charge charge infantry assault ordered confederate robert lee george union positions cemetery ridge july day battle state pennsylvania american_civil_war predicted charge commander james arguably mistake southern war effort fully recovered militarily psychologically point reached attack referred high water mark confederacy charge named george confederate generals led assault confederate attacks union flanks failed day night lee determined strike union center day night july correctly predicted council war lee try attack lines center following morning infantry assault preceded massive artillery bombardment meant union defense silence artillery largely ineffective approximately men infantry brigades advanced open fields quarters mile heavy union artillery rifle fire able breach low stone wall shielded union defenders maintain hold repulsed casualties decisive defeat ended day battle lee campaign pennsylvania years later asked charge failed replied thought yankees background military situation opposing forces union confederate plans command structures charge planned confederate divisions commanded george brig consisting troops james corps hill corps commanded brigades henry old division col archer brigade col james marshall brigade brig joseph davis col john commanding division brigades brig alfred scales temporarily commanded col william lee james lane brigades richard anderson division hill corps support attack right flank brig col david perry brigade target confederate assault center union_army corps commanded directly center division brig john brigades brig william col norman hall brig alexander night july correctly predicted council war lee try attack sector following morning north position brigades division brig alexander south division corps including 2nd vermont brigade brig george pennsylvania command col headquarters corps line small house owned widow specific objective assault source historical controversy traditionally trees cemetery ridge cited visual landmark attacking force historical treatments film continue view originated work battlefield historian john 1880s recent scholarship including published works national military park historians suggested lee goal actually grove cemetery hill prominent highly visible grouping trees yards north debated theory suggests lee general plan second day attacks seizure cemetery hill changed day attacks july aimed securing hill network roads commanded trees currently prominent landmark feet high visible portion attacking columns certain parts battlefield beginning planning things went division hill health issue participate selecting troops charge hill corps fought lightly july july troops heavy fighting july ended making charge assault known popular history charge overall command given james divisional commanders lee tell fresh division lead assault appropriate recent historians assault frequently assault fairly distribute credit blame hill sidelined divisions delegated authority lent charge commanded brigades supervision corps commander men exclusively virginia divisions consisting troops north_carolina mississippi alabama tennessee supporting troops alabama florida conjunction infantry assault lee planned cavalry action union rear stuart led cavalry division east prepared exploit lee hoped breakthrough attacking union rear disrupting line communications retreat baltimore pike despite lee hope early start took morning arrange infantry assault force lee headquarters sent orders division battlefield daylight historian blames oversight describing misunderstanding lee verbal order mistake criticisms performance lost cause authors cite failure evidence deliberately undermined lee plan battle far right end union line seven hour battle control hill lee intent offensive battlefield keeping concentrating numerically superior force assaults poorly coordinated edward johnson attacks hill began artillery barrage infantry charge preceded lee hoped powerful concentrated union center destroying union artillery batteries defeat assault union infantry combination artillery leadership equipment doomed barrage beginning corps artillery chief col edward porter alexander effective command field lee artillery chief brig william played little role effective placement artillery corps despite alexander efforts insufficient concentration confederate fire objective july bombardment likely largest war hundreds cannons sides firing lines hours starting confederate guns numbered fired line miles long starting south peach orchard running roughly parallel road confederate brig law wrote center presented magnificent battle scenes witnessed war looking valley hills capped crowns flame smoke guns equally divided ridges iron hail despite fire confederate shells infantry lines cases inferior shell delayed smoke covering battlefield concealed fact gunners union artillery chief brig henry hunt guns available conduct counter battery fire geographic features union line limited areas effective gun ordered firing cease conserve ammunition fool alexander hunt ordered cannons cease fire slowly create illusion destroyed time hunt cannons ceased fire blinded smoke battle alexander fell hunt deception believed union batteries destroyed hunt resist strong arguments demanded union fire lift spirits pinned alexander bombardment affected artillery house victim frequent evacuate staff powers hill day hot account humid suffered hot sun union counter battery fire awaited order advance union targets hit infantry waiting woods seminary ridge shallow depressions alexander guns causing significant casualties charge began opposed charge beginning convinced charge fail ultimately proved true plan preferred strategic movement union left flank claimed told lee general soldier life soldiers engaged fights couples squads companies regiments divisions armies know soldiers opinion thousand men battle position wanted avoid personally ordering charge attempting pass mantle young colonel alexander telling inform time begin advance based assessment union artillery effectively insufficient information accomplish alexander eventually notified running dangerously short ammunition sending message coming come proper support enemy fire eighteen guns firing cemetery asked general shall advance memoir recalled effort speak order failed indicate bow final attempt assault encounter discussed artillery situation porter informed porter confidence enemy guns confederate ammunition exhausted ordered porter stop young colonel explained ammunition trains rear hour delay advantage previous barrage given infantry assault went forward confederate artillery close support originally planned infantry assault entire force stepped union positions consisted men attack popularly called charge men marched deliberately line speed charge yards enemy line consisted left right brigades men stretched mile long encountered heavy artillery fire advancing nearly quarters mile open fields reach union line slowed fences path initially sloping terrain changed gentle upward approximately midway lines obstacles played large role increasing number casualties advancing faced ground seminary ridge cemetery ridge slightly advancing troops periodically disappeared view union confederate divisions advanced awaiting union soldiers began shouting reference disastrous union advance confederate line battle fire col freeman concealed artillery positions north little round confederate right flank artillery fire cemetery hill hit left shell solid shot beginning turned musket fire came yards union line mile long half mile men filled gaps appeared line followed natural tendency away flanking fire left flank attack brigade devastated artillery fire cemetery hill subjected surprise musket 8th ohio infantry regiment firing single line surprised losses artillery fire panicked fled seminary ridge crashing division causing men bolt followed successful flanking attack davis brigade north left flank division survivors subjected increasing artillery fire cemetery hill rounds fired men assault portion assault advanced farther fence road time close fired artillery alexander division effective fire yards stone wall division lined deep exchanging places line fired fell division brigades followed poor progress confusing orders caused lane send north_carolina regiments forward renewed fire 8th ohio onslaught prevented men getting past road scales north_carolina brigade led col william started heavier disadvantage lost thirds men july driven wounded union defenders took casualties encouraged men riding forth battle line shouting boys giving hell horses shot historian stephen calls performance inspiring right flank crossed road wheeled partially left face northeast marched lines led brigades brig james right brig richard left brig lewis brigade followed closely division wheeled left right flank exposed guns union division cemetery ridge vermont brigade marched forward faced north delivered fire rear brigade time prominent displaying horseback men confederate artillery bombardment wounded bullet striking saddle entering inner right thigh wood fragments large bent nail refused evacuation rear battle settled men advanced defensive fire brigade hall approaching minor union center low stone wall taking yard right angle turn known afterward angle defended brig alexander philadelphia brigade placed remaining guns severely wounded battery 4th artillery line stone fence pennsylvania regiments brigade defend fence guns guns men match massive firepower division right able gaps opened union line commander pennsylvania ordered men retreat came close angle south trees men new_york hall brigade rear case left captain andrew 1st new_york independent artillery battery face oncoming infantry assisted personally artillery chief henry hunt ordered guns fire double simultaneously entire confederate line disappeared gap vacated pennsylvania leaving handful men pennsylvania inch rifled guns receive men brigades began cross stone fence pennsylvania resisted fiercely melee rifle fire retreated attempted bring pennsylvania regiment forward reason obey order bring regiments help fill gap fight killed shouted men bullets striking mouth seized guns turned face union troops ammunition fire union reinforcements arrived charged breach defensive line began slip away individually senior officers remaining formal retreat infantry assault lasted hour supporting attack right factor approach union line defeated advance quickly broken guns vermont brigade aftermath union lost killed wounded confederate casualty rate division suffered casualties killed wounded wounded captured captured losses estimated killed wounded captured brigades lost killed wounded captured brigade reported losses total losses attack killed battlefield wounded good number injured captured confederate prisoner totals difficult estimate reports union reports indicated men captured casualties high commanders charge senior casualties day lost leg received minor wound hand die bullet abdomen suffered minor skirmish retreat virginia division field grade officers majors lieutenant casualties killed mortally wounded wounded wounded captured captured brigade commanders fell wounded seriously captured union soldiers rescued captured retreat virginia killed previous leg injury rode horse charge despite knowing riding horse heavy enemy fire mean certain death known leading brigade cap tip sword progress union lines mortally wounded falling near angle called high water mark confederacy ironically union troops fatally wounded command old friend severely wounded battle dying wishes delivered bible personal effects wife regimental commanders division virginia military institute produced casualties killed wounded stuart cavalry action indirect support infantry assault unsuccessful met stopped union cavalry command brig david miles east east cavalry field soldiers confederate lines seminary ridge