased voluntary preservation group fort project working restore fort use variety heritage educational purposes visited public regular open days houses number small military museums open air displays military equipment funding restoration come number sources including heritage lottery fund warner film studio fort location opening scenes film batman begins development early defences east stands lower end section thames known reach fortified long building fort vulnerability attackers settlements sides thames raided french second phase years war attack prompted building cooling castle kent peninsula initially corresponding improve defences east appeals local people led crown agreeing july build towers protect settlement site early defences known near catherine church stands ditch unknown date vicinity represent fragment medieval defences defences henry_viii ordered construction artillery east major scheme coastline england wales followed break pope catholic_church led fears catholic powers europe seek invade order papal authority built thames north bank east south bank near present new tavern fort east built partly stone taken margaret chapel dissolved form known probably consisted brick stone structure shape ditch recorded having iron brass cannon increased small permanent garrison consisting commander deputy porter soldiers gunners altered disarmed corresponding continued use eventually incorporated fort east abandoned end 16th century inundated river ruins site shoreline eroded away tidal action possible remains survive river mud battery june raid dutch fleet second anglo dutch war exposed weaknesses thames defences took years defences reach improved form new works built potential forward defence prevent enemies reaching far thames continued neglected outbreak french revolutionary wars need effective forward defence addressed col royal engineers carried survey thames recommended building triangle artillery batteries guard entrance reach reach river lower hope reach batteries located south bank miles north west lower hope point miles north west north bank east miles north old batteries maximum range miles arcs fire overlap enabling support new battery constructed ground short distance south east catherine church soft soil caused problems work completed july year equipped cannon mounted traversing carriages enabled gunners track targets easily case traditional garrison carriages battery faced river semi circular guns mounted walled area rear enclosed barracks magazine shot heating shot set wooden ships fire structure surrounded water filled ditch modified raise height add small expense magazine store ammunition immediate use french test thames defences despite invasion scare battery abandoned lower hope point following napoleon final defeat fort renewed tension britain france 1840s led britain coastal defences batteries point reinstated upgraded lower hope point restored case battery substantially extended convert fort progress slow ground causing problems cracking foundations contractor proving unsatisfactory new fort built extension north west existing battery took irregular plan extended accommodate guns total seventeen enlarged interior replaced old barracks magazine east firing positions sides facilitated defence land based fort surrounded wide water filled ditch bridge west providing access route second fort late 1850s britain france locked arms race new generation increasingly accurate powerful guns developed rifled muzzle rifled breech types mounted fast moving steam powered ironclad warships french british hms warrior vessels posed threat important naval installations thames including yards armaments works arsenal yards north magazines possible large warships reach central london river deep ships tons american_civil_war soon possible warships day run past forts attack coastal rivers new weapons meant existing coastal forts rendered largely obsolete american_civil_war soon demonstrate traditional brick masonry forts reduced rubble rifled guns government response appoint royal commission defence united_kingdom published far reaching report royal commission recommended triangle forts established lower thames east involve replacing existing fort essex shore new fortification similarly replacing existing fort building wholly fort opposite point replace abandoned 18th century battery lower hope point location forts enable arcs fire guns addition boom defence minefield installed point wartime boost strength defences design new fort similar royal commission forts thames arc granite faced casemates reinforced iron shields believed virtually enemy fire originally envisaged fort tiers design similar garrison point fort mounting guns casemates rest barbette fort roof construction began basis july work progressed design changed leaving fort single tier casemates like predecessors construction seriously affected poor ground conditions disrupted shifting cracking foundations final phases construction supervised colonel charles george gordon later die siege fort cost amounted operational history 19th century originally intended fort armed smooth bore guns obsolete time completed powerful armour piercing weapons required casemates provided inch thirteen inch range yards inch open battery mounted metal traversing platforms elevated traversed hand operated devices operating guns presented significant challenges inch weighed long tons apiece charge weighing pounds fire shell weighing pounds maximum range broke windows half mile away fired clouds black smoke generated firing presented physical hazard gun crews guns controlled battery commander post situated roof commands gun detachments relayed voice pipes depression range installed roof late 1890s aid guns targeting trained crew fire gun minutes firing guns guns positioned fired sequence enemy ship passed combined fire forts kent shore ensure constant fire maintained different sides rapid development artillery weapons late 19th century meant style fortification virtually obsolete decade fort completion original purpose defending river large warships taken new east battery constructed metres north west outside east village contained powerful breech loading guns disappearing carriages concealed facing east river similar battery built fort peninsula miles time new threat emerged shape fast highly torpedo boat large guns virtually useless vessels fort supplemented new battery built metres south quick firing guns installed similar batteries built opposite shore forts early 20th century start 20th century fort casemates use vulnerable modern artillery instead fort covered sloping earth blocking casemates filling inner defensive ditch demolished time old retired replaced vii inch guns quick firing guns ranges miles miles respectively mounted concrete fort roof larger guns intended support east battery smaller ones provided defence fast moving vessels destroyers torpedo boats despite old inch remained fort late giant spray torpedo boats got past guns fort manned world war company royal garrison artillery manned guns 2nd company london electrical engineers operated electric minefield installed river forts operated mines shallower parts river remotely detonated mines channel friendly ships pass freely mines detonated shore based observer enemy ship tried use main channel fort took