scotland early modern period scotland early modern period refers purposes article scotland death james end rebellions mid eighteenth century roughly corresponds early modern period europe beginning renaissance reformation ending start enlightenment industrial revolution long minority personal reign james saw court centre renaissance patronage ended military defeat long minority infant mary queen scots scotland dominance english french ended treaty edinburgh withdrew troops leaving way open religious reform scottish reformation strongly influenced leading widespread introduction presbyterian system organisation discipline major impact scottish life mary returned france personal reign deteriorated murder scandal civil war forcing escape england later executed leaving protestant opponents power infant james inherited england ireland creating union moving centre royal patronage power london son charles attempted impose elements english religious settlement kingdoms relations gradually deteriorated resulting bishops wars ending defeat charles helping bring war kingdoms scots entered war england parliamentary helping turn tide king forces second civil wars took charles execution son charles_ii leading defeat occupation parliamentary army oliver incorporation commonwealth restoration monarchy saw return increasingly regime resulting religious political rebellions accession openly catholic james vii increasing glorious revolution william orange mary daughter james accepted monarchs reintroduced limitations placed monarchy severe economic moves led political union england kingdom great_britain deposed main hereditary line focus political discontent known leading series invasions rebellions defeat scotland entered period great political stability economic intellectual expansion improving system roads early modern scotland remained country divided topography particularly highlands islands economic development saw beginnings agricultural improvement expansion eastern particularly glasgow trade routes americas opened local emerged key figure heads names clans borders highlands declined importance population expanding end period increasing social tensions evident witch trials creation system poor laws despite crown increase forms taxation revenues remained inadequate council parliament remained central government changing compositions importance act union saw abolition growth local government saw introduction justices peace commissioners supply law saw increasing importance royal authority expansion parish schools reform universities heralded beginnings intellectual flowering enlightenment flowering scottish literature loss court centre patronage beginning seventeenth century tradition church music fundamentally changed reformation loss complex music new tradition singing architecture royal building strongly influenced renaissance styles houses great adopted hybrid form known scots restoration influenced baroque styles church architecture distinctive plain style based emerged reformation major impact art loss church patronage leading tradition painted ceilings walls beginnings tradition landscape painting political history sixteenth century james death james battle meant long period regency infant son james declared adult year douglas 6th earl angus young king stepfather took custody james held virtual prisoner years exercising power behalf finally managed escape custody began revenge number families continued father policy rebellious highlands western northern isles troublesome borders took measures clan douglas north executed john armstrong carried royal progresses authority continued french alliance place fourteenth century marrying french death marie guise increased crown revenues heavily church taking years embarked major programme building royal palaces avoided pursuing major structural theological changes church undertaken contemporary henry_viii england utilised church source offices illegitimate children favourites particularly david archbishop saint cardinal james domestic foreign policy successes overshadowed disastrous campaign england led overwhelming defeat battle moss james died short time later demise blamed contemporaries broken heart day death brought news birth heir daughter mary queen scots rough beginning infant mary reign scottish political nation divided pro french faction led cardinal queen mother mary guise pro english faction headed james hamilton earl failure pro english deliver marriage infant mary edward son henry_viii england agreed treaty led years english invasion enforce match later known rough took form border english campaigns scotland death henry_viii forces english regent edward 1st duke somerset victorious battle followed occupation strategic lowland fortress scots responded sending year old mary france intended bride francis heir french throne mother marie guise stayed scotland look interests mary france acted officially regent arrival french troops helped resistance english abandoned september fall protector somerset england withdrew scotland completely marie guise formally took regency maintaining difficult position partly giving limited protestant dissent attempting resentment continued presence french troops protestant elizabeth came throne england english party found positions aligned asked english military support expel french arrival english troops particularly english fleet led besieging french forces fell july point mary guise died french english troops withdrew treaty edinburgh leaving young queen france pro english protestant parties protestant reformation sixteenth century scotland underwent protestant reformation created national