lee feared union tried rally center telling returning soldiers failure fault rest day lee ordering charge lee told rally division defense allegedly replied general division union came army exhausted nearly damaged end days army northern virginia content hold field july armies observed informal truce collected dead wounded grant accepted surrender garrison mississippi_river splitting confederacy union victories generally considered turning point civil war history know true story lee intentions published memoirs action report battle senior commanders charge casualties write reports report apparently bitter lee ordered destroy copy found controversy lee plans officers implementation led historians question charge succeeded differently study model examine alternative scenarios outcomes results suggest lee captured cemetery ridge committed infantry brigades charge likely left insufficient reserves hold exploit position newspapers praised virginia division making progress charge papers comparative success means criticizing actions states troops charge publicity played significant factor selecting charge military career charge displeased having attached repulsed charge particular north long taken exception point poor performance advance major factor failure historians questioned role battle bond wrote body troops war reputation little fighting additional controversy developed battle personal location charge fact officers brigadier generals casualties managed escape unharmed led question proximity fighting personal courage film depicts observing horseback farm road historical evidence confirm established doctrine civil war commanders divisions lead rear brigade junior officers expected lead violated ashamed coordinated forces charge iconic symbols literary cultural movement known lost cause william southern novelist summed picture southern memory futile episode southern boy fourteen years old wants instant clock july afternoon brigades position rail fence guns laid ready woods flags break long hat hand probably sword looking hill waiting word balance hasn happened hasn begun hasn begun time begin position circumstances men look grave going begin know come far stake moment doesn need fourteen year old boy think time maybe time lose gain pennsylvania maryland world golden dome washington crown desperate unbelievable victory desperate cast years ago battlefield today site charge best maintained portions battlefield despite millions annual visitors national military park walked footsteps division national_park_service maintains neat path alongside fence leads virginia monument west confederate avenue seminary ridge east road direction trees division started considerably south point near farm wheeled north crossing road fact park service stands main assault division advanced north current path division moved farther south painting french artist paul entitled battle known depicts charge point union defenders cemetery ridge completed exhibited surviving united_states restored relocated new national_park_service visitor center september


battle bight battle bight named air battle second world war began longest air campaign war defence september united_kingdom declared war nazi_germany german invasion poland started european war british assist poland land sea ensuing weeks raf bomber command flew missions german targets number air raids directed kriegsmarine german_navy warships german ports prevent use battle atlantic lines static september period known war set little fighting land air sea german boat submarine forces taking considerable toll allied shipping air ministry decided launch attack german surface ships prevent supporting boats north_atlantic december force raf bomber squadrons sent engage german ships bight sink damage possible originally vickers took turned owing engine trouble reaching german german reaction slow eventually strong fighter aircraft forces intercept aircraft german british involved german fighters contact british bombers germans inflicted damage raf luftwaffe received influence sides future strategy profound battle forced raf abandon daylight missions favour night bombing casualties high build war raf adopted bomber daylight battle shown case forced future bombing operations failure raid led luftwaffe believe base germany proper enemy attack belief reinforced success meant opposing air forces far away effective bombing attacks german homeland day fighter force strategic consequences later years time der luftwaffe luftwaffe high command begun organising air defence combat united_states_army air forces strategic bombing campaign engaged war attrition prepared oversight contributing factors defeat luftwaffe defence campaign german official history called battle important actions entire war background raf strategy outbreak war raf bomber command firmly believed air power win wars need naval land fighting thought bomber tightly flown bomber formations heavy defensive armament thought capable enemy fighters fighter escort raf lacked engine bomber adequate defensive protection carry heavy bomb loads german targets possible targets range british bombers industrial regions netherlands belgium wished remain neutral refused allow raf establish bases fly deeper germany forbade british bombers germany outbreak war french refused allow raf bombers bomb german cities french airfields french felt secure line air_force possess modern bombers deliver pre strike luftwaffe french fighter forces ready defensive campaign germans fear retaliation main french reason fly missions directly britain ports coastal cities northern germany easy reach state affairs suited british particular admiralty immediate threat allies war period boat german submarines sent sea british declaration war began operations british shipping bringing vital supplies north_america areas british_empire soon war declared notable action german submarine sank battleship hms royal oak scapa_flow october loss crew consequence admiralty pressed raf efforts concentrate raf coastal command strategic striking force heavily debated british establishment keeping request united_states_of_america avoid bombing civilian targets british formulated western air plan planned attacks german warships germans complied american request albeit september victory poland assured german ships legitimate targets sea port far away civilian areas avoid unnecessary casualties plan revolved elimination prevent possible use boat fleet prior operations fit strategy raf initial plans involved launching raids german shipping results aerial reconnaissance attempted september bristol flown flying officer andrew squadron raf reconnaissance flight north_sea spotted large naval force roads wilhelmshaven radio failed attack launched returned base page vickers wellington bombers launched german ships weather poor bombers failed find targets similar attempt september spotted warships wilhelmshaven roads radio failed attack launched return force squadron raf squadron raf squadron squadron raf took locate german warships admiral manage locate squadron prepared war crews flying officer bill nearly took bomb load looking noticed bomb bay way target squadron leader paul harris ordered gunners test weapons failed heading german territory wanting turn raid pressed ahead squadron raf bombed targets later day attacking targets results poor lost minimal damage caused german warships admiral hit bombs failed explode light cruiser priority targets present damaged crashed forecastle ship crash killed sailors injured group fighter wing command august took intercepted squadron alfred held claimed victory aircraft squadron raf aircraft shot enemy fighters war likely enemy pilot shoot squadron shot anti aircraft artillery fire germans believed air defences established effective defence allied attack use early radar given german fighters minutes warning approach felt long cases german warships spotted arrival strike force matters decided carry reconnaissance force formations bombers sent north_sea find attack german warships orders forbade attacking ships port neutral attacking german warships escorting merchant ships patrol september resulted shot attack squadron raf squadron raf december successful claiming german sunk confirmed german archives defensive fire wellington gun turrets repelled attacks german fighters shooting loss bombers german pilot shot future german ace shot corporal squadron raf german ships sunk bombs passing ship german report stated attack executed sun delivered avoid nearby civilian areas armed reconnaissance december resulted lost formation low level low cloud base heavily engaged fighter aircraft anti aircraft artillery raf believed lost shot fighters maintained faith defensive capabilities flown tight formations odd considering evidence available luftwaffe claimed bombers loss fighter german units claimed victory returning raf bombers clearly small arms damage machine gun rounds making raf damage highly suspect german defences luftwaffe air defence organisation went number changes months war defence northern german ports vital strategic targets given local nearest air defence command case unit responsible protection german warships kriegsmarine hamburg air defence command hamburg system impractical hamburg air defence district controlled air ground defences geographically position help combined arms synthesis meaning arm directly support german defences forming mass defence instead fighter units protecting coast held kriegsmarine units hamburg air defence artillery held far inland luftwaffe fighters units located far apart coordinate defence coordination helped poor relations luftwaffe kriegsmarine commanders chief grand admiral system required services work produced operation difficulties solution problem fighter units defending north_sea coast air district command fighter units function autonomous fighter command fighter leaders command fighter command unit given august commander served kaiserliche_marine imperial_german_navy world war officer cadet seen combat battle jutland hoped naval background easy personality ease difficulties naval service cooperation counterpart navy rank lacked authority arrangement lacked needed unity command forces involved luftwaffe given new command designated stab command fighter wing referred fighter wing north addition variants force equipped lack action war period meant aircraft usually demand offensive air fleets available defensive roles stab controlled following groups combined strength aircraft commanded von carrier air group officially attached destroyer wing placed stab defensive duties major squadron leader command command wing commander attached eventually commanded major raf raf committed group raf attack usually group consisted squadron raf squadron raf squadron raf squadron raf squadron raf squadron raf squadron raf squadron raf reserve group hastily set daylight missions having intended night bombing attacks quality training dubious crews given proper tuition formation flying squadrons able fly perfect formations effort improve formation flying crews experience combat conditions group squadron practised mock raf fighter command raf warnings given pilots squadron minutes poor formation flying lack fighter escort ignored squadron leader harris squadron wing commander experienced combat leaders flown squadrons group chance practice formation flying bombing squadrons given time opportunity discuss plan bombing naval targets group squadron flight sections able discuss pass tactical advice formation event fighter attack given command group squadrons highly inexperienced december mission wellington bombers squadrons given british bombers flew diamond shape formation battle target morning december times london published story battle river plate demise admiral hours later raf bomber command attempted sink major warship accordance operational order dated