autonomous republic northern autonomous republic northern greek short lived self governing entity founded aftermath balkan wars february greeks living southern albania northern area known northern greeks substantial greek population taken greek army ottoman_empire balkan war protocol florence assigned newly established state decision rejected local greeks greek army withdrew new border autonomous government set greek today leadership distinguished local greek politician minister foreign affairs support greece autonomy confirmed great powers protocol agreement ensured region administration recognized rights local population provided self government nominal sovereignty implemented august government collapsed greek army area october following outbreak world war planned northern ceded greece following war withdrawal italian support greece defeat asia minor campaign resulted final albania november background northern balkan wars march balkan war greek army entered ottoman fortifications soon advanced north greek control november local major led successful uprising met initial resistance end war greek armed forces controlled historical region mountains coast lake east time independence movement gathered momentum november declared albania independence provisional government soon formed exercised authority immediate area ottoman general formed republic central albania conservative hoped ottoman ruler area form state occupied time greeks south serbs north ottoman census conducted counted orthodox christians muslims region orthodox population estimated spoke greek exclusively rest orthodox community spoke home greek cultural trading economic activities expressed strong pro greek feeling support following movement considering conditions loyalty northern government competing anarchy leaders muslim guaranteed greek border concept independent state supported great european powers particularly austro hungary italy powers seeking control albania words italian foreign minister managed supremacy adriatic serbian possession possibility greek border running miles south strongly resisted states september international commission european powers convened determine boundary greece albania delegates commission aligned camps italy austro hungary insisted northern districts triple united_kingdom france russia took view older generations villages spoke younger generation greek intellectual outlook sentiment aspirations italian austro hungarian pressure commission determined region northern ceded albania protocol florence exact boundaries new state region northern awarded albania terms protocol florence signed december february ambassadors great powers delivered note greek government asking greek army evacuation area greek prime minister hopes favorable solution greece outstanding problem recognition greek sovereignty islands north eastern reactions declaration independence turn events highly unpopular pro greek party area pro greek felt betrayed greek government support firearms additionally gradual withdrawal greek army enable forces control region possibility decided declare separate political identity self governance distinguished statesman greek foreign minister took initiative discussed situation local representatives council consequently february autonomous republic northern declared provisional government president formed support state objectives speech march stated aspirations northern totally ignored great powers rejected autonomous state refused guarantees fundamental human rights concluded speech stating northern accept destiny powers imposed flag new state variant greek national flag consisting white cross centered blue background imperial byzantine eagle black following days nephew installed foreign minister colonel local resigned post greek army joined provisional government minister military affairs days managed army consisting volunteer troops local bishop took office minister religion justice number officers origin exceeding ordinary soldiers deserted positions greek army joined revolutionaries soon armed groups sacred band men formed order repel territory claimed autonomous government districts join movement outside greece reaction evacuation greek government reluctant overtly support uprising military political officials continued carry slow evacuation process begun march ended april resistance officially discouraged assurances given great powers international control commission organization founded great powers order secure peace stability area guarantee rights following declaration sent messages local representatives asking join movement greek military commander city colonel followed official orders strictly declared martial law threatening shoot citizen raising northern flag local bishop proclaimed autonomy immediately arrested expelled march ceded region newly formed consisting mainly ottoman army command dutch austrian officers march greek navy blockaded port known cities joined movement sporadic conflicts greek army units casualties sides negotiations armed conflicts greek army withdrew armed conflicts broke northern forces regions revolt force days declaration forces able successfully engage irregular units seeing great powers approve annexation northern greece suggested possible diplomatic solutions autonomy nominal sovereignty prince administrative system autonomy direct control administration european powers march prince william arrived albania intense fighting occurred north region attempt control northern units tried unsuccessfully infiltrate facing resistance march provisional settlement dutch colonel albania prepared accept limited northern government insisted complete autonomy condition rejected delegates negotiations reached bands entered continued point entire region claimed provisional government exception control march sacred band unit reached outskirts joined local fierce street fighting took place days northern units controlled city march control lost arrival reinforcements international control commission order avoid major armed conflicts disastrous results decided intervene received communication initiate negotiations new basis accepted proposal armistice ordered day time cease fire order received forces secured heights near making city garrison surrender imminent recognition autonomy outbreak world war protocol negotiations carried island representatives signed agreement known protocol according terms provinces constituted northern acquire complete autonomous existence corpus nominal sovereignty prince government right appoint dismiss governors upper rank officials taking account possible opinion local population terms included proportional recruitment natives local prohibition military people indigenous region orthodox schools greek language sole medium instruction exception classes use greek language equal public affairs ottoman era privileges renewed appointed captain years execution adherence protocol entrusted international control commission organization public administration departments justice finance region creation training local conducted dutch officers territory provisions question shall apply populations territories previously occupied greece annexed albania armed forces case war revolution non native military units shall transferred employed provinces occupation international control commission possession territory question government proceeding place officers dutch mission begin organization local arrival dutch officers necessary steps taken provisional government removal country armed foreign elements provisions applied provinces occupied militarily albania southern regions liberty language permission use greek shall assured authorities including courts councils guarantee powers conference london guaranteed institution albania established guarantee execution maintenance provisions agreement protocol ratified representatives great powers athens june government june representatives assembly gave final approval terms protocol delegates protested claiming union greece viable solution july control cities passed provisional government northern instability outbreak world war situation albania unstable political chaos emerged country split number regional governments consequence anarchy central northern albania sporadic armed conflicts continued occur spite protocol ratification september prince departed country following days unit launched attack garrison approval provisional government managing capture citadel days troops loyal initiated small scale armed operations events worried greek prime minister possibility unstable situation spill outside albania triggering wider conflict october receiving approval great powers greek army army corps entered area second time provisional government formally ceased exist declaring accomplished objectives aftermath greek administration october september greek administration time world war agreed greece italy great powers final settlement northern issue left post war future august stated greek parliament faults separate region greece resignation december succeeding royalist governments determined exploit situation region future formally incorporating greek state months northern participated greek elections elected representatives greek parliament march region union greece officially declared area divided italian french occupation interwar period politically unstable situation followed greece months national supporters divided greece states situation according development balkan led italian forces enter area september gaining approval triple northern exception french forces bulgarian occupation turned autonomous republic military protection french army war end tendency autonomy region continued terms paris peace conference agreement northern awarded greece political developments greek defeat turkish war strong italian opposition favor albania caused area finally ceded albania february parliament approved declaration minority rights declaration contrary protocol recognized minority rights limited area parts district villages implementing form local autonomy greek schools excluded area forced close violation obligations accepted government league nations albania present borders set leading greece abandon claims northern northern issue autonomy question perspective adopted italian austrian sources time northern movement directly supported greek state help minority inhabitants region resulting chaos political instability albania historiography protocol scarcely mentioned seen attempt divide state proof great powers disregard albania national integrity ratification protocol term northern state common consequently citizens northern acquired official status region albania terms considered associated greek action granted legal status authorities making use persecuted enemy state autonomy question remains diplomatic agenda greek relations northern issue albania borders fixed protocol florence kingdom greece abandoned claims northern 1960s soviet general secretary asked counterpart giving autonomy greek minority results collapse communist regime albania chairman greek minority organization called autonomy northern basis rights provided constitution highly proposal rejected minority radical wing union greece years later chairman arrested police publicly stating greek minority goal creation autonomous region inside borders based provisions protocol analysts stated possibility greek minority inspired republic exists official documents documents digital library parliament greece french


