people people ethnic group associated cornwall south west great_britain administered england recognised national minority united_kingdom represent distinct ethnic group trace roots ancient inhabited southern central great_britain roman conquest county today continue assert distinct identity separately addition english british identities identity adopted migrants cornwall descendant communities cornwall referred included explicit option census numbers claiming ethnic national identity officially recognised recorded classical antiquity ancient formed series tribes cultures identities great_britain celtic tribes inhabited cornwall iron age roman post roman periods cornwall derived celtic tribe anglo saxon invasion settlement britain 5th 6th centuries pushed celtic culture celtic peoples northern western fringes britain people shared language welsh sea referred old english language meaning west welsh battle anglo thought resulted loss people wales people language experienced process attrition medieval early modern period 18th century following creation kingdom great_britain language identity faded replaced english language british identity celtic revival century enabled cultural self consciousness cornwall language express distinctly celtic heritage language granted official recognition european charter regional minority languages people recognised afforded protection government framework convention protection national minorities census population cornwall including isles estimated self government movement called greater recognition culture politics language urged people accorded greater status exemplified listed ethnic groups united_kingdom census form classification geographic historical factors distinguish ethnic group supported identifiable genetic populations cornwall neighbouring devon england published oxford_university study medieval early modern britain points accorded status english welsh considered separate race nation distinct neighbours language society customs process led adopting english language culture civic identity view reinforced historian said gradually absorbed mainstream english life decidedly modern largely retrospective identity politics celtic associations advanced notion distinct national ethnic identity late 20th century united_kingdom census despite explicit option available approximately people cornwall people combined total equal nearly cent population cornwall identified ethnic writing ethnicity option census figures change identity west east cent identified cent cent cent north cornwall cent cent census data gives figure people ethnicity living cornwall described special case england ethnic regional identity structural changes politics united_kingdom particularly european_union cited main growing interest identity century britain british citizens united_kingdom people convention consist national groups english northern irish scots welsh 1990s said notion classified nation comparable english irish scots welsh practically vanished popular consciousness outside cornwall despite real substantive identity struggle recognition national group distinct english year campaign government officially recognised national minority council europe framework convention protection national minorities giving status welsh scots irish inhabitants cornwall multiple political adopting mixed dual identities british second british european like rugby union prop england national rugby union team british irish lions describe english international rugby union player describes english survey plymouth university found children cornwall felt english survey national identity finance firm morgan stanley found respondents cornwall saw british english university exeter study conducted towns cornwall found felt felt english respondents identity formed primary national identity family history considered chief criteria particularly possessed ties born cornwall held important study university edinburgh year old cornwall found respondents felt fairly result migration area second half twentieth century study university exeter meaning contemporary identity cornwall found west east distance decay strength identity study conducted farming community deemed socio professional group representative participants identified primary ethnic group orientation west primarily thought british celtic east tended think english participants west cornwall identified english described people east cornwall equally identified english stressed capacity distance ancestry seen important criterion place birth growing cornwall study supports study mary found meanings varied substantially local national identity studies observed english generally saw english city people friendly aggressively self promoting saw friendly welcoming caring november british prime minister david cameron said think national identity powerful government lot power cornwall authority census campaign inclusion box section census failed win support parliament consequence posters created census organisation cornwall council advised residents identify writing national identity ethnicity sections record main language section additionally people record cornwall country birth like identities allocated census code applied counted britain people able record ethnicity census people writing total people england wales described having national identity described british identity british cornwall total population british identity british scotland people described having national identity identity scottish having identity identity excluding scottish schools census school children cornwall able record annual schools census number identifying risen department education recommends parents guardians determine ethnicity children primary schools whilst pupils secondary schools decide ethnicity percent pupils percent pupils percent pupils percent pupils percent pupils percent pupils percent pupils percent pupils history ancestral roots traditional accounts ancestry teach descended making distinct english descended anglo great_britain northern europe drove britain western northern fringes dna research investigating genetic history british isles suggests quarters contemporary british people including originate hunter settled atlantic europe era melting ice caps land broke away mainland divided islands archaeological evidence supports pre historic human cornwall early lower separation british isles continental europe consequence ice age genetic evidence indicates people great_britain broadly share common ancestry people live country basis stephen suggests settlers great_britain unlikely spoken celtic languages ancient tongue related language historical immigration great_britain occurred period interpreted professor human university_of_oxford arrival peninsula origin britain ireland celtic tribes people considered study trust led sir walter published channel_4 faces britain april showed people particular variant gene identifying closely related welsh english areas studied gene appeared cent population cent devon cent wales cent cornwall cent kent cent north east england according dna survey carried royal society published peter professor statistical science oxford_university director trust centre people welsh people devon found genetically distinct groups britain england britain found greater range genetic people cornwall distinct england neighbouring population devon overall closely related english possibly stronger genetic links tribes arrived ice age recent study oxford_university professor peter suggests dna similar english groups welsh scots similar distinct genetic profiles continental german influence northern french material english scots showing similar portion material suggesting idea uniform celtic genetic race false classical antiquity spoke celtic languages formed series tribes cultures identities notably north south divided people shared languages tribal divided regional societies sub groups examples tribal societies north west extreme southwest cornwall lived kingdom roman conquest britain 1st century introduced romans britain arrival initially recorded later reported possibly sub group romans central southern britain virtually unaffected conquest roman rule little impact region meaning flourish fully independent kingdom evidence shows dominion kings governed monarchy title duke king petty kingdom shared strong linguistic political cultural links brittany peninsula continental europe south cornwall inhabited languages nearly indistinguishable period cornwall brittany remain celtic saints sack rome year prompted complete roman departure britain cornwall experienced influx celtic christian missionaries ireland profound effect early people culture faith architecture ensuing decline roman empire encouraged anglo saxon invasion britain angles peoples northern europe established petty kingdoms settled different regions england parts southern scotland progressively defeating battle kingdom particular expanding territory westwards cornwall frequently west word modern english welsh meaning stranger describe opponents later west welsh conflict continued king england determined river formal boundary west year making cornwall encouraging development distinct identity culture britain confined cornwall parts devon north west england south west scotland wales treaty agreed anglo saxon political influence stretched westwards time late 10th century cornwall definitively incorporated kingdom england rebellion norman conquest england began invasion troops william duke normandy later king william england resulted removal anglo saxon derived monarchy aristocracy clerical hierarchy replacement scandinavian northern france allies cases maintained rule speaking parts conquered lands england progressively divided companions william england served england new nobility english come absorb vigorously resisted influence time conquest cornwall governance cornwall earl cornwall directly descended ancient monarchy cornwall cornwall held semi sovereignty england granted robert count king william half brother ruled anglo norman aristocracy book record great survey england completed virtually landowners cornwall english names making impossible sure english race persistent continuing english peoples middle ages evidenced documents charter explicit mention peoples distinct cornwall passed english nobles high middle ages given status edward black prince son heir king edward iii england duke cornwall means prince raise capital large parts cornwall owned edward 1st duke cornwall successive english cornwall largest landowners cornwall monarchy england established special administrative institutions cornwall cornwall kingdom england second courts governed cornwall tin industry institutions allowed ordinary people believe granted unique constitutional status reflect unique cultural identity cornwall gradually lost political autonomy england state increasingly london early tudor period begun conquered people culture liberties prosperity downgraded english view exacerbated heavy taxation imposed king henry vii england impoverished raise funds military campaigns king james scotland henry vii suspension privileges having provided fair share soldiers sailors conflict northern england feeling cornwall status england county popular uprising cornwall ensued rebellion rebellion initially political march london led thomas michael motivated mixture reasons raise money charity celebrate community present grievances parliament england gathered pace west country revolt king widely spoken language west river middle english began adopted common language people late andrew english traveller physician writer wrote cornwall languages men women cornwall understand english norman language use english aristocracy particularly remote far west cornwall landed gentry chose language coat arms highlighting socially high status following english reformation king edward england commanded book common prayer anglican text english language introduced