december targets german warships port sea raf bombers ordered bight port wilhelmshaven attacking ships avoiding civilian living quarters merchant shipping land bombers route wellington took raf suffolk wing commander richard controls squadron took nearby raf formed king started north_sea squadron took missed rendezvous caught main formation hour later north_sea wash set course true far latitude north plan avoid heavy anti aircraft artillery concentrations islands left england cloud broke found cover bright crystal clear sky bombers piloted kelly turned engine trouble escorting troubled bomber base remaining bombers flew north past islands turned south continuing mission perfect visibility easy spotted german aircraft reaching german danish border turned south formation headed planned turn west wilhelmshaven designed initiate attack east door plan worked bombers arrived intercepted southward journey given germans hour warning radar picked bombers coast bombers passed coast anti aircraft artillery fire ships harbour defences noted target area came heavy anti aircraft artillery fire wilhelmshaven ships near roads opened fire bombers replied machine guns throw gunners german fire correct height exploded bombers soon formation wilhelmshaven harbour anchor beneath ships close shore chose risk dropping bombs avoid civilian casualties commanding formation ordered attack minimum altitude belief greatest danger come anti aircraft fire german fighters raf operational doctrine poor luftwaffe administration meant german defence took time information radar sites major harry von commanding stated naval luftwaffe early warning sites gave alert owing raf landfall interception air air shots traded hour luftwaffe initial report wing commander taking dismissing idea british attempt bombing raid clear weather island regiment battery demonstrating set visiting naval officer test set demonstration swung set north pointing bight soon picked echo told naval radar reported ridiculous think british attack clear skies spoke von wanted know minutes later naval picked formation fighters german radar efficient british counterpart problem lay communication british married radar efficient fighter control system luftwaffe kriegsmarine poor communication areas responsibility overlapped creating confusion responsible added german disbelief raf bomber command expose day conditions favoured fighter observers ground confirmed formation existed fighters observers described formation british aircraft twice actual strength aerial engagement raf formation flew mud flats west came heavy ground fire german positions turned west jade estuary wilhelmshaven anti aircraft units opened fire naval ships dock opened fire support distance point bombers german fighters taking quick briefing commander told pilots beam attack blind spot wellington stern attack dangerous gunners target attacking fighter coordinated concentrated cone fire weakness noted early types lacked self sealing fuel tanks meant german fighters hit wings bomber liable burn luftwaffe squadron leader squadron harris section section drop bombs ships wilhelmshaven harbour bombs fell results unknown raf major raid german target bombers emerged anti aircraft barrage raf formation harris formations intact squadron leader ahead squadron squadron rear commander squadron leader williams struggling catch main formation ahead formation keeping members williams squadron increased speed leader flying took escorted attacked group anti aircraft fire lifted claimed seven bombers claiming kill credited led claimed bombers aircraft severely damaged forcing managed base dead stick landing power claims second victim flying officer squadron leader harris came attack piloted failed hit bomber beam attacks tried stern attack earlier advice shot managed land sea yards island witnesses beach saw attempt swim shore likely shot second class wellington battle piloted gordon shot killed squadron leader squadron williams squadron leader squadron shot possibly soon afterward germans suffered casualty roman crashed sea pursuit flying officer lemon killed time claimed bombers attacked bombers claiming german lent credited victories landing patrol lent took intercept engaged ruse wellington killing crew wellington pouring black smoke lent broke believing crash lent pursued officer thompson wellington crashed coast lent claim granted attacked downed flying officer aircraft aircraft badly damaged judged crash lent refused victory instead stab given credit shot pilot officer lewis aircraft close german fighters limit endurance returned base bomber formation interception range shots fired aftermath sides german fighter units heavily raf losses german pilots claiming aircraft shot actual raf losses aircraft raf gunners claimed german fighters severely damaged actual german losses destroyed plus severely damaged claims luftwaffe insisted bombers air later increased hours later claims reduced months later report analysed reduced confirmed victories twice number actually shot true number formation german historians claimed official british figures hide losses careful examination records reveals deception commonwealth war graves commission record identity service personnel died war known grave case airmen downed sea airmen reported missing day squadron german casualties amounted destroyed severely damaged severely damaged seven suffered light damage roman pilots die action wrote pilots wounded british assessment tactical assessment sides radically different bomber command believed attack failure result poor formation flying leadership maintained better beam defensive armament self sealing fuel tanks needed tactical considerations believed salvage day bomber concept december unsigned group raf report stated reason believe close formation wellington aircraft emerge long heavy attack enemy fighters casualties aircraft loose formation liable suffer heavy casualties conditions december air vice marshal baldwin reported squadron leaders williams blame racing ahead formations breaking cohesive defence pattern baldwin sent report raf bomber command commander chief replied december joined baldwin condemning leaders squadrons abandoning flight called action crime leader squadron harris later stated unfair williams faced enemy harris blamed group headquarters stating prior planning liaison squadrons harris noted group operations staff provided formation lessons operations notes formation flying orders specifically stated formation stay saying aircraft section self contained defensive unit flying different heights stating aircraft formation leader notes pointed importance holding formation section section leader follow formation leader wing commander section formation break apart bomber formations built idea mutual protection formation came apart bomber fend enable enemy pick bombers squadron leaders williams advice battle wing commander followed notes lost aircraft harris kept formation lost weeks debate began shifting air attacks cover darkness favouring alternative german assessment germans noted lessons weaknesses aware particularly poor beam defences wellington bombers admitted bombers rigid formation flying worked favour allowing choose position angle attack german report regarded attempt raf attack clear conditions altitudes criminal post battle analysis anti aircraft fire noted stated proved effective breaking formations damaging bombers provided better opportunities fighter pilots recent polish campaign german_army staff analysis rigorous analysis battle army general staff assessed problems leadership tactics command control improve effectiveness appears fighter units busy success little evidence luftwaffe took like army approach poland following victory bight historian luftwaffe general staff noted exploited propaganda despite operational problems warnings battle attacker defender progress war september summer exceptions luftwaffe pre war focus offensive use fighter arm success luftwaffe norwegian campaign battles netherlands belgium france yugoslavia greece method luftwaffe defended german driving away enemy air power germany borders defeating enemies skies occupation opponent territory denied germany enemies bases effectively strike german targets air german daylight defences rarely tested time run events knowledge raf capable short france daylight led luftwaffe believe germany attack maintain offensive line bomber production dominated air industry production fighters given priority late united_states entered war adolf_hitler declaration war december failure operation time meant luftwaffe method concentrating resources line coming raf began campaign night bombing early later year united_states_army air_force enter air war force continued resist sending forces defend germany weakening lines luftwaffe faced time daylight engagements danger allied strategic bombing day gave cause concern end measures taken strengthen daylight anti aircraft defences remained counter productive summed attitude stated luftwaffe deal western allies daylight raids fighter wing events prove assumption wrong adolf general der general fighter force gave lack organisation planning air defence greatest mistakes luftwaffe war


siege siege french attempt force surrender fortress town island following french occupation mainland french revolutionary wars garrison heavily outnumbered received significant support british_royal_navy forces controlled mediterranean_sea ensured supplies reached garrison french supply convoys intercepted french began siege men later reinforced impression fortresses defences instead seeking defenders submission support squadron french_navy frigates operating coast presence small british naval squadron region rendered plan impractical additional british reinforcements rear admiral sir john warren lieutenant colonel george strengthened defenders point french offensive positions french subsequently lost frigates sent blockade port patrolling british warships series sided engagements giving british local dominance allowed maintain fortress despite number naval actions significant land engagement siege dragged summer early autumn articles treaty signed october town control provisions final agreement signed march granted island france invasion french consul napoleon advanced italy achieving victories austrian empire battles year warfare french austrians signed treaty february divided northern italy states awarded grand french included division island sea western italian coast time shared kingdom naples march treaty florence signed naples france officially turning entirety french control surrendered commanders sea stage largely french territorial waters royal_navy destroyed french mediterranean_fleet battle egypt british fact controlled mediterranean_sea british bases gibraltar malta allowed british naval forces cruise sea largely unopposed presence forced remnants french fleet based toulon short journeys french bases avoid interception capture large french squadron rear admiral briefly asserted regional naval superiority french expeditionary force able secure sailed men general jean victor landed unopposed town invasion force rapidly spread island meeting resistance entire portion region surrendered soon remained hands fortress port town northern coast powerful defensive position commander rejected demands surrender presence british frigates hms phoenix hms port position responded laying siege fortress sudden departure frigates face squadron bombarded town forced retire following outbreak board squadron encouraged small french frigate subsequently blockaded intention defenders surrender frigates overall command captain soon arrived augment blockade reinforcements months siege continued little significant activity arrival end july general additional men instructions general prosecute siege vigorously arrival august powerful british squadron rear admiral