seven seven german group seven professors protested abolition alteration constitution kingdom refused swear oath new king company seven led friedrich key advocates constitution brothers jacob famed fairy tale folk tale writers known brothers historian physicist theologian august background constitution opposed came effect king heir throne historian politician friedrich contested plans change constitution liking contributed constitution framing additionally existed representative university second chamber noble court death king william june great impact political positioning relations union group constitutional states german confederation william death personal union ended united_kingdom william brother took ruler kingdom niece victoria throne united_kingdom inherit provision law force barred females ruling month succeeded throne king addressed matter constitution stated bound consent asked indicated different non existent power time composition declared aim ambition necessary changes constitution rewrite reflect values hearing attempt persuade colleagues university senate king intent change constitution form action different colleagues willing support view possibly cause public conflict unrest ongoing festivities 100th anniversary august university protest aftermath november year constitution met political criticism german states provoked appeal university compose opposing decision time received better response professors willing sign plus known seven document published november met explosive influence students university produced hundreds thousands copies germany protest impact forced king action seven defiant professors questioned university court december days later seven relieved posts university jacob given days leave country university viewed dismissal great loss university confirmed writings event time direct effects protest limited public sensation media interest high germany europe seven popular general public seven personal reasons king fact central catalyst media public attention efforts seven creation liberal republic germany traced protest literature


operation operation launched january attempt luftwaffe allied air forces low countries second world war goal gain air superiority stage battle german_army forces resume advance operation planned december delayed repeatedly bad weather new year day day happened suitable secrecy operation tight german ground naval forces informed operation units suffered casualties friendly fire british signals intelligence ultra recorded movement buildup german air forces region realise operation imminent operation achieved surprise tactical success ultimately failure great allied aircraft destroyed ground replaced week allied casualties small majority allied losses planes sitting ground germans lost pilots readily replace post battle analysis suggests luftwaffe air combat attacks time surprise operation failed achieve air superiority temporarily german ground forces continued exposed allied air attack large scale strategic offensive operation mounted luftwaffe war background armies western allies supported allied air forces advanced western_europe royal_air_force raf second tactical air_force command air marshal arthur moved group raf group raf group raf group raf continental europe order provide constant close air support raf harassed german air sea ground forces hitting strong points supply lines reconnaissance units allies german movements allied air superiority german_army operate effectively luftwaffe found difficult provide effective air cover german_army german aircraft production peaked luftwaffe critically short pilots fuel lacked experienced combat leaders land battles moved river rhine east lay german france liberated belgian cities brussels antwerp operation market garden failed allies overrun southern netherlands estuary ground forces moved europe allied tactical air forces moved new bases continent continue providing close support limiting factor allies weather winter came rains mud turned airfields large scale air land operations came halt situation continued spring german high command der launched operation watch rhine december land offensive improve german military position capturing antwerp separating british_army united_states_army forces planning german land operation required attack conducted cover bad winter weather kept main allied asset tactical air forces ground initially succeeded weather grounded luftwaffe luftwaffe manage aircraft air december achieved long time day originally planned date strike allied airfields named operation weather proved particularly bad operations shut offensive achieved surprise initial success counter attack air united_states_army air forces handed operational control tactical air command ninth air_force command major general raf arthur december raf second tactical air_force provided american forces needed support helped prevent german capture left germans logistical support operations german attack luftwaffe far absent december flew thousand sorties theatre encounters raf meant heavy losses pilots days operations december fighters lost damaged resulted pilots killed captured wounded days operations december fighters destroyed wing commanders expected large scale air operations end month plan september adolf_hitler resolved recover germany deteriorating fortunes launching offensive west september hitler directed chief general staff prepare necessary aircraft offensive october ordered air fleet defending greater german hand seven air command west west future offensive november commander chief luftwaffe ordered prepare units large scale ground attack operation preparations complete november attack carried day offensive plan operation having appointed december west ordered units attend main planning meeting december december officially initiated plans major blow allies northwest europe fighter pilot combat record dive bomber pilot flying experiences poland france early campaigns eastern outstanding ground attack specialist making ideal candidate planning december plan worked help luftwaffe fighter sector leader middle walter commanders respectively originally scheduled support battle german_army offensive began december bad weather prevented raf supporting ground forces prevented luftwaffe carrying operation launched january time german_army lost momentum owing allied resistance clearing weather allowed allied air forces operate german_army attempted restart attack launching operation luftwaffe support offensive plan called surprise attack allied air bases belgium netherlands france object destroy allied aircraft possible fighter fighter bomber wing currently occupied air defence western additional night fighter units medium bomber units acted strike formations single engine fighters planners set flight paths took units heavily defended areas continent launch sites sites protected large numbers german anti aircraft artillery aaa units turn air command west heavy medium light aaa batteries addition kriegsmarine aaa batteries dutch coast lay sector 16th aaa division control station northeast aaa units warned air operation kept date developments changing flight plan german formations result german fighter units lost aircraft friendly fire attacks initiated years war heavy attrition luftwaffe pilots inexperienced poorly trained flight skills shortage experienced instructors training units forced fly line operations order bolster line long range allied fighters exacerbated situation shooting training aircraft late safe areas pilots trained possibility air attack allied personnel witnessed attacks frequently remarked poor aim aircraft luftwaffe aircraft shot allied anti aircraft fire caught flying slowly high aviation fuel supplies premium plan called units maintain strict radio silence secrecy order maintain surprise maps half complete identified enemy installations left flight paths document fall allied hands enabling trace whereabouts german fighter bases commanders refused permission brief pilots moments created operational confusion commanders managed bare plan operation got way german pilots understand operation exactly required convinced reconnaissance force happy follow flight leaders basis targets order battle unclear following deliberately targeted evidence suggests targeted error der luftwaffe deployed aircraft fighter wings bomber wings night fighter wings ground attack wings german target list following raids allies retrieved log books crashed german aircraft entry translated operation commence january led allies believe operation named different codes attack indicating operation place hours order given authority brief pilots arrange aircraft armed ready edge airfield giving exact date time attack indicating delay attack attack formations airborne allied intelligence allied intelligence failed detect german intention ultra indications happening december ordered navigational aids golden rain smoke bombs allied intelligence written observations communication disregarded communications groups use leading formations intelligence concluded instructions designed ground support mission interception operation reasonable indications possible ground targets given december message intercepted confirming locations emergency landing grounds special undertaking remained unchanged clear indication allied intelligence comment ignored messages indicating low level attacks practised allied intelligence december monitored german_army luftwaffe formations opposite american held major suspected battle responsible attack airfields led formation mixed stab headquarters flight attached operated iii flew lost number friendly anti aircraft fire pilots killed attacks began involved intense iii lost aircraft target enemy fire lost friendly anti aircraft fire way iii lost friendly anti aircraft fire casualties heavier british anti aircraft defences airfield removed december stab lost pilots missing killed captured loss rates personnel respectively iii lost pilot dead captured claimed british ground shot aircraft destroyed lost claims actually line british total losses wing raf polish wing lost plus damaged repair total lost aircraft destroyed including iii lost total aircraft pilots good return attacked airfield took shot loss rate pilots lost experienced exchange germans shot seven forced landed destroyed ground altogether lost pilots aircraft return enemy aircraft ground considered complete success damage significant fighters lost confirmed shot combat possible shot ground fire shot destroyed damaged pilot squadron killed total losses strike airfield commanded kurt ground crews managed ready pilots fit operations reported ready field stab ready mission clear took mission iii reported operational pilots unit fit operations formation fielded fighters total aircraft ready december including led alfred machines strength operational pilots fit action stab pilots operational pilots ready reported ready pilot strength unknown iii reported available forward airfields pilot strength unknown best operational took crossed line greeted enormous volume allied ground fire entire area heavily defended anti aircraft artillery area scene heavy fighting attacked missiles lost seven fighters ground fire iii lost fighters possible seven lost ground fire attacked airfields mistake mission disaster lost damaged ground fire enemy aircraft represented force pilots missing survive lost damaged loss rate pilot losses missing dead wounded iii lost damaged loss rate pilots killed wounded captured losses according source amounted force pilot losses killed posted missing captured wounded source asserts pilot losses stood killed missing mission disaster assembly phase flew flight path formation broken pilots joined confusion unable recover formation decided head home continued pilots iii lost contact crossed near american anti aircraft batteries opened fire claiming seven aircraft minutes carried attack airfields near return reported missing target iii attack provide cover allied fighters managed ready fighters took overall available operation iii received orders target petrol installations airfield took course approached airfield pilots assumed airfield unlikely strip built october known luftwaffe wing based dispatched squadrons missions early morning majority units airborne squadron takeoff appeared german pilots failed notice airfield concentrating