role examination battery controlling river traffic conjunction river examination service incoming vessels checked based alongside old hms champion moored vessel deemed suspect refused stop fort authorised fire bows fort armament reduced war forts batteries took duties inch guns shipped river fort guns roof withdrawn anti aircraft battery established north west fort defence enemy bombers 1920s 1940s following end war proposed fort equipped inch guns post war defence cuts meant plan abandoned instead fort reduced care maintenance status east battery decommissioned continuing development artillery firepower meant forts batteries took increased responsibility forward defences thames forts reach relegated second line defence fort emergency battery anti invasion preparations early second world war existing inch guns replaced july inch guns taken ill fated hms hood sinking range yards installed old inch steel shelter constructed fort roof protect guns brick observation post roof provided range finding remotely controlled installed roof north riverside purpose installations protect raids cruisers torpedo boats counter landings thames fort defences enhanced light anti aircraft guns including gun installed roof august fort perimeter surrounded barbed wire trenches mortars installed fort gorge bases seen today detached concrete observation tower built north fort use extended defence officer post control electrically detonated mines laid river radar tower manned naval personnel built south fort cover approaches minefield anti aircraft battery built metres north west farm august frequently defence eastern approaches london bombed occasion threat invasion fort handed home guard coast battery detachment complement time captain ranks supplemented detachment operated range established fort hms ships passed submerged sensors detected steel hulls sufficient extent german magnetic mines detected recalled later recalled found surrounded wonderful array young men soldiers marines ranks girls sight hms combined operations base evolved hms iii hms iii fort military designation admiralty training sea cadets nautical youth groups decommissioned architecture casemates fort remarkably preserved provides finest surviving examples mid victorian armoured fort casemates arranged semi circle facing south east river annexed open battery facing south west casemates faced massive granite iron gun ports protect gunners splinters incoming fire casemates altered years original features survive guns remain metal rails traversed place casemates divided sections periods high alert gun crews live weapons casemates rear area known war accommodation gun proper loading firing took place iron shield protecting fitted iron bars thick lengths rope hung protected gun crew splinters smoke loading bar gun port enabled crew lift heavy shells mouth gun magazines lifts guns mounted open battery lighter casemates enclosed traversed rails open air covered section led ammunition lift shaft shells raised lifting gear survives improvements artillery technology necessitated significant changes fort structure end 19th century start 20th closely packed casemates type built fort vulnerable new powerful types explosive shells alleviate threat massive concrete traverses constructed 1880s preventing shell inside affecting neighbours causing cumulative explosion construction concrete gun fort roof necessitated addition circular concrete pillars casemates support extra weight roof ammunition lifts extended serve new roof mounted guns magazines barracks roof magazines situated deep casemates consist alternating pairs shell cartridge rooms accessed ammunition passage lighting passage great care taken reduce possibility accidental explosion magazine workers wore special clothes shoes eliminate risk striking sparks floors cartridge stores covered wooden lighting provided oil lamps situated glass windows accessed lighting passage physically separated rest magazine sets lifting gear enabled workers ammunition casemates communicate voice tubes barracks brick faced fort exterior closes gorge line facilitate small arms fire windows armoured steel floor barracks facing fort interior supported cast iron pillars barracks provided accommodation wartime complement officers men peacetime small maintenance detachments occupied fort accommodated hospital room fourteen patients barracks poor condition kitchen ranges survive rooms contain service painted walls second world war irregularly shaped parade area occupies middle fort divided sloping ramp leading casemates small brick building originally laboratory shell filling facility stands right ramp fort entered single gateway west protected attackers fort surrounded dry ditch originally provide defence wide outer wet ditch blocked access riverside roof fort accessed steps open battery altered substantially half 20th century accommodate new guns structures include inch inch guns positions shelters observation post fire control building machine gun north royal_navy monitoring station external facilities fort linked wharf riverside short distance south standard gauge railway track led fort interior bring guns supplies wharf heaviest guns transported fort thames forts aboard specialised gun barges called built respectively 1960s remains visible sections track fort entrance storey concrete structure situated north fort second world war extended defence officer post control minefield outside fort serve corresponding post located kent shore small concrete structure located metres north east electrical power house minefield overlooked radar tower metres south fort consisting concrete structure metal frame radar array mounted stands atop brick building power plant electrical equipment radar screen personnel accommodation located short time considered structurally unsafe situated nearby detached battery built mount quick firing guns preserved ready use magazines largely intact current status decommissioned fort leased storage facility shoes operated nearby shoe factory east emergency housing servicemen families parade ground coal store miners strike purchased urban district council council remain owners day council turned area fort riverside park building decayed badly neglect vandalism fort adjacent artillery defences south fort collectively designated scheduled monument recognition status remarkable group defensive sites fort leased fort project heritage charity operated volunteers project undertaking gradual restoration fort hold regular open days items 20th century military equipment display interior fort casemates house small military related museums magazines fort roof visited volunteer led guided tours project highly commended british archaeological awards fort featured bbc series restoration film batman begins stood prison minutes film british director christopher seen fort featured series decided wanted set film opening scenes poor condition parts structure ongoing state slow decay led listed heritage risk register english_heritage provided emergency grant supplemented council filming fee warner batman begins help worth repairs gatehouse completed grants thames council heritage lottery fund funded ongoing construction new block outside fort entrance house cafe toilets information centre opened late august mile riverside walk known forts way links fort older counterpart fort described challenging route suitable able bodied experienced