sir john warren hms renown ship chased far reopened sea passage port immediately frustrated ambitions time small british force captain gordon landed augment garrison august warren patrolling frigates phoenix captain lawrence hms captain edward hms pearl captain samuel james discovered sail western shore gave chase ship gun captain carrying barrels powder escorting convoy small coastal vessels carrying military supplies turned away british pursuit actively engaged lead ship stern cannon mounted rear frigate laden escape opponents minute chase pearl cut route firing position captain surrendered losses limited killed wounded subsequently died suffered severe casualties engagement complement delay caused brief chase allowed coastal ships disperse flee avoided capture reached modern ship seized republic venice treaty royal_navy took service existing admiralty retired active service year september warren departed soon leaving frigate squadron siege continued august french forces dominated unable impression walls fortress royal_navy forces controlled access island sea providing supplies defenders denying french phoenix maintained blockade port italian mainland ensuring interception french supplies end august learned phoenix port sent message remainder french squadron lay anchor instructing attack isolated british warship sailed august arrived september discover frigates hms captain george joined phoenix received intelligence report detailing demand french ships sail summoned reinforcements closest arriving french vessels immediately gave chase signalling join sighting british frigates turned northwards british warships gaining small squadron unable escape pursuit rapidly approaching drove ashore beach near hope away instead simply fired grounded vessel passing continuing remaining ship surrendered captain louis desperate attempts reach overtaken northerly wind drove repeatedly eventually forced drive frigate ashore battery nautical miles south harbour waves battered causing masts fall overboard ship total wreck small british force lieutenant william kelly boarded able bring prisoners heavy fire batteries ashore forced quit kelly ignored instructions burn order spare lives french sailors trapped ship south british dragged beach french captured february repairs returned service royal_navy hms success counter attack french threat sea eliminated royal_navy free offensive command garrison placed hands lieutenant colonel george warren returned powerful squadron plans drawn force seamen royal marines launch amphibious operation french batteries overlooked mouth harbour british assembled landing party marines seamen renown hms gibraltar hms dragon hms alexander hms hms pearl brig hms command captain george long captain john chambers white renown approximately troops joined landings took place morning september troops moved inland batteries columns dragon bombarded fortified tower attack began british destroyed batteries took prisoners war soon greater french numbers began tell landing parties pushed confusion having lost killed including captain long wounded missing dead wounded missing british troops general claimed victory numbers engaged claiming caused casualties allies having captured men claimed frigate destroyed smaller craft fire batteries british warships reported damage warren departed region soon squadron unable impression walls held town french weeks war news arrived accompanied provisional signing treaty october march article final terms treaty british turned entire island french remained french hands napoleonic wars


puerto rican campaign puerto rican campaign american military sea land operation island puerto_rico spanish american war offensive began united_states_navy attacked archipelago capital san_juan damage inflicted city minimal americans able establish blockade city harbor san_juan bay june cruiser destroyer terror delivered spanish counterattack unable break blockade terror damaged land offensive began july infantry soldiers led major general nelson miles disembarked coast controlling skirmish americans advanced engaged puerto rican spanish troops battle battle concluded allied soldiers retreated battle left dead american united_states able seize control august forced withdraw august group puerto rican spanish soldiers led del gained control city civilian inhabitants fled nearby lighthouse americans encountered larger opposition advanced main island interior engaged river inconclusive allied soldiers retreated battle san concluded similar fashion spanish retreating august american troops pursuing units retreating encountered heavy resistance retreated soldiers injured returned days later reinforced artillery units attempted surprise attack subsequent confused soldiers reported seeing spanish reinforcements nearby american officers injured prompted retreat order military actions puerto_rico suspended august president william french ambassador acting behalf spanish government signed armistice spain relinquished sovereignty territories puerto_rico cuba philippines guam prelude captain alfred member navy war board leading strategic wrote book titled influence sea power history argued creation large powerful navy modeled british_royal_navy strategy called acquisition colonies caribbean_sea serve naval stations serve points defense construction canal idea new william secretary state presidents abraham_lincoln grant stressed canal built honduras nicaragua panama united_states annex dominican_republic purchase puerto_rico cuba idea dominican_republic failed receive approval senate spain accept million dollars offered puerto_rico cuba following statement war department naval war college plans war spain office naval intelligence prepared plan included military operations puerto rican waters puerto_rico considered valuable naval station puerto_rico cuba abundant valuable commercial united_states lacked sugar following sinking battleship maine havana harbor cuba united_states ultimatum spain withdraw cuba response spain broke diplomatic relations united_states april spain declared war april congress declared state war united_states spain existed april united_states principal objectives spanish american war control spanish possessions atlantic puerto_rico cuba possessions pacific philippines guam april ships monitor uss armored cruisers uss new_york uss cincinnati bombarded spanish fortifications bay cuba july armistice signed large tree cuba spanish forces ending hostilities cuba waters united_states directed undivided military resources puerto_rico leaders puerto rican section cuban revolutionary party written president asking puerto_rico included intervention planned cuba early march provided government information spanish military presence island spanish preparations outbreak war spanish crown sent 1st 2nd 3rd puerto rican provisional battalions defend cuba american invaders puerto rican troops island 1st puerto rican provisional battalion composed cavalry krupp artillery sent cuba battled american forces battle san_juan hill battle puerto rican battalion suffered total casualties included dead wounded prisoners spanish appointed governor puerto_rico declared martial law resolving resist american forces declared providence permit countries discovered spanish nation echo language cease heard flag disappear eyes long live puerto_rico spanish long live spain hoped grant autonomy ensure puerto remain loyal spanish crown american preparations spanish crown unaware time united_states successfully island number spies henry howard whitney henry ward george william freeman james frederick according story published century magazine september pretending german journalist presented german consul thomas asked names puerto german descent interview names consul gave family town arrival town met year old asked german map puerto_rico lost answered decidedly big use returned home knowing spy quickly drew depiction major ports puerto_rico map believed given map army commanding general nelson miles influencing mile decision landing points invasion puerto_rico copy map published century article naval campaign puerto_rico august actions engagement occurred converted liner uss yale captured spanish freighter san_juan bay yale fought brief battle unknown spanish auxiliary cruiser resulting spanish victory time captain assigned command spanish forces fortress san san_juan yale returned san_juan bay ordered men open fire steamer centimeter cannon attack american forces puerto_rico spanish american war actions awarded cross order military merit class bombardment san_juan bombardment san_juan battle san_juan confused battle san_juan hill battle san_juan nicaragua refers american naval attack fortifications san_juan puerto_rico spanish american war american naval commanders believed bulk spanish fleet admiral steaming cape_verde islands antilles ultimately puerto_rico understanding rear admiral william squadron american warships battleships uss iowa indiana new_york cruisers uss montgomery detroit monitors uss terror torpedo boat uss porter unidentified auxiliary cruisers unarmed stood havana noon bound puerto_rico intended intercept destroy spanish squadron attack secondary shore san_juan castles forts batteries unaware slipped squadron bay squadron arrived san_juan finding harbor instead anticipated spanish fleet making best situation exercise gunners ordered bombardment city captains defended city form fort san del batteries command armed cannons battle lasted hours resulted death puerto rican soldier die puerto rican campaign awarded cross order military merit class actions causing damage spanish defenses receiving minor damage low coal ammunition ordered cease fire returned havana cuba key west florida repairs supplies second battle san_juan june uss saint paul command captain charles arrived san_juan bay cuba joined blockade shortly midday old spanish cruiser set san_juan engage saint paul support shore batteries opened fire saint paul long range success attempt break blockade terror spanish destroyer docked san_juan repairs attempted cover cruiser escape torpedo attack thwarted rudder damaged direct hit saint paul losing terror inadvertently turned broadside allowing saint paul score direct hits near terror waterline engines causing list terror abandoned attack returned port followed june uss saint paul relieved uss continued blockade san_juan bay battle san_juan june american auxiliary cruiser uss fought squadron spanish warships squadron consisted cruiser blockade runner engagement steamer belonging carrying cargo needed military supplies pursued spanish freighter ran aground puerto_rico valuable cargo charge ship cargo men command quickly removed stranded ship cargo possible desperate efforts proved nearly entire cargo salvaged hulk minor articles cannon fallen overboard salvage attempts lost july cruiser uss new_orleans arrived relieve quickly finished day firing shells vessel sinking sunk cargo successfully delivered ensured american assault san_juan met stronger resistance awarded naval cross order naval merit spanish government residents san_juan furious blamed destruction city american came ordered turn keys military installations san_juan captain henry reed army treaty paris signed land campaign puerto_rico july august landing spanish forces expected americans attack northern region island concentrated defenses san_juan spanish government aware planned landing americans located east_coast town fortified southern western regions puerto_rico left little defenses cuba taken president william approved land invasion puerto_rico way taking consideration fortified san_juan expected initial attack convoy ships left tampa florida july convoy included uss yale uss massachusetts uss gloucester uss departed day journey puerto_rico major general miles traveled aboard uss yale approaching passage separates puerto_rico island hispaniola east