greater greater german fully styled greater german nation german nation official state political entity nazi_germany tried establish europe world war albert stated memoirs hitler referred envisioned state german nation unclear seldom english synonym hitler mentions future state german nation german nation territorial claims greater time early autumn hitler envisioned territories western poland austria germany creation satellite puppet states economies policies gaining power february hitler tried conceal true intentions poland revealed closest associates signing non aggression pact poland political maneuver conceal true intentions poland early nazi_germany secretly prepared war poland mass murder ethnic population officially claiming polish government continue guarantee poland existence maintaining claims polish corridor offer poland right annex entirety ukraine soviet_union poland support germany war soviet_union germany annex baltic states soviet territories amidst short time german soviet negotiations partition poland germany soviet_union took place hitler include territorial designs soviet_union greater instead focusing uniting peoples scandinavia low countries pan empire expected practically europe enormously expanded speaking encompassed enlarged german consisting germany proper austria lower upper southern german occupied poland netherlands flemish belgium denmark norway sweden iceland german speaking parts switzerland notable exception united_kingdom projected having reduced german province instead allied partner germans exception german populated territory south allied italy aside europe western france reverted earlier holy roman empire meant complete annexation wallonia french switzerland large areas northern eastern france additionally policy planned mass expansion germany eastwards mountains hitler planned surplus russian population living west deported east ideological background racial theories nazi racial ideology regarded peoples europe belonging racially superior larger race regarded true culture society peoples viewed true peoples lost sense racial pride close racial relatives germans german chancellor adolf_hitler believed ancient greeks romans racial ancestors germans greek art culture particularly expressed admiration ancient declaring racial state possible racial superiority created state furthermore hitler concept simply refer ethnic cultural linguistic group distinctly biological superior blood wanted salvage control enemies race stated germany possessed elements country world estimated people blood found world good left unable oppose empire according nazis addition peoples individuals seemingly non french polish czech actually possess valuable blood especially aristocratic peasant stock order recover missing elements conscious ancestry process term nazis process restoration race recovery impossible individuals destroyed deny enemy superior blood race example type nazi kidnapping racially valuable eastern european children page hitler openly declared belief common blood belongs common notion innate quality race nazi movement perceived hold precedence artificial concepts national identity including regional german identities prussian deciding factor people worthy greater german racial state strategic methods hitler chose ensure present future supremacy race according hitler gradually approaching extinction away described small state rubbish compare europe order unite countries unified racial community onward advocated creation german nation continent brought civilization great_britain turn enabled large areas rest world america europe necessary power world centres attraction million people origin consolidated position power world stand countries form world gain case birth country beautiful regions left devices possibility develop talents countries like austria denmark switzerland foundation fortunate potential new spaces opened peoples chosen projected empire deliberate reference holy roman empire german nation existed medieval times known nazi historiography different aspects legacy medieval empire german history celebrated derided nazi government hitler admired emperor cultural creativity powers organization rights individual criticized holy roman emperors pursuing eastern policy resembling politically focused exclusively south hitler ordered old imperial imperial crown imperial sword cross holy lance items residing vienna transferred kept addition unofficial capital holy roman empire place nazi party rallies transfer hitler germany successor old weaken vienna imperial residence german occupation hitler declared resurrected secretly maintained empire better old roman unlike catholic empire german nation racist nationalist return values middle ages establishment push forward new golden age best aspects past combined modern racist nationalist thinking historical borders holy empire grounds territorial nazis laying claim modern territories states war hitler dreamed reversing peace given territories empire complete sovereignty november minister propaganda joseph wrote diary total historic treaty great goal nazi regime signed officially repealed city pan versus pan despite intending accord europe racially superior status alongside germans anticipated post war political order nazis consider granting subject populations countries national rights countries seen mere extensions germany individual units way germans intended remain empire powerful source strength ideological military standpoint senior nazis supported concept shake idea distinction german official newspaper das succeeded contradiction brotherhood german superiority members nazi type parties countries forbidden attend public meetings nazi party visited germany battle ban lifted attendees prior notice arrival events speakers warned advance remarks country origin hitler advocated pan empire objective universally held nazi regime foreign ministry von inclined idea continental german rule represented anti pact european confederation project earlier concept disagreements nazi leadership spiritual implications history ideological program hitler highly critical interpretation mission denounced speech butcher hitler stated historical crime fact good thing brought western culture eventually germany disapproved projects organized organization excavations pre historic sites world attention fact past isn romans great buildings living mud starting dig villages mud stone axe finds prove throwing stone open fires greece rome reached highest stage culture best quiet past instead makes great present day romans having laugh attempt eventually christianity new old religion nazi ideology alfred sought replace indigenous traditional religion peoples japanese seen perfect east asian counterpart purpose ordered construction sites worship order exchange christian rituals ceremonies included different marriage burial rites adolf_hitler editions hitler quoted having said october stupid allow revival cult old mythology gods defunct incapable revival christianity came world antiquity followed philosophical systems hand gods modern times undesirable humanity fool establishment strategy goal proclaimed publicly rallies hitler speech event ended words german nation acquired speculation political circles new era germany foreign policy days event hitler took albert aside way munich apartment entourage declared create great empire peoples included begin norway extend northern italy carry health april germany invaded denmark norway operation hitler announced establishment empire arose year greater empire arise day establishment empire follow model austrian carried greater scale emphasized april annexed countries undergo similar national revolution germany enforced rapid social political accordance nazi principles ideology ultimate goal policy pursued parts occupied europe destroy concepts individual states concept separate austrian state national identity establishment new state party districts new empire longer nation state type emerged 19th century instead racially pure community reason nazi interest transferring real power far right movements present occupied countries etc temporary reasons instead actively supported radical collaborators favored pan unity total integration germany provincial nationalism example unlike austria process considerably longer eventually merged germans single ruling race hitler stated prospect lay years future interim period intended new europe run germans according intended eventually peoples completely hitler intended native languages future add diversity empire german language status english british commonwealth primary agent local extreme nationalist elements initially merely consisted local respective branches belgium netherlands norway groups authority respective pro nazi national commanders intended function national territories course transformed tool influence extreme collaborating parties style organizations norway netherlands post war empire men form new leadership respective national territories emphasize pan ideology renamed men groups longer swore allegiance respective national leaders adolf_hitler swear adolf_hitler loyalty bravery pledge superiors appointed obedience death help god title assumed hitler june suggestion december dutch fascist addressed fashion proclaimed allegiance hitler visit berlin wanted address hitler hitler personally decreed style historian speculates difference implied position separate hitler role und des chancellor greater german served attribute main function late occasional propaganda publications continued refer unofficial title held hitler personal history hitler originally austrian national enlisted army lost austrian citizenship remained seven years according leader flag symbol represent national socialist movement unity peoples single state unification germany analogy held flag kingdom prussia imposed german states form new german empire german national flag referring imperial nazis banned black red gold version imposed countries europe hitler long intended reconstruct german capital berlin new imperial metropolis decided scheduled completion specifically chosen clear central point envisioned empire enforce notion united state peoples europe impressed german idea peoples continental europe steered concept hitler considers good renaming capital berlin given considerable driving force task capital appropriate spite far removed belonging racial core capital sense unity policies undertaken countries low countries german plans annexation advanced low countries states closer geographical proximity cultural ethnic ties germany belgium formally annexed nazi state world war respectively new proposed implemented arrangement brussels district april having dinner entourage including hitler declared intention low countries included point greater german reformed simply common change october hitler disclosed intended leave netherlands semi independent wanted country retain overseas colonial empire war factor removed japanese took netherlands east indies primary component domain resulting german plans netherlands suggested transformation eventually broken new historical dutch term type sub national high nazi official occupied netherlands hoped new province germany western periphery stated called holland long dutch national anthem similar patriotic symbols forbidden actually largely destroyed course invasion rebuilt important port city area situation mouth rhine river personal claimed contemplated entire dutch population million people total time agricultural lands bug river valleys german occupied poland efficient way immediate alleged hoped establish province holland vacated dutch territory distribute confiscated dutch property real estate reliable men claim shown myth book legends position future empire people discussed april hitler wartime