churches kingdom meaning latin celtic customs services discontinued prayer book rebellion militant revolt cornwall parts neighbouring devon act outlawed languages church services apart english specified testament affection loyalty people held language rebellion separate occurred simultaneously devon converge exeter laying siege region largest protestant city rebellion suppressed thanks largely aid foreign mercenaries series battles hundreds killed effectively ending common language people reformation served vehicle cornwall lasting cultural effect way linking cornwall closely england political linguistic ties brittany english civil war series armed conflicts political populations england wales cornwall english civil war royalist important focus support royalist cause soldiers scouts spies war language understood english peace followed close war led shift english language people encouraged influx english people cornwall century use language retreated far west prompt concern investigation william language diminished people cornwall underwent process english absorbed mainstream english life industry revival modern period industrial revolution major impact people cornwall economy fully integrated england mining cornwall important source employment stability experienced process resulting cent cornwall adult population employed mines period efforts engineers design steam engines power water pumps mines aiding extraction mineral ore industrial scale tin copper mining operations cornwall identity engines heavy industry cornwall leading mining engineer richard cornwall heritage legendary giant celtic past significant success high pressure steam engine pump water refuse mines builder scale working railway steam locomotive february world locomotive hauled railway journey took place unnamed steam locomotive hauled train near wales construction great western railway victorian era allowed influx tourists cornwall great_britain era interwar period cornwall branded rural retreat primitive land magic romance earlier incarnation place english england ravaged cornwall united_kingdom region subtropical like climate centre english tourism coastline dominated resort towns increasingly composed tourists visiting cornwall called locals language word insects referring creatures visitors resemble cornwall resorts john mad tom self declared 19th century led battle fought english soil known battle wood akin rebellions past attract support labourers support primarily religious followers half 19th century cornwall experienced rapid closure mines particular considered economic cultural disaster coupled rise romantic nationalism europe inspired influenced celtic revival cornwall social linguistic artistic movement interested medieval investigated cornwall pre industrial culture language principal badge ethnic effective revival began henry celtic language published book handbook language unified based spoken 18th century pupil robert later steered revival middle 16th century language influenced english visit king george scotland scottish national identity notions scottish highlands pan gathered pace early 20th century language interest group asserted use national dress common celtic countries federation old cornwall societies formed facilitate preserve maintain cornwall followed similar formation nationalist political party increased interest communication celtic nations celtic languages culture 1960s 1970s spurred self government movement scotland wales northern_ireland enthusiasts culture pressed language taught formally schools nationalists demanded greater political autonomy cornwall example constituted united_kingdom fifth country assembly geographic distribution people concentrated cornwall age discovery early modern period involved british americas initially number migrants comparatively small left cornwall typically settling north_america ports plantations caribbean half 19th century people leaders tin copper mining cornwall people major occupation increased competition australia british malaya coupled mineral deposits brought economic decline mining lasting half century prompting mass human migration cornwall decade male population migrated abroad times average england wales totalling quarter million people lost emigration displacement skilled engineers farmers merchants miners commercial expertise particularly hard rock mining highly valued communities met great_britain families attracted cornwall north east england particularly coal mining means earn wealth mining skill resulted concentration names 21st century large numbers 19th century eventually returned cornwall whilst rate emigration cornwall declined world war global connections remaining concentrated english speaking countries australia canada south_africa united_states strong outreach contributed international spread movement protestant christianity popular people time mass migration cousin nickname overseas thought derive practice asking job filled cousin named jack cornwall australia beginning australia colonial period second world war people united_kingdom large majority people coming australia meaning australian born people trace origins britain people particular actively encouraged australia following demise mining 19th century vigorous recruiting campaign launched encourage aid mining australia experience expertise free passage south_australia particular granted hundreds miners families large community gathered australia copper coast south_australia peninsula known little cornwall estimated cent assisted migrants south_australia settlement impacted social cultural religious life history south_australia identity embraced strongly peninsula outlying mining towns miners constituted community main form religious practice methodist held strong conviction direct rivalry catholic irish people australia largest festival world held towns peninsula attracts tens thousands visitors annually canada european fishing ventures newfoundland 16th century earliest activity canada permanent settlement atlantic_ocean rare 19th century british americas encouraged additional migration particularly served great_britain royal_navy creation colony british north_america spurred people cornwall settle north_america registered english migrants west country immigrants agricultural labourers settled area south central ontario counties northumberland durham ontario ranging towns port hope east west north ends counties mexico band left mineral del central mexico tonnes long tons short tons mining machinery apply mining skill technologies mexico ailing silver mining industry neglect caused mexican war independence following sea voyage attempted dock veracruz forced away spanish beach hauled machinery jungle swamp santa haul jungle mexican fell victim yellow fever resulting mexican fatalities fever forced survivors abandon equipment head inland mountains try escape months end rainy season rainy season closed mexican miners continued mile great trek mineral del transporting machinery altitude feet sea level arriving destination following arrival community flourished stayed central mexico mexican revolution community mexico broadly returned cornwall left cultural legacy mining museums mexican cultural society local heritage tradition mineral del south_africa gold rush encouraged large numbers miners migrate south african republic international gold rush overwhelmingly formed skilled labour force outbreak second boer war prompted retreat united_states discovery lead ore copper north_america prompted influx miners continent particularly upper mississippi_river early 19th century people present upper peninsula michigan particularly mining town additional waves migrants followed california gold rush mid-19th century 1890s estimated california grass valley cent population tradition stemming settled area gold miners 19th century identity town members grass valley carol choir original settlers migratory united_states classified english british meaning precise number americans difficult estimate aggregate number immigrants cornwall united_states world war suggested culture survival distinct culture attributed cornwall geographic isolation underlying notion culture distinct culture england despite instead celtic tradition according american academic paul robert modern day activists claimed victorian era including engine christmas rugby football brass bands tradition cultural tradition strongly associated people historical occupation mining aspect history culture influenced cuisine symbols identity cornwall tradition christian saints derived celtic extraction given rise saint 5th century christian abbot supposedly irish origin patron saint tin miners cornwall according popular mythology irish scholar studied christianity ancient rome drowned irish sea high kings ireland instead floated cornwall god preach ministry jesus saint flag centred white cross black field described standard cornwall introduced celtic county flag cornwall seized people symbol identity displayed cars flying buildings including cornwall council day annual pre eminent festival celebrating culture history march language language derived branch celtic languages closely related language lesser extent shares welsh language mutually language functioned community language cornwall language shift english language completed late 18th century demise language attributed english cultural influence particularly political religious dominance english reformation act outlawed church services kingdom england english exact date death unclear disputed popularly claimed speaker resident died revival began henry celtic language published book handbook language based work spoken 18th century pupil robert unified later steered revival middle 16th century language heavily influenced english set tone decades revival gained pace language disagreed style use number competing unified unified revised modern use end 20th century standard written form agreed restored living modern language speakers enthusiasts persons learned language private study speakers geographically dispersed meaning cornwall spoken community language taught primary schools regular broadcast limited weekly bilingual programme bbc radio cornwall daily life cornwall conducted english language albeit regional legends fall american author jim harrison detailing lives american family early 20th century contains language terms included academy_award winning film starring anthony col william literature folklore early medieval cornwall associated matter britain national myth legendary celtic history warriors including king arthur matter britain supported texts account history ancient written century chronicled lives legendary kings narrative spanning time thousand years beginning founding ancient british nation continuing anglo saxon invasion britain 7th century forced celtic west_coast wales cornwall broadly thought work fiction work lasting effect identity historical construct characterised ancient heroes later helped celtic identity closely related ancient heroic celtic folklore strand folklore derived tales pirates cornwall early modern period 19th century pirates exploited knowledge coastline sheltered creeks hidden fishing villages provided pirates supported strong secretive underground economy cornwall legendary creatures appear folklore include tales creatures thought developed supernatural explanations frequent deadly cave ins occurred 18th century tin mining creation oxygen minds exhausted miners returned underground performing visual arts celtic crosses dating 7th 15th centuries found cornwall inspiration modern contemporary visual arts john born painter gain widespread attention work exhibited royal academy described like artists appreciated quality cornwall natural light turner began visit following opening great western railway including forbes frank settled cornwall 1880s establishing school painting air 1920s bernard established school abstract artists formed influenced naive