laboratory laboratory met lab chicago based manhattan_project allied effort develop atomic bomb world war project headed arthur nobel prize professor physics university_of_chicago objective create atomic bomb laboratory established february produced controlled nuclear chain reaction december chicago built university old football stadium field august chemical section separate sample chicago ceased operation february dismantled moved site forest original materials build chicago chicago built site early world use heavy water went critical operated power july laboratory designed clinton engineer works oak ridge tennessee engineer works state washington addition work development laboratory studied chemistry worked develop process separate certain nuclear involve radioactive materials gigantic scale considerable concern health safety aspects study biological effects radiation assumed greater importance discovered like bone making especially hazardous laboratory led richard samuel daniels scientists worked included eugene peak july laboratory staff july declined laboratory national laboratory july origins discovery james followed nuclear german theoretical explanation naming soon opened possibility controlled nuclear chain reaction columbia_university leo began exploring achieved drafted confidential letter president united_states franklin roosevelt warning possibility german nuclear weapon project convinced old friend collaborator albert sign resulted support research nuclear government april national defense research committee asked arthur nobel prize winning physics professor university_of_chicago report program john heavy odd atomic numbers likely university california produced inch found times thermal capture cross section minute quantities created feasible produce large quantity way conferred eugene princeton_university produced nuclear robert university illinois produced separated bred december soon japanese attack pearl harbor brought united_states war placed charge project objectives produce convert find ways separate design build atomic bomb successful built scientists produced different promising design concepts fell decide pursued proposed ambitious schedule aimed achieve controlled nuclear chain reaction january atomic bomb january felt having teams columbia princeton university_of_chicago university california created collaboration resolved concentrate work location wanted everybody argued favor location january soon united_states entered world war decided concentrate work location university_of_chicago knew support university administration columbia engaged efforts hesitant add secret project factors contributing decision chicago central location availability scientists technicians facilities midwest taken away war work housing readily available inland city vulnerable enemy attack personnel new research establishment formed february named laboratory met lab real eventually carried intended cover activities university_of_chicago considering establishing research institute metals war creation attracted little attention project known project laboratory administered university_of_chicago contract office scientific research development people research groups participated project worked laboratory chicago despite offering good salaries recruiting difficult competition scientists engineers defense related projects chicago expensive compared university towns norman associate director project richard appointed director laboratory able administrator difficulty accepted head laboratory academic replaced samuel appointed henry associate director initially physics groups headed martin frank charge chemistry division later succeeded james placed robert charge bomb design effort june november separate project known project located los new_mexico united_states_army corps engineers took manhattan_project august manhattan district coordinated work february reported directly director manhattan_project brigadier general instead committee manhattan district assumed responsibility laboratory contract captain appointed chicago area engineer august succeeded captain arthur december remained october captain chicago area engineer july buildings laboratory office space provided university_of_chicago took space north west stands field service building took george jones laboratory kent chemical laboratory health group took space anatomy building house hospital laboratory administrative offices went hall later wrote morale scientists plotted counting number lights burning dinner offices hall project accommodation hall moved nearby hall laboratory eventually occupied square feet campus space worth alterations buildings occupied laboratory university_of_chicago alterations users displaced university_of_chicago acre site occupied tennis courts available manhattan district dollar lease construction new chemistry building square feet space stone commenced work september completed december soon found small adjacent acre plot added lease square foot annex built completed november extensive work carried ventilation system allow laboratory work safely site containing ice house stables owned university chicago available april known site provide square feet laboratories workshops health groups field artillery leased state illinois provide space march square feet space leased built cost million reasons safety security desirable locate facilities experiments nuclear densely populated chicago selected site forest forest preserve district cook county miles southwest chicago known site war department leased acres land cook county duration war plus year dollar construction facilities including laboratories service buildings access road commenced september completed early appointed director laboratory development chicago september november groups anderson walter constructed experimental known time piles field stands designed new pile brought controlled self sustaining nuclear reaction construction fell schedule stone difficulty recruiting skilled workers obtaining required building materials led industrial dispute union workers downing tools recruitment non union labor clear materials new pile hand new structure completed approved proposal build pile stands field construction known chicago began morning november work carried hour shifts day shift walter night shift anderson completed wooden frame supported elliptical shaped structure foot high foot wide ends feet middle contained short tons metal short tons short tons estimated cost million december achieved controlled self sustaining nuclear reaction december power output increased power light lacking kind radiation hazard vicinity testing continued lower power chicago operation chicago terminated february dismantled moved original materials build chicago instead spherical new built cube like shape feet tall base approximately feet square surrounded concrete walls feet thick acted radiation shield overhead protection inches lead inches wood contained short tons short tons cooling system provided ran kilowatts operational march chicago second known chicago built site early world use heavy water unavailable built available quantity thanks manhattan_project project large aluminum tank feet diameter