keeping formation low altitude squadron german fighters authorised engage main body continued search stab strip contained aircraft german pilots believed attacked losing number ground fire suffered severely based little damage event failed find remained untouched success erroneous attack claimed fighters medium bombers like escaped damage claimed kills fact shot badly damaged fighter typhoon shot stab lost seven lost damaged destroyed damaged iii lost total lost strength suffered pilots killed missing seven captured commanding officer lost lost captured killed posted missing presumed killed antwerp airfield destroyed antwerp housed largest allied contingent squadrons attacked flying bombs given strong anti aircraft defence formations iii took time took area formed heading south north antwerp passed airfield home wing raf squadrons squadron raf squadron raf norwegian squadron raf squadron raf squadron raf dutch pilots mistakenly believed antwerp thought opportunity good pass german fighters claimed shot pilot captured casualties fit description main body continued antwerp german fighters attacked airfield ground defences alert german formations attacked manner wing raf missed completely considering large number targets destruction light destroyed total allied aircraft destroyed damaged lost pilots lost killed captured according allied sources german records loss pilots listed captured tasked operation airfield air base stab iii available iii destroy anti aircraft installations area knocked airfields tactical air command established strong presence northeast france supporting 3rd army knock airfields took intercepted fighter squadron fighter group claimed destroyed probable damaged losses way home iii intercepted fighter squadron altogether iii lost damaged fighter group iii took shot representing attacking force fighter group received distinguished unit citation preventing attack fighter groups airfield iii failed main attack success comparison stab encountered difficulties outward leg germans caused significant damage parked fighters field attack airfield reported loss seven damaged represented percent attacking fighters pilots missing killed remain missing today captured wounded claimed fighters ground damaged added total aerial victories total lost damaged operations total loss losses destroyed damaged negative effects advantages gained airfield later known northeast target target main strip known locally auxiliary field known east known locals nearby known luftwaffe units operated major commanded force pilots shot ground fire pilot got lost flight ended near shot killed reduced number fighters continued target minutes located fairly large airfield attacked believing fact mistake easy located nearby housed 48th fighter group fighter group fighter squadron hit airfield abandoned pilots destruction small scale attack achieved considerable damage total american losses destroyed damaged germans lost fighters including seven damaged damage airfield took getting lost airfield claimed destroyed twin engine aircraft damaged trains trucks destroyed unit claimed reconnaissance aircraft shot machine probably liaison squadron army virtually entire wiped iii strike taking heading northwest comprised force iii lead attacked wing raf airfield losses unclear destroyed reported missing damaged destroyed hangar vehicles claimed anti aircraft battery attack mentioned included total source suggests destroyed damaged according source losses fighters took pilots killed missing seven captured suffered loss rate recent source claims total aircraft took attacking ground targets lost fighters damaged airfield constructed november home fighter group 8th air_force fighter group ninth air_force destroy airfield strength fit operational pilots pilots took stab pilots participated iii aircraft pilots numbers took stab iii fighters plan called low level strike iii flew cover fighters pilots shown maps photographs airfield told targets identity morning attack crossing allied lines fighters lost aaa fire course took directly large formations attacked mistaken belief half continued housed wing raf north half attacked airfield notable chance event squadron fighter group launched fighter sweeps morning played crucial role failure attack leader squadron fighter group john charles anticipated german activity flight combat patrol attack began took fire pilots ace status day lost damaged damaged ground fighter group lost credited kills aaa claimed seven likely luftwaffe records indicate lost fighters german pilots wounded german held territory captured remaining killed lost lost enemy lines german ace german pilots killed little known claims according german document fighters twin engine engine aircraft claimed destroyed fighters claimed damaged airfield reality aerial victories probable claimed fighter group losses indicate claims excessive americans claimed kills judged degree certainty shot fighters possibly confirmed shot aaa fire total losses air battle lasted minutes brussels iii strike brussels end december iii records available aircraft indicate aircraft flew day remainder iii took unknown luftwaffe airfield completely abandoned airfield located south densely populated airfields belgium plenty targets main force consisted wing raf present eighth air_force overall aircraft field formations took total participated target reached forced turn aaa damage mechanical difficulties lost german aaa fire reached allied heavy aaa units began engage formation shot fire british naval aaa defences defending estuary formation crossed dutch belgian border iii intercepted shot destroyed damaged aircraft airfield aaa defences claimed kills reported lost lost airfield losses occurred friendly fire return flight raid disaster machines destroyed loss damaged sustained minor damage pilots missing survive prisoners iii hit units took iii knocked towers destroyed trucks fuel aircraft wing lost air ground vehicles damaged destroyed total allied aircraft destroyed large number transports located attracted attention german pilots left undamaged given number field canadian wing suffered low losses canadian wing commander johnson blamed poor german pilots failing achieve success allied losses given fighters twin engine aircraft engine aircraft destroyed plus single twin engine aircraft damaged total losses included destroyed damaged pilots missing killed captured iii lost pilots captured remainder killed damage germans inflicted losses strike success brussels targeted airfield december muster following operational pilots aircraft iii rebuilt pilots operational altogether took seven fighters lost enemy aircraft friendly aaa fire reached target germans hit hard according clade leading iii aaa positions manned aircraft lines perfect targets attack caused considerable damage units based great success wings lost entire squadrons worth machines squadron raf lost vickers damaged squadron raf lost losses good day squadron raf destroyed squadron raf lost seven transports action aircraft destroyed wing reported destroyed damaged bombers destroyed source states destroyed tactical air forces 2nd communications squadron lost damaged raf transport command douglas destroyed pilots claimed kills damaged german reconnaissance able confirm kills suffered unacceptable losses pilots killed wounded captured lost killed captured lost damaged tasked eliminating allied units base airfield field contained squadrons typhoon units raf took stab iii contributed jets action histories mistakenly include order battle mission expected firing passes took joined lead iii following rear reached area led attack pilots passes destroying aaa fuel storage stations vehicles nearly aircraft field huge stores equipment fuel attack caused fires airfield claimed single engine twin engine aircraft destroyed fighters engine bomber claimed damaged unidentified aircraft claimed shot managed destroy aircraft according british records damage seriously believed destroyed come away unscathed lost aircraft pilots loss rate damage returning aircraft meant entire unit raf aaa credited shooting lost altogether fighters sent loss rate pilots missing killed captured pilot posting missing action fate remains unknown source says pilots killed missing captured damage significant considered victory assisted elements targets greatest losses wing canadian wing suffered aircraft destroyed damaged visiting wing raf lost aircraft destroyed damaged wing lost damaged destroyed likely responsible damage source gives aircraft destroyed damaged possible missile launch attempts missile mobile launch trailer observed elevated launch position 4th fighter group pilot northern german attack route near town january possibly potential sighting american fighter missile launch crew rocket quickly lowered near launch ready elevation results raid results raid difficult judge given confusion loss records likely aircraft destroyed listed americans failed proper record losses appears 8th air_force losses included loss totals estimates figures added losses listed table likely correct figures destroyed single engine twin engine engine damaged single engine twin engine engine researching individual squadron records confirms destruction aircraft suggests destroyed total total destroyed damaged realistic conservative figures given raf including allied aircraft shot damaged aerial combat destroyed damaged sum total attack number hide fact disaster germans sides backup planes main limiting factor air forces number trained pilots allies lost time fighters germans lost fighters consequence pilot losses completely different allies pilots planes wounded ground germans pilots total include wounded results attacks listed little damage light damage medium damage heavy damage aftermath casualties operation achieved tactical surprise poor execution low pilot skill owing poor training operation failed achieve aim failure costly german air power units raf receiving end badly hit badly sustained losses germans launched set conditions poor planning low pilot skill clearly indicated advantage gained possible losses weakened past hope rebuilding general der adolf said sacrificed substance luftwaffe lost pilots killed missing captured wounded including largest single day loss luftwaffe formation leaders lost experienced veterans placed pressure left short term success long term failure allied losses soon lost luftwaffe aircraft especially pilots german historian wrote left germans weaker incapable mounting major attack remaining weeks war struggled recover sufficiently january operation remain effective force strategic terms german historian wrote operation amounted total defeat exhausted german units longer able mount effective defence german air space operation operation varsity allied crossing rhine river overall western allied invasion germany subsequent operations insignificant challenge allied air supremacy service luftwaffe capable profitable sorties night fighter force weeks war luftwaffe lose pilots killed wrote autumn german fighter forces set foot path controversial operation dealt force mortal blow sealed fate happened dying