dinner conversations commented ostensibly real sense community different indigenous ethnic groups netherlands stated dutch particular hold affection nation state based dutch national identity felt greater sense german river east observation field marshal agreed based experiences hitler determined best course action case unite regions sides border single province later point time discuss topic arthur governor german regime netherlands late year discussions apparently concluded 29th pledged allow west remain holland exact race people east joined province hitler considered wallonia reality german lands gradually detached territories french germany right decision include wallonia entirety smaller areas traditional romance language border western_europe considered inclusion included small speaking area centred low speaking region west called city historical capital scandinavia invasion operation hitler vowed leave norway favored denmark german province small size relative germany hopes expansion project iceland included group countries gradually incorporated group nazis believed iceland greenland mystical land purported original homeland ancient race military point view kriegsmarine command hoped iceland greenland isles possibly isles claimed regime domination guarantee german naval access mid-atlantic preparation construction new german metropolis inhabitants called north star norwegian city trondheim accompanied new naval base intended germany largest city connected germany proper little great belts house art museum northern empire housing works german artists sweden future nazis new order considered regime stated spirit man looked forward incorporating central southern sweden empire offered northern sweden finnish minority finland norwegian port suggestion rejected finnish foreign minister claimed expressed regret germany occupied sweden operation certain error war april expressed similar views diary writing germany occupied country campaign north state right national existence suggested sweden future position similar bavaria german empire swedish islands awarded finland league nations likely join sweden empire spring german military reported swedish counterpart germany need transit rights sweden imminent invasion soviet_union case finding cooperative permit swedish annexation islands hitler veto idea complete union states sweden finland despite majority people origin finland given status honorary nation nazi racial perspective national hitler reward military importance ongoing conflict soviet_union swedish speaking minority country comprised total population considered initially preferred finnish speakers recruitment finnish volunteer battalion finland status mean intended absorbed empire instead expected guardian germany northern flank hostile remnants conquered ussr attaining control territory occupied hitler considered finnish climates unsuitable german colonization possibility finland eventual inclusion state empire long term objective hitler abandoned line thinking according finland signed armistice soviet_union broke diplomatic relations brother arms germany september felt remorse eliminating finnish state government leadership sooner transforming country national socialist finland outlook switzerland implicit hostility neutral nations sweden held switzerland noted diary december insult god survive war unscathed major powers great sacrifices profit certainly sure happen swiss people seen nazi mere german nation led western ideals democracy hitler swiss branch swiss state face europe deeming unsuitable settling territories nazis expected eastern_europe discussed plans subordinates integrate german speaking parts switzerland completely rest germany persons mind post union switzerland german analogy office held austria absorption germany later official subsequently new area completing total august south wagner minister president walter spoke favor amalgamation switzerland suggested seat government new administrative territory dormant des nations geneva operation military offensive intended occupy switzerland likely operation italy desired italian speaking areas switzerland planning stages implementation seriously considered german military armistice france definitively shelved start operation directed attention eastern france aftermath munich agreement hitler french prime minister december agreement officially declared germany previous territorial claims interest maintaining peaceful relations france germany pledged involved mutual consultation matters involving interests countries time hitler private advised high command prepare operational plans joint german italian war france auspices state secretary interior ministry produced initial memo planned annexation strip eastern france june stretching mouth lake geneva july toured region inspect potential according documents produced december annexed territory consist french departments action require settlement million germans peasant families decided south south option agreement settlers towns region receive south place names hitler decided south instead settle noted find ethnic group hitler claimed french territory historical border holy roman empire stated order ensure german continent germany retain military strong points french atlantic coast emphasized earth persuade abandon safe positions channel coast captured campaign france consolidated organisation major french cities coast given designation fortress stronghold hitler brest suggesting remain permanent post war german administration war ends france pay caused started thrown borders means shall win province far beauty wealth concerned compares favorably german province atlantic islands summer hitler considered possibility occupying portuguese azores cape_verde spanish islands deny british staging ground military actions nazi controlled europe september hitler raised issue discussion spanish foreign minister offering spain transfer islands german usage price french morocco hitler interest atlantic islands understood framework imposed military situation ultimately plans releasing important naval bases german control alleged canadian historian november leading period japan began planning naval attack bring united_states war hitler stated desire deploy long range bombers american cities azores location hitler think luftwaffe located portuguese azores islands germany possibility carrying aerial attacks land base united_states period year emergence bomber trans oceanic range strategic bomber design competition poland relations germany poland altered early late 1930s hitler nazi party taking power openly talked destroying poland hostile poles gaining power february hitler tried conceal true intentions poland revealed closest associates signing non aggression pact poland political maneuver conceal true intentions poland nazi_germany publicly claimed seek poland avoid poland entering soviet sphere influence appealed anti soviet sentiment poland soviet_union turn time competed germany influence poland poland reached agreements germany agreement treatment minorities countries non aggression pact countries agreed peaceful settlement disputes including territory agreement regarded countries having settled borders time germany sought convince poland allow polish existence germany invade soviet_union resulting germany taking soviet_union offering poland right annex entirety ukraine soviet_union germany annex soviet territories germany condemned poland violating minorities agreement publicly proposed accept resolution germany accept polish demand germany abandon polish minorities poland upheld agreement abandon germans germany proposal met resistance poland particularly polish western union opposition party national democratic_party poland agreeing version joint declaration minorities november hitler welcomed agreement meet representatives polish government representatives polish minority germany secret frustrated held meeting declared prepare germany war destroy poland later december hitler indicated interested utilizing poland war soviet_union claiming polish soldiers fighting alongside germany soviet_union beneficial reduce need german manpower fighting time nazi_germany secretly preparing german minority poland war weapons smuggled gathered frontier polish regions nazi intelligence networks established november nazi_germany organized german paramilitary units polish engage diversion sabotage murder ethnic german invasion poland end editions printed nazis containing thousand names poles targeted execution imprisonment invasion poland january held negotiations polish minister foreign affairs edward commander chief polish army urged poland enter anti pact german expansion eastward germany offered poland territories slovakia ukraine private discussion german officials stated hoped offering poland territories soviet_union germany gain polish cooperation war soviet_union poland surrender polish corridor germany exchange gains lose access baltic_sea gain access black_sea ukraine refused german demands annex territory inhabited majority poles connecting majority polish exports imports outside world shocked idea war soviet_union polish administration saw plan threat polish sovereignty practically poland axis anti reducing country state near entire trade dependent germany aftermath german occupation czechoslovakia creation german client state slovakia german government believed poland yield german demands private hitler revealed danzig real issue pursuit germany role britain united_kingdom language speaking country included pan unification aim united_kingdom spite near universal acceptance nazi government world leading anglo successful germans maintaining racial purity coastal island areas scotland ireland cornwall wales received additional blood norse raids colonization viking age anglo east northern england danish rule 9th 10th centuries referred historical process additional finally culminated norman conquest england britain nation created struggle survival peoples isles able pursue global conquest empire building superior racial born development hitler professed admiration imperial british_empire proof racial superiority race hoping germany emulate british absence moral establishing colonial empire eastern_europe primary foreign policy aims 1930s establish military alliance english hitler england britain united_kingdom writings speeches italians france strategic threat german security eastward expansion apparent nazi leadership united_kingdom interested military alliance anti british policies adopted ensure germany war aims war hope remained britain time reliable german ally hitler preferred british_empire preserved world power break benefit countries far germany particularly united_states japan fact hitler strategy winning britain based german guarantee defence british_empire war testified hitler promised deliver german divisions disposal britain maintaining integrity colonial possessions continued military actions britain fall france strategic goal making britain light conduct armistice axis powers july named germans probable date cessation hostilities head army general staff consultation hitler concerning aims envisaged present war wrote diary seeking contact britain basis world hitler sub goals invasion russia win britain german believed military collapse ussr weeks britain forced surrender come join germany junior partner axis britain role alliance reserved support german naval aerial military actions usa fight world supremacy conducted axis power bases europe africa atlantic august hitler stated looked forward eventual day england germany march america january impossible britain quit war join axis leading situation german british_army chase americans iceland nazi alfred hoped victorious conclusion war ussr join german settlers conquered eastern territories