filled heavy water weighed short tons cover pierced regularly spaced holes rods aluminum projected heavy water tank surrounded turn surrounded lead shield concrete consisted layers foot square bricks composed layers iron heavy water cooled water cooled heat addition control rods emergency mechanism dumping heavy water tank construction began january went critical operated power july war allowed run clock design easy conduct experiments included tests investigate properties determine capture cross section elements compounds construct future occur trials instrumentation experiments determine thermal stability materials train operators production piles design production involved number problems nuclear physics engineering construction issues long term effect radiation materials received considerable attention laboratory types considered fuel mixed fuel arranged geometric configuration called late mathematical analysis shown design advantages type chosen subsequently production chosen basis availability compared heavy water decision attracted debate laboratory choice difficulties use overlooked large quantities required pure absorbing special required gas problem radioactive gases solved problems regarded decision use conveyed company responsible building production initially accepted early theoretical group included way leo gale young edward produced design production water cooling choice water controversial known absorb reducing efficiency confident group calculations correct available water work technical difficulties involved delay project design thin layer aluminum protect cooling water cylindrical aluminum jackets pushed channels drop cooling pond subsided taken away extracted reviewing designs engineers chose water cooled patent design issued young use water raised problem aluminum laboratory tested water determine effect found water slightly acidic acid added water acid introduced water prevent build film circulation cooling water fuel given jacket aluminum protect metal occur came contact water prevent radioactive products formed aluminum chosen transmit heat absorb aluminum canning process given close attention jam damage channels smallest holes vent radioactive gases laboratory investigated production testing regimes canning process important area research concerned effect bombardment carbon knocked structure time causes heat swell investigation problem fix found chemistry work concentrated despite discovered century little known evidenced fact references gave figure melting point nearly edward investigated discovered right temperature range rolled drawn rods required production design found cut burst flame working general_electric laboratory devised method aluminum jacket completely unknown came surprise recently discovered august team isolated jones laboratory available amounts produced washington university louis chemistry division worked develop process separate health safety dangers radiation poisoning known experience painters certain nuclear involve radioactive materials gigantic scale considerable concern health safety aspects robert stone worked lawrence university california recruited head project health safety program assumed responsibility radiation safety chicago moving head program site appointed warren university rochester head manhattan_project medical section time study biological effects radiation assumed greater importance discovered like bone making especially hazardous laboratory health division set standards radiation exposure workers routinely tested university_of_chicago late personal fiber film badge recorded cumulative stone health division worked closely william instrumentation group physics division develop including portable parker created metric radiation exposure called equivalent man war replaced standard measure radiation exposure work assess got way clinton engineer works began producing project set limit body work practices chicago clinton modified ensure standard met later activities laboratory focused getting clinton engineer works site running end focus switched training operators chemistry division moved oak ridge october personnel transferred manhattan_project sites particularly los division head los september director laboratory followed november taking substantial number laboratory staff including instrument section replaced daniels associate director september succeeded director july possible university_of_chicago attempted employ workers transferred laboratory projects work ended replacing staff nearly impossible ordered freeze division grow november march health division rest lost percent staff peak staff july number people working laboratory fell july end war end flow departures left taking remained chemistry division february army reached agreement university president robert staff equipment project taken regional laboratory based university manages july laboratory national laboratory designated national laboratory director new laboratory staff december manhattan_project ended responsibility national laboratories passed atomic energy commission replaced manhattan_project january work laboratory led founding institute james institute university_of_chicago united_states government began cleaning old manhattan_project sites utilized sites action program included laboratory field demolished locations kent laboratory jones laboratory cubic feet solid drums liquid waste collected shipped sites disposal atomic energy commission terminated lease site restored state illinois testing indicated levels exceeded department energy guidelines carried site declared suitable use


french pronunciation fortress paris known formally saint played important role internal conflicts france history state prison kings france stormed crowd july french revolution important symbol french republican movement later demolished replaced place built defend eastern approach city paris english threat years war initial work began main construction occurred onwards creating strong fortress towers protected strategic gateway saint eastern edge paris innovative design proved influential france england widely copied figured prominently france domestic conflicts including fighting rival factions 15th century wars religion 16th fortress declared state prison role expanded english louis defences fortified response english imperial threat constructed east fortress played key role rebellion battle saint fought beneath walls louis prison upper class members french society opposed angered including french onwards functioned primarily state prisoners passed gates louis prisoners varied backgrounds support operations police especially enforcing government censorship printed media inmates kept relatively good conditions criticism grew 18th century fueled written prisoners reforms implemented prisoner numbers considerably reduced royal government financial crisis formation national assembly gave rise swelling republican sentiments city july stormed revolutionary crowd primarily residents saint sought valuable gunpowder held fortress seven remaining prisoners found released governor bernard killed crowd demolished order committee fortress transported france displayed icons overthrow century site historical legacy featured prominently french revolutions political protests popular fiction remained important