included parts western scotland northeastern ireland north channel late 6th early 7th centuries encompassed roughly scotland county irish province consisted initially north mid based based fourth seemingly small deemed major division end 7th century emerged based eastern districts names respectively district known subdivision latin language sources referred inhabitants scots latin originally roman greek writers irish raided roman britain later came refer speakers ireland referred term kingdom reached height mac king checked growth battle defeats ireland scotland time ended golden age kingdom client subject disagreement fate kingdom late eighth century onwards scholars seen revival long period foreign domination seen revival find later kenneth mac sources claim took following disastrous defeat army claim generations kingdom independence ended viking age merged lands form kingdom kingdom survives terminology geological series term coined similar geographical reach derived old irish english deal german latin descendants including french italian means portion share portion land believed personal refers portion territory area people land sea modern human landscape differs great deal millennium people today live settlements far larger known early times areas islands inhabitants today small settlements disappeared countryside far case areas farmed abandoned physical landscape entirely sea levels changed combination erosion considerably altered shape coast places natural accumulation man changes cutting altered inland landscapes normal time farming occupation people main crops especially important seasonal movement people livestock fixed summer winter practice places areas notably especially fertile good grazing available year round ireland famed later times smaller islands sheep area notable fisheries plentiful likely important diet lists main groups scotland fourth added later supposedly descendants mac supposedly descendants mac supposedly descendants mac later addition supposedly descendants mac list ireland list apparently minor called descended son later clan branched time separated parent largest reports divided lists understood irish settlers simply tribe label applied unclear proposes tie meaning hostage adds uncertainty observed grouping ireland apparently given rare supporting hypothesis reason suppose complete accurate list royal centres appears important partly excavated weapons stones manufacture jewellery found addition fortifications high status material included wine larger quantities found britain ireland lesser centres included seat kings southern end lands main royal centre ireland appears difficulty overland travel islands archipelago travel sea far easiest means moving distance long distance trade local trade significant probably common craft inland waters large timber ships called long ships similar viking ships attested variety sources religion art written accounts exist pre christian earliest known records come irish monasteries life implies christian true known figure large history christianity life useful record intended serve history writing lives saints day reached high middle ages life contains great deal historically valuable information vital linguistic source indicating distribution celtic northern scotland end 7th century famously notes need translator individual evidence non language supported celtic remote mainland opposite island founding bounds ensured kingdom great importance spread christianity northern britain monastery belonged northern close ties ties annals entirely greatest religious centre far unique territory sufficiently important death recorded frequency probably territory period known monastic sites smaller sites known annals ireland main ecclesiastical centre early times associated saint patrick saint said bishop important early centre later declined overshadowed monasteries primary spiritual importance political significance religious centres dismissed prestige associated founder small importance monasteries represented source wealth prestige additionally learning literacy found monasteries served useful tools ambitious kings illuminated manuscript book probably begun legend dates commissioned mark death certainly important formation art combined mediterranean anglo saxon celtic elements style book late example arts number sculptures remain impression work martin cross best preserved high cross probably inspired free standing crosses cross similar cross exists ireland county cross similar sculpted slab appears strong influences cross argued shows influences moved opposite direction fine saxon believed created addition monastic sites considerable number churches attested archaeological evidence evidence place names element shown cases associated early churches history origins song scots tells sons conquered scotland offers different probably older account conquered irish led certain old means portion share usually followed eponymous founder tale come root irish tales brothers sons descendants story moves foundation myth nearer history reports death mac brother version history long accepted preceded purely fictional tale conquering britain presence scotland seen result large scale migration ireland takeover irish theory longer universally accepted academic paper scots irish archaeologist campbell says archaeological evidence migration takeover lack archaeological evidence previously noted professor archaeological evidence shows different ireland supposed migration formed irish sea province ireland easily distinguished rest scotland campbell suggests formed maritime province united sea isolated rest scotland mountainous ridge called allowed shared language maintained centuries remained speaking rest scotland speaking campbell argues medieval accounts kind propaganda constructed bolster dynasty claim throne bolster claims territory view medieval accounts shared historians critical analysis campbell paper criticizes arguments says sound particularly respect historical documentation certain extent linguistic argument came time arose great instability following loss territory including ancient centre parts long united conquest 4th century early 5th century vice versa line myth known thriving notes conquest irish scotland period fall fits facts hypothesis linguistic evidence associates ancestors prehistoric suggesting number kingdoms distant suggested ancestral ultimately according earliest descendants mac sin prehistoric king deity mid 6th century possessions scotland came threat king resulting seeking aid irish northern king mac granted island coast scotland prince saint turn negotiated alliance northern convention near result pact removal allowing concentrate extending scottish domain kingdom reached greatest extent reign mac said consecrated king true known noted alliance northern pact successful defeating mac allowing campaign widely neighbours far lands river forth appears successful extending power faced king brother dead defeated kings continued advances southern scotland died aged expand include possibly conquered son suggested mac king overlord parts campaigned besieged thought fought campaign remained allied northern reign persuaded king renounce alliance attempt installed high king ireland alliances resulted disastrous battle saw slain high king mac northern resulted irish losing possession scottish lands battle taken place sea defeat attributed divine retribution turning prior alliance policy appears died final fatal defeat map late armies fleets fought alongside defeat shattered power allowing northern dominant force north ireland 10th century irish lands control clients fir conquest proposed obscure kings mentioned annals kings irish effect battle regards scottish appears resulted tributary kings lasted king mac defeated certain ended usually assumed case appears eating effort stop mac crushing means tributary relationship ended sought prevent growth power unclear thought create kingdom later history tended seen prelude future annals clear lost earlier monopoly royal power late 7th century 8th kings son found long period instability ended conquest kingdom mac king campaign disappears irish records generation century find appear fighting king death find called king brother mac annals certain king died record ends number theories advanced fill missing generations founded solid evidence number kings named royal reliable wish obvious conclusion ruled petty kingdoms defeat conquest find brother drew attention ireland argues strongly alex conclusion mac effectively destroyed kingdom unlikely ruled directly kings argued son mac king apparently followed named king mac killed great defeat hands great impact ireland appear entirely replaced existing kingdom new entity case known kingdom traditionally founded find middle 9th century record conquest inner alex suggested occurred formal division norse natives like divisions took place ireland britain norse controlling islands controlling scottish coast southerly islands turn suggests gave rise terms respectively coast islands foreigners house demonstrated time leading moved southwest region north north east northeast moving great occupy branch occupying district known district giving angus occupying lesser known probably moving fiction novel mark horse lord undergo internal struggle control royal succession external conflict defend historical adventure novel eagle ninth young roman officer searches recover lost roman eagle standard father legion northern great_britain story based ninth spanish legion supposed disappearance scottish highlands near end roman occupation novel adapted film eagle novels series beginning carey kingdom figure prominently royal marriage subsequent alliance france known series julian saga exile series non born drum ethnic scottish planet called lost girl series pub light dark called named ancient kingdom watson trilogy centuries chronicled time roman invasion britain feature length fantasy film named king scotland story based loosely king scots currently release date set late playable nation interactive video game kings earliest start date independent petty kingdom considered irish catholicism default religion start dates area norse norwegian control latest start date vassal king david scotland hungarian folk metal band


watch watch greek watch originally senior byzantine military post attested late 8th century commanded watch elite professional cavalry regiments middle byzantine period charge byzantine emperor personal security office military origin transformed senior judicial position usually referred grand watch office continued exist court dignity era end byzantine_empire century military office watch originally commander guard watch number professional cavalry regiments headquartered constantinople distinct provincial thematic troops title means commander term origin came term kind tactical cavalry formation east roman army late antiquity term greek documented early 7th century informal unofficial designation date office corresponding unit appear initially referred hoc arrangements early 7th century like east roman army rank structure judging unit peculiar titles officers considerable ancestry dating east roman army unknown exactly constituted office watch rate attested recorded watch contrast watch commanders special duties related safety emperor imperial palace constantinople watch provided guards palace kept permanent garrison covered seat detailed watch accompanied emperor frequent participant imperial ceremonies accompanied principal aide ceremonial dress indicated red occasions bore sword axe weapon highly unusual byzantine officer suggests connected command foreign troops later notably commander axe bearing guard 10th century holders post prominent families military aristocracy including john occupied 36th place imperial hierarchy usually held senior court list known holders note list include holders known seals unidentified anonymous holders judicial office office changed military purely judicial distinguished acquiring epithet grand took court extant century known location covered according alternative interpretation main constantinople followed creation new courts restructuring byzantine judicial system period court court seven superior civil courts alongside city headed court fiscal affairs served court decisions holders post belonged distinguished families civil aristocracy including men john list known holders note list include holders known seals unidentified anonymous holders era following sack constantinople fourth crusade office continuity broken reappears sources period lost judicial functions resembled original military character according century book offices pseudo grand watch subordinate grand domestic charged night watch supervising army scouts reality essentially court dignity devoid ceremonial duties pseudo work grand watch ranks 24th imperial hierarchy grand distinctive court dress reported pseudo consisted gold hat plain silk staff covered golden red ceremonies festivities bore yellow golden silk decorated gold wire portrait emperor seated throne emperor horseback rear dignity survived end byzantine_empire historian ottoman post grand watch list known holders note list include holders known seals unidentified anonymous holders