historical perspective britain situation likened austrian empire found defeated kingdom prussia battle austria formally excluded german affairs britain excluded continental affairs event german victory austria-hungary loyal ally german empire pre world war power europe hoped britain come fulfill role channel islands british channel islands permanently integrated empire july hitler stated war islands given control robert german labour transferred strength joy holiday resorts nazi scholar toured islands recommended german appeal norman heritage treat islands micro states union britain accident history likened preferred policy concerning islands similar pursued british malta language artificially supported italian language ireland military operation plan invasion ireland support operation sea lion drawn germans august occupied ireland ruled britain temporary administrative system divided military economic commands headquarters situated dublin ireland future position new order unclear known hitler united irish state role northern italy hitler regarded northern italians strongly southern italians archaeological organization associated asserted archaeological evidence proved presence peoples region south era claimed proved significance ancient influence northern italy nazis regarded ancient romans largely people mediterranean race claimed roman ruling classes descended north minority responsible rise roman civilization nazis viewed downfall roman empire result deterioration purity ruling class inferior mediterranean types led empire decay addition racial population general blamed rome downfall claiming italians hybrid races including black african races darker mediterranean peoples hitler regarded having traces blood strong heritage inferior stronger heritage hitler held immense admiration roman empire legacy hitler praised post roman era achievements northern italians nazis ascribed great achievements post roman era northern italians presence racial heritage people heritage ancestors nazi alfred recognizing men history nazi official wrote italian scientist clearly deep roots blonde hair blue eyes long face nazis claimed aside people soul inhabit non body hitler emphasized role influence northern italy stating art northern italy pure german nazi scholars viewed minorities northern italy racially historically culturally world plans incorporate northern italy greater influenced collapse nazi regime ally fascist regime italy hitler praised roman civilization roman military discipline emphasized connection advancement germans romans particular hitler praised romans early tribal germans noted hero defeated roman army battle forest honoured given rank romans learned romans gave germans opportunity disciplined soldiers fellow nazi alfred regarded fall roman empire fault roman emperor grant citizenship hitler blamed fall jewish influence christianity imposed paul hitler claims twisted faith opposed faith promoted equality men spread christianity form ruined rome nazi regime regards northern italy influenced regime relations italian government particularly fascist regime hitler deeply admired emulated hitler emphasized racial ally germans alpine racial heritage hitler regarded seriously contaminated blood mediterranean race nazis negative views fascist regime nazi party leader extreme negative views claiming probably jew jewish movement addition perception germany italians racially weak corrupt bad soldiers perceived demonstrated battle world war powers established treaty versailles people given italy abandonment triple alliance germany austria-hungary world war join hitler responded review italy germany austria-hungary world war saying consequence imperial germany decision focus attention austro hungarian empire ignoring promising italy region south place claims conflict german nationalism italian nationalism leading founders italian nationalism claimed german speaking south population fact population roman origin needed liberated returned rightful culture defeat austria-hungary world war peace treaty designated italy south border austria pass italian fascist regime pursued south restricting use german language promoting italian language promoting mass migration italians region encouraged mainly german speaking population clear region south italy hitler adopted position hitler declared concerns rights germans south italian sovereignty non issue considering advantages gained german italian alliance fascist regime hitler clear opposed having war italy sake obtaining south position hitler abandoning german land claims south produced nazi members late 1920s found difficult accept position hitler public visit rome declared commitment existing border germany included austria italy pass hitler resolved problem self determination germans maintaining pass frontier agreement german south given choice italian culture leave south germany opted leave germany king victor iii kingdom italy removed power hitler july preparing expected abandonment axis allies kingdom italy new government preparing exact retribution expected betrayal planning partition italy particular hitler considering creation state northern italy incorporated greater south venice annexed directly germany aftermath kingdom italy abandonment axis september germany seized facto incorporated italian territories direct control kingdom italy allies september according personal diary september wrote hitler expressed italian german border extend region included autonomous form benefit post war influx german tourists time italy verge declaring armistice allies declared northern italy italian speaking switzerland bound eventually included greater germany austrian possession hands italians infidelity lost claim national state modern type rescue establishment italian social republic spite urging local german officials hitler refused officially annex south instead decided hold official sovereignty territories forbade measures impression official annexation south practice territory south boundaries defined germany included trent facto incorporated germany administered region identified germany included facto incorporated administered friedrich order dated september hitler establishment operational zones northern italy stretch way french border unlike zones immediately receive high commissioners civilian advisors military regions commander exercise power behalf army group operation zone located pass contain wholly italian provinces parts provinces zone encompass areas west incorporate province province presumably provinces autumn onward members associated asserted archaeological evidence ancient architecture proved presence peoples region south era including style architecture significance ancient influence italy importantly south past present historic racial cultural circumstances national soil expected participation colonization eastern_europe despite pursued aim pan unification primary goal nazi_germany territorial acquire sufficient living space eastern_europe master race primary objective aim transform germany complete economic end result state continent wide german europe accomplished territorial base german state expansion german population wholesale indigenous slavic inhabitants baltic inhabitants german colonization russia million men need accomplish task find quickly think come germany scandinavia western countries america shall longer years ukraine home million inhabitants natives perceived racial worth nazi leadership enthusiastic prospect recruiting people countries settle territories slavic inhabitants driven racial planners partly motivated studies indicated germany likely able recruit colonial settlers eastern territories country groups required hitler insisted german settlers dominate newly areas original plan settlement settle dutch addition germans unsuccessful later development german invasion soviet_union june hitler pan plan began fade idea abandoned foreign volunteers increasingly non origin especially battle organization leadership proposition greater empire gave way concept european_union self governing states unified german common enemy eventual nucleus common european army state represented national contingent gave concession views held pan vision speech given april officers divisions das expect renounce nation expect german expect subordinate national ideal greater racial historical ideal


scottish religion eighteenth century scottish religion eighteenth century includes forms religious organisation belief scotland eighteenth century period saw beginnings church scotland created reformation established fully presbyterian basis glorious revolution prompted issues government patronage reflected wider division moderate party legal right lay patrons present choice local ecclesiastical led minor church known headed figures including led creation series churches second led foundation independent relief church established reformed presbyterian church remaining largely separate religious political debate independent churches england established seventeenth century managed endure eighteenth century baptist established middle century scotland initially appeared fertile ground failed expand quickly great_britain ireland number minor scottish developed retained supporters civil wars changes regime seventeenth century gave support rebellions half early eighteenth century suffered decline fortunes highlands lack speaking clergy undermined missionary efforts established church later eighteenth century saw success owing efforts missionaries disruption traditional society catholicism reduced fringes country particularly speaking areas highlands islands conditions grew worse catholics rebellions catholicism reduced little poorly run mission evangelical revival reaching peak movement benefited churches gained recruits considerable control lives people major role poor law schools morals population strict vital sermon seen central participation congregation singing communion central occasion church conducted year taking week festivals communion season second half century series reforms church music connected choir movement installed organs hired musicians following practice english parish churches catholic worship deliberately low key musical accompaniment prohibited church scotland religious settlement glorious revolution adopted legal forms instituted fully presbyterian doctrine based westminster confession faith early eighteenth century saw growth praying societies supplemented services established communal approval parish ministers members generally drawn lower ranks local society outlook varied disliked preaching simply emphasised law understood gospel new law mere morality sought gospel stressed grace god sense set confession faith disliked role lay patronage theological division tendencies highlighted controversy modern mid seventeenth century book perspective reprinted promoted thomas boston book condemned general_assembly giving widespread publicity decision appealed men upheld supporters expelled denied advancement controversy continued growing divisions moderate party emphasised authority bible traditions historical documents tended stress theology established hierarchy attempted raise social status clergy gained general_assembly church led historian william principal university edinburgh successor george hill professor university evangelical leaders included john john alexander important figure john minister old church edinburgh years friend colleague orthodox doctrine enlightenment supported reforms religious practice popular preacher corresponded religious leaders countries including new_england theologian edwards ideas major influence movement scotland judged number books printed scotland boston popular theological writer movement eighteenth century saw beginnings church scotland foundation