symbol french republican movement left remains stone foundation relocated boulevard historians critical early 19th century believe fortress relatively administered institution deeply implicated system french political control 18th century history 14th century built response threat paris years war england france prior main royal castle paris west capital city expanded middle 14th century eastern exposed english attack situation worsened imprisonment john england following french defeat battle absence paris took steps improve capital defences expanded city walls protected saint high stone towers foot wide ditch fortified gateway sort called created paris built outside saint subsequently removed post executed charles concerned weakness eastern city english attacks raids mercenaries charles instructed hugh new build larger fortification site work began pair towers built followed towers north finally towers south fortress probably finished time charles died completed son charles resulting structure known simply irregularly built towers linking curtain walls forming structure feet wide feet deep walls towers feet high feet thick bases built height roofs towers tops walls formed broad walkway way fortress newer towers underground dungeons base curved literally shell rooms roofs garrisoned captain knight encircled ditches fed river faced stone fortress sets allowed saint pass eastwards gates giving easy access city walls north south sides overlooked saint gate strong square building turrets protected charles chose live close safety created royal complex south fortress called paul stretching saint paul saint historian toy described powerful fortifications period important fortification late medieval paris design highly innovative rejected 13th century tradition weakly fortified castles contemporary fashion set tall towers positioned lower wall overlooked taller centre particular building towers walls height allowed rapid movement forces castle giving space position cannons wider design copied france architectural influence extended far castle south west england 15th century 15th century french kings continued face threats english rival factions strategically vital period role royal fortress safe haven inside capital controlled critical route paris example future charles vii took refuge led massacre paris successfully fleeing city saint occasionally hold prisoners including creator person imprisoned addition royal fortress formally state prison despite improved defences henry england captured paris seized garrisoned english sixteen years henry appointed thomas duke exeter new captain english use prison minor rebellion prisoners sleeping guard attempted seize control fortress incident includes reference dedicated paris finally recaptured charles vii france french king entered city enemies paris fortified siege eventually ran food surrendered allowed leave city payment ransom castle remained key fortress successfully seized convinced royal troops surrender taken allowed faction surprise attack paris resulting capture king hold prisoners reign louis began use extensively state early period count member league public imprisoned louis escaped boat captains period primarily officers royal captain receive salary awarded year despite state prison retained traditional functions royal castle accommodate visiting dignitaries hosting lavish given louis francis 16th century 16th century area developed early modern paris continued grow end century inhabitants populous cities europe largely contained old city walls open countryside remained arsenal large military industrial complex tasked production cannons weapons royal armies established south francis substantially expanded charles arms depot later built saint making major military centre henry_ii concerned threat english holy roman empire attack paris strengthened defences response southern gateway principal entrance castle closed large projecting eastwards built provide additional protective fire arsenal reached fortress stone connecting installed tower saint altered replaced fixed bridge medieval gatehouse replaced arch involved numerous wars religion fought protestant catholic factions support foreign allies second half 16th century religious political tensions paris initially exploded day hard line catholics rose revolt relatively moderate henry iii day fighting occurred capital henry iii fled surrendered henry duke guise leader catholic league appointed new captain henry iii responded having duke brother murdered later year base mount raid paris arresting president suspected having royalist sympathies released intervention charles duke payment substantial remained control december following political instability forced surrender castle charles flee city took henry years retake paris time succeeded area formed main stronghold catholic league foreign allies including spanish flemish troops controlled league captain called henry entered paris early morning march saint seized capital including arsenal complex isolated league stronghold remaining members league allies safety days tension agreement finally reached element leave safely march surrendered left city early 17th century continued prison royal fortress henry son louis henry spanish backed plot senior french nobility example detained charles duke executed courtyard louis chief minister cardinal credited beginning modern transformation formal organ french state increasing structured use state prison broke henry tradition captain member french aristocracy typically marshal france charles albert hospital instead appointed joseph brother run facility surviving documentary records prisoners date period insurrection broke paris prompted high taxes increased food prices disease paris regency government anne austria rebellious noble factions fought years control city wider power august period known anne ordered arrest leaders paris violence result august known day governor loaded guns fire controlled parliament decision eventually taken shoot erected city royal government fled september leaving garrison men january decided giving task leaders attack required token effort shots fired promptly surrendered january leaders appointed son governor retained march second louis prince controlled paris alongside son continued control july battle took place outside paris prevent advance royalist forces command forces trapped city walls saint refused open coming increasingly heavy fire royalist artillery situation looked bleak famous incident daughter duke convinced father issue order forces act entered personally ensured commander turned fortress cannon army causing significant casualties enabling army safe withdrawal later finally forced surrender paris royalist forces october effectively bringing end returned royal control reign louis regency area transformed reign louis paris growing population reached period causing city spill past old city farmland forming populated suburbs influenced events louis rebuilt area new saint years later pulling city walls supporting fortifications replace avenue trees later called louis boulevard passed survived redevelopment garden use prisoners louis extensive use prison individuals detained reign approximately year louis hold suspected rebels simply irritated way differing matters religion typical offences