miles opted land troops southern region island choosing landing zone miles dispatched patrol boats convoys decision order proceed miles decision change invasion site based belief town fortified feared spanish coastal gun boats disrupt landing july general miles infantry soldiers total assigned initial invasion convoy ships command naval captain francis uss massachusetts arrived bay following navy ships army convoy uss yale generals miles george embarked uss carrying general guy henry uss columbia uss gloucester uss uss wasp army transports specialist captured spanish ships confiscated uss yale war prizes small jurisdiction town houses defense members 4th puerto rican militia unit command lieutenant lighthouse keeper rivera spotted approaching convoy immediately gave alert residents residents exception juan welcomed invaders abandoned homes joined rivera journey broke news invading forces city mayor skirmish gloucester ship set anchor bay sailors marines command wood departed ship landed beach marines lowered spanish flag beach replaced american flag proceeded set machine gun nest placed barbed wire perimeter land skirmish puerto_rico puerto rican militia american forces occurred men attacked opened fire americans small battle followed americans returned fire machine gun gloucester began bombard spanish position men wounded militia unit forced retreat town invasion skirmish men landed beach secure area build landing dock american soldiers command general miles landed units landed 6th volunteer regiments illinois massachusetts artillery battalion battery companies engineer companies medical unit men abandoned swore allegiance united_states named mayor chief police afternoon 25th left seven companies 6th massachusetts company 6th illinois headed secretary war russell learned landing day read associated_press report local washington newspaper war department ordered miles invade puerto_rico way san_juan completely surprised report miles subject disciplinary actions invasion gone smoothly received following cable miles days invasion battle rivera keeper lighthouse notified mayor town located miles north american invasion mayor turn notified governor telegraph governor ordered captain 3rd company 25th battalion head men joined lieutenant colonel francisco assumed command spanish forces miles arrived companies known battalion joined puerto rican volunteers civil guards mounted towns men positioned sides road ran coffee owned infantry company positioned hill south meantime set men intention capturing rail terminus ran town city largest city southern region island men arrived darkness night informed scouts possibility hostile situation ordered illinois company companies companies 6th massachusetts occupy small hill right overlooked captain san detected movements american troops positions nearby hill ordered men open fire ordered direct attack spanish puerto rican forces day break 6th massachusetts overran spanish forces suffered casualties expecting reinforcements arrive ordered retreat retreating right wing spanish force overrun initiated flanking attack positions held illinois massachusetts companies unexpected strength spanish force caused 6th massachusetts troops momentarily panic spanish forces eventually driven forces suffered officers soldiers wounded soldiers dead men retreated failed destroy rail terminus connected town city proceeded march town troops entered afternoon july july men continued march leaving artillery heavy equipment passing towns finally arriving town northern coast island july col believing accused spanish government abandoning military equipment retreat committed suicide august miles learning lack discipline 6th massachusetts battle ordered investigation 6th massachusetts sent hard march punishment regimental commander lieutenant colonel major captain resigned request battle august monitors uss uss armed uss uss sailing coast northeast corner puerto_rico captain frederick commanding officer senior officer afloat spotted las san_juan cape san_juan lighthouse designated landing site army invasion puerto_rico ordered reconnaissance landing party ashore including puerto rican volunteers sailors advanced half mile miles coast withdrew encountered spanish troops man spanish garrison stationed alerted american presence ordered withdraw superiors san_juan realized garrison abandoned town invading americans spanish authorities san_juan dispatch troops defend losing hope spanish troops come town aid went lighthouse seek protection town americans afternoon august entered contingent united_states flags hoisted customs house harbor city hall evening august captain charles ordered sailors officers commanded charles assistant engineer david ashore occupy light ordered quarter women children town families deemed danger having sided americans group sailors entering lighthouse naval cadet william mortally wounded revolver fell faulty discharged thigh cutting navy deaths puerto rican campaign august governor general sent colonel del troops including civil recapture city colonel entered august found nearly deserted residents fearing battle fled light surrounding hills close midnight august troops began assault lighthouse landing party sailors occupying lighthouse light signaled ships offshore initiating shore bombardment naval guns began firing protective pattern hours spanish forces retreated town americans suffered casualties despite close naval shell smashed foot thick walls lighthouse touch men failed explode spanish losses dead wounded including lieutenant early morning decided continued occupation lighthouse marginal value ordered men ship landing party sailors similar number marines uss cincinnati lieutenant john came ashore secure area civilians boarded passage lighthouse abandoned men tore flags flew harbor customs house city hall returning san_juan lighthouse abandoned contingent civil guards accompanied left maintain order town skirmish time american forces withdrew position puerto rican campaign battle town taken miles decided attack city sea land 6th illinois 6th massachusetts returned troops rested men ordered eastward col charge spanish forces city pulled leaving small garrison volunteers hold town american forces arrived met resistance spanish volunteers surrendered invaders american forces ones participated taking members puerto rican commission included leader revolt group arrived aboard uss louis assigned headquarters general miles group miles organized rican scouts later assigned general command miles ordered brigadier general peter men 3rd illinois 4th ohio 4th pennsylvania volunteer infantry regiments small port miles east served larger nearby coastal town taken august august ordered 4th ohio 3rd illinois battery guns manned company 4th ohio capture spanish forces entrenched crest small hills road ran americans crossed stream hills suddenly spanish opened fire americans protected position stream increased firepower reinforcements arrived outnumbered spanish troops retreated americans advance hills lasted half hour left american wounded 4th ohio entered town discovered fled north abandoned city ending battle general john residence town square military headquarters battle river bridge august colonel sent companies 4th ohio reconnaissance mission cast iron bridge crossed river road bridge essential general projected advance town 4th ohio observed elements spain 6th provisional battalion command entrenched heights miles north bridge 4th felt strongly entrenched attempt assault time 4th ohio requested reinforcements august attacked short erupted numerical superiority americans forced spanish retreat heights battle battle americans landing resulted seven wounded spanish forces suffered dead wounded battle shortly american soldiers disembarked group spanish puerto rican units began moving marching central central road composed companies battalion hunters members civil guard puerto rican force total infantry men members cavalry formed battalions command col commander charge garrison traveling foot journey days group decided spend night resort town known continuing march morning immediately ordered construction trenches building soldiers ambushed anti spanish force led managed kill member civil guard battalions volunteers wisconsin pennsylvania led generals james wilson settled opposite sides road august americans began offensive opening cannon fire city completing attack artillery fire 3rd 4th regular pennsylvania artillery provide artillery support frontal assault damaging resort americans intended defeat defenses city group soldiers entered city having advanced river nearby rear assault reinforced wilson army general attempting trap allied soldiers employing tactic known movement surprised attack led improvised attack killed second command leaving captain charge ordered men surrender half allied troops ignored order continued attack troop speed north finding resort abandoned spanish men sent prisoner war camp located men continued attack retreated realized americans movement battle heights brigadier general men independent brigade landed marched occupied men ordered westward capture city colonel ordered spanish regulars 24th rifle battalion companies scattered spanish puerto rican forces dispatched garrison meet defeat spanish forces entrenched high ridge called heights located road near town troops arrived town san continued march objective troop 5th cavalry approached heights soon engaged spanish forces opened fire americans aided companies 19th infantry supported artillery guns 11th infantry spanish forces retreated american reinforcements brought intense fire men set camp heights night following day continued drive arrived following morning find spanish forces abandoned city retreat east follow instead ordered town las outcome heights battle left spanish dead wounded prisoners brigade suffered wounded killed action battle american cavalry pursued soldiers retreated able reach units entered pass region commonly known region prepared allied puerto rican spanish troops built trench placed soldiers equipment foliage soon soldiers noticed presence invading unit opened cannon fire cavalry received infantry reinforcements received battery fire american soldiers injured prompting retreat order allied units spanish puerto rican lost soldiers civil guards following days americans decided battlefield reconnaissance colonel developed pass spies deployed including puerto rican named able enter city suspicion contact teacher gave series defense plans previously developed organized inactive puerto rican soldiers deployed completed rounds hours working hours daily ate beans rice meat packs spanish reinforcements supposed arrive slept improvised protect rain american commanders decided attack trenches artillery sending large group try attack allied troops captain led 3rd wisconsin volunteer infantry regiment central highway bliss led units similar equipment allied troops opened cannon fire americans entered range ordered deployment batteries received orders commander set cannon distance yards vanguard right intended defeat small group led captain allied cannon fire falling close lancaster location asked help deploying battery nearby cannons forced order temporary cease offensive believed opposition annihilated ordered advance allied fire renewed time supported rifle fire sudden attack caused confusion soldiers reported seeing second spanish unit nearby fearing allied units capture american equipment ordered retreat lieutenant injured bullet replaced sergeant john long men fled battlefield allied forces american infantry fire artillery time american officials injured including long lieutenant harris captain lee corporal oscar private frederick corporal august george bruce private received injuries subsequently dying harris position filled fatally shot trying support artillery total allied units injured artillery man