reformation prompted issues government patronage reflected wider division moderate party fears acceptance enlightenment ideas ecclesiastical patronage right local appoint ministers parish abolished glorious revolution reintroduced patronage act resulting frequent protests right appoint cases patron effort fill vacancy result group ministers led minister formed distinct associate forced movement initially small petitioned praying societies requests preaching leading rapid growth founding ministers congregations established widely spread country mainly middle classes major towns soon split issue oath administered rebellion anti measure implied church scotland true church led maintained oath taken anti faction led andrew established separate general associate embroiled old new light controversy old continued follow principles new focused personal salvation considered binding connection church state second break prompted issues patronage minister thomas deposed general_assembly refused participate minister parish opposed appointment joined ministers held meeting relief evangelical doctrine relief church maintain true church stated communion maintained contact like associate movement initially small benefited evangelical revival later eighteenth century helped expand rapidly retained supporters civil wars regime changes seventeenth century bishops abolished settlement followed glorious revolution non right william mary monarchs continued clergy clergy king issued acts allowing accepted king retain took advantage offer new meeting houses sprang continued follow clergy generally prospered queen anne hardened given gave support rebellion suffered decline fortunes number clergy deprived meeting houses prayers offered king george closed surviving bishop died appointed particular episcopal rising round restrictions act act number clergy congregations declined church sustained important nobles gentlemen ranks period saw establishment qualified worship conducted according english book common prayer congregations led priests ordained bishops church_of_england church ireland willing pray drew congregations english people living scotland scottish bound cause forms existed charles edward stuart died exile unwilling recognise brother henry stuart cardinal roman_catholic_church heir non elected recognise house offer allegiance george iii repeal laws qualified scotland society people known leaders accepted restoration remained outside established revolution settlement refusing rejoin remaining ministers entered church scotland years persecution numbers largely confined southwest country period minister unable form new clergy joined church order avoid extinction having obtained services second minister church established reformed presbyterian church roughly number remained separate denominations political involvement refusing vote independent churches mid seventeenth century extension commonwealth brought number independent movements scotland collapse withdrawal army restoration numbers remained small eighteenth century largely confined large cities northwest baptist churches founded towns commonwealth largely consisting english soldiers families english occupation ended scottish baptist church usually thought founded william occasionally individual presbyterian ministers led congregations existing churches independent churches leading establishment isolated churches groups like series evangelical enterprises undertaken brothers james robert period led foundation sunday schools day schools parts highlands islands helped strengthen baptist churches brothers later embraced adult baptism congregations divided traditions scotland appeared fertile ground visits figures john george attracted large audiences methodist societies established textile fishing villages particularly enjoy greatest relative popularity members large cities glasgow accounting cent members growth movement pace united_kingdom average annual increase cent compared nearly nearly cent england wales ireland respectively reasons relative failure scotland debated historians scots preferred ordained clergy lay common granted concession membership doubled years rescinded death adherence reduced middle classes seen lay positions church carrying status offices like elder presbyterian churches argued conflicted dominant scotland place occupied kingdom taken relief churches seen scots minor series movements eighteenth century saw formation number minor included formed church scotland minister john expelled parish objections state intervention affairs advocated strong form biblical son law robert known founded number churches scotland sect expanded england united_states closely involved followers industrialist david broke formed old known preached combination industry faith led found cotton mill new contribute socialism associated son law robert owen formed john edinburgh prominent followers moral philosopher campbell espoused rigorous form pre destination insisted biblical based preaching having rejected general_assembly founded independent churches scotland england taking people mentioned acts death followers joined cult broke away relief church hugh white minister declared special saint identified woman described revelation attracted followers having expelled local formed community farm known new sect collapsed death minor include reported group separated discipline group area called alleged sworn minister later absorbed church catholicism eighteenth century catholicism reduced fringes country particularly speaking areas highlands islands numbers probably reduced seventeenth century organisation deteriorated pope innocent appointed thomas vicar mission country organised districts thirty catholic clergy conditions grew worse catholics rebellions catholicism reduced little poorly run mission divided highlands bishop attempts found seminary highlands financial issues clergy entered country secretly services illegal maintained estimated mainly north west number probably end century probably fallen quarter emigration relief act designed bring measure catholics campaign led lord george gordon resulted anti catholic riots scotland known gordon riots meant limited england provisions roman catholic relief act allowed freedom worship catholics took oath allegiance extended scotland lowland district seminary transferred near serve entire country secretly funded government concerned scale emigration highland catholics protestant missions long triumph church scotland form christianity infused folk beliefs practices region lack speaking clergy undermined missionary efforts scottish society promotion christian knowledge founded royal charter aim partly religious partly cultural intending wear learn people english tongue running schools edges highlands difficulty promoting english speaking region eventually led change policy sanctioned printing bible english text facing pages government began seriously promote began grant general_assembly known royal bounty went ministers probably significant spread lay met people read scripture joined prayers later important evangelical revival evangelical revival later scotland experienced version evangelical revival affected england wales north_america protestant congregations usually specific locations experienced intense enthusiasm renewed commitment rapid expansion seen easter ross highlands famously work near glasgow intense religious activity culminated crowd gathering hear english preacher george scotland visited times john english founder new converts relatively young lower groups society small tenants servants relatively high proportion unmarried women seen reaction nature established dominated local unlike revival scotland rise major religious movement benefited churches revival particularly significant highlands lack clear structure led pattern spiritual enthusiasm recession renewal instigated lay known men occasionally emerge charismatic leaders revival left legacy strict local identity late eighteenth century scotland gained organisations associated revival england including sunday schools mission schools ragged schools bible societies improvement classes revival occurred time transformation highlands society linked popular protest patronage identified interests classes laid ground great disruption mid nineteenth century leading taking control general_assembly highlands joining free church scotland large numbers popular religion beginning century considerable control lives people major role poor law schools administered parishes morals population particularly sexual offences adultery necessary moral offenders purge scandal involved standing sitting congregation sundays enduring minister special near pulpit purpose places subject expected wear session increasingly administered private particularly men social 1820s poor public early century particularly attempted suppress dancing events like penny weddings secular tunes played oppression secular music dancing began ease strict vital presbyterian culture members churches sunday walk meeting house thirty miles marked intensity dissent strict keeping mark true membership fast days important particularly culture involve actual focused established year presbyterian worship sermon hours long seen central meaning services tended character bible readings participation congregation musical singing late seventeenth century common practice lining sang read line repeated congregation second quarter eighteenth century argued abandoned favour practice singing stanza stanza innovations linked choir movement included setting schools teach new tunes singing parts communion central occasion church conducted year taking week festivals communion season examined minister elders proving knowledge shorter given communion entitled ceremony long tables set middle church sat receive communion ministers refused neglected parish communion largely assemblies carried open air combining parishes large gatherings discouraged general_assembly continued mixed secular activities commemorated robert burns poem holy fair occasions evangelical meetings qualified english book common prayer installed organs hired musicians following practice english parish churches singing non worship branches united non branch soon absorbed musical traditions qualified churches catholic worship deliberately low key usually private houses domestic buildings adapted services surviving period generally simply furnished typical worship consisted sermon long vernacular prayers low mass latin musical accompaniment prohibited nineteenth century organs began introduced

Scottish religion in the eighteenth century