great french wine great french wine severe mid-19th century destroyed france laid waste wine industry caused actual genus debated largely considered species commonly known originated north_america carried atlantic late 1850s france considered worst affected great deal damage european countries introduced europe remains debated american taken europe times reasons including experimentation trials consideration possibility introduction thought arrived recorded france near province argued introduction problem invention allowed faster journey ocean consequently allowed survive eventually following discovery cause charles valentine riley confirmation theory leo french wine proposed european resistant american susceptible french wine disliked idea found option method proved effective remedy termed lost slow process eventually wine industry france able return relative background central source damage france noted following growing european vine french colonists florida 16th century plantations failure later experiments related species vine failed reason failures appears mystery french colonists known today species north american caused early fail venom injected causes disease quickly fatal european varieties vine initially went unnoticed colonists despite great numbers pressure successfully start america time common knowledge settlers european variety simply grow american soil resorted growing native american plants established plantations native exceptions exist plantations established california found way theories proposed ignored possible cause disease resulted failure involve feeding behaviour insect way attacks roots venom canal deadly venom feeding tube takes vine nutrients venom root structure vine pressure falls result quickly feeding tube searches source food digging dying vine find roots plant journey europe centuries europeans experimented american plants soil varieties imported america regulation possibility pest transfer related problems french biologist identified 1860s maintained transfer american plants europe greatly increased roughly accidentally introduced europe enter france believed advent factor ships faster able survive quicker ocean voyage initial appearance known documented instance attack france village department province wine makers notice french colonists america noted mysterious damaging description disease given wine reminded consumption tuberculosis quickly spread france years cause disease determined damage french devastated year period late 1850s french economy badly hit businesses lost wages wine industry cut half noticeable trend migration places america production cheap sugar caused problems domestic industry threatened persist damage french economy estimated slightly billion discovery research identifying cause disease began near asked agricultural society help investigate disease society appointed committee consisting botanist local society president soon noticed roots dying infested plants committee named new insect consulted french victor brother law suggested renaming insect similarity afflicted oak leaves english john suggested insect afflicted leaves england circa insect roots france suggested french insect american vine identified american named problem suggestions french known vine roots american known leaves british born american charles valentine riley following news outbreak france sent specimens american concluded besieged paris franco prussian war identical french found afflicted leaves transferred leaves roots healthy attached roots french riley discovered american american roots insects damaged albeit case french american american riley repeated experiment similar results identity french american proved years powerful majority france argued cause vine disease instead infested opinion merely consequence true disease remained found regardless riley discovered american varieties especially resistant french farmers began import french american leo suggested american early french farmers reluctant abandon traditional varieties proposed traditional french american american entirely solve problem american varieties struggled france soils succumbed trial error american found tolerate soils worked strange life cycle project completed solution resorted methods attempt resolve issue chemicals avail desperation positioned vine allowed free hope eat insects methods successful charles valentine riley missouri state confirmed theory leo french wine suggested possibility combined means resistant american problem solved thomas consulted provided native role french government sent delegation french legion honor method tested proved success process colloquially termed french wine cure disease caused great division wine industry known rejected solution persisted use chemicals known wood merchants following demonstrated success 1870s 1880s immense task majority france began prize french government offered reward discover cure having reportedly suggest possibility resistant american leo tried claim money french government refused award rationale cured stopped occurring reasons government denying prize notable parties thought originally introduced pest present day remedy disease brings poses substantial threat planted fact european vine known resistant vine grows volcanic greek island speculation actual source resistance arise volcanic ash grow vine events great wine need european american given rise debate remains unresolved today self rooted produce better wine exist destroyed including owned


scotland early middle ages scotland early middle ages end roman authority southern central britain rise kingdom divided series kingdoms important emerge scots kingdom arrival late 8th century scandinavian rulers colonies established parts coasts islands 9th century scots combined house form single kingdom formed basis kingdom scotland scotland extensive coastline large areas difficult terrain poor agricultural land period land marginal climate change resulted relatively light settlement particularly interior highlands northern britain lacked urban centres settlements based fortified positions mixed farming largely based self period changes settlement meant languages began english end period old norse life relatively low leading young population ruling aristocracy relatively large numbers slaves multi layered different kings surrounded war bands important elements armed forces engaged low level raiding occasional longer range major campaigns key event period expansion christianity margins scotland religion inhabitants initially influenced celtic tradition originating ireland end era integrated structures catholic_church period produced highly distinctive monumental ornamental art culminating development art style common britain ireland impressive structures included hill forts introduction christianity churches monasteries period saw beginnings scottish literature british old english latin languages history time late seventh century early eighth century major circles influence emerged northern britain east kingdoms eventually stretched river forth west people royal fortress close links island ireland brought scots originally term describe inhabitants ireland south british kingdom descendants peoples roman influenced kingdoms old north finally english angles invaders overrun southern britain held kingdom later northern south east brought old english confederation tribes developed north forth stretched far probably developed tribes continued confederation response pressure exerted presence romans south appear roman records end 3rd century painted people possibly reference habit bodies roman forces campaigned identifiable king exerted superior wide ranging authority mac power based kingdom base fort near modern death leadership shifted lands centred raided eastern coast modern england christian missionaries appear begun conversion christianity 7th century acquired map king imposed kingdom father brother ruled point anglo saxon kingdom expanding northwards probably tributary defeated battle angus killing king reign mac appear reached height influence defeating forces probably making tributary invading making known peace treaties english succeeding kings able dominate mac placing son throne western coast modern scotland territory northern coasts ireland probably ruled fortress near late 6th early 7th centuries encompassed roughly scotland county ireland commonly viewed having irish colony scotland archaeologists recently argued inhabitants referred scots latin latin writers inhabitants ireland original meaning uncertain later refers speakers ireland mission ireland founded monastery west_coast scotland probably began conversion region christianity kingdom reached height mac expansion checked battle defeats ireland scotland time ended golden age kingdom client subject disagreement fate kingdom late 8th century onwards scholars argue underwent revival king find arrival named rock medieval capital region origins people kings known near contemporary sources early period known recipient letter saint patrick stated 7th century biographer king height clyde rock placing second half 5th century patrick letter clear christian likely ruling class area christians descendant named life saint information common sources led son defeated men killed grandson kingdom suffered number attacks later allies lost region kyle south west modern scotland attack forced king iii submit neighbours little heard kings burnt probably destroyed circumstances known historians traditionally identified later kingdom points fact contemporary evidence kingdom arisen decline successor states modern anglo scottish border region referred welsh scholars old north included kingdoms capital modern northumberland centred din edinburgh stretching modern angles employed mercenaries wall late roman period thought migrated north sea old english early 6th century point angles took control anglo saxon kingdom old english anglo saxon king historical record said obtained throne raised force men assault anglo saxon stronghold north yorkshire battle ended poem grandson united kingdom killing king form son returned rule kingdoms defeated killed east presumably bringing christianity converted exile defeat death hands welsh battle chase october divided kingdoms pagan kings son defeated welsh appears recognised king united converted christianity exile looked missionaries canterbury island monastery founded irish monk saint sent request king seat bishop stretched edinburgh attacked english point soon territories came rule death fighting kingdoms divided possibly having sub kings authority point english kings christian kings accepted canterbury rome late 7th century extended influence north forth defeated battle kingdom balance rival kingdoms transformed ferocious viking raids began monasteries like creating fear confusion kingdoms north britain western isles eventually fell king mac king mac dead major defeat mixture viking irish settlement south west scotland produced norse irish region gets modern 9th century kingdom lost said founded kingdom isles threats long term process kingdoms adopted language customs merger crowns historians debate takeover way culminated rise mac kenneth brought power house leaders combined kingdom seized forming kingdom york years later stormed fortress subsequently conquered england reduced kingdom leaving new combined kingdom encircled immediate descendants styled king king