painters alfred involving work ben wife barbara patrick religion religion celtic pagan faith assumed led early christianity thought existed cornwall 1st century limited individual travellers visitors possibly including theologian exiled isles celtic christianity introduced cornwall year saint kingdom missionaries wales monks holy women ireland formative period left legacy granite high cross monuments cornwall different saints traced period middle ages roman catholicism dominant cornwall 17th century roman catholic slow accept protestant reformation according scholars adoption eventually near universal cornwall facilitated people variety congregations found certain districts combination tours cornwall john rural isolation compatibility tastes evangelical revival movement church_of_england form christianity practised majority population cornwall 19th century time kinds methodist churches appeared bible christians evangelical anglo catholic church_of_england cuisine cuisine regional variety british cuisine strongly rooted tradition local produce create relatively simple dishes prominent cuisine known beef potato commonly called enclosed crust baked idea origins suggests evolved portable lunch miners crust serving handle held hand filling fish important element diet international commercial fishing established 16th century tons exported cornwall france italy spain year pie occasional dish heads fish standing tails originally piercing crust known tea treat sweet bread origins cornwall sport comparatively small rural population major contribution national sport united_kingdom limited teams affiliated cornwall county football association play football league england wales cornwall county cricket club plays minor counties english cricket viewed important ethnic affiliation rugby union sport strongly tied notions 20th century rugby union cornwall emerged popular spectator team sports cornwall professional rugby described formidable force naturally independent thought deed staunch english patriots players represented england pride passion sports journalist gibson direct connection love rugby cornwall ancient parish games wrestling existed centuries rugby officially began wrestling known regional folk style martial arts wrestling association formed rules sport promote wrestling cornwall world form medieval football promoted distinctly celtic game tied closely identity cornwall late 20th century readily associated waves coastline created low pressure systems atlantic_ocean powerful swells eastwards creating multiple excellent conditions parts coast cornwall britain premier towns regularly hosts world championship events institutions politics politics cornwall place wider national political framework constitutional monarchy united_kingdom monarch head state prime minister united_kingdom head government framework european_union politics marked long tradition important historical institutions cornwall courts court administered equity special laws legal matters relating tin mines tin trade cornwall miners effectively exempt jurisdiction law courts westminster cases affect land life limb ancient privileges courts confirmed successive royal charters middle ages including administered kings john edward edward iii england tin mines cornwall lost economic importance 18th 19th centuries institutions lost political power parliament held continued september rest great_britain liberal party dominated politics 19th century socialism gained limited support western cornwall labour_party won preference world war nationalism cornwall traces roots irish home rule bills late 19th century represented self government movement political action group predominantly organised promote cornwall national homeland campaign win status fifth country outright militant variants nationalism claim historical constitutional status cornwall law european_union jurisdiction cornwall sovereignty recognised nationalism attributed celtic cultural revival cornwall began interested language 1920s revival language encouraged parallel revival celtic traditions 1970s spurred nationalism united_kingdom entry european economic community prompted claims granted national assembly assembly comparable national assembly wales left wing political party based cornwall founded main objective attaining greater autonomy cornwall establishment legislative assembly members parliament elected house_of_commons united_kingdom united_kingdom local elections received cent votes elect cornwall council conservative party cent liberal democrats cent cent structural changes local government england cornwall council authority serving sole executive legislative body responsible local policy setting council tax budgets following cornwall council election council remained overall control independent politicians largest grouping council modest gain previous election liberal democrats remained second largest party losing conservatives slipped losing labour_party green party gained seats entering cornwall council time prior election having added election total following election reduced general election seats won conservatives


people french spelling earlier indigenous inhabitants new overseas france southwest pacific according census constitute total population new people settlement recorded peninsula far culture origin people unclear research shown centuries refer european inhabitants new new annexed france overseas territory france independence movement led failed revolt restarted pursuing total independence status french rule referendum decide territory achieve sovereign status agreements signed representatives france new decide holding referendum independence jean marie leader independence movement proposal set agency development culture assassination french president ordered cultural centre lines suggested set capital new jean marie cultural centre formally established ancient date people island long involved arts establishment arts crafts popular new wooden carvings shape hawks ancient gods turtles popular carving resembles small pole symbolic shapes music dance singing ceremonial function dances performed traditional gatherings objective relationships clan ancestors etymology word derived hawaiian word time applied european explorers traders missionaries oceania non european pacific prior european contact unified states new single self refer inhabitants words coined past generations political island entire territory musical genre associated form reggae added percussion harmonies political lyrics sung languages french word german racial epithet applied non whites southern europeans cases especially turkish immigrants derives source originally applied people german colonial possessions oceania history origin settlement dates far culture origin people unclear transported new_guinea found earliest new pottery addition researchers claimed evidence new human dating culture years claim found pre pottery fourth conference held june canberra australia question posed oldest ancestor later culture labelled problem determining origin early history people archaeological interpretation conflict views people subsequent colonial rule early colonial rule earliest history europeans arriving islands captain cook united_kingdom landed islands time reportedly living archipelago cook gave new islands scottish highlands years later london missionary society came new followed entry french catholics island resulted conflict religious factions eventually french catholics control islands prevailed island nation annexed france colonial period 19th century recruited enslaved perform labour places australia california canada chile fiji inter asian slave trade india japan south_africa malaysia years lived remote islands unprepared arrival european bacteria uprooted land employed forced labour french plantations public works revolt forced reserve areas island closer mountains occupied percent area ancestral territories given population declined dramatically disease living conditions hard situation arose consequent induction french government settled permanently country employed extract beginning copper onwards caused resentment revolted french colonial rule suppressed french better armed leader head display museum natural history world war world war independence movement picked momentum united_nations placed new list non self governing territories major progression occurred french settlers country obtained voting rights shortly overseas territory france allowed reserve areas followed establishment territorial assembly short lived charles abolished president france independence movement independence began following murder secretary general union french union september national forum titled liberation established forum refused participate elections territorial assembly declared provincial government met opposition french organized boycott territorial elections new smashing ballot boxes setting prevent people voting persisted announced january referendum independence conducted july death leader activists took hostage island french response movement proposed self government january interim arrangement announced moved greater autonomy colony french prime minister stationed troops islands autonomy issue shelved backed campaign referendum regional organizations lance group pacific forum countries movement successful getting resolution december passed inscribed new list non self governing territories resolution violence ensued confrontations authorities cave hostage taking resulted deaths including following battle international outcry resulted initiation talks settlement french government french settlers accord agreement called accord followed november french majority support french people according accord agreement referendum independence proposed held leaders signed agreement jean marie assassinated activist independence activists unhappy situation felt france allow independence accord subsequent agreement accord signed president french government allowing degree autonomy new transition period years referendum independence france held progressive changes expected agreement local political control structure greater internal regional affairs france retain sovereign rights including control military foreign affairs speech fourth commission united_nations october vice president urged establish monitoring follow system previous contracts signed municipalities drawing initiatives global witness asking place hoc commission order protect wealth new following example present status union political parties pro independence group appealed national committee evaluate progress prepare new change leadership planned referendum appeal argued according accord french government train build capacity able government urged respond swiftly population demographics new des approximately kilometres northeast coast australia islands main ones inhabited spread area miles wide miles length people constituted population new minority ancestral land groups consist europeans french people mixed ancestry groups including vietnamese believed chiefly european ancestry identified simply cook landed estimated population island minimum likely considering land shown cultivated pre declined early colonial rule result disease historically associated tribes including clans significant populations ethnic living australia particularly sugar cane growing areas queensland brought work fields social links people local australian groups languages languages extremely diverse french serves official language new distinct languages languages spoken pacific mutually oceanic branch family belong new language new languages divided groups northern language group includes languages approximately residents new speak languages languages spoken form unified language largest group speak coming oral tradition written word missionary arrival knowledge passed form poems legends stories children oral history provided parents relatives use noise hold child attention authors notable