polish october polish october known october polish marked change politics poland second half social scientists term polish october revolution dramatic hungarian revolution deeper impact eastern soviet_union relationship satellite states eastern_europe people republic poland year transition international situation significantly weakened hard line faction poland polish communist leader died march years died successor soviet_union helm denounced february protests workers june highlighted people dissatisfaction situation october events set motion resulted rise power faction led brief tense negotiations soviets gave permission stay control concessions resulting greater autonomy polish government polish citizens meant temporary eventually hopes proven false regime oppressive nonetheless era poland ended development caused factors death joseph resulting prompted debates fundamental issues entire eastern speech personality cult consequences wide implications soviet_union communist countries poland addition criticism cult personality popular topics debate centered right steer independent course local national socialism instead following soviet model detail example members polish united workers party criticized execution older polish communists great purge factors contributed poland included widely publicized high ranking polish intelligence agent resulting weakening ministry public security poland polish secret police addition unexpected death moscow secretary known poland led increased rivalry factions polish communists growing tensions polish society culminating protests known june decided speech wide circulation poland unique decision eastern successors seized condemnation policy perfect opportunity prove democratic credentials willingness break legacy late march early april thousands party meetings held poland blessing tens thousands took meetings plan succeeded expected period political atmosphere poland shifted questions increasingly asked taboo subjects like polish communists legitimacy responsibility crimes arrest increasingly popular issues soviet polish relations continued soviet military presence poland pact massacre soviet failure support warsaw uprising new party congress demanded greater role guarantee personal liberties alarmed process party decided speech general public june insurrection workers protest shortages food consumer goods bad housing decline real income trade relations soviet_union poor management economy polish government initially responded branding agents people protesters killed hundreds wounded arrested soon party hierarchy recognized riots awakened nationalist movement reversed opinion wages raised percent economic political change promised protests largest unique poland social protest resumed fury autumn november destroyed militia headquarters radio equipment december crowd attacked public buildings including prison state prosecutor office militia headquarters soviet people country criticized security police asked dissolution public security committee punishment demands exposure secret police collaborators suspected collaborators frequently assaulted crowds gathered outside secret police headquarters shouted hostile broke windows public meetings demonstrations street marches took place hundreds towns poland meetings usually organized local party cells local authorities trade unions official organizers tended lose control political content exceeded original agenda crowds took radical action cases resulting unrest streets clashes police law enforcement agencies street activity peaked immediately october viii meeting central committee continued late year concurrent religious clerical sentiment took place hymns sung release suppressed bishops demanded nationalism cement mass dominated public meetings people sang national anthem patriotic songs demanded return white eagle flag traditional army uniforms attacked poland dependence soviet_union military demanded return eastern territories explanation massacre elimination russian language educational curriculum days october monuments red army despised poles attacked red stars pulled roofs houses factories schools red flags destroyed portraits military commander charge operations drove nazi german forces poland attempts force entries homes soviet citizens lower home soviet troops unlike protesters hungary activists limited political demands behavior purely opposed communist system communist authorities openly challenged june prevalent june uprising want free elections communist dictatorship party prevalent party committees attacked political change october edward secretary party polish prime minister proposed election secretary party 8th meeting moderate secretary party ousted imprisoned right wing nationalist accusation proved acceptable factions polish communists arguing system realized needed compromise insisted given real power implement reforms specific condition set soviet marshal mobilized troops workers removed polish defense ministry agreed majority polish leadership backed army internal security corps brought associates designated secretary untouched scandals acceptable polish masses viewed suspicion moscow soviet leadership viewed events poland alarm underway soviet_union soviet leadership view democratic reform polish public desired acceptable solution moscow belief trends democracy country lead destruction communism ruin soviet influence region eastern_europe created fence soviet communism western democracy break wall end soviet power soviet_union worried solely political implications reform economic implications economically soviet_union heavily invested poland soviet_union financed polish industry poland main trading partner soviet_union directed products poland manufactured soviets bought products exported goods poland longer produced country polish soviet economies heavily integrated reform political economic countries inevitably great impact poland connected soviet_union economically thought independent polish economy unrealistic country forced rely soviets long time breaking away completely prove disastrous countries held crucial power different poland threaten soviet strength power eastern_europe politically soviet_union essentially destroy polish economy reform polish government soviet demands soviets concurrently vital partner high level delegation soviet central committee flew poland attempt block removing pro soviet members mainly soviet polish marshal soviet delegation led included negotiations tense polish soviet troops alert engaged manoeuvres threats polish leadership clear face communism longer soviet_union directly control polish people speech worked soviet_union placed moscow friendly poles russians important political positions poland denouncing speech position forcing russians polish leadership poles recognizing cries public needed soviets direct control raise demands point endangered relationships demanded increased autonomy permission carry reforms soviets reforms internal matters poland intention abandoning communism treaties soviet_union soviets pressured chinese accommodate polish demands increasingly distracted events hungary eventually alter basic foundations polish communism withdrew invasion threat agreed compromise confirmed new position leadership stance contributed relatively moderate political dimension social protest october crucial impacts nationalism nationalist emotions spurred social protest june october threat soviet invasion supporters transformed social image polish communists june treated servants alien anti polish interests excluded national community october nation opposing soviet domination enthusiastically supported great majority society primarily communist leader leader nation resisting soviet demands embodied national longing independence sovereignty anti soviet thousands meetings home russians long live want free poland anti soviet image obviously mythical exaggerated justified popular imagination anti line years subsequent polish communists found unexpectedly head national liberation movement enthusiastic public support offered contributed communist rule poland incorporated mass nationalist anti soviet feelings prevailing power structures hungary social protest destroyed political system poland absorbed aftermath information events poland reached people hungary radio free europe news commentary services october october student demonstration support asking similar reforms hungary events sparked hungarian revolution events hungarian november helped distract soviets ensure success polish october public speeches criticized hardships promised reforms country received enthusiasm polish society mid november secured substantive gains negotiations soviets cancellation poland existing debts new trade terms abandonment unpopular soviet imposed polish agriculture permission policy roman_catholic_church december status soviet forces poland northern group forces finally regulated aftermath october events soviet advisers left poland signaling moscow willing grant polish communists slightly independence polish government victims era political prisoners set free cardinal polish legislative election liberal considered free western standards want reject communism soviet domination steer poland increased independence polish national communism restricted ambitions recognized soviets limited polish revolution succeeded radical hungarian norman davies sums effect transformation poland puppet state client state pearson similarly states poland changed soviet colony dominion pledge follow polish road socialism harmony national traditions preferences caused poles interpret dramatic confrontation sign end dictatorship sight initially popular reforms referred time gradually opposition soviet pressures hopes major political change poland replaced growing 1960s end failed goal salvage communism socialism poland society liberal seen instance achievements polish film school creation controversial movies ashes diamonds civil society started develop half hearted satisfy polish public time march events long increasing economic problems popular discontent end removing power ironically situation similar protests propelled power nonetheless social scientists frank refer changes revolution dramatic hungarian counterpart profound impact eastern ash calls polish october significant event post war history poland rise solidarity history professor claims effects polish october eastern disputed set course eventual fall communism people republic poland


article treaty versailles article known war guilt clause opening article section treaty versailles ended world war german empire allied associated powers article use word guilt served legal basis germany pay article controversial points treaty specified allied associated governments germany accepts responsibility germany allies causing loss damage allied associated governments nationals subjected consequence war imposed aggression germany allies germans viewed clause national humiliation forcing germany accept responsibility causing war german politicians vocal opposition article attempt generate international sympathy german historians worked undermine article objective entire treaty allied leaders surprised german reaction saw article necessary legal basis extract compensation germany article changed included treaties signed germany allies view clause disdain germans american diplomat john foster authors article later regretted wording believing aggravated german people historical consensus responsibility guilt war attached article clause allow legal basis laid payments historians highlighted damage created clause caused anger resentment german population background june heir throne austria-hungary ferdinand assassinated serbian nationalism caused diplomatic crisis resulting austria-hungary declaring war serbia sparking world war variety reasons weeks major powers europe divided alliances known central powers triple war conflict progressed additional countries globe drawn conflict sides fighting rage europe middle_east africa asia years january united_states president wilson issued statement known fourteen points speech called germany withdraw territory occupied creation polish state europe borders ethnic lines formation league nations autumn central powers began collapse german military decisively defeated western home navy prompting uprisings germany known german revolution german government attempted obtain peace settlement based fourteen points maintained basis surrendered following negotiations allied powers germany signed armistice came effect november german forces positioned france belgium january paris peace conference began conference aimed establish peace war establish post war world treaty versailles formed conference dealt solely germany treaty signed conference named suburb paris signed delegates nations participated negotiations representatives germany barred attending nominally fears german delegation attempt play country influence proceedings writing article americans british french