church strongly presbyterian outlook severely reducing powers bishops earlier century teachings martin john began influence scotland particularly scottish scholars visited continental english universities trained catholic english influence direct supplying books distributing protestant literature invaded particularly important work lutheran patrick hamilton execution protestant influenced george burnt stake orders cardinal stem growth ideas supporters included number assassinated soon seized castle held year defeated help french forces survivors including chaplain john condemned slaves helping create resentment french protestant cause limited influence exiled scots countries led expansion group declaring lords congregation representing interests politically collapse french alliance english intervention meant relatively small highly influential group position impose reform scottish church confession faith rejecting papal jurisdiction mass adopted parliament young mary queen scots france having escaped spent time geneva follower emerged significant figure led resulted settlement adopted presbyterian system rejected elaborate medieval church gave considerable power new local control appointment clergy resulting widespread generally orderly point majority population probably catholic find difficult penetrate highlands islands began gradual process conversion consolidation compared conducted relatively little persecution mary queen scots events progressed queen mary raised catholic france married king francis making queen consort france francis died mary elected return scotland government hostile environment despite private religion attempt impose catholicism largely protestant subjects chief catholic nobles year personal reign marred series crises largely caused rivalries leading nobles murder secretary david followed unpopular second husband lord father infant son abduction marriage earl implicated murder mary confronted lords hill forces melted away fled captured rivals mary imprisoned castle july forced favour month old son james mary eventually escaped attempted regain throne force defeat battle forces loyal led james stewart 1st earl took refuge england leaving son hands scotland fought civil war behalf king mother supporters england mary focal point catholic conspirators eventually tried treason executed orders elizabeth james james crowned king scots age months july brought protestant country run series stewart cousin james father lord arrived scotland quickly established closest year old james powerful male favourites created earl king duke scottish august known raid protestant angus imprisoned james forced leave scotland james liberated june assumed increasing control kingdom established effective royal government relative peace lords assisted john led government james signed treaty england execution mother helped clear way succession childless queen elizabeth england married anne denmark daughter frederick king denmark bore sons daughter seventeenth century union crowns james king scots inherited throne kingdom england left edinburgh london reign james union personal union crowns remaining distinct separate despite james best efforts create new imperial throne great_britain james retained keen interest scottish affairs running government rapid interchange letters aided establishment efficient postal system controlled everyday policy council scotland managed parliament scotland lords articles increasingly controlled meetings scottish general_assembly increased number powers scottish bishops held general_assembly pushed articles included practices retained england largely abolished scotland kneeling reception communion ratified created widespread opposition resentment seen step catholic practice royal authority limited highlands periodic violence punctuated relationships great families acquisition irish crown english facilitated process settlement scots historically troublesome area kingdom scots settling province mid seventeenth century attempts found scottish colony north_america nova_scotia largely unsuccessful insufficient funds willing colonists charles james died succeeded son charles born scotland charles estranged northern kingdom visit scottish coronation crowned cathedral edinburgh anglican rites charles relatively important scots circle relied heavily scottish matters generally james hamilton 1st duke hamilton bishops particularly john archbishop eventually making chancellor beginning reign charles alienated lands helped secure finances threatened holdings nobility gained reformation settlement pushing legislation refusal hear legal pursuit raising objections created resentment nobility england religious policies caused similar resentment ruled calling parliament bishops wars reference general_assembly parliament king authorised book head church ordained unpopular ritual enforced use new emerged seen english style prayer book resulting anger widespread rioting said set throwing service cathedral protestant nobility head popular opposition campbell earl emerging leading figure representatives sections scottish society drew national february king innovations king supporters unable suppress rebellion king refused compromise december year matters taken meeting general_assembly glasgow scottish bishops formally expelled church established presbyterian basis scots assembled force returned veterans thirty years war led alexander field marshal swedish army charles gathered force ill trained militia series minor actions north scotland secured rear royalist support border wished push matter military conflict temporary settlement concluded known june bishops