ones wrote small author wrote author valley provides insight legends written english language translation involved establishment taught local language educated children spiritual practical knowledge including french english language instruction pre school children given opportunity learn indigenous languages languages taught high schools loyalty islands north province language education common european south province establishment language academy provision accord culture traditional beliefs religion known worship ancestors worship embodied sacred stones offered sacrifices today christians religion important aspect life attend catholic_church form nearly percent population catholics new europeans majority follow traditional beliefs according traditional beliefs people sea sacred provides fish food treat great reverence folk stories created people fact strictly followed laws important aspects oral laws relate environmental protection conservation closure fishing operations fish stocks decline fishing rights certain areas strictly observed respect locals conservation following beliefs traditions people conservation international jointly involved ancestral waters natural resources according rapid assessment survey conducted help coral reefs identified protection near province rich biodiversity reserves include sea crustaceans supporting traditions coral reef initiative south pacific crisp partnership provided recommendations underwater species guides people proposal forward promote entire coastal region world heritage site work initiative pursued center applied biodiversity science coral reef initiative south pacific crisp french government collaboration wwf assess marine resources tribes people european descent coastlines province cuisine traditional considered national food root vegetables include milk pork chicken filling wrapped banana leaves cooked hot stones oven local ingredients cuisine include flying local deer marine staples coral reef fish including crabs beans locally grown apple lime local ingredients fine arts arts sculpture dance music theatre popular 1990s efforts agency development culture art forms culture comprise pottery ancient date essentially women craft pottery generally decorated geometric patterns human faces variation northern southern new pottery handles designs tooth pottery clay deposits found islands paintings painting recent art form common women artists famous artists include produced paintings pacific oceania themes paintings abstract scenes use mixed art forms bus stop shelters common places paintings illustrated wood sculpture wood sculpture represents spirit culture resembles small pole symbolic shapes common mini looking religious memorial near village des display religious carvings wooden objects include war clubs carved strongest wood form head lethal bird club spears trees burn enemy houses wooden carvings shape hawks ancient gods turtles popular grand known case chef decorated representing ancestral spirits symbolic transition world dead world living wood carving shaped like spear like carving case comprises parts flat crowned face representing ancestor long rounded pole run shells mounted represents ancestor voice base pole fixed link clan chief central piece flanked wooden pieces sharp points facing downwards intended prevent bad spirits ancestor central represented power chiefs subjects adopted flag organization leading independent movement new arrow spear normally needle end insert shells death chief removed family takes home allowed sign respect normally kept burial grounds noted citizens abandoned grand houses stone carving stone carvings jade form ceremonial axe representing clan strength power enemies war ancestor celebrations known handle represents particular clan embellished stones shells axe polished smooth like disc carvings popular bamboo carvings meter length dated entry village dance ceremonies fired black engraved parts designs consist real images dance agricultural motifs village scenes fishing building grand case stuffed magic herbs ward evil spirits bark cloth small pieces trees wrap ancient money boats living islands large double triangular sails known traditionally fishing dances dances performed traditional gatherings objective relationships clan ancestors dance performed form message legend related daily activities important events birth marriage death chief forth dancers paint ancestors watching wooden masks local materials bark feathers leaves representing physical link invisible world festival des arts festival pacific arts organized years dancers trained traditional dances special workshops welcome dances performed groups popular dance forms dance unique dance form recounts stories clans dance form extinct named early french missionaries new involved bamboo tubes beating bark accompanied singing hundreds dancers view strong nature form dance trance like status attained dancers banned dance reported music music dance singing ceremonial function initiation mourning shells blown appointed person represent clan chief arrival voice ancestor rhythm instruments include ceremonies group men jew language originated dried piece palm leaf held teeth attached segment soft nerve leaf leaf piece leaf attached string produces noise like bee hollow grass stems bamboo end blown flute long leaf stem bamboo tubes struck vertically ground played major events percussion instruments hitting sticks palm worn legs leaves shells certain fruits groups recordings cassette arts festivals women association smiling village women groups formed advocated idea cultural festival promote arts result movement festival arts held september supported jean marie arts festivals popular international events held early 1990s created awareness arts exhibition modern day wood painters held published contemporary arts followed large exhibition arts paris known jade jade mother pearl artistic heritage centre cultural stages occasional art exhibitions popular event festival pacific arts indigenous people pacific nations people gather display pacific cultural heritage art


vietnamese vietnamese refer ethnic vietnamese living reside southeastern parts bordering vietnam lake rivers vietnamese came settle modern day early 19th century era lords vietnamese came periods french colonial administration people republic administration republic governments 1970s vietnamese targets mass thousands vietnamese killed sought refuge vietnam ethnic relations vietnamese poor vietnamese main target attacks political parties 1990s vietnamese residents result face difficulties getting access education employment housing history vietnamese settlers began settle modern day city onwards lands known traditionally control empire era onwards came control lords emperor long sent vietnamese troops members royal family came control vietnamese court court imposed vietnamese customs populace names towns provinces changed vietnamese ones vietnamese settlers encouraged settle official documents vietnamese court recorded average vietnamese settlers coming 1830s policies imposed court stirred resentment populace provoked occasional rebellions french colonial administration provide subject status vietnamese residents years large numbers vietnamese migrated population conducted french recorded increase vietnamese population 1860s end 1930s japanese invaded vietnamese nationalists launched brief unsuccessful attempt attack french colonial administrators citizenship law passed basis knowledge language national origin effectively excluded vietnamese chinese level vietnamese faced occasional cases violent intimidation congress politicians debated issue citizenship ethnic minorities resolution passed grant vietnamese residents assumed power republic government launched propaganda campaign portray ethnic vietnamese agents vietnamese arrested killed prison additional repatriated vietnam years later vietnamese remained seized power quarters expelled vietnam remaining remained mixed vietnamese descent remained killed regime time vietnamese troops entered virtually vietnamese population displaced killed vietnam established new regime known people republic vietnamese advisers appointed new government administration government formulated official policy encourage vietnamese residents return settle vietnamese immigrants family ties came settle country little border control limit vietnamese migrants entering country vietnamese recognised official minority regime overseas vietnamese associations established parts vietnamese populations government identity cards issued withdrawal vietnamese troops vietnamese workers started arrive onwards creation new job opportunities administration time administration allowed opening political offices political parties began anti vietnamese sentiments populace shore electorate support general elections november controlled northwestern parts passed resolution target systematic killings vietnamese soldiers civilians guerrilla style attacks vietnamese civilians started december soldiers justified killings claiming civilians vietnamese soldiers disguise killings prompted ethnic vietnamese flee vietnam march august national assembly introduced immigration law illegal immigrants perceived law targeting vietnamese migrants government later stepped assure mass vietnamese refugees implemented continued carry sporadic attacks vietnamese civilians surrendered ethnic vietnamese continue face discrimination society encountered physical intimidation society government authorities especially general elections disputes vietnam arise demographics population vietnamese generally concentrated river banks lake river encompass provinces smaller populations found southeastern provinces bordering vietnam prey vietnamese population largest government census showed country largest minority reflected country population demographic researchers returned higher estimated numbers vietnamese government reflect example 1960s number resident vietnamese high based researcher michael estimated vietnamese resident population hand government conducted 1980s figures following population figures shows population figures ethnic vietnamese based figures derived government religion vietnamese identify adherents buddhism roman catholicism vietnamese mainly found impoverished communities living rural parts vietnamese derive religious doctrines beliefs chinese folk religion participate religious rituals organised chinese seasons vietnamese communities settled adopted buddhist practices extent vietnamese adherents roman catholicism consist descendants refugees fled religious persecution reign split city based fishing communities based vietnamese catholics roman catholic community 1960s adherents country vietnamese catholics deported vietnam killed march catholic_church allowed establish catholics country minority vietnamese followers faith introduced faith attracted vietnamese adherents years founding royal decree outlawed religion efforts nationalists prosecute adherents led observed solely vietnamese 1930s onwards temple built boulevard 1960s adherents outlawed republic regimes regained official recognition adherents language vietnamese exhibit varying levels vietnamese languages vietnamese live self contained fishing communities use vietnamese day day conversations individuals limited language skills bilingual languages hand vietnamese live predominantly speaking send children public schools result children able speak limited understanding vietnamese education field research carried shows minority vietnamese children attend public schools figures varying different provinces vietnamese live river banks public schools fare provinces proportion higher majority vietnamese carry citizenship papers unable children public schools send children schools attend school years seldom complete grade vietnamese parents unable afford school fees vietnamese students faced difficulties academic work classes taught exclusively language vietnamese children