ousted mac killed mac returned death eventual successor mac died man recorded king apparent innovation chronicles occasionally taken spell birth scotland extant reign confirm known latin scotia english scotland kingdom nucleus scottish kingdom expand viking influence waned south kingdom expanded kingdom england geography physical geography modern scotland half size england wales area islands inland roughly coastline miles fifth scotland metres sea level east atlantic position means heavy rainfall today year east west encouraged spread blanket combined high level wind salt spray islands existence hills mountains marshes internal communication conquest extremely difficult contributed fragmented nature political power early middle ages period climate deterioration drop temperature increase rainfall resulting land settlement roman influence wall appear major impact settlement patterns iron age hill forts forts continuing occupied early medieval period defences dry stone timber laced walls large numbers forts taken suggest moving domains control administer northern western isles sites iron age wheel houses continued occupied gradually replaced imposing cellular houses handful major timber halls south comparable excavated anglo saxon england dated 7th century areas scandinavian settlement islands coast lack timber meant native materials adopted house building combining layers stone turf place evidence particularly use prefix pit meaning land field suggests heaviest areas settlement modern angus later migration erased names record early settlement appears regions western mainland scotland adjacent islands later extending west_coast 8th century place archaeological evidence settlement south east scotland reaching west lesser extent south western scotland later norse settlement probably extensive lighter settlement western islands particularly mainland stretching fertile river valleys ross extensive viking settlement northern stretched modern borders language period saw dramatic changes geography language modern divide celtic languages major groups celtic welsh derive celtic comes irish language remains enigmatic written script survives place names isolated inscriptions irish script modern accept nature unity language unclear belonged group historical sources place evidence indicate ways language north languages south replaced english later norse period economy lacking urban centres created romans rest britain economy scotland early middle ages overwhelmingly agricultural significant transport links wider markets farms produce self sufficient diet meat dairy products supplemented hunter gathering limited archaeological evidence indicates northern britain farming based single homestead small cluster homes probably containing nuclear family relationships likely common neighbouring houses settlements reflecting partition land inheritance farming based system distinguished infield settlement crops grown year outfield away crops grown left different years system continue 18th century evidence bones indicates cattle far important animal followed pigs sheep goats rare imported goods found archaeological sites period include glass sites indicate iron precious metal working written sources construct early medieval scotland estimates population inhabitants likely 5th 6th centuries saw higher mortality rates appearance plague reduced net population known conditions taken suggest high fertility high mortality society similar developing countries modern world relatively young demographic profile early large numbers children women meant relatively small proportion available workers number mouths feed difficult produce surplus allow demographic growth complex societies develop society primary unit social organisation celtic europe group mention descent female line ruling families later sources leaders clearly outside society led conclusion system descent challenged number historians argue clear evidence awareness descent male line suggests likely indicate system descent descent counted male female lines scattered evidence including records irish annals images warriors like depicted stone easter ross suggest northern britain anglo saxon england society dominated military aristocracy status dependent large ability willingness fight level aristocracy assumed non noble working small farms holding lands free tenants surviving law codes scotland period codes ireland wales indicate right bear arms represent law receive compensation murdered indications society north britain contained relatively large numbers slaves taken war raids bought patrick indicated southern scotland slavery probably reached relatively far society rural households containing slaves taken relatively young usually racially indistinguishable masters slaves integrated societies capture societies origin terms culture language living working owners practice members household inheritance rights divided estates better evidence england common slaves survived middle age gain freedom remaining clients families masters early medieval period british inherited direct line previous kings case late middle ages instead number candidates usually needed member particular dynasty claim descent particular ancestor multi layered fluid kings probably acting kings period occasionally able assert non kings occasionally acknowledge external rulers british relationships placed obligations pay tribute supply armed forces victory sub kings received rewards return service interaction ruling families subject kingdoms opened way absorption sub kingdoms later likely complex process gradually handful powerful taking place primary role king act war leader reflected small number minority female reigning monarchs period kings organised defence people lands property persons negotiated kings secure things failed settlements raided destroyed annexed populations killed taken slavery kings engaged low level warfare raiding ambitious scale warfare led conflicts large armies alliances undertaken relatively large distances expedition attack ireland ritual aspects kings inaugurated putting foot carved stone signifying follow footsteps predecessors unified kingdom sacred stone heart coronation ceremony historians inherited practices early centre scottish christianity burial site early kings scotland eleventh century house adopted near warfare basic level king power rested existence bodyguard war band british language called war band latin word common word period derives latin meaning defend preserve danger war band functioned extension ruler legal person core larger armies time time campaigns significant size peace time war band activity centred great hall celtic cultures drinking forms male bonding kept war band integrity place epic poem war band said sleep great hall lord retired adjacent likely war band period exceeded men hall structure having capacity larger found archaeologists northern britain stones like angus mounted foot warriors swords spears bows helmets shields large number hill forts scotland open battle important anglo saxon england relatively high proportion kings recorded dying fires drowning suggest important warfare northern britain sea power important irish annals record attack necessitated large naval force lost ships disaster ships vital amphibious warfare highlands islands seventh century indicates ship muster system obliged groups households produce total ships men source mentions recorded naval battle british isles naval expeditions vessels survive period images period suggest skin boats similar irish larger vessels viking raids invasions british isles based superior key success graceful long narrow light wooden boat shallow draft hull designed speed shallow draft allowed navigation waters feet deep permitted beach landings light weight enabled carried double ended symmetrical bow stern allowing ship reverse direction quickly having turn religion pre christian religion little known religion scotland arrival christianity lack native written sources means judged parallels occasional surviving archaeological evidence hostile accounts later christian writers generally presumed resembled celtic names celtic deities noted like come later irish mythology whilst like come evidence celtic constructed temples gods offerings performing sacrifices possibly including human sacrifice according greek roman accounts britain ireland religious specialists known little definitely known irish legends origin stories life associate associated demon worship story concerning demon suggesting worship spirits feature roman mentions worship goddess wells stone associated near castle taken support case early roots christianity scotland probably found soldiers ordinary roman citizens vicinity wall roman period indicates northern parts roman province island inscriptions christian grave found wall 4th century period known existed wall attacked destroyed presumably christians departure romans generally presumed christianity survived retreated pagan anglo advanced gods gave names days week appropriated spring festival easter british christians continued practice grave goods pagan anglo visible archaeological record practice burial accompanied extensive grave goods designed accompany dead despite growing evidence settlement southern scotland grave found east growth christianity scotland traditionally seen dependent irish scots celtic missionaries lesser extent rome england celtic christianity origins conversion ireland late roman britain associated patrick 5th century 6th century monks ireland operating british mainland figure associated monastery founded generally accepted later construct left ireland founded monastery west_coast scotland carried missions scots likely scots begun convert christianity period saint patrick referred letter suggesting previously christian poem set early 6th century remark conversion likely run considerable period beginning 5th century complete 7th key long generally indicate christian east west orientation challenged recent research found end roman era 7th century point concentrated strongly eastern scotland south angus borders generally accepted scholars place element word church represents evidence british church roman immediate post roman period located south west south east dozen inscribed stones 5th 6th centuries beginning called stone dating indicate christianity spread southern scotland celtic christianity celtic christianity differed respects based rome importantly issues easter calculated method differences rites baptism celtic christianity heavily based monasteries differed significantly continent isolated collection wooden surrounded wall celtic world lacked urban centres roman world attached 5th 6th 7th centuries irish monks established monastic institutions parts modern day scotland monks founded southern scotland dominated period established west presumed adopted leadership rome battle bishop followers ejected time roman system calculating easter reforms adopted ireland accepted reforms rome mac der followers celtic traditions retreated western isles remained outpost celtic practice time celtic christianity continued influence religion england europe late middle ages scottish mission spreading christianity monasteries art theological ideas continent viking viking occupation islands coastal regions modern scotland brought return pagan worship areas norse gods anglo conversion thought focused series involving gods ancestors spirits life cycle rituals involving forms sacrifice ruling norse elite seen goods found 10th century graves contemporary account conversion scotland christianity historians traditionally pointed process conversion christianity viking colonies britain dated late 10th century later accounts indicate viking accepted christianity evidence conversion begun point large number isles called western northern isles indicate priest isle period changes patterns grave goods viking place names suggest christianity begun spread