differed issue settlement western fought france countryside heavily fighting france region north east laid waste german retreat hundreds mines factories destroyed railroads bridges villages prime minister france thought appropriate peace required germany pay damage caused saw means ensure germany threaten france weaken german ability compete france reconstruction costs countries belgium directly affected war british prime minister david lloyd george opposed harsh favour settlement german economy remain viable economic power british trading partner furthermore argued include war disabled veterans paid war reserve larger share british_empire wilson opposed positions adamant imposed germany peace conference commission responsibility authors war enforcement penalties established examine background war commission reasoned war central powers result acts deliberately committed concluding germany austria-hungary deliberately worked defeat proposals powers repeated efforts avoid war conclusion duly incorporated treaty versailles led lloyd george inclusion statement germany total liability left wilson odds leaders conference instead proposed repetition note sent united_states secretary state robert german government november stating allied governments understand compensation germany damage civilian population allies property aggression germany actual wording article chosen american diplomats norman davis john foster davies produced compromise anglo french american positions wording article reflect germany morally pay war costs possibly afford asked pay civilian damages article germany accepted responsibility germany allies damages resulting world war served legal basis articles following chapter germany pay compensation limited civilian damages similar clauses slight modification wording present peace treaties signed members central powers reaction german interpretation foreign minister count von headed strong german peace delegation departed berlin april anticipating peace talks soon start allied powers negotiate settlement earlier february year informed national assembly germany pay devastation caused war pay actual war costs german government taken position elevate question war guilt informed negotiations german delegation received conditions peace days reply following drafting treaty german allied met treaty versailles handed translated response issued meeting stated know intensity hatred meets heard passionate demand shall pay guilty shall punished proceeded deny germany solely responsible war following meeting german delegation retired translate word document soon delegation realized terms peace agreed accept revision proceeded send allied counterparts message message attacking treaty june having disregarded repeated explicit decisions government declared article germany accept responsibility war force max advisor german delegation agreed challenging allies issue war guilt preferred reject treaty submit called rotten peace june allied powers demanded germany sign treaty seven days face resumption hostilities german government divided sign reject peace treaty june chancellor resigned sign treaty followed members government leaving germany cabinet peace delegation advised field marshal paul von germany condition resume war president friedrich new chancellor recommended national assembly treaty assembly large majority informed nineteen minutes deadline expired germany signed peace treaty june initially article correctly translated stating germany accepts responsibility germany allies causing loss damage german government edition read germany admits germany allies authors war responsible losses damages germans felt country signed away honor prevailing belief humiliation article seen overall injustice historian commented despite public outrage german government officials aware germany position matter nearly favorable imperial government led german public believe war allied opinion article allied delegation initially thought article mundane addition treaty intended limit german liability regard surprised german protests rebuffed allegations arguing legal interpretation article correct matter political question lloyd george commented english public like french public thinks germans acknowledge obligation compensate consequences aggression come question germany capacity pay think unable pay document requires prior american entry war wilson called peace reconciliation germany dubbed peace victory wartime speeches rejected earlier notions took increasingly stance germany following war september public campaign rally american support treaty versailles wilson commented treaty seeks punish greatest history wrong germany sought world civilization ought weak purpose regard application punishment attempted thing pay attempt regardless rhetoric american position create balanced treaty gordon secretary edward house wilson advisers sent copy clause state department stated note president principles protected clause historian william commented initially united_states diplomats believed devised brilliant solution dilemma british french allied public opinion fact allied leaders aware concerns surrounding german willingness pay disappointment follow economic adviser wilson emphasized point stated useful adopting unusual method fixing definite sum tends explain prepares public mind disappointment actually secured stated surprised article fact considered historical judgement war guilt noted profound significance article came accident design took personally treaty versailles failed intentions creating lasting peace believed treaty causes second world war united_states secretary state discussion soviet_union regards german commented efforts bankrupt nation merely people courage break bonds imposed acts prohibited impact compensation demanded defeated party common feature peace treaties financial burden treaty versailles labelled distinguished settlements usually known intended reconstruction compensation families war marks wrote article designed lay legal basis paid article established unlimited theoretical liability germany pay following article fact narrowed german responsibility civilian damages final figure established based allied assessment german capacity pay basis allied claims london schedule payments established liability combined central powers billion gold marks figure germany required pay billion gold marks billion smaller previously offered terms peace unpopular strained german economy ended germany paid fewer billion gold marks commission bank international settlements gave total german payment gold marks historian estimated germany paid billion gold marks wrote sum cent german national income stephen places figure average cent national income cash kind making total transfer equal cent national income period wrote paid towns rebuilt mines reopened paid burden repairs shifted german economy damaged economies effects german political opinion domestic german opposition article held created psychological political burden post war republic german politicians seeking international sympathy use article propaganda value convincing read treaties article implied war guilt german historians subsequently attempted ignore validity clause found ready audience writers france britain united_states objective politicians historians prove germany solely guilty causing war guilt legal requirement pay disappear subject question germany guilt war guilt question major theme adolf_hitler political career united_states senator argued failure revise article factor hitler rise power view held historians tony john wright wrote war guilt clause demands easier hitler gain power germany despite views historical consensus article treaty cause rise unconnected rise great depression led gaining greater electoral popularity office wrote path versailles hitler hitler takeover power inevitable germans choice decided path words hitler victory result versailles historical assessment robert stanford_university wrote german accusations article assigning war guilt ill founded mistaken article assumption liability pay damages admission war guilt compared man pay cost motor accident plea guilty entered accused criminal wrote absurd charge articles treaty political meaning legal interpretation stand concluded german opposition based text legal validity whatsoever germany signed outspoken influential critic article concluded europe shared blame war germany intention launching general european war commented passion moment allied powers failed realize admission guilt prove bitter resentment german minds concluded german men learning set work demonstrate country believing established fabric treaty collapse wrote article gave rise unfortunate controversy unfortunate served raise false issue wrote german inter war argument rested responsibility break war guilt legal requirement pay disappear published origins war concluded germany primarily responsible outbreak war work new debate culmination research phase war guilt question issue came fischer germany aims world war war destroyed consensus shared responsibility world war placed blame firmly shoulders elite 1970s work emerged new origins world war 1980s james led new wave world war research concluding origins world war complex varied december germany decided war marks examined clauses treaty wrote criticized war guilt clause article designed lay legal basis fact makes mention war guilt specified germany pay damages caused war imposed allies germany committed act aggression belgium dispute technically britain entered war french troops entered belgium honor legal obligation defend belgium treaty london germany openly acknowledged responsibility regard belgium august marks wrote clause incorporated treaties austria hungary interpreted declaration war guilt wrote austria hungary paid attention aspect draft treaty marks wrote german foreign office supported military civilian focused article hoping german responsibility war entire treaty collapse wrote pragmatic requirements influenced shaping misunderstood article reflected presumed legal necessity define german responsibility war order specify limit obligations bell wrote despite article term guilt intend convey moral judgement germany article universally known war guilt clause treaty margaret wrote german public interpretation article fault war germany allies came object particular germany cause uneasy allies allies expected hostile reaction thought difficulty clauses stephen wrote term war guilt slight unfortunate lawyers term guilt primarily criminal liability responsibility germany envisaged versailles treaty civil nature comparable obligation classical war theory wrote article honest reflection treaty writers beliefs including clause peace settlement wrote seen american lawyer clever attempt limit actual german financial responsibility buying french politicians public piece paper article easily open sore wrote national disgrace felt article defeat revolution establishment democracy fostered climate counter revolutionary set ideas gain wide currency enhanced creation mood extreme nationalist ideas gain wider audience hold argues forcing admission war guilt versailles healing instigated resentment contributed rise norman davies wrote article invited germany accept sole guilt preceding war wrote article influence went far discussion war guilt refusing acknowledge germany war guilt new german government old order importantly failed old regime undermined claim post revolutionary germany historic new democratic beginning credit peace conference