american dead injured wilson camp receive telegram general miles war ended americans sent bliss refused suspend hostilities receiving telegram denying peace treaty military actions puerto_rico suspended august president william french ambassador acting behalf spanish government signed armistice spain relinquished sovereignty territory puerto_rico aftermath treaty paris puerto_rico campaign began capture ended august treaty paris signed short compared campaigns spanish american war war came end military objective campaign completed factors benefited invaders short campaign puerto resided southern western towns villages resented spanish rule tended view americans puerto rican leaders diego expected united_states grant island independence case committee headed greeted general miles invaders believing puerto_rico gain independence group men staged uprising known uprising proclaimed puerto_rico republic spanish authorities unaware cease fire signed brutally suppressed uprising reason explain campaign short violent 1st 2nd 3rd puerto rican provisional battalions cuba defending island american invaders stated introduction puerto rican battalion suffered total casualties included dead wounded prisoners spanish puerto americans participated campaign totaled total spanish puerto rican american military personnel spanish puerto rican suffered casualties included dead wounded captured american forces suffered casualties dead wounded commander spain 6th provisional battalion gained notoriety author pamphlet called puerto_rico supported governor general attempt justify spain defeat united_states falsely blamed puerto rican volunteers spanish army group angry agreed challenge duel commander pamphlet men drew lots honor fell seconds colonel del captain duel took place explained intentions writing pamphlet parties satisfied terms treaty paris ratified december puerto_rico ceded united_states spain lost colony western hemisphere united_states gained imperial strength global presence united_states established military government appointed miles head military government established island acting head army occupation administrator civil affairs members spanish forces civilians loyal spanish crown allowed return spain october spanish withdrawal puerto_rico completed final troops left san_juan spain belonged spanish military decided stay puerto_rico offered option united_states serve newly formed regiment took offer lieutenant spanish army joined regiment angel declined offer retired military puerto_rico puerto_rico governed military officers commanding general nelson miles major general john major general guy henry major general george davis men miles henry experienced veterans indian wars accustomed administration native americans army previous experience administration overseas territories henry stated entirely new duty american army officers precedent experience suddenly placed charge real colony policy based administration puerto_rico responsibility united_states department war division affairs bureau indian affairs immediately united_states began process puerto_rico occupation brought total change puerto_rico economy apply democratic principles colony puerto_rico classified unincorporated territory meant united_states_constitution automatically apply island belonged senator george described puerto simple minded harmless people interested wine women music dancing recommended spanish abolished island schools english taught schools primary vehicle initially classes taught english large rate january military government changed puerto_rico congress changed puerto_rico island currency changed puerto rican american dollar integrating island currency monetary system united_states exerted control economy island prohibiting puerto_rico negotiating commercial treaties nations determining shipping goods mainland carriers civil disorder state civil disorder existed island mountainous region invasion united_states local found unemployed felt exploited employers formed bands called attacked robbed wealthy plantation owners loyal spanish crown vengeance later began attack businesses owned local natives notable leaders operated areas harassed spanish civil guard later american forces factor contributing state civil disorder island lack discipline american troops stationed island troops professional soldiers composed volunteers instances reported men act influence alcohol fights local residents state civil disorder came halt island military government began rebuilt puerto_rico infrastructure providing employment unemployed population volunteer troops replaced regular army end military rule rise sugar economy military rule replaced civilian government way act act stipulated governor chief police officials appointed americans civilian governor puerto_rico charles allen installed president largest company world american sugar company company later renamed sugar company effect charles allen governorship puerto_rico controlling interest entire puerto rican economy years end puerto rican campaign granted puerto right elect governor exercised constitution puerto_rico approved constitutional convention february ratified congress approved president july year puerto_rico adopted literally translated free associated state officially translated english commonwealth body markers monuments puerto_rico monuments commemorate spanish american war markers historical events took place honor american invaders spanish puerto rican defenders island town rock coastal port inscription indicating major general nelson miles men landed spot monument town dedicated veterans spanish american war said monument fails specify veterans dedicated americans spanish puerto monument dedicated unknown spanish soldier fallen combat left spot markers indicate died tomb located old cemetery tomb unknown puerto rican soldiers perished conflict body transferred hometown spain buried town monument dedicated members 4th ohio infantry marker indicates place battle took place


battle battle engagement united_states north korean forces early korean war august vicinity county river south_korea battle perimeter large engagements fought simultaneously battle ended victory united_states large numbers reinforcements destroyed attacking north korean division august 4th infantry division north korean people army kpa crossed river vicinity attempting cut supply lines north gaining perimeter opposing 24th infantry division eighth united_states_army weeks american north korean forces fought bloody series engagements inflicting heavy casualties confusing series attacks able gain upper hand end forces aided reinforcements air support heavy weapons destroyed invading north korean force hampered lack supply high rates battle turning point war north korean forces seen previous victories owing superior numbers equipment american forces numerical superiority equipment including tanks weapons capable defeating powerful north korean tanks background outbreak war following june outbreak korean war invasion republic korea south_korea northern neighbor democratic people republic korea north_korea united_nations decided commit troops conflict behalf south_korea united_states member subsequently committed ground forces korean peninsula goal fighting north korean invasion prevent south_korea collapsing forces far_east steadily decreasing end world war years earlier time closest forces 24th infantry division headquartered japan division equipment reductions military spending regardless 24th ordered south_korea 24th infantry division unit sent korea mission initial shock north korean advances delaying larger north korean units buy time allow reinforcements arrive division consequently weeks attempted delay north making time 1st cavalry 7th 25th infantry divisions eighth army supporting units position advance elements 24th infantry badly defeated battle july encounter american north korean forces month defeat task force smith 24th infantry repeatedly defeated forced south superior north korean numbers equipment regiments 24th infantry systematically pushed south engagements 24th final stand battle completely destroyed delaying north korean forces july time eighth army force combat troops roughly equal north korean forces attacking region new units arriving day north korean advance captured north korean forces began surrounding perimeter sides attempt 4th 6th north korean infantry divisions advanced south wide flanking maneuver divisions attempted left flank extremely spread process advanced positions armor superior numbers repeatedly pushing south korean forces american forces pushed repeatedly finally halting north korean advance series engagements southern section country forces 3rd battalion 29th infantry regiment newly arrived country wiped coordinated ambush north korean forces july opening pass area soon north korean forces took west pushing 19th infantry regiment leaving routes open north korean attacks formations subsequently able defeat push north flank battle notch august suffering mounting losses kpa force west withdrew days equip receive reinforcements granted sides prepare attack perimeter miles north point turns east joined river river curves westward opposite wide loop span metres wide feet deep allowing infantry wade difficulty preventing vehicles crossing assistance perimeter defended network observation posts high ground manned 24th infantry forces reserve counterattack attempted crossings kpa artillery mortar fire units deployed large amounts fire delivered spot division extremely dispersed presented thin line battle 24th infantry division command major general john church occupied region miles long river 34th infantry regiment occupied southern half west 21st infantry regiment occupied northern half west 19th infantry regiment rear lines 24th supporting units strength august opposing 24th infantry 4th north korean infantry division command major general lee division highly decorated exploits far war particularly battle seoul august 4th division concentrated regiments vicinity stood strength infantry regiment north korean attack midnight night august north korean soldiers 3rd battalion 16th regiment river ferry site miles south west carrying light weapons supplies heads second force attempted cross north hit machine gun artillery fire falling confusion august north began engaging forces 3rd battalion 34th infantry moved forward small fight attempting penetrate lines north korean infantry forced 3rd battalion american battalion abandoned command post consolidate position attack caught americans surprise commanders expected north attempt crossing north landing threatened split american lines disrupt supply lines positions north subsequently north able capture large american equipment counterattack 34th infantry regimental headquarters ordered 1st battalion counterattack north 1st battalion arrived 3rd battalion command post ambushed kpa troops high ground company arrive suffered percent casualties companies tanks armor eventually rescuing company company contact company 3rd battalion positions river north penetrated eastward north river road cloverleaf hill crossed south road ridge north penetrated miles east halfway units 34th regiment began retreat north 21st infantry lines church ordered turned ordered 19th infantry counterattack west northern flank 34th infantry help oppose kpa 24th infantry repulsed closer river mile inland 19th infantry trapped north village killed 1st battalion 34th infantry managed block north korean advance 19th infantry able push inflict substantial casualties evening august kpa held firmly attempted crossings night repulsed south south korean forces unknown number reinforcements moved river night august august north tried battalions river north repulsed 21st infantry place kpa battalions shifted south cross instead august estimated regiment north korean troops american continued morning