official conversion later documentary evidence suggests bishop operating century recently uncovered archaeological evidence including explicitly christian forms stone crosses suggest christian practice survived viking parts process conversion begun christianity officially accepted viking leaders continuity scottish christianity explain relatively rapid way norse settlers later religion art 5th centuries art primarily known stone sculpture smaller number pieces high quality conversion cultural culture scots angles elements art incorporated style known art common britain ireland highly influential continental europe contributed development styles stones stones survive assigned scholars classes class stones thought date period 7th century numerous group stones largely include symbols animals including fish beast everyday objects mirrors tuning abstract symbols defined names including rod double disc rod found forth greatest concentrations modern good examples include stones angus class stones carefully shaped dating arrival christianity 8th 9th centuries cross face wide range symbols reverse smaller numbers class stones southern perth angus good examples include contains finely executed celtic cross main face opposing male figures deer head triple disc symbol angus shows high boat figure facing forward class iii stones thought overlap class stones shaped cross scenes lacking symbols widely distributed southern areas found appear considerable silver available probably raiding south payment subsidies large late roman found law originated way largest early found law unfortunately dispersed melted heavy silver chains metres long found period double linked chain ring symbol decoration including shows probably isle treasure contains best collection forms irish scots art kingdom seen cross roads artistic styles ireland scots settlers kept close contacts seen representations found excavations fortress combine irish elements included extensive evidence production high status jewellery 7th century indicate production pieces similar found elements suggest irish origins finds including trumpet spiral decorated hanging bowl disc stamped animal decoration bucket drinking horn indicate ways locations style developed 8th 9th centuries elite adopted true ireland older irish pseudo adapted style example british museum 8th century elements irish style art art saxon art given common style produced scotland britain anglo saxon england 7th century combining celtic anglo saxon forms surviving examples art found carving mainly illuminated manuscripts surfaces highly decorated intricate attempt impression depth volume recession best examples include book book carpet pages characteristic feature manuscripts initials invention canon tables especially portraits common finest era style brought end disruption monastic centres aristocratic life viking raids late 8th century influence art affected subsequent european medieval art especially decorative elements gothic manuscripts architecture period departure romans evidence series new forts smaller constructions compared iron age major geographical features edinburgh northern british peoples utilised different forms fort determining factors construction local terrain building materials military needs identifiable king mac base fort near modern probably ruled fortress near introduction christianity scotland ireland sixth century led construction churches originally wooden like excavated evidence survives era basic masonry built churches beginning west_coast islands spreading south east early tended square ended walls similar irish period medieval parish church architecture scotland typically elaborate england churches remaining simple towers highlands simpler built rubble masonry indistinguishable outside houses farm buildings monasteries differed significantly continent isolated collection wooden surrounded wall inner chapel guest house buildings timber construction probably heather later rebuilt stone underground cells circular like ireland similar sites excavated eighth century sophisticated buildings emerged literature earliest welsh literature actually composed near country called scotland written wales later include considered earliest surviving verse scotland attributed said resident 6th century battle gwen attributed traditionally thought court roughly period religious works including praise mac latin include prayer protection attributed century high creator attributed old english dream lines found cross making surviving fragment old english early medieval scotland


scotland roman empire scotland roman empire refers period roman empire interacted area scotland known roman arrived having conquered celtic tribes britain england wales preceding decades aiming annex island romans invaded 70s 80s account son law mentions roman victory namesake questioned modern scholarship romans repeated earlier greek island received submission local tribes establishing border actual control ridge withdrawing line south line fortified wall roman commanders attempted fully conquer lands north line including brief expansion fortified wall despite claims 18th century forged manuscript believed romans point controlled half present day scotland roman ceased affect area history period complex documented province instance lands roman walls territory south wall roman wales romans held territory little years probably held scottish land years scottish historians far rome presence entirely scots scotland proper emerge unified ideas centuries later fact roman empire influenced scotland period time roman withdrawal britain iron age tribes native area united fell control southern half country overrun tribes irish raiders scotland english begun settle west_coast groups involved great conspiracy overran roman britain era saw emergence earliest historical accounts natives enduring rome christianity literacy arrived indirectly irish missionaries dawn scottish history scotland inhabited thousands years romans arrived roman period scotland recorded writing work aristotle pseudo aristotle mentions large british isles called great_britain ireland greek explorer visited britain mainland describes triangular shape work ocean refers northerly point earliest written record formal connection rome scotland attendance king british kings submitted emperor following invasion southern britain months earlier long distances short period time involved strongly suggest prior connection rome evidence found contrast later resistance striking originals ocean survive copies known existed 1st century rudimentary knowledge geography north britain available roman military intelligence roman recorded written islands seven possibly certainly evidence connection rome prior pottery found time elder roman knowledge geography scotland extended probably outer forest possibly drawing earlier sources information contemporary accounts invasion identified tribes scotland geography names obscure information reliable north west suggesting early roman knowledge area confined observations sea famously place scotland north wall bent right angle stretching eastward rest britain iron age culture scotland tribes located north forth clyde include north great north east central highlands centred near likely cultures spoke form celtic language known occupants southern scotland clyde valley south coast east peoples spoken form language despite discovery hundreds iron age sites scotland great deal remains explained nature celtic life early christian era unfortunately dating period problematic chronological sequences poorly understood variety reasons archaeological work date scotland concentrated islands west north excavations analysis societal structures mainland limited scope peoples early iron age scotland particularly north west lived substantial stone buildings called atlantic remains hundreds houses exist country merely piles rubble impressive towers date imposing structures having created 2nd century massive constructions date time circular towers average ruins survive metres ground level extant examples towers walls exceed height sites scotland despite extensive research purpose nature societies created matter debate parts iron age scotland unlike recorded history right present day elite studies shown stone massively thick walls contained virtually entire population islands north iron age settlement patterns scotland places sign privileged class living large castles forts elite peasants access kind accommodation enjoyed middle classes discovered scotland south east dated suggest construction date 2nd 3rd centuries unfortunately purpose small underground structures obscure usually found close settlements timber frames preserved storing agricultural products scotland numerous forts accurate chronology proven extensive studies fort hill near angus variety techniques suggest dates destruction site centuries millennium lack roman artifacts common local sites suggests sites abandoned arrival unlike earlier bronze ages provided massive monuments dead iron age burial sites scotland rare recent find provide insight culture period similar site warrior grave dated traveller called related tale expedition west_coast shortly stated journey islands visited retreat holy men mentioned island invasion apparently beginnings recorded know foreign policies senior leaders mainland scotland 1st century roman governor launched invasion occupied south east scotland came roman sway early stage sent division north territory shores forth legion took western route attempt occupied central southern early success tempted north began constructing line forts north west ridge marked frontier south north summer arrived britain appointment new governor years later constructed substantial fort near excavations 20th century produced significant finds including foundations successive structures roman coins pottery remains roman army found including collection roman armour ornate cavalry parade helmets horse fittings bronze leather said pushed armies estuary river usually assumed river established forts including fortress summer romans faced armies battle forces included fleet arrived site light infantry bolstered british estimated total romans faced warriors line keeping reserve relied close quarters fighting swords useless rout lost battle thirds army managed escape hide scottish highlands called battle casualties estimated roughly roman number authors battle occurred sight north_sea particular roy advanced notions site battle hill hill near roman camp points high ground ancient romans military manoeuvres suggestions include hill ridge far perth suggested absence archaeological evidence low estimates roman casualties battle simply fabricated resident scotland appear history leader referred distinguished birth invented speech advance battle describes romans world having universal exhausted land rifle deep enemy rich poor lust dominion east west able satisfy men equal poverty robbery slaughter lying empire peace aftermath fate unknown according battle ordered fleet sail north scotland confirm britain island receive surrender proclaimed finally subdued tribes britain roman historian reports resulted receiving 15th emperor years believed historians taken place marching camps constructed southern shores existence questioned total size roman garrison scotland period occupation thought troops requiring tons grain addition material construct forts substantial estimated million cubic feet timber 1st century tons buried nails discovered site garrison men consumed linear kilometres wood walls hectares acres forest soon announcement victory recalled rome post passed successors seemingly unable unwilling subdue far north despite apparent successes fell favour possible informed claims won significant victory fortress dismantled completion fortifications ridge erected consolidate roman presence scotland aftermath abandoned space years possible costs drawn war economic political