inmates accused espionage state number financial officials detained way louis famously including supporters henry louis revoked previously granted rights french subsequent royal crackdown driven king strongly anti protestant views investigate break protestant networks questioning members community particular upper class imprisoned louis reign louis reign prisoners detained letter royal seal issued king minister ordering named person held louis closely involved aspect government personally decided imprisoned arrest involved element ceremony individual tapped shoulder white formally detained king detention typically ordered indefinite period considerable secrecy detained legend man iron mask mysterious prisoner finally died period practice held form punishment legally prisoner detained investigative reasons prison officially supposed measure right average length imprisonment louis approximately years louis prisoners usually held time held short period prisoners mainly upper classes afford pay additional lived good conditions wearing clothes living rooms decorated taking exercise castle garden walls late 17th century library use inmates origins remain unclear louis reformed administrative structure creating post governor post referred captain governor louis reign marginal groups paris greatly increased wider criminal justice system reformed controls printing publishing extended new criminal codes issued post lieutenant general police created enable later role support police 18th century strong french military garrison established continued expensive institution run particularly prison numbers inflated campaign french annual cost running rose year louis death power transferred regent maintained prison louis system began weaken somewhat ceased kept political plots period kept prison busy imprisoned regency average year conspiracy alleged enemies regency imprisoned including fell love fellow prisoner received invitation marriage governor deputy fallen love reigns louis louis architecture organisation late 18th century come separate aristocratic quarter old city working class district saint lay louis boulevard fashionable area frequented foreign visitors tourists went characterised built densely populated areas particularly north numerous workshops producing soft paris continued grow reaching slightly inhabitants reign louis residents migrated paris countryside relatively recently street address officially known saint structurally century greatly changed 14th century predecessor stone towers gradually acquired individual names running north east external gate coin contained chapel decorated painting saint peter chains took reign henry contained royal treasury origins tower unclear theory refers county paris named royal treasurer imprisoned named medieval mason died building structure 14th century tower took protest shouted phrase outside castle house prisoners freedom walk castle typical prisoner tower contained castle coin formed corner saint main castle courtyard accessed southern gateway feet long feet wide divided smaller northern yard office wing built renovated modern 18th century style office wing held council room prisoners library servants quarters upper stories included rooms senior staff chambers distinguished prisoners elevated building courtyard held archives clock installed lieutenant general police office wing depicting prisoners new built outside main gate ditch largely dry supported foot high stone wall wooden walkway use guards known round outer court grown south west adjacent arsenal open public lined small shops rented governor year complete lodge illuminated night light adjacent street run governor called captain governor lived 17th century house alongside fortress governor supported officers particular deputy lieutenant lieutenant king responsible general security protection state secrets major responsible managing financial affairs police archives des ran entrance divided towers administrative perspective prison generally run period staff supported official surgeon chaplain occasion services local assist pregnant prisoners small garrison appointed guard interior exterior fortress retired soldiers regarded locally simon describes professional soldiers use prison role prison changed considerably reigns louis trend decline number prisoners sent imprisoned reign louis louis revolution annual averages respectively second trend slow shift away 17th century role primarily upper class prisoners situation essentially location socially undesirable individuals backgrounds including breaking social conventions criminals support police operations particularly involving censorship paris despite changes remained state prison subject special authorities answering monarch day surrounded considerable threatening reputation louis catholic called detained religious beliefs prisoners women came wider range social backgrounds upper class detained louis historian argues decline social originates phase louis background entering type offences detained changed markedly included people accused robbery involvement famine revolt detained assault illegal editors writers relatively detained affairs state prisoners continued come upper classes particularly cases termed des disorders family cases typically involving members aristocracy historian richard notes rejected parental authority family reputation manifested mental capital violated professional codes families parents husbands wives taking action apply individuals detained royal prisons resulting average imprisonment months years detention facing scandal public trial secrecy surrounded detention allowed personal family quietly protected considered best prisons upper class prisoner detained standard facilities wealthy aftermath notorious affair diamond necklace involving queen accusations fraud suspects held significantly increasing notoriety surrounding institution increasingly system wider paris appointed king governor reported lieutenant general police occasional visits successor subsequent officers facility extensively took close interest prison lieutenant general reported turn secretary largely responsible order capital practice controlled issuing king unusual prisons acted behalf king prisoners imprisoned secretly longer normal judicial processes applied making useful facility police authorities preferred location holding prisoners needed extensive questioning case required analysis extensive documents store police archives public order equipment chains flags illegal goods seized order crown version banned books illicit printing presses period particularly middle 18th century police suppress trade illegal books france sent arrested role manufacturing dealing banned material equivalent figure writers held famous writers held period formally imprisoned anti social strictly political offences particular writers detained louis imprisoned role producing illegal pornography political critiques regime writer philosopher historian jean example formally detained obviously political writings remarks personal insults leading members society prison regime contrary later image conditions prisoners century fact relatively particularly standards prisons time typical prisoner held octagonal rooms mid levels towers rooms roof formed upper storey considered pleasant quarters