grew speaking vietnamese home limited vietnamese communities based rivers private schools run vietnamese community associations christian organisations private schools cater teaching vietnamese language attended children impoverished families economy french colonial administration educated vietnamese employed civil service administration gained independence led government phased vietnamese civil servants sought employment banks commercial enterprises office based positions 1960s urban dwelling vietnamese lower education backgrounds worked mechanics car repair machine shops owned chinese businessmen vietnamese immigrants settled countryside worked fishermen lake river rubber plantation workers provinces vietnamese residents seek living hoc industries construction recycling prostitution industries street vietnamese live lake rivers fishermen number vietnamese consisted migrants came administration majority vietnamese live poverty line small number vietnamese represented business sector example head business owns state country petroleum tourism industries relations community society government ethnic vietnamese residents carry citizenship papers identity cards birth certificates law technically permits vietnamese residents born citizenship faced resistance mid ranking interior ministry officials generally refrain registering vietnamese residents concerns political implications opposition parties citizenship granted minority vietnamese residents able obtain citizenship paying bribes interior ministry officials married minority vietnamese residents hold citizenship reported interior ministry officials citizenship papers result vietnamese faced legal restrictions getting access public healthcare education employment buying land housing majority carry citizenship vietnamese built floating settlements lieu buying land based dwellings require citizenship papers according field research carried minority rights organisation interior ministry officials confront vietnamese fishermen demand bribes order allow carry fishing inter ethnic relations ethnic poor perception vietnamese community persistent feelings communal animosity past history vietnamese rule survey conducted high school students showed relations chinese generally rated friendly students viewed vietnamese classmates suspicion relations vietnamese chinese considerably better ethnic groups share close cultural affinity chinese males vietnamese wives particularly eastern parts country large chinese vietnamese communities recent years field research carried suggested ethnic relations vietnamese deteriorated ethnic chinese vietnamese councils lack citizenship according respondents field research majority chiefs officials express support excluding vietnamese representatives getting citizenship participating elections meetings contempt vietnamese appoint village heads convey community concerns vietnamese community associations vietnamese established community associations limited assets funding membership fees donations vietnamese embassy sale cemetery land vietnamese communities funds subsequently address vietnamese communal concerns includes supporting religious places worship teaching vietnamese language providing assistance families community associations support vietnamese community majority accept membership fear getting social stigma mainstream society branches associations established provinces politics issue vietnamese presence topic political parties shore electorate support general elections mainstream political parties participated election included topics concerning presence vietnamese population perceived vietnamese interference government campaign trails political parties charged presence vietnamese country cause economic failures promises expel vietnamese situation win elections period time earlier refused participate elections espoused similar anti vietnamese sentiments mainstream political parties albeit extreme form issue statements radio broadcasts accusing collaborating vietnam called expulsion vietnamese population force follow attacks vietnamese civilians continued end elections general elections held newly formed sam party repeated use anti vietnamese rhetoric campaigns leaders parties sam charged vietnamese state officials obtain citizenship vietnamese government maintained political influence ruling party people party time number violent attacks vietnamese civilians rose carried remnants civilians alike number politically motivated acts violence vietnamese civilians reduced subsequent general elections opposition political parties use anti vietnamese rhetoric reduced october sam charged vietnam territory border exercise led group activists vietnamese border posts sam sentenced imprisonment incident incident major focus electoral campaigns national rescue party general elections leaders claims historical ties led anti vietnamese sentiments supporters narrowly lost elections launched series anti government protests resulted incidents vietnamese shops vast majority vietnamese support carry citizenship vote party vietnamese support driven strong anti vietnamese sentiments political parties members rank file share anti vietnamese sentiments political parties maintained openly neutral stance vietnamese community according neutral stance balance providing open support vietnamese community potential effect losing electoral votes political parties time maintaining close ties vietnamese government historical ties dating vietnamese hold citizenship expressed fear physical election periods apparent elections vietnamese civilians faced physical intimidation supporters respectively participating elections books history abc isbn propaganda politics violence democratic transition united_nations peace keeping isbn harris buddhism history practice university hawaii press isbn nationalism cultural revival southeast_asia perspectives centre region isbn ethnic groups vol profile austro speaking peoples isbn william chinese publications centre university british_columbia isbn reports journals domestic political change ethnic minorities case study ethnic vietnamese asia pacific social science review institute security development policy sweden retrieved march march earth investigative report current living conditions legal status ethnic vietnamese minority rights organisation retrieved march challenging citizenship minorities state international community asia pacific social science review retrieved march christopher widening colonial encounter asian connections inside french interwar period modern asian studies cambridge_university press retrieved march pen july socio economic survey national institute statistics ministry planning government retrieved september demographic expert report victims april january critical assessment major estimates extraordinary chamber courts retrieved march


british british community united_kingdom consists british people born ancestors eastern mediterranean island cyprus british people armenian descent migration cyprus occurred colonial links countries internal conflict followed cyprus independence british_empire migration peaked time independence continued smaller scale number born people fell community including people ancestry remains born population grew slightly number famous british people ancestry including musicians george michael cat stevens artist visual artist politician lord migration cyprus currently open free countries members european_union point time history world war migrated british population time according historian handful marriages involving recorded london greek orthodox cathedral saint years world war joined allied forces british annexed cyprus political status changed found easier travel british census recorded born people children british military personnel serving mediterranean greek migrate 1920s 1930s finding jobs catering industry start second world war london immigrants arrived national organisation fighters campaign independence britain union greece started years conflict average left island year violence island fear felt greek turkish mixed villages formed minorities migration peaked following independence migrating year followed migrants joined family living britain migration accompanied turkish invasion island home office figures roughly fled majority refugees subsequently returned island 1960s greek london outnumbered turkish increase post war central london forced immigrants north city greek turkish communities tended geographically segregated greeks settling mainly turks migrants reliance social networks find housing arrival robert reports second biggest town world set restaurants filling gap left italians interned second world war turkish migration occurred consequence violence cyprus 1950s 1960s turkish viewed attempt greek establish island aim achieving union greece turkish britain increased substantially fear britain impose immigration controls commonwealth immigrants act reduce migration flows cyprus britain expansion britain turkish community took place primarily late 1940s mid-1960s influx immigrants partition migration continued political economic situation 1970s 1980s turkish continued migrate high unemployment rates northern cyprus early 1980s estimated resident cent turkish cyprus joined european_union holders republic cyprus able migrate freely law according bbc divisions resentment exist greek turkish particularly old remember atrocities committed cyprus differences opinion exist sides learnt live regardless community relations generally good turkish community centres welcoming greek vice versa oral history interviews conducted academic late 1990s turkish london tended define anglo particularly born notes proud british turkish turkish friends close greek greek friends inhabited tended mixed shared greeks greek demographics population cyprus appeared non british countries birth time census recorded born people living england wales number peaked census census recorded born people residing number born people great_britain fell country birth groups experience decrease numbers according census born residents england wales scotland northern_ireland recent estimates office national statistics number born residents estimates subject forthcoming exercise reflect results recent census british people include armenian descent national federation umbrella organisation representing community associations groups largely greek claims represent people ancestry state includes non greek similar figure given minister europe caroline flint giving speech london school economics february stated greek turkish living estimate states nationals turkish republic northern cyprus currently reside figure given turkish london museum london reports turkish live britain cyprus suggests figure ministry foreign affairs suggested turkish living united_kingdom evidence submitted home office house_of_commons home affairs select committee february suggested turkish living people england wales specified country birth cyprus census cent stated christian cent muslim cent responded religion cent state religion small numbers jews religions recorded totaling cent born resident population population distribution born residents england wales recorded census london south east england detailed analysis data previous census shows born people living mainland britain cent lived areas london turkish communities total resident greater london analysis census shows born people found large numbers london census tracts highest number born people green upper lower north south outside london concentrations found bristol notable individuals number british people known overseas include george michael born london greek father cat stevens father greek entrepreneur greek born businessman killed mumbai terrorist attacks entrepreneur personality greek born artist artist turkish father fashion designer born turkish father politician andrew father greek moved aged british athlete world champion born london turkish mother greek father grew children homes