benefit deemed profitable leave occupation limited southern end 1st century northern limit roman expansion line drawn fort dates period castle west likely monitoring base east west road running foot nearby forth clyde valley presumably consequence roman advance hill forts abandoned natives long ago occupied new ones constructed north east hill christ settlements southern geography identifies towns intelligence gathered campaigns archaeological evidence truly urban places found time names indicated hill forts temporary market meeting places names obscure modern rock west probably rock place east site edinburgh castle remains towers southern scotland appear date period immediately prior following invasion number found locations forth valley close far south west eastern borders existence far main centres building mystery destruction come hands roman invaders like nearby site fairy substantial roman native artefacts recovered structures built late 1st century evidently high status buildings inhabitants raised sheep cattle pigs benefited range wild game including red deer wild hall best preserved southern ruins similar larger villages unlikely tower single story high absence roman artefacts site theories existence structures proposed including construction northern invaders following withdrawal roman troops advance allies rome encouraged emulate impressive northern style order suppress native resistance chiefs positive relationship rome continued beginnings british relations possible construction little roman frontier policy simply new style southern response growing threat rome prior invasion attempt ally actually symbolically free north wall governor thought suppressed uprising involving northern year office hosted visit province emperor resulted construction wall latin line frontier line occupation britain consolidated empire construction stone fortification built width northern england wall roman miles statute miles kilometres long width height dependent construction materials available nearby east river wall squared stone measured metres wide metres high west river wall originally turf measured metres wide metres high subsequently rebuilt stone wall augmented ditches forts wall purposes defence obvious controlled movement line enabled rapid transmission military intelligence facilitated collection customs scale demonstrated power rome enemies surely intended enhance prestige builder wall remained frontier roman celtic worlds britain briefly superseded wall wall governor roman britain new emperor son landowner native modern algeria prior coming britain served jewish rebellion governing inferior soon reversed policy predecessor ordered begin lowland scotland moving north rebuilt fort commemorative coins issued celebrating victory britain likely led southern scotland probably 2nd legion evidently campaigned british tribes possibly including factions northern certainly lowland tribes scotland scottish borders region total force men likely planned campaign attack advancing north leaving garrison forts high rochester northumberland possibly struck forth having secured overland supply route military personnel equipment street likely set supply port supply grain proceeding success swift construction new forth clyde commenced contingents british legion known assisted erection new turf barrier evidenced inscription fort old wall western terminus today covered wall remains defensive line turf circa metres high nineteen forts constructed extended possibly defences finished turned attention fourth lowland scottish tribe inhabited peninsula main lowland tribes wall stone south new turf wall north later formed confederation roman rule collectively known wall variety purposes provided defensive line cut allies created zone north wall facilitated troop movements east west main purpose primarily military enabled rome control tax trade prevented potentially new subjects roman rule communicating independent north coordinating revolts achieved impressive series military successes like short lived having taken years build wall overrun abandoned soon destruction southern date advance hypothesis previously symbols roman patronage roman point view 3rd century roman frontier wall roman incursions scotland continued initially outpost forts occupied south west remained use abandoned roman troops penetrated far north modern scotland times greater density roman marching camps scotland europe result major attempts subdue area wall occupied brief period notable invasion emperor claiming provoked campaigned confederacy invaded army strong according inflicted natives incurred loss men attrition guerrilla tactics likely figures significant string forts constructed north east date earlier campaign include camps associated wells den forts scotland valley definitely known permanently occupied troops withdrawn wall circa evidence campaigns wholesale destruction abandonment southern scotland roman military aggression collapse local grain markets wake roman withdrawal campaigning significant gains campaign cut short fell fatally ill dying son continued campaigning following year soon settled peace romans campaigned deep soon withdrew south permanently wall negotiations purchase truce necessary secure roman retreat wall recorded reasonable degree confidence native scotland julia wife criticised sexual morals women wife chief replied fulfill demands nature better way roman women consort openly best men let secret little known alliance iron age tribes augmented roman rule south exact location unknown boundaries unlikely fixed roman elder referred unknown likely prior roman invasions political control region highly evidence emerged specific military political leadership later romans generally limited scouting expeditions zone developed walls trading contacts bribes purchase natives eventually spread christianity 4th century roman map identifies meeting places possibly markets southern scotland possibly modern near continued muster point historic period indicate meeting places fourth time onwards attempts permanently occupy territory scotland intermittent roman presence scotland coincided emergence confederation tribes lived north forth clyde roman times 10th century assumed descendants evidence connection called unknown said evidence limited depictions nobles hunters warriors male female obvious found monumental stones called irish poets portrayed counterparts like means confederation formed unknown speculation reaction growth roman empire factor early history unclear later periods multiple kings existed ruling separate kingdoms king dominating lesser neighbours chronicle irish legends argue existence seven kingdoms existed evidence suggests kingdom existed relationship rome appears overtly hostile predecessors beginning pitched battles conflict generally limited raiding parties sides frontier immediately prior roman retreat apparent success holding roman forces explained solely reference difficulties terrain difficulties encountered population conform local governance roman power usually depended operate technology everyday life recorded archaeological evidence shows similar ireland anglo saxon england recently evidence found drying wheat easy temperate climate constructed earlier times remained use period scotland constructed probably purposes west north geographical locations highly restricted suggests contained political cultural frontier kind arrival departure associated period roman influence scotland matter ongoing debate known culture constructed certainly known rome power waned war bands raided south wall earnest participated great conspiracy rome fought mounting campaign count province renamed honor emperor location unclear placed wall campaign mounted short lived successes rome fully withdrawn britain return modern study century mid-19th century charles forged description britain latin placed wall wall gave rome short lived province named wall lowland scotland work known successful historical history longer believed contain independent content candidate roman fort identified aerial photography easter south west site excavated features identified supportive classification roman pottery similar found roman fort discovered confirmed northerly known roman forts british isles possibility reached north scotland suggested discoveries easter ross sites temporary camps proposed fully confirmed investigation black isle near concluded site appears conform morphology roman camp fort legacy historical military presence rome lasted little years scotland years total generally considered time half scotland land mass roman control scotland inherited main features roman period indirectly use latin script languages emergence christianity predominant religion christianity latin language natives scotland purposes church government centuries roman influence assisted spread christianity europe little evidence direct link roman empire christian missions north wall traditionally credited bishop active scotland briefly mentioned states set base south west scotland building stone church known recently suggested 6th century missionary way roman influence early christianity scotland significant little series relatively brief military occupation imperial rome ruthless brutal pursuit ends genocide familiar foreign policy clear invasions cost thousands lives writes reality romans came scotland saw burned killed stole occasionally conquered left tremendous mess clearing away native settlements covering good farmland remains ditches banks roads sorts ancient military debris like arrived money gain political advantage exploit resources colonies virtually price conquered remarkably britain scotland continue admire surprising given roman nickname north british locals meaning nasty little similarly william concludes years studies period roman conquest major medium long term impact scotland present evidence terms environment economy society impact appears limited general picture remains broad continuity disruption roman presence scotland little series brief longer indigenous development romans extensive forest remains matter debate forests considerably extensive dispute timing causes reduction 16th century writer believed woods roman times stretched north inhabited white crisp like later historians followed suit 20th century naturalist frank modern techniques including suggest complex picture changing post glacial climates allowed maximum forest cover southern caused underway time arrived extensive analyses black suggest land spread expense forest 1st century roman advance growth birch oak period centuries suggesting invasions negative impact native population situation outside roman held areas harder assess long term influence rome substantial archaeological legacy rome scotland interest sparse especially north sites essentially military nature include roads overall hard detect direct connections native architecture settlement patterns roman influence europe new kingdoms languages emerged remnants mighty roman world scotland celtic iron age way life troubled extinguished rome simply asserted north continued main power prior arrival subsequent domination scots eventually formed kingdom based rock south forth welsh speaking kingdoms english old north flourished 5th 7th centuries enduring roman legacy created wall line border modern scotland england created distinction northern southern thirds island great_britain plays modern political debate probably little suggest influence played important role early medieval period fall rome fiction 9th spanish legion participated roman invasion britain suffering losses rebellion setting fortress later authors claimed 9th legion disappeared extant records later year probably annihilated east roman empire time believed british historians legion vanished conflicts present day scotland idea novels eagle ninth legion shadows edward wagner red shift garner engine city warriors feature films legion eagle