exposed elements usually hot cold underground dungeons years holding recaptured prisoners rooms fireplace basic furniture cases window typical criticism rooms basic uncomfortable like main courtyard exercise criticised prisoners unpleasant height summer winter garden castle walls recreation governor received money crown support prisoners varying rank governor received day political prisoner grade nobles receiving end scale day sum twice daily wage provided adequate diet upper classes ate critics recounted excellent meals taken governor prisoners punished diet restricted punishment medical treatment provided prisoners excellent standards 18th century prison contained number inmates suffering mental illnesses took standards day progressive attitude care potentially dangerous objects money confiscated stored prisoner entered wealthy prisoners continued bring additional including pet dogs cats control local example arrived elaborate wardrobe paintings selection collection books card games played prisoners alcohol tobacco permitted servants accompany masters cases detention family lord entire household british spies family domestic life continued inside prison relatively normally prisoners library grown 18th century mainly hoc purchases crown included volumes length time typical prisoner kept continued decline louis reign average length detention months prisoners expected sign document release promising talk time agreement frequently broken prisoners leaving granted release crown form compensation way ensuring future good behaviour granted year example received annual pension criticism reform 18th century extensively french writers symbol ministerial criticism ultimately result reforms plans abolition major criticism emerged imprisoned years published accounts experience book presented dramatic account detention explaining despite innocent abused left dungeons kept corpse criticism followed jean escaped years previously published account adventures safety gave similar account termed hell living added notorious reputation wrote case man iron mask later criticised way treated detained fortress palace revenge prison reform popular topic french writers increasingly symbol arbitrary authors particularly influential period simon nicholas arrested detained publishing critique release published sur critique institution criticised physical conditions kept went capturing detail psychological effects prison regime encouraged louis destroy publishing depicting king announcing prisoners free live phrase borrowed work followed prominent autobiography soldier imprisoned following sequence complex including sending letter bomb madame king mistress famous managing escape means climbing chimney cell descending walls home rope ladder recaptured amsterdam french agents released following publication book entitled memoirs vengeance pamphlets magazines publicised case finally released popular figure french academy autobiography inaccurate places reinforce public perception institution modern historians period simon actual treatment prisoners better public impression left writings nonetheless secrecy surrounded official public concern prison system supported began mount prompting reforms early louis minister authorised prisoners given newspapers read allowed write correspond family friends secretary state began substantial reform system sent prisoners required list length time prisoner detained offence held architect proposed demolished converted circular public space director general finance having examined costs running amounting example proposed closing institution grounds economy similarly lieutenant submitted reports suggesting authorities close prison demolish fortress sell real estate june architecture proposed similar scheme transformed open public area tall column centre surrounded dedicated louis public freedom number prisoners held time declined sharply end louis reign prison contained prisoners september despite mild increase beginning july seven prisoners remained custody official scheme close prison enacted disturbances paris brought violent end french revolution july revolutionary sentiment rising paris estates general convened members estate proclaimed tennis court oath june calling king grant written constitution violence loyal royal forces members royal local crowds broke july leading widespread fighting withdrawal royal forces centre paris revolutionary crowds began arm july looting royal stores shops weapons gunpowder commander time bernard minor military officer tensions surrounding rising weeks prisoners remained fortress link revolution addressing public walks towers forbidden shouting window cell began claim authorities planned massacre prisoners castle resulted governor removing alternative site early july request additional force soldiers swiss regiment assigned july adding existing formed regular garrison taken precautions raising tower destroying stone linked prevent gaining access fortress shops closed gates locked defended small artillery pieces nonetheless july concerned situation hugely unpopular revolutionary crowds remaining royalist stronghold central paris addition protecting recently arrived stock barrels valuable gunpowder matters worse days supply food source water making impossible withstand long siege morning july people formed outside primarily working class members nearby saint including soldiers local traders crowd gathered attempt gunpowder stocks known held let leaders negotiate midday let discuss situation compromise reached revolutionary representatives wanted guns gunpowder handed refused received leadership versailles point clear governor lacked experience skills situation negotiations chaos broke angry crowd stormed outer courtyard pushing main gate confused firing broke confined space chaotic fighting began earnest forces revolutionary crowd sides exchanged fire royal forces arrived reinforce crowd bringing trained infantry officers cannons discovering weapons light damage main walls fortress revolutionary crowd began fire cannons wooden gate crowd killed mortally wounded killed return limited options allowed revolutionaries destroy main gate turn cannon directly inside courtyard crowds causing great loss life preventing peaceful resolution episode withstand long siege officers committing mass suicide supplies powder instead attempted negotiate surrender threatening blow demands met midst attempt suddenly came revolutionary crowd stormed dragged outside streets killed crowd officers soldiers killed course afternoon crowd soldiers swiss regiment wearing uniform coats mistaken prisoners left unharmed crowds escorted away french guards regular soldiers attackers valuable powder guns seized search begun prisoners destruction hours capture began powerful symbol legitimacy revolutionary movement france saint revolutionary reputation firmly established formal list began drawn taken honor fallen survivors crowd initially gone searching gunpowder historian simon observes captured prison gave shape image revolution defined evil portrayed pro revolutionary press necessary justified actions revolution consequently late governor rapidly brutal fortress described revolutionary press place slavery horror containing machines death grim underground dungeons caves prisoners left years result days