francis francis born february native south slave years abolitionist author living united_states captured enslaved age seven arab militia raid village south second civil war lived years escaping imprisonment followed journey united_states way cairo egypt aided people diverse cultures journey freedom earliest steps united_states helped northern muslim family believed slavery wrong provided bus ticket arriving aided fellow members fur people trip united_states paid members lutheran church point contact united_states refugee helped settled north testified united_states senate met george bush rice telling story slavery honored united_states olympic committee boston colleges universities united_states canada francis lives state kansas works american anti slavery group sunrise organization works peace autobiography escape slavery true story years captivity journey freedom america published martin press chronicles life early youth years captivity work united_states abolitionist childhood abduction francis raised large catholic family cattle village southern father managed cattle sheep goats captured age count knew little outside world captured mother sent village sell eggs village market older siblings neighbors trip village mother time allowed sell family goods market went market heard adults seen smoke coming nearby villages heard gunfire distance people began fleeing market francis saw horsemen machine guns gunmen surrounded market shot men raiders islamic militia northern conducted periodic raids villages neighbors christians sub african descent life slave seven year old captured member slave hunting militia forced join slaves stolen produce livestock militia captured raid settlement members militia split return homes taken arriving residence francis beaten children sticks called word literally means slave stereotype inferior race francis given quarters near livestock began year period slavery hands son forced tend family livestock area local holes saw boys forced tend livestock began suspect life going change forever father going able save attempts speak boys futile speaking arabic understand afraid speak according grew older began place trust abilities care cattle horses passed able spend time animals previously careful supervision addition having serve slave forced francis convert islam arabic meaning servant autobiography francis states forced convert islam stopped praying god strength ordeal tried twice flee slavery age instance happened early morning sent cattle ran road miles captured fellow militia members peer returned francis compound beaten attempted escape days later fled opposite direction previous escape fled miles time keeping forest stopped water local stream crossing spotted happened forced francis home time promising kill francis beaten chose kill francis valuable family slave escape francis waited years tried escape intervening years tended regained trust regularly praised work animals forced live life slavery finally escaped years old walking forest nearby market town went local police department seek help asked police help find people instead helping police slave months escaped police simply taking tying leaving walked crowded marketplace asked man truck ride man muslim named agreed help thought slavery wrong agreed transport town truck cargo grain stayed wife sons months tried find way capital city find friend provide passage bought bus ticket francis arrived money place know turn fortunately francis stranger helped find way fellow settlement journey united_states filled refugees fled fighting south forced live sub standard conditions settled people area north began christian francis quickly arrested police telling friends neighbors slave slavery subject largely denied government anybody spoke arrested killed francis interrogated numerous times imprisoned time denied slave finally released prison seven months released decided leave help able acquire passport black market obtain ticket passage cairo arriving cairo april directed sacred heart catholic_church church known place refuge cairo staying sacred heart began learn english important contacts population cairo began practicing christian faith fear eventually moved church compound apartment seeking refugee status order leave africa united_states great_britain australia applied received refugee status september months waiting united_states immigration service agreed allow francis flew cairo new_york_city august flew north journey sponsored lutheran social services united methodist church worked provide apartment francis helped find job worked jobs making plastic cars heard large population iowa moved months living contacted charles founder american anti slavery group based boston massachusetts work abolitionist sage associate director american anti slavery group persuaded boston work initially hesitant leave new friends according people persistent arrived boston helped find apartment week moving boston invited speak baptist church interviewed charles boston_globe days speech asked meet supporters steps united_states capitol washington returned washington september escaped slave speak united_states senate committee foreign relations francis invited washington signing peace act met president george bush trip white_house slave meet president 19th century francis spoken churches universities united_states canada helped launch american anti slavery group website jane addiction concert audience april perry key early supporter movement honored boston chosen carry olympic torch past plymouth rock prior winter olympics autobiography escape slavery true story years captivity journey freedom america published martin press currently lives wife young children kansas working extension office kansas works sunrise kansas based organization seeks work peace unity


indians indians group people indian origin live burma indians lived burma centuries ancestors current indian community emigrated burma start british rule mid-19th century separation british burma british india british times ethnic indians formed backbone government economy serving soldiers civil servants merchants series anti indian riots beginning mass emigration japanese occupation burma followed forced expulsion left ethnic indians reduced role burma ethnic indians today account approximately population burma concentrated largely major cities old colonial towns largely barred civil service military labeled foreigners non citizens burma known indians leading teacher meditation helen known bollywood film actress anglo descent history term indian refers broad range ethnic groups india notably present day south asian countries bangladesh india pakistan indians long history burma years active engagement politics religion culture arts cuisine burma referred term generally dark skinned foreigners india africa west term considered root believed meaning cross bay person depending way pronounced alternative explanation word derived meaning people adhere system majority indians arrived burma whilst british india starting annexation western burma anglo war steady stream indians moved burma civil servants engineers river pilots soldiers labourers traders following annexation upper burma numerous infrastructure projects started british colonial government increases rice cultivation delta region caused unprecedented economical boom burma drew indians particularly southern india delta region anti indian sentiments world war anti indian sentiments began rise number reasons number ethnic indians growing rapidly half population indian second world war indians played prominent role british administration target nationalists racial animosity indians skin color appearance played role price rice economic depression 1930s south india prominent rice belt began land held native british firm port employed workers attempt break strike organized indian workers strike ended indians returned work clashes developed returning indian workers workers replaced clashes soon escalated large scale anti hindu anti muslim riots city indians killed bodies river authorities ordered police fire assembly refused lay arms section criminal procedure code days riot spread country locations second world war start world war half population indian population burma indian consequence japanese invasion half million members indian community fled burma overland largely foot refugees suffered terribly thousands died indian community remained burma war returned war independence law treated large percentage indian community resident aliens long ties burma born considered citizens burma citizenship law restricted citizenship groups seized power military coup general win ordered large scale expulsion indians indians living burma generations integrated society target discrimination oppression wholesale private ventures led emigration ethnic indians burma indian owned businesses owners given trip india caused significant deterioration indian relations indian government arranged ferries aircraft lift indian ethnicity burma culture india particularly influential culture cradle buddhism ancient hindu traditions seen presiding important ceremonies weddings ear notably new year festival poetry tradition notably indian origins traditions including coronation ceremonies formal royal titles hindu origin dishes came result indian influence prominently reflected version indian indians came groups different parts india including hindi speakers today form approximately population according cia world exact figures exist census results methods young indians flee cities join ethnic resistance movements burma muslim union members consist largely muslims indian origin routinely labeled government muslim terrorist insurgents operates alongside karen national union despite swelling ranks following anti muslim riots remains minor force religion indians islam buddhism christianity muslims mixed blood born mothers blood majority small numbers constitution grants limited rights freedom religion articles constitution laws policies restrict rights practice government enforced restrictions muslims continue experience severe forms legal economic religious educational social restrictions discrimination military dictatorship rejects ignores requests want build country abroad religious ceremonies freedom religion burma muslims decided hold strikes state language indians array ethnic backgrounds tamil region india state indian state west present day independent nation bangladesh prior expulsion indians speaking north india state groups speaking proper muslims faith state able communicate years lack education languages english languages indians include tamil telugu small pockets speakers economic role historically indians merchants traders manual labourers municipal workers men pony cart drivers heavily represented certain civil servants university lawyers doctors dominated types businesses auto parts electrical goods hardware printing books paper printing ink dry cleaning english tuition money lending traded gold jewellery market traditionally dominated women burma functioned thought crucial growth agricultural output burma colonial era today indians live central sides road largely involved businesses including restaurants jewellery shops money exchanges notable indians born politician south east asia indian origin second world war parliamentary secretary burma professor geology minister mines mixed descent emperor exiled indian rebellion wife granddaughter buried theatre road indian freedom fighter minister health madras presidency eminent buddhist meditation teacher born freedom fighter army social worker leader repatriated indian pioneered indian migrated areas time british era started migrating india time unrest general regime dedicated life address problems find solutions help indian government authorities aka tin communist leader founding member 1940s 1960s killed internal purge ethnic helen bollywood born helen richardson khan july fled india world