august gains slow hampered hot weather lack food water north able press forward regain cloverleaf hill ridge critical terrain main road area day 9th infantry regiment 2nd infantry division unit newly arrived korea sent region church immediately ordered attack north korean 9th infantry fresh equipped inexperienced number despite attack 9th infantry able regain cloverleaf hill intense fighting stalled movement north korean forces began making gains hills river adjacent positions 34th infantry coordinated attacks pushed company north hills heavy casualties august company south attacked held line reinforced company august fighting continued days resulting heavy casualties sides captured recaptured hills able gain decisive advantage task force hill attempt destroy north korean church assembled large force 9th infantry regiment dubbed task force hill force comprised 9th 19th 34th infantry regiments 1st battalion 21st infantry plus supporting artillery attached units assigned drive north east bank river august commanding task force colonel john hill commanding officer 9th infantry regiment 4th north korean division constructed underwater bridges logs rocks finishing august 4th division trucks heavy artillery additional infantry tanks river morning august estimated kpa regiments river occupying fortified positions supplies continued stream task force hill mounted attack unable progress newly established artillery directive attack quickly dig hold ground nightfall entire 4th north korean division river august elements 4th north korean began south task force hill day scattered north korean elements attacked kpa repeatedly attacked night american soldiers resting greater difficulty resisting reinforcements august general walker command eighth army dispatched 27th infantry regiment 25th infantry division attack north 25th division zone drive 4th north korean division troops moving simultaneously church assembled combat service support soldiers formed combat unit block penetration north korean forces setting roads additional reinforcements poured rest 27th infantry moved battalion 23rd infantry regiment 2nd infantry division able push north korean firmly held positions cloverleaf hill august following artillery barrage task force hill launched direct assault positions fighting continued entire day fierce series attacks sides far reduced strength inflicted large numbers casualties task force hill second attack unsuccessful casualties officers high fight followed meant units fight communicate coordinate large actions battle attrition august 4th north korean division task force hill able upper hand fight cases erupted desperate hand hand combat casualties mounted frustrated walker ordered man 1st provisional marine brigade area turn tide brigade moved region middle conducted 25th infantry 4th north korean division meantime suffering logistical setbacks lack food equipment ammunition weapons local south korean villages brought replace mounting losses virtually provision wounded division north korean forces began come apart stresses division morale remained relatively high general lee refused withdraw destruction 1st marine provisional brigade conjunction task force hill mounted massive offensive cloverleaf hill august offensive began august forces heavy weapons available north korean positions artillery mortars tanks kpa defense halted marines responded artillery cloverleaf hill heavy indirect fire forced north positions marines task force hill eventually overwhelmed hill time marines approached destroying resistance slope barrage tanks strong resistance caused heavy casualties withdraw 18th north korean regiment control hill mounted disastrous counterattack hopes pushing marines division tactics cutting supplies relying surprise provided success point failed face massive numerical superiority nightfall august 4th north korean division annihilated huge numbers weakened numbers fight time cloverleaf hill forces scattered groups north korean soldiers fled pursued american planes artillery fire day remains 4th division withdrawn river hasty retreat left large number artillery pieces equipment americans later pressed service aftermath battle caused massive casualties sides end fight 4th north korean division completely destroyed men regiments original men regiment strength having suffered killed thousand members division deserted fight men south korean civilians forcibly north korean army 4th division recover later war battle represented new phase war north numerical superiority gone strategy attacking supply lines rear formations units longer effective overwhelming numbers additionally advantage tank provided gone american units equipped effective anti tank weapons larger numbers tanks subsequently 4th division quickly knocked inflict damage 9th infantry supporting units sustained killed wounded captured missing total casualties 21st infantry suffered killed wounded 19th infantry casualties 34th infantry 27th infantry reported 1st provisional brigade reported marines dead wounded missing total american forces suffered casualties conflict including killed memory battle conflicts perimeter battle south korean government set river battle museum river vicinity conflict includes number artifacts korean war memorial killed war


battle battle arabic hour military engagement israel defense forces combined forces palestine liberation organization armed forces town march war attrition planned israel concurrent raids camps distant village operation hebrew operation respectively turned scale battle day war stepped guerrilla attacks israel soil border town headquarters israeli invasion purpose destroy palestinian militant camps capture primarily motivated new attacks operations prepared year earlier believed israel wanted punish jordan support assessment dimensions force israel dispatched raid israel entertained goal capturing create similar situation heights israel assumed army choose involved battle deployed heavy fire attacking israeli forces fighting alongside engagement marked known deployment suicide bombers palestinian forces withdrew repulsed day long battle having destroyed camp taken members prisoner battle resulted issuance united_nations security council resolution condemned israel violating cease fire line use force sides declared victory tactical level battle went israel favor aim destroying camp achieved hand relatively high casualties sustained came considerable surprise israel defense forces stunned rare occasion israel failed retrieve dead soldiers left damaged israeli vehicles tanks later limited success inflicting israeli casualties king let credit battle wide acclaim recognition arab world establish national claims battle king proclaimed think reach position strength began grow aftermath battle began speak openly taking jordan ensuing tensions eventually precipitated black september background palestinian groups initiate attacks israeli targets west bank jordan day war caused israel known operations following seizure west bank jordan june day war israel destroyed existing palestinian group networks early began raiding israel bases river attacks blocked israel defense forces times army infantry artillery units gave squads covering fire leading frequent direct skirmishes army february mortars hit israeli settlements valley jordan valley israeli artillery air forces bases artillery batteries american financed east canal known king canal result thousands farmers fled eastwards agents willing sacrifice palestinian cause moved valley american sponsored arranged king declared prevent groups jordan base attack february king sent troops police order unit leave town arrived column found surrounded men wielding machine guns commander said minutes decide leave die withdrew march civilians lived camp leader headquarters israel chief military intelligence stated raid damage prestige hand israeli foreign minister chief bureau adverse american reaction good relationship jordan worried raid result innocent civilian deaths political israel chief staff bar promised clean action israeli defense minister asked principal approval raid denied cabinet december operation scheduled night placed hands brigade corps special operations force operation called rescheduled march called warned ministers bus strike march israeli school bus blown near killing adults wounding children 38th operation little months night cabinet approved attack tried prevent israel message king israeli prime minister called cabinet counseling national religious party leader vocally opposed attack education minister opposed remained silent intelligence informant member code named said familiar base surroundings said arrived jordan member commando battalion palestine liberation army eve day war battalion trained syria camp later slipped west bank israel assumed ignore invasion met heavy resistance prelude march intelligence began detect israeli activity near border troops began concentrate near bridge known king bridge bridge known adam bridge jordan ordered 1st infantry division positions near bridges march warned preparing new wave terror israel steps contain king jordan repeated message day israeli ambassador filed complaints united_nations termed arabs repeated acts aggression march jordan identified parts israeli 7th armored brigade 60th armored brigade 35th brigade infantry brigade combat engineer battalion artillery battalions bridges assumed planning attack drive army took positions near bridges 60th armored brigade joining 1st infantry division jordan added armored car artillery units 1st infantry division total firepower tanks artillery pieces infantry divisions deployed near bridges tank company artillery deployed higher jordan valley ridges overlooking advantage israeli forces amounted brigade armor infantry brigade battalion engineering battalion battalions artillery units divided task forces largest cross bridge reach south second cross bridge reach north completing lifted helicopters town fourth force attack king bridge draw forces cover main attack prior attack israeli air_force dropped telling army israel intention hurt intervene went time magazine reported warned advance egyptian intelligence arab training base pulled surrounding hills stayed inside defend town later deputy claimed memoirs tipped israeli attack officers learned cia battle march israeli forces attacked simultaneously bridges combat engineers built bridge north troops crossed river israeli pushed bridge advanced israeli helicopters started landing bulk battalion north israeli aircraft supposed drop addressed surrounded town difficult weather conditions helicopters flying arrived minutes late met resistance regulars supported artillery suffered heavy losses southern task force began drive north encountered infantry brigade supported armor artillery weapons israeli air_force launched able inflict minor damage dug fighting entrenched positions repelled israeli assaults south artillery prevented bridge site bridge halting israeli advance crossing bridge 7th armored brigade spread directions companies drove north infantry battalion tank battalion moved east block salt road infantry battalion moved south assist force trying break bridge force crossed bridge established east bank engineers began constructing new bridge force advanced east junction taking intended advance south repulsed northern brigade 1st division force driving bridge broke proceeded town arriving shortly israeli forces taken control town turned bigger base expected combined israeli force engaged heavy fighting central brigade 1st division number fighters armor drove north operate camp destroyed camp including fled eastward rest bridge force blocked east south elements 1st division central southern brigades tank battalion salt small force israeli infantry armor right flank israeli forces invading south tried protect bridge force attacks