july fortress searched evidence torture old pieces armour bits printing press taken presented evidence elaborate torture equipment returned given rope ladder equipment escaped prison years prison escorted visitors weeks capture giving colourful accounts events castle stories pictures rescue fictional count supposedly prisoner incarcerated louis similarly imaginary discovery skeleton man iron mask dungeons widely circulated fact paris coming months broadside publications theme events formed basis number theatrical plays despite thorough search revolutionaries discovered seven prisoners fewer anticipated elderly white man closely resembled public image prisoner despite mentally ill streets happily crowds remaining liberated prisoners convicted quickly vanished paris streets count imprisoned request family sexual sixth proved mentally ill course asylum revolutionary movement uncertain destroy prison fortress members volunteer guard militia preserve intact permanent revolutionary monument revolutionary leader eventually settled matter symbolically starting destruction panel experts appointed permanent committee manage demolition castle experts entrepreneur claimed status role taking rapidly assumed control entire process team worked quickly november fortress destroyed ruins rapidly iconic france altar set site february formed iron chains restraints prison old bones probably 15th century soldiers discovered clearance work april presented skeletons prisoners saint paul cemetery summer huge ball held site national visiting paris july celebrations memorabilia industry surrounding fall work demolition project finally dried started producing selling memorabilia products called relics freedom celebrated national unity events july generated classes french included wide range items sent models carved fortress stones gifts french provinces expense spread revolutionary message large revolutionary fountain featuring statue isis built site fortress known place 19th 20th century political cultural legacy remained powerful evocative symbol french republicans 19th century napoleon french republic emerged revolution subsequently attempted symbol napoleon unhappy revolutionary place initially considered building arc site instead proved unpopular option instead planned construction huge bronze statue imperial elephant project delayed eventually indefinitely constructed large plaster version bronze statue stood site decaying structure finally removed restoration french monarchy underground symbol republicans july revolution images new regime site build july column commemorate revolution short lived second republic symbolically declared revolutionary site july celebrated annually initially quasi religious rituals later revolution grand secular events including burning replica napoleon events revolutionary focusing instead military national unity face foreign threats 1870s july celebrations rallying point republicans opposed early leadership republic moderate republican president new government turned anniversary fall national holiday anniversary remained contentious hard line republicans continuing use occasion protest new political order right wing conservatives protesting holiday july column remained contentious republican unsuccessfully tried blow legacy proved popular french example legend man iron mask extensively novels presented picturesque tragic suitable setting heroic action contrast works takes darker appearance described place prisoner forgotten buried destroyed england charles took similar perspective drew popular histories writing tale cities doctor buried alive prison years historical figures associated fictional individuals novel reproduced victor hugo novel les set revolution gave napoleon plaster elephant permanent place literary history continued popularity public illustrated decision build replica stone wood exposition world fair paris manned actors period costumes national republican ideas france second half republic lost element prominence symbol 20th century nonetheless place continued traditional location left wing rallies particularly 1930s symbol widely evoked french resistance second world war 1950s day remained single significant french national holiday remains destruction little remains 21st century excavations underground train system foundations tower uncovered moved corner boulevard seen today contains stones reused relics survive museum holds objects including stone models rope ladder escape prison roof 18th century mechanism bells prison clock exhibited art isle key given george_washington displayed historic house mount archives held france place occupies location built square commemorate anniversary prison surrounding area largely redeveloped 19th century industrial past ditch originally linked defences fortress river dug start 19th century form industrial harbour arsenal linked canal saint martin marina pleasure boats links square redeveloped east historiography number histories published immediately july usually dramatic titles promising secrets prison 1830s 1840s popular histories written trio presented years single long period royal oppression fortress works featured imaginative 19th century medieval torture prisoners living memories revolution faded destruction meant later historians rely primarily documentary materials fortress prisoners come archives recording operation prison scattered confusion seizure effort paris assembly gathered following weeks form basis modern archive safely stored ignored years archives rediscovered french historian research end 19th century historian archives undertake detailed research operation focusing upper class prisoners 18th century myths institution portraying prison favourable light modern historians today consider work slightly biased anti republican views histories highly influential largely responsible establishing run relatively institution historian archive material produce considered modern historians best balanced 19th century histories works inspired writing sequence popular histories late 19th early 20th centuries including anniversary history typically focused handful themes stories involving glamorous prisoners upper classes french society major debates actual taking nature crowds stormed building argued late 19th century crowd consisted unemployed acted real thought contrast post war left wing intellectual george argued crowd dominated relatively prosperous workers matter post war years showing convincingly addition local traders half crowd gathered day like inhabitants surrounding recent immigrants paris provinces taking genuinely national event wider importance french society 1970s french particularly interested critical theory examined historical legacy school conducted extensive research order maintained pre revolutionary france focusing operation police concepts religion histories focused prison role censorship popular culture particular impacted working classes research west_germany 1980s examined cultural interpretation wider context french revolution work explaining came regarded symbol prominent body work influenced historian simon book revolution incorporated cultural interpretation controversial critique violence surrounding france held major exhibition legacy resulting substantial edited volume current academic perspectives fortress