war famous playing indian cinema department chair dean arts science university university deputy education minister son dean islamic religious college january july arabic politician respected tamil muslim brothers sisters chose maintained muslim honor father nominally muslim deeply loved burma encouraged unity diversity initiated calls unity muslims muslim maintained ties buddhism sacred script buddhism helped found college modern university fathered children minister san pre independence interim government assassinated san members july july celebrated today day minister education national planning chairman burma muslim congress surgeon par excellence civil surgeon burma medical services graduated medical college honours receiving bishop medal recipient date married female doctors burma hospitals sanctioned constructed districts burma wife committed doctors dedicated people burma duties surgeon general union burma district health officer municipal health officer district extensive experience public health work beginning career teacher clinical surgery general hospital assistant surgeon officer charge hospitals later chief medical officer finally surgeon hospital later surgeon general charge hospitals northern states headquarters loyal friend general win leading nationalist political figure union burma aka win communist trade union leader killed 1950s aka communist leader founding member killed 1960s captain failed attempt coup état aka communist trade union leader captured 1950s government minister 1950s indian government minister 1950s burma sent united_states work united_nations term sec general father indian ram served port health director port till early municipal health minister 1960s das originally pakistan das moved burma early 1900s establish soap factory burma banner decades later japanese invasion family returned settled india pakistan partition family eventually settled india das eldest son soon established prominent successful doctor opened private multi hospitals city famous high school english teachers mathematics mathematics tuition teacher taught students film theater actress born burma noted novelist literary personality written works include novels short stories non fiction fourth archbishop delhi born mixed irish french ancestry wife president india worked social welfare programs women children india completed masters social work delhi school social work translated published short stories collection translated stories titled sweet sour appeared woman foreign origin lady


polish minority czech_republic polish minority czech_republic polish czech polish national minority living mainly region western polish community national ethnic minority czech_republic linked specific geographical area located north eastern country comprises district eastern district poles living regions czech_republic roots poles formed largest ethnic group 19th century beginning 20th century czech population grew poles collaborated resisting movements collaboration ceased world war region incorporated czechoslovakia polish war polish population decreased annexed poland context munich agreement nazi_germany region given czechoslovakia world war polish organizations created banned communist_party czechoslovakia velvet revolution polish organizations created adopted bilingual signs history historically largest ethnic group inhabiting area poles 19th century number germans grew beginning 20th century later czech population grew significantly mainly result immigration locals poles minority day national consciousness local people grew end 19th century local poles operated uniting tendencies austrian empire later austria-hungary polish clubs founded schools polish followed german czech end century ethnic tensions appeared area economic significance grew growth caused wave immigration people arrived settled settled mainly region new immigrants polish poor half worked coal mining people important factor material cared little homeland fled readily czech population dominant region heart czech social structure territory generally divided ethnic lines germans economically strongest owners officials poles manual workers miners structure changed time similar poles working labourers decision time tense climate time decision decided held asking people country territory join commissioners arrived end january analyzing situation declared state emergency territory situation territory remained tense mutual intimidation acts terror killings affected area held atmosphere july sides renounced idea entrusted conference ambassadors decision eventually area population incorporated czechoslovakia july decision spa conference division practice gave birth concept literally means land river looking poland czechoslovakia local czech forced local poles northern region flee poland july located transitional camps poles total forced leave region flee poland aftermath division local polish population felt warsaw betrayed satisfied division clear poles czechoslovakia estimates range people census numbers accurate depended self declaration poles declared czech mainly result fear new authorities compensation benefits law guaranteed rights national minorities reality different local czech authorities difficult local poles obtain citizenship process pledged declare czech send children czech school newly built czech schools better supported equipped inducing poles send children factors contributed poles significant emigration poland years heightened nationalism typical period local poles increasingly operated supported prague certain laws related language legislative organizational issues polish deputies national assembly frequently tried issues agenda way increasingly local poles czech population poland october annexed poland following munich conference polish army commanded general annexed area population polish argued poles deserved rights germans munich agreement vast majority local polish population enthusiastically welcomed change seeing liberation form historical justice quickly changed mood new polish authorities appointed people poland positions dismissed polish language sole official language rapid followed czech organizations dismantled activity prohibited czech education ceased exist emigrated czechoslovakia choice forcibly behaviour new polish authorities different similar nature czech authorities political factions appeared opposition loyal new authorities leftist politicians dismissed jobs polish political system artificially implemented local polish people continued feel like second class citizens majority dissatisfied situation october remained poland months world war war strong introduced nazi authorities jews worst position followed poles poles received lower food rations supposed pay extra taxes allowed enter theatres cinemas venues polish czech education ceased exist polish organizations dismantled activity prohibited nazis especially targeted polish died war german authorities introduced terror mass killings executions arrests taking locals forced labour concentration camps happened daily basis notorious war crime murder villagers august victims poles massacre known tragedy resistance movement poles fairly strong documents introduced nazi authorities soon introduced war non german citizen declared german ancestry signing refusal sign document lead concentration camp local people signed lists later enrolled local people german ancestry forced sign world war death toll estimated people jews citizens poles locals died signed poles murdered soviets massacre percentage wise suffered worst human loss czechoslovakia total population communist era immediately world war returned czechoslovakia borders local poles hoped given poland local polish population suffered discrimination blamed discrimination polish authorities polish organizations banned czech authorities arrests dismissed jobs polish property stolen germans war returned communist_party czechoslovakia political party defending rights polish minority elections majority poles voted communists elected communist officials ethnic poles situation poles improved somewhat communist_party czechoslovakia seized power february polish cultural educational union created creation polish organizations prohibited polish organization representing polish minority communist era strong influence communist_party remains today polish organization largest membership communist era rapid growth heavy industry occurred villages coal mining areas destroyed mining activity conditions poles cause high rate poles belonging minority border polish people republic work czechoslovakia advantage relative abundance consumer goods czechoslovakia 1960s cultural life flourished polish books published polish sections czech libraries set example state czech postal newspaper service delivering magazines poland prague spring liberal atmosphere contributed growth cultural life conducted society including polish minority fired positions called affected law recommended introduction bilingual signs municipalities recommended measure implemented communist authorities tried limit influence poles resident considering influence poles given polish communist regime considered liberal workplace threat regime present times velvet revolution democratic conditions polish organizations quickly created council poles created founders council argued fulfilling function representing poles organization renamed congress poles main body representing polish minority negotiations czech government etc local border crossings poland opened years fall communism language culture primary language polish population dialect vast majority poles everyday communication dialect prestigious contributes pride local people local local poles feel strong regional identity region church services conducted polish polish secondary school students reported pray polish concerning literature great variety authors genres editions produced polish traditional music groups united association association includes traditional folk vocal dance groups exist including pop rock bands include groups theatre polish scene ensemble professional polish theatre outside poland cultural folk music festivals organized year largest folklore festival polish community largest folklore festival region annual lit festival organized harvest festivals organized year villages music festivals include days student culture minute daily radio broadcast polish czech radio czech broadcasting polish minutes week september television programmes poland received czech television studio launched regular minute news current affairs weekly polish broadcast shortened minutes largest polish newspaper country largest magazine education polish national minority network schools including primary schools grammar schools secondary modern schools polish language instruction number teachers educated polish universities currently polish primary schools polish high schools attended students including students attending polish classes czech high schools figure comes students data september polish polish education ethnic minority education czech_republic cover complete cycle high school polish primary schools function following towns villages main prestigious polish high school polish gymnasium polish classes open technical school economic school medical school past polish schools area number historically declining demographic decline polish population sport polish sport organizations founded 1890s interwar period organizations types central european countries region wasn exception sport clubs multi sport sport branches football athletics table tennis etc movement active world war division region active czechoslovakia beginning 1930s associated local branches members world war hasn renewed activity large sport organization power created established polish workers association power organization socialist workers character associated local branches world war operated half legally local branches communist takeover power