greece greece civilization phase bronze age ancient greece represents advanced civilization mainland greece states urban organization works art writing system centers power emerged notable athens central greece prominent site culture era owes influenced settlements appeared macedonia islands sea coast asia minor levant cyprus italy greeks introduced innovations fields engineering architecture military infrastructure trade vast areas mediterranean essential economy script linear offers written records greek language religion included deities found olympic greece dominated warrior elite society consisted network palace states developed rigid political social economic systems head societies king known greece perished collapse bronze age culture eastern mediterranean followed called greek dark ages transitional period leading archaic greece significant shifts occurred palace centralized centralized forms socio economic organization including extensive use iron theories proposed end civilization invasion activities connected sea peoples additional theories natural disasters climatic changes suggested period historical setting ancient greek literature mythology including epic cycle chronology bronze age mainland greece generally termed period modern archaeologists greek greece period divided early period time prosperity use metals growth technology economy social organization middle period faced slower pace development evolution type graves finally late period roughly greece late period divided coincide early period greece period expansion decline collapse civilization transition period bronze age iron age greece known sub identity linear script writing system adapted use greek language late bronze age demonstrated continuity greek speech 2nd millennium 8th century new script emerged revealed culture connected populations resided greek peninsula end cultural period collective terms inhabitants greece homer 8th century epic reference war supposed happened late 13th early 12th century coalition small greek states king besieged walled city homer refer names appear passed time use time homer applied collective terms isolated reference linear records crete dated probably refers state greek mainland egyptian records mention land time circa reign iii land geographically defined inscription reign iii circa number cities mentioned cover largest southern mainland greece cities identified certainty greek mythical dynasty ruled region greek people homer official records bronze age empire references mention country named recent scholarship based evidence new interpretations inscriptions recent surveys archaeological evidence contacts period concludes term reference world land term broader texts possibly referring regions settled regions direct political control similar 12th century egyptian inscriptions commonly identified mentioned group sea people history shaft grave era civilization originated evolved society culture early middle period mainland greece influences crete end middle bronze age significant increase population number settlements occurred number centers power emerged southern mainland greece dominated warrior elite society typical dwellings era early type buildings complex structures classified later palaces number sites defensive walls erected new types imposing ones unearthed display great variety luxurious objects types shaft grave common form elite burial feature gave early period greece elite deceased males usually laid gold masks armor females gold crowns clothes gold ornaments royal shaft graves particular grave circles elevation native greek speaking royal dynasty economic power depended long distance sea trade period centers witnessed increased contacts outside world especially centers island crete presence appears depicted island possibly displays warriors helmets feature typical warfare early 15th century commerce intensified pottery reaching western coast asia minor including cyprus lebanon palestine egypt end shaft grave era new imposing type elite burial emerged large circular burial chambers high vaulted roofs straight entry passage lined stone era eruption according archaeological data occurred resulted decline civilization crete turn events gave opportunity spread influence control crete including islands reaching far rhodes dominant power region marking beginning era greek common highly uniform culture spread mainland greece early 14th century trade began advantage new trading opportunities mediterranean collapse trade routes expanded reaching cyprus near east italy spain time palace yielded earliest records greek linear script based previous linear use new script spread mainland greece offers valuable insight administrative network centers unearthed records political reconstruction bronze age greece excavations southwest asia minor indicate existence settlement replacing previous installations site sizable prosperous center 12th century apart archaeological evidence attested records indicate important base activity asia minor presence reached adjacent sites imposing palaces built main centers mainland earliest palace structures type buildings palaces proper fortifications erected nearby additional palaces built athens central greece northernmost center crete center complex intervened number adjustments including addition throne room centers based rigid network bureaucracy administrative classified sections offices according work trades head society king known linear greek terms powers centered main landlord spiritual military leader time entrepreneur trader aided network high officials involvement asia minor presence western mentioned accounts generally accepted translation greece greek precise geographical definition term drawn texts time kings evidently capable dealing counterparts diplomatic military level activity interfere affairs support anti uprisings local vassal rulers king agents extension influence records mention military activities possible way writing greek attacked western later anti rebellion headed vassal state received support appears control number islands impression supported archaeological evidence reign king iii king recognized great king equal status contemporary great bronze age rulers kings egypt time anti movement led broke supported king caused major unrest region invaded island passed control confrontation provide historical foundation war tradition result instability king initiated correspondence order convince counterpart restore peace region record mentions certain possible translation greek brother king collapse initial decline revival wave destruction witnessed centers mainland greece reasons identified archaeologists burned ground year slightly later nearby shared fate fortifications deserted number buildings surrounding citadel attacked burned incidents appear prompted massive strengthening expansion fortifications sites cases arrangements creation subterranean passages led underground athens expanded defences new style walls extension program doubled fortified area citadel phase extension belongs impressive lion gate main entrance appears wave destruction short lived revival culture followed greece continues mentioned international affairs particularly records king reported involved anti uprising western contemporary account reports ships avoid trade imposed general second half 13th century trade decline eastern mediterranean probably unstable political environment final collapse defence measures appear prevented final destruction collapse states second destruction struck shortly event marked end major power site smaller scale palace southwestern faced destruction linear archives found preserved heat fire destroyed palace mention hasty defence preparations imminent attack giving detail attacking force result turmoil specific regions mainland greece witnessed dramatic population decrease especially refugees migrated cyprus coast regions edge world prospered islands northwestern parts number islands athens appears avoided destruction collapse reasons led end culture debated scholars present satisfactory explanation collapse palace systems common theories population movement internal conflict attributes destruction sites invaders hypothesis invasion known ancient greek tradition led end greece supported sporadic archaeological evidence new types particular graves use new dialect greek appears moved southward gradually number years devastated territory managed establish centers new type appeared called attributed invaders north hand collapse greece activity sea peoples eastern mediterranean caused widespread destruction levant finally defeated iii ethnic groups comprised people appears linked inscriptions alternative scenarios propose fall greece result internal disturbances led warfare states civil unrest number states result strict social system ideology general obscure archaeological picture century greece continuing controversy scholars impoverished societies succeeded states newcomers populations resided greece recent archaeological findings tend favor scenario additional theories concerning natural factors climate change earthquakes proposed period following end greece generally termed greek dark ages political organization states states centrally organized palace operating recorded ancient greek literature mythology catalogue ships confirmed discoveries modern archaeologists kingdom governed palace exercised control industries realm territory divided sub regions headed provincial center province divided smaller districts number palaces fortifications appear wider kingdom instance located region belonged state nearby palace appeared ruled territory times size states bronze age greece territory included adjacent centers including ruled member ruling dynasty unearthed linear texts reconstruction political landscape greece support existence larger state hand contemporary egyptian records suggest presence single state great king alternatively based archaeological data sort confederation number states appears possible kind united political entity existed dominant center probably located state probable center power society administration village constituted foundation bronze age political culture greece vast majority preserved linear records deals administrative issues impression administration highly uniform use language terminology system taxation distribution considering sense archive best preserved world general taken representative state ruled king role religious military judicial covered virtually aspects life religious offerings distribution goods troops leader people role appears mainly religious activities possibly overlap usually seen second command head military aristocracy known companions followers land possessed usually instance person appears written record modern scholars regard probably king number local officials positioned appear charge districts governor deputy takes care appointed probably charge council elders chaired greek society king refers communal officials general society appears divided groups free men king entourage conducted administrative duties palace people watched royal agents obliged perform duties pay taxes palace evolved palace setting found high officials probably lived vast residences found proximity palaces tied work palace necessarily better members farmers merchants lower social ladder found slaves recorded texts working palace specific deities economy organization economy given pre monetary nature focused goods labor central administration preserved linear records indicate palaces closely monitoring variety industries organization land management rations given dependent personnel palaces maintained extensive control areas production careful control acquisition distribution palace industries produced goods instance record sheep grazing central crete quantity expected wool sheep offspring wool allocated archives display specialized workforce worker belonged precise category assigned specific task stages production notably control resources appears highly selective spatial terms terms different industries managed sectors like production oil bronze materials directly monitored palace production indirectly monitored regional transactions palaces recorded occasions large scale infrastructure centers organized workforce resources construction large scale projects fields agriculture industry magnitude projects indicates result combined efforts multiple centers notable drainage system basin building large dam outside drainage swamp valley construction capable large bronze age era vessels found like case harbor noticeable economy featured large scale manufacturing testified extent workshop complexes discovered largest known date recent hydraulic installations found athens produced sails ropes export famous project era network roads appears facilitated deployment troops example remnants road appears defensive wall era saw infrastructure engineering greece appears limited plain trade trade vast areas mediterranean essential economy greece palaces imported raw materials metals ivory glass exported processed objects materials addition local products oil wine wool pottery international trade time conducted independent merchants based archaeological findings middle_east particular physical artifacts references inscriptions wall paintings appears greeks achieved strong commercial cultural interaction bronze age people living region 14th century coast southern displays established trade routes supplied raw materials items economy greece needed copper tin production bronze products chief export olive oil multi purpose product cyprus appears principal station greece middle_east based considerable greater quantities goods found hand trade lands central appears limited trade attested trade routes expanded shores black_sea swords found far away georgia eastern black_sea coast commercial interaction intense italian peninsula western mediterranean products especially pottery exported southern italy sicily islands products penetrated southern spain sporadic objects manufacture found distant locations like central europe bavaria germany amber object inscribed linear symbols unearthed bronze double axes objects dating 13th century found ireland cornwall england religion temples rare archaeological sites especially monumental structures absent center exception center later 13th century development small identified number sacred located near linear records mention number dedicated variety deities indicate religious festivities including offerings written records mention priests responsible specific temples especially prominent figures society role women religious festivities important crete included found classical greece difficult claim deities characteristics responsibilities attributed later periods general world indications local deities sites particular crete religion reflected archaeological evidence psi found late bronze age greece linear occupied place privilege deity connected earthquakes earth represented river spirit underworld probably precursor greek physician gods homer magic song supposed heal patient number read scripts later antiquity example cow eyed standard appeared assuming separate god additional found later periods include appears certainly chief deity collection ladies read scripts appears inscription mistress similar later expression mentioned accompanying word appears agricultural goddess possibly related later antiquity mistress labyrinth queens king mentioned goddess mentioned related number later architecture palaces structures erected hills rocky dominating immediate surroundings best preserved found partially preserved central greece partially exposed hand palace built athens completely destroyed substantial building possibly ancient interpreted number archaeologist palace palace unearthed near modern village structures mainland greece share number common features focal point socio political aspect palace throne room laid circular surrounded columns throne generally found right hand entering room interior decorated images designed intentionally demonstrate political religious power ruler access provided court reached chambers remarkably uniform greece instance paintings focused marine motives providing depictions fish group opening rooms different dimensions workshops reception halls living quarters general palaces yielded wealth artifacts additional common features shared palaces large court lies directly central second smaller found inside structures palace indicate palaces stories private quarters members royal family presumably located second floor fortifications construction defensive structures closely linked establishment palaces mainland greece principal centers fortified usually situated elevated terrain like athens coastal plains case greeks general appreciated symbolism war expressed defensive architecture aimed visual fortifications term normally applied masonry characteristics fortification systems describes walls built large thick weighing metric tonnes roughly fitted use mortar clay smaller limestone fill placement formed pattern giving curtain wall irregular imposing appearance wide walkway narrow protective outer edge like term derived greeks classical era believed mythical giants constructed structures hand cut stone masonry typical feature construction use relieving triangle block opening triangular designed reduce weight space filled lighter stone fortifications typical walls especially athens smaller found large limestone found settlements found cyprus style walls present western isolated forts erected strategic locations fortification systems incorporated technical secret galleries ports projecting protection hand palace major center power appears left defensive walls architectural features domestic architecture originates mainly earlier middle traditions shape location settlement domestic architecture came probably result shared past communities greek mainland consequence cultural expansion varying sizes construction building structures contrary popular belief representative buildings featured roofs fired tiles warfare military nature greeks evident numerous weapons unearthed warrior combat representations contemporary art preserved greek linear records invested development military infrastructure military production logistics supervised directly centers according linear records palace rural community obliged supply certain number men serve army similar service performed aristocracy armies initially based heavy infantry equipped spears large shields occasion armor later 13th century warfare underwent major changes tactics weaponry armed units uniform flexible weapons smaller lighter spear remained main weapon warriors sword played secondary role combat offensive weapons bows axes precise role contribution battlefield matter dispute lack sufficient evidence appears initially fighting vehicle 16th 14th century later 13th century role limited battlefield transport helmet identifiable piece armor use beginning collapse culture known depictions contemporary art greece mediterranean representative piece armor consisted complete set armor elements bronze general features later classical greek antiquity known greece figure shields common type shields late period smaller types shields adopted completely circular shape circular cut lower edge art vessels late period vessels pottery exhibited similarities spanning significant area eastern mediterranean levant sicily possibly reflecting form economic political union centered pottery crete time remained distinct indicating degree autonomy island greeks produced large quantities variety styled vessels large stemmed cups resembling champagne glasses linear oil vessel specifically invented island crete 16th century widely onward transporting storing wine oil usually pear shaped stemmed cups evolved large quantity discovered site called potter shop located drinking vessels stemmed cups contained single decorative motifs shell octopus flower painted facing away greeks painted entire scenes called style vessels depicting warriors horses deities reminiscent events described homer items developed include clay lamps metallic vessels bronze basins examples vessels ivory known figures period yielded sculpture great size period consists small found site mainland greece tombs settlement debris occasionally cult contexts majority female anthropomorphic female subdivided groups popular different periods earliest type look like greek letter arms upper body rounded shape psi type looks like letter greek psi arms latest 12th century type look like greek letter folded arms right angles body wear large hat painted stripes manner contemporary pottery presumably purpose uncertain served objects toys found children graves vast majority fragments domestic rubbish deposits presence sites worship took place archaic classical periods circa sanctuary temple sanctuary apollo near suggests religious nature later places worship period larger male female figures important group found temple clay snakes found east west island painting age influenced age fragments wall paintings found palaces domestic contexts largest complete wall painting depicting female figures probably found called cult center themes represented hunting bull battle scenes etc scenes mythological narratives meaning include geometric motifs painted pottery burial practices usual form burial period earliest individual graves form pit stone lined offerings limited pottery occasional items jewellery groups pit graves containing elite members community covered mound manner established middle argued form dates culture indigenous development mainland greece shaft graves housing native rulers pit graves remained use single period alongside elaborate family graves shaft graves grave circles belong period represent alternative manner grouping elite deceased found sets weapons ornate gold silver cups valuable objects point social rank beginning late period seen communal tombs rectangular form difficult establish different forms burial represent social thought tombs elite rulers individual tombs leisure class communal tombs people increased number course period numerous phase era introduced early 15th century new imposing form elite impressive tombs era monumental royal tombs undoubtedly intended royal family city famous treasury total tombs found region belong single period late argued different factions competed conspicuous burial writing circa greeks borrowed civilization writing system linear developed script known linear linear script utilized palaces greece administrative purposes economic transactions recorded clay pottery dialect greek language linear discovered crete english archaeologist sir arthur evans circa later english architect michael discovery archaic greek dialect linear demonstrated greek oldest known greek dialect elements survived homer language result long oral tradition epic poetry legacy 8th century end called greek dark ages greece emerged network myths legends greatest epic cycle general greeks classical antiquity period glorious period heroes gods material wealth legends homer especially generally accepted greek past 19th century scholars began question homer time german archaeologist undertook modern archaeological excavations greece site set prove historical accuracy identifying places described homer heritage survived names gods greece major figures later antiquity language offers written evidence greek significant vocabulary found modern english greeks pioneers field engineering launching large scale projects europe roman period fortifications bridges dams roads suitable wheeled traffic architectural innovations relieving triangle responsible wide range arts crafts especially origin civilization general advanced compared late bronze age cultures rest europe attributes achievements borrowed held high regard later periods consider greece cradle civilization