forces deployed near king bridge attacked armor resistance battle turned stalemate large force israeli infantry armor went east block road salt bridge encountered 60th armored brigade trying join defense resulting battle lost tanks destroying israeli tanks withdrew hills dig continue firing israeli air_force launched armor artillery positions unable stop firing hours israeli artillery fire launched defenses road salt road east bridge consolidated hold artillery began camp total houses blown operation mounted smaller guerrilla bases south dead sea near school bus struck bases raided israeli ground forces close air support soldiers policemen fighters killed taken prisoner suffered casualties frustrated hope entire force soon pulled fight way israeli territory began withdraw helicopters evacuating troops orders came recover vehicles possible completed withdrawal planned rescue tanks left jordan later withdrew plan casualties soldiers surrounding israeli abandoned destroyed trucks tanks display plaza casualties estimates vary israel kenneth estimate dead wounded gives killed wounded force soldiers morris writes israel lost dead wounded israeli tanks damaged artillery left half tracks armored cars aircraft pilot succeeded safety crash land jordan morris cite figure soldiers killed wounded captured tanks damaged estimates claim dead wounded dead captured morris dead captured dead wounded captured according morris killed captured corresponding operation states killed taken prisoner aftermath israel accomplished objective destroying camp tactical level battle end israel favor operation exposed vulnerability units deployed jordan river moved concentrations mountains imposed additional strains operations west bank involved difficult hitherto politically israel heavily condemned world opinion ambassador arthur said believe military taken place scale proportion acts violence preceded greatly ambassador israel said years time historian write day beginning destruction israel reported statement cabinet begin said cited cabinet meeting relatively high casualties considerable surprise stunning victorious king let credit battle provided propaganda boost chief bureau israeli foreign ministry later said operation gave enormous lift organization palestine problem international agenda longer humanitarian issue homeless refugees claim palestinian commanded operation resigned chief central command position jewish agency shortly battle jordan claimed won battle stopped israeli drive intentions occupying turning security zone supposed serve punishment support assumption saw size raiding israeli forces entering battle said world realize palestinian longer refugee number member people hold destiny position determine future arabs generally considered battle psychological victory seen invincible recruitment units reported volunteers applied join hours battle late march nearly jordan iraq syria offered training programs thousand persian gulf states led kuwait raised money tax salaries tens thousands resident palestinian workers fund drive lebanon raised palestinian organizations began guarantee lifetime support families killed action year battle branches eighty countries battle began engage communal projects achieve popular affiliation battle subsequent increase strength considered important events civil war known black september kingdom managed expel palestinian groups lebanon started gain control jordan later united_nations security council issued resolution condemned israeli raid territory violation cease fire line recalled resolutions encouraged israel ensure safety civilians military areas resolution affirmed tolerated violations forced security council steps battle engagement suicide bombers report files released contradicted official israeli story claimed operation bus incident files revealed plans operations prepared year bus incident files revealed practiced crossing jordan river occupation west bank historiography israeli historiography israel maintains performed coordinated withdrawal achieving goal destroying camp israeli military personnel participated agree according col chief central command operations branch sergeant israeli armored corps later talked participation burning tried stated lessons operation clear mistake fight army commander unit israel defense forces wrote book palestinian historiography arab history war mentions israel entered battle confidence took place israel defeated arabs day war size israeli forces entering assume israel planning occupy eastern plateau jordan river basin order create heights similar situation chip claim invited israeli journalists previous day lunch western jordan occupying battle subject artworks stamps posters


operation operation serbian military offensive undertaken army june october war goal operation destruction central town held croatian defence council army republic bosnia intensity fighting varied considerably involved major offensive efforts interspersed relative fighting fell october town capture followed destruction roman catholic churches fighting improved safety lines communication south capital displaced people foreign observers called largest single exodus war outnumbered units plagued inadequate staff work compounded lack coordination separate command control structures maintained forces battle defence suffered relations skirmishes resupply route ultimately outcome battle fueled greater eventually led war saw cracking alliance significant outcome operation background yugoslav people army withdrew croatia following acceptance start implementation plan officers soldiers born bosnia transferred new army later renamed army reorganisation followed declaration serbian republic bosnia january ahead february march referendum independence bosnia declaration later cited serbs pretext war april artillery began time forces clashed plateau capturing april bosnia faced army republic bosnia croatian defence council reporting dominated central government leadership respectively croatian army occasionally supported operations late april able deploy troops hundreds tanks armoured personnel carriers artillery pieces croatian defence forces field approximately soldiers handful heavy weapons largely unprepared nearly troops small arms half number virtually heavy weapons forces hampered arms introduced september mid units transferred withdrew bosnia newly declared federal republic yugoslavia controlled approximately percent bosnia agreement negotiated serbs aiming partition bosnia early proclaimed cessation hostilities groups heavy fighting broke june eastern operation river basin operation corridor north bosnia timeline fighting related operation corridor progress prepared attack destroy town central bosnia held jointly threatened lines communication south held contained hydroelectric power plants critical electrical supply region held troops manning strong fortifications difficult terrain committed troops 30th infantry division 1st corps offensive operation 30th division command colonel replaced colonel early september troops included 1st 11th 17th light infantry brigades 1st mixed artillery battalion numerical superiority held clear advantage armour deploying tanks adding heavy artillery pieces force defence organised municipal crisis headquarters level mayor force commanded initial combat supported kilometre road running narrow corridor town july attempted cut supply corridor effort capture attacks failed accomplish significant prompted switch gradual advance separate axes directly instead designed minimize casualties allow systematic elimination defences town successfully defended thanks area mountainous surroundings month feuding croatian democratic union party democratic action political control began forcibly disbanded led war presidency exchange pro launched major attack western approach mid august attack pushed town defences arrived kilometres miles breakthrough nearly month push advance came southwest town defenders pushed kilometre miles town order relieve launched joint attack north flank force attacking offensive failed gaining ground hardly making impact deployments continued started small scale area led united_nations declare bosnia fly zone central intelligence agency cia analysis concluded possible failure counterattack prompted agree truce october agreement promised serbs power supply hydroelectric power plants agreement signed mate president self proclaimed croatian republic bosnia president self proclaimed took final attack distrust generated separate agreement compounded deteriorating relations area nearby town late summer strained relations escalated rapidly led armed clash forces october low scale conflicts spread region forces engaged supply route days later october result set previous day authority coordinating committee protection muslims command dismantled new skirmish occurred town following day developments meant supply ammunition defenders unable prompted commander central bosnia operational zone colonel consider pulling troops reopen route position weakened headquarters october quarter heavy weapons disposal removed ahead operation aimed overall poor situation culminated battle fought battle began october united_nations protection force managed calm situation end fighting arranged october coming effect days later seized opportunity launch fresh advance amid clashes attacking axes town october putting conflict aside deployed fought days entered town october capture town appeared inevitable defending force pulled following capture radio television declared liberated town free serbian republic aftermath exodus destruction religious sites entered pulled remainder joined civilian population forming column refugees stretched kilometres miles thousands vulnerable foreign observers described largest single exodus war arrival refugees attended staff assisted troops seven died hospital treated injuries approximately refugees central bosnia providing manpower new brigades refugees headed croatia rising tensions central bosnia november pre war population thousand previously accounted percent population percent serbs percent weeks following capture roman catholic churches demolished retribution destruction town serbian orthodox monastery mid october converted town monastery prison archives museum collections artworks looted monastery church completely destroyed religious buildings destroyed save positioning unsuitable demolition legacy conflict contributed weakening defence military superiority principal reason town capture advantage troop size firepower staff work planning significantly superior efforts defenders principal problem defence town defended separate command structures having authority troops units humanitarian workers foreign military observers suspicions deliberately abandoned territories lost operation corridor exchange peninsula south croatia western diplomats denied claim european community envoy david owen urged impose sanctions croatia suspicion fueled october agreement croatian president yugoslav president withdraw withdrawal croatian soil plan accepted croatia yugoslavia unclear pulled remains point mutual complained blame loss units pull entered town conversely leader publicly complained conduct central bosnia blaming personnel resupply stance reflected croatian daily list newspaper assumed position maintaining leadership entirely anti relations gradually deteriorated leading war october major general commander 1st corps operation said capture step alliance rift washington agreement signed march completely recaptured led operation september town refugees allowed return refugees returned lost soldiers defending wounded remain missing prosecutor office bosnia indicted members war crimes committed september citing killing civilians wounding number prosecutor office began investigation seven members suspicion committed war crimes october civilians including murder