war ended retaining control country charles attempted enforce authority opening second bishops war recalled english parliament known short parliament disbanded declined vote new critical policies assembled poorly poorly trained army scots moved south england forcing crossing west newcastle occupying city eventually durham gave vital coal supply london charles forced agreeing demands paying month support army forced recall english parliament known long parliament exchange concessions raised sum paid scots treaty scots army returned home triumphant king attempts raise force ireland invade scotland west prompted widespread revolt english moved outright opposition resulted outbreak english civil war facing rebellion realms civil wars civil war england developed long protracted conflict king english appealed scots military aid opted parliament entered league scottish church settlement promising reform england january scots army foot horse guns crossed border helped turn tide war north forcing royalist army newcastle york besieged combined scots parliamentary armies relieved force prince king nephew allies command defeated decisively july generally seen turning point war scotland james graham 1st led campaign favour king highlands lowland scots follow aided irish highland sent irish began highly successful mobile campaign winning victories local forces local crushed defeated led disciplined armies able terms moved south forces depleted loss caught decisively defeated battle army david nephew alexander escaping north attempted continue struggle fresh troops point king heavily defeated battle parliament reformed new model army surrendered scots forces besieging town newark july abandoned war left continent unable persuade king accept presbyterian settlement scots exchanged half owed parliament returned home relations english parliament increasingly independent english army grew strained balance power shifted scotland hamilton emerging leading figure engagement king held new model army scots support england second english civil war exchange england year trial basis hard line party defeated skirmish june including alexander david declined join army produced engagement time hamilton led engagement army border english defeated scots caught new model army march preston battle preston scots defeated captured hamilton subsequently executed coup raid party regained control scotland eventual response army leaders power england second civil war execution king january despite scottish protests occupation commonwealth england declared commonwealth soon news charles execution reached scotland son proclaimed king charles_ii attempted rising highlands king ended executed lacking support relatives continent supporters england charles accepted offer arriving june signing english responded army crossed border july english fleet acted support september english army defeated scots david battle taking prisoners occupying edinburgh taking control charles easily alliance moderate crowned january new army assembled june advanced scots scots army king set england rising favour army caught worcester september decisively defeated bringing civil wars end charles escaped continent english army occupied scotland emerged important figure commonwealth english parliament declared scotland commonwealth attempts union calling representatives scottish negotiations english represented little opportunity dissent final ratification delayed problems union subject act military administration scotland led general george relatively successful managed enforce law order suppressing moss enforcing form limited religious introducing english judges largely scots law major royalist rising highlands led william 9th earl john defeated battle july restoration death remained london led brief establishment regime richard subsequent contest power army leaders opened negotiations charles_ii began slow march south army restored english long parliament having received assurances voted restoration monarchy dissolved creating facto restoration monarchy scotland event scotland regained system law parliament lords articles bishops king visit country ruled largely reference parliament series commissioners began earl ended king brother heir james duke york known scotland duke albany legislation revoked removing gains bishops wars discipline sessions renewed executed prominent source particular trouble south west country area strong presbyterian sympathies abandoning official church people began attend illegal field assemblies led excluded ministers known official attempts suppress led rising defeated james duke king illegitimate son battle bridge early intense phase persecution began later known protestant historiography killing time executed james graham sentenced transportation death sir george lord advocate england exclusion crisis divided political society given scottish attempted unsuccessfully exclude openly catholic duke albany succession opposed similar divisions began emerge scottish political life deposition james vii charles died brother succeeded james vii scotland england james catholics key positions government attendance death disregarded parliament council forced religious roman catholics protestant subjects failure invasion led campbell 9th earl timed duke rebellion england demonstrated strength regime believed king succeeded daughter mary protestant wife william orange netherlands james produced male heir james francis edward stuart clear policies invitation seven leading led william land england men james fled leading glorious revolution william called estates scotland supporters proved dominant james support collapsed estates issued claim right suggested james crown actions contrast england relied legal fiction offered william mary william accepted limitations royal power final settlement restored abolished bishops generally supported james william tolerant tended passed acts restoring clergy excluded revolution william supporters dominated government remained significant following james particularly highlands cause known latin james led series initial military attempt led john graham forces defeated william forces battle took heavy losses slain fighting leadership army soon defeated battle complete defeat james ireland william battle ended phase military effort aftermath defeat february incident known massacre members clan killed members earl regiment foot accepted grounds prompt allegiance new monarchs economic crisis overseas colonies closing decade seventeenth century saw generally favourable economic conditions dominated restoration come end slump trade baltic france caused french changes scottish cattle trade followed years failed known seven ill years result severe famine particularly north parliament scotland enacted proposals help desperate economic situation including setting bank scotland company scotland trading africa indies received charter raise capital public subscription company scotland invested scheme ambitious plan devised william scottish founder bank england build colony panama hope establishing trade far_east scheme won widespread support scotland landed gentry merchant class agreement seeing overseas trade routes upgrade scotland economy capital resources edinburgh merchants elite insufficient company appealed social ranks responded patriotic money lower orders volunteered colonists english east india company english government opposed idea east india company saw venture potential commercial threat government involved war grand alliance france want spain claimed territory new english investors withdraw returning edinburgh company raised weeks small fleets total men eventually set panama exercise proved disaster poorly equipped rain suffering disease attack spanish nearby refused aid english west_indies colonists abandoned project survived ship managed return scotland cost severe strain scottish commercial system led widespread anger england seeing economic policies william prompted argue political union shortly death early eighteenth century union england william successor mary sister princess anne surviving children protestant succession doubt english parliament passed act settlement fixed succession descendants scottish parliament parallel act security merely prohibited roman catholic successor leaving open possibility crowns risk possible return james francis edward stuart living france english parliament pressed union countries passing alien act threatened unable hold property england moves union severely damaged cattle trades political union scotland england economically attractive promising open larger markets england growing empire widespread opposition general population sums paid scottish commissioners leading political figure described bribes existence direct bribes disputed scottish parliament voted january adopt treaty union treaty confirmed succession church scotland scottish law courts remained separate english scottish replaced combined parliament great_britain sat westminster largely continued english traditions scots added members house_of_commons scots members house_of_lords economic union replacing scottish systems currency taxation laws regulating trade council abolished meant effective government scotland lay hands unofficial managers attempted control elections scotland voting scottish mps lords line prevailing party westminster complex process patronage suspected sympathies management tended fall groups old party led john campbell 2nd duke patriots initially led john 1st duke secretary state scotland replaced brother campbell 3rd duke death dominated scottish politics half eighteenth century wings whig movement forced rising post secretary state abolished remained king scotland death revived union james francis edward stuart son james vii known old attempted invasion french fleet carrying men royal_navy prevented landing troops attempt occurred soon death anne accession king eldest son george great_britain rising known envisaged simultaneous uprisings wales devon scotland government arrests southern ventures scotland john earl nicknamed john raised clans proved leader incompetent soldier captured perth let smaller government force duke hold plain army joined northern england southern scotland fought way england defeated battle preston surrendering november day failed defeat battle point james landed scotland advised cause hopeless fled france attempted invasion spanish assistance met little support clans ended defeat battle rising known began charles edward stuart son old referred prince charlie young landed island outer clans joined outset successful taking edinburgh defeating government army scotland battle army marched england took advanced far south derby increasingly evident england support roman catholic stuart monarch leadership crisis confidence retreated scotland english armies closed troops began return continent charles position scotland began deteriorate whig supporters rallied regained control edinburgh unsuccessful attempt retreated north pursued duke cumberland gave battle exhausted army april cause crushed charles hid scotland aid september escaped france bloody supporters foreign powers abandoned cause court exile forced leave france old died young legitimate issue brother henry cardinal york died cause end geography defining factor geography scotland distinction highlands islands north west south east highlands divided northwest highlands mountains fault line great divided fertile belt central higher terrain southern included hills border england ran central lowland belt averages miles width contains good quality agricultural land easier communications support elements conventional government southern particularly highlands economically productive difficult govern highlands relatively short growing season extreme case upper ice free season months highlands seven months early modern period saw impact little ice age seeing thirty days continual frost rivers leading series crisis roads maintained justices monetary levy work levy tenants development national grain prices indicates network improved considerably early eighteenth century highlands early eighteenth century series military roads built maintained central government aim movement troops event rebellion extent borders kingdom fixed modern form beginning sixteenth century exception lands western end border england settled french led commission scots built mark boundary accession james english throne border significant military terms phrase middle great_britain remained boundary act union economy beginning era difficult terrain poor roads methods transport little trade different areas country settlements depended produced locally little reserve bad years farming based lowland highland settlements handful families jointly farmed area suitable teams allocated run tenant farmers usually ran downhill included wet dry land helping offset problems extreme weather conditions heavy wooden iron pulled effective cheaper feed horses mid sixteenth century scotland experienced decline demand exports cloth wool continent scots responded selling larger quantities traditional goods increasing output salt herring coal late sixteenth century era economic distress probably exacerbated increasing taxation currency pound silver produced shillings exchange rate england scots sterling fallen wages rose rapidly times end century failed pace inflation situation punctuated frequent harvest failures half years second half sixteenth century seeing local national necessitating shipping large quantities grain baltic distress exacerbated plague major periods beginnings industrial manufacture period expertise continent included failed attempt use teach new techniques developing cloth industry north east successful bringing venetian help develop native glass blowing industry george bruce german techniques solve drainage problems coal society brewers established edinburgh english allowed scottish beer early seventeenth century famine relatively common periods famine prices invasions profound impact scottish economy destruction crops disruption markets resulting rapid price rises century commonwealth country relatively highly gained access english markets restoration formal frontier england established customs duties economic conditions generally favourable land owners promoted better cattle raising monopoly royal foreign trade partially ended act leaving old silk opening trade increasingly significant salt coal corn hides imports americas english navigation acts limited ability scots engage lucrative trading england growing colonies glasgow increasingly important commercial centre opening trade american colonies sugar west_indies tobacco virginia maryland exports atlantic included goods coal english protective salt cattle harder disregard probably placed greater limitations scottish economy despite attempts king overturned end century roads stretching highlands south west scotland north east england firmly established scottish attempts counter largely unsuccessful scotland relatively vital exports protect attempts council build luxury industries cloth mills soap works sugar boiling houses gunpowder paper works proved largely unsuccessful seen particularly severe partly famine relatively rare second half seventeenth century year shortages kind union england times population scotland times wealth scotland began experience beginnings economic expansion begin allow close gap contacts england led conscious attempt improve agriculture gentry nobility introduced english foreign grasses grass introduced lands enclosed marshes drained lime roads built woods planted drilling crop rotation introduced introduction potato scotland greatly improved diet began displace system free pasture society founded including members major centre grain cattle borders sheep estate holders improved quality life displaced workers led unemployment forced abroad major change international trade rapid expansion americas market glasgow supplied colonies cloth iron farming tools glass leather goods initially relying hired ships trading new world glasgow emerged focus tobacco trade particularly france merchants dealing lucrative business wealthy tobacco lords dominated city century benefited enlarged port sent ship americas soon playing major sugar cloth manufacture largely domestic rough produced important areas manufacturing particularly commentators suggesting scottish superior dutch scottish members parliament managed attempt impose export duty received subsidies year years resulting considerable expansion trade adopted dutch methods major centre production glasgow manufactured export trade doubled british company advancing cash credits stimulated production trade soon managed manufacturers supplied bought supplied bought cloth produced banking developed period bank scotland founded suspected sympathies rival royal bank scotland founded local banks began established like glasgow capital