communist authorities large organization polish tourist association established initially focused organizing polish tourist movement building mountain later widened activities skiing football athletics 1930s associated local branches world war operated half legally communist authorities victorious february resumed activity fall communism notable multi sport club physical culture created communist character 1930s associated active local branches region annexed poland banned communist_party popular sport football athletics table tennis sports popular club members members football branch best polish football club world war polish sport clubs resumed slowly activity communist takeover power czechoslovakia february communists began curb number organizations country tried achieve state active nationwide organizations polish clubs stopped activity ones operated subjected rising pressure independent polish organizations dissolved polish sport life organized polish cultural educational union communist era polish minority declined process continue date fall communism sport organizations resumed activity notable focuses tourism exclusively polish sport club exists today legal issues erection bilingual signs technically permitted minority constitutes population municipality requirement petition members minority abolished process couple villages large polish minorities bilingual signs instance list municipalities polish population polish municipalities czech_republic demographics polish population historically declining primarily caused low natural birth rate high rate majority poles live mixed relationships migration parts country result job seeking people politicians jan interwar president european parliament prime minister poland interwar interwar minister health poland interwar communist politician wolf interwar later senator polish senate writers poet jan poet author unofficial anthem poles poet important polish writers adam economist pop singer best polish twice played world cup adam jazz musician player representing czechoslovakia summer olympics pop singer books roman editors isbn archived original isbn press sport isbn websites european commission polish czech_republic study european commission archived original retrieved pro archived original


noir noir french pronunciation black foot term referring christian jewish people families migrated parts mediterranean french algeria french morocco french tunisia lived generations expelled end french rule north_africa term usually includes north african jews living centuries awarded french citizenship decree specifically term european ancestry returned mainland france soon algeria gained independence months following french invasion june independence algeria france french departments european population simply called colonists muslim people algeria called arabs muslims indigenous term began commonly shortly end independence war census algeria taken june non muslim civilians catholic algeria percent total population including jews war overwhelmingly supported colonial french rule algeria opposed nationalist groups national roots conflict reside political economic perceived french rule demand leading position arab islamic cultures rules existing french conquest conflict contributed fall french fourth republic mass exodus europeans jews france algeria independent french evacuated mainland france chose remain algeria end 1960s moved france suffered left perceived exploitation native muslims blamed war political turmoil surrounding collapse french fourth republic popular culture community represented feeling removed french culture longing algeria recent history theme double native homeland adopted land term implies lived france born algeria families lived generations jews considered indigenous algeria muslim population origin term actual origin term noir unknown debated according oxford english dictionary refers person european origin living algeria period french rule especially french person algeria granted independence robert dictionary states word indicated sailor working coal room ship find feet dust mediterranean native term began referring french born algeria usage originated mainland french negative nickname theory term comes black boots french soldiers compared theories focus new settlers clothing working areas wearing black boots horseback wine history french conquest settlement european settlement algeria began 1830s france commenced process conquest military seizure city invasion instigated struck french consul fly economic reasons cited government charles blockaded algeria sailed followed land expedition troop soldiers landed june kilometres west following week campaign july exiled 1830s french controlled northern country entering region faced resistance leader brotherhood began seven year war declaring french french signed peace treaties broken military government response breaking second treaty drove french coast reply force nearly troops marched countryside forced surrender algeria divided france constantine french state french modeled colonial system predecessors ottomans opting local tribes colonists began supervising operated military officials authority particular domains system lasted 1880s rise french republic colonization intensified large scale lands began land speculation companies took advantage government policy allowed massive sale native property 20th century europeans held hectares hectares percent hectares representing percent land algeria settlers came western mediterranean region particularly italy france spain malta relationship mainland france muslim algeria noir relationship france algeria marked settlers considered french connection mainland france percent visited settlers encompassed range strata ranging peasants large landowners referred algeria muslims considered french share political economic benefits example indigenous population settlements farms businesses numbered nearly million versus roughly million independence politically muslim representation national assembly limited influence local governance obtain citizenship required renounce muslim identity constitute muslims acquired citizenship settlers politically economically dominant position worsened relations groups noir population total population roughly half 19th century independence accounted approximately total population constituted numerical minority undoubtedly prime political economic force region numbered accounted total population algeria percentage gradually diminishing peak areas algeria high concentrations regions area european rule 17th century population metropolitan area european jewish metropolitan area europeans jewish people accounted population metropolitan area accounted population rich european developed agricultural land miles stretching cities including largest area density outside cities accounting population jewish community jews present north_africa centuries time engaged maritime commerce founded current current current tradition told arrived jewish roman war known historically jews came following spanish justice minister wrote proposal giving french citizenship jews jews algeria came considered noir community advancement resisted larger noir community wave anti semitic riots occurred algeria world war abolished regime jews barred professional jobs citizenship restored jews fled country france alongside war war exodus war century france maintained colonial rule territory allowed exceptions republican law including laws applied islamic customary courts muslim women gave women certain rights property inheritance french law discontent muslim grew world wars sustained casualties nationalists began efforts aimed equality listing complaints manifesto people requested equal representation state access citizenship equality citizens preserve islamic french response grant citizenship muslims reform effort french created legislature house french citizens muslims european vote equal seven times muslim vote paramilitary groups appeared claiming islamic brotherhood state led outbreak war independence war armed operations november civilians targets assassination bombing bars cinemas mass torture farms onset war believed french military able overcome opposition demonstration french algeria led including muslims occupied government building general controlled riot forming committee public safety demanding acquaintance charles named president french fourth republic prevent abandonment algeria eventually led fall republic response french parliament voted place power assumed leadership attempted peace visiting algeria days appointment claiming french algeria september planned referendum self determination passed overwhelmingly french political military leaders algeria viewed betrayal formed organisation support paramilitary group began attacking officials representing authority muslims accused murders bombings reconciliation opportunities communities believed reconciliation possible community targeted start opposition culminated led retired generals failure march signed cease fire agreement held referendum july voted independent france occasion massacre suburban muslim population european people shot brought tortured executed exodus exodus began clear algeria independent reported morale sunk violence allegations entire community french nationals responsible terrorism torture colonial racism ongoing violence general group felt rejected nation factors massacre referendum independence caused noir exodus begin earnest number fled algeria totaled left carry adding confusion government ordered french_navy help transportation french citizens september cities half administration police schools justice commercial activities stopped months told choose coffin chose remain gradually left following decade 1980s thousand remained algeria flight muslim fought french war approximately muslim loyalists including able escape france remained thousands killed lynch executed contrast treatment european little effort french government extend protection arrange organised evacuation flight mainland france french government claimed anticipated massive number leave believed choose depart temporarily large portion return algeria administration set aside funds absorption called partly property losses administration avoided acknowledging true numbers refugees order avoid algeria policies consequently plans return psychologically alienated algeria france settled continental france migrated new australia italy spain united_states canada israel argentina france relocated south offered climate similar north_africa influx new citizens bolstered local economies newcomers competed jobs caused resentment ways able integrate french community relative muslim counterparts easier economic boom 1960s ease depended class integration easier upper classes found transformation lower classes capital left algeria surprised treated outsider group difficulties advancement careers contended money allocated government assist relocation insufficient loss repatriated frequently felt french society suffered sense stemming french government changed position algeria independence algeria legally france independence felt betrayed portrayed embarrassment country blame war song noir community adopted unofficial anthem symbol identity captain version chant des lit song marine marching song originally titled est les lit dedicated colonel van commander cavalry 7th african light cavalry regiment song adopted general army drawn units army africa including army world war liberation campaign europe music words later utilized allegiance france listen chant des song banned official military music end war august french minister veterans affairs des lifted prohibition notable louis philosopher economist writer paul sculptor father actor jean paul patrick filmmaker patrick singer albert author singer philosopher annie circus clown tony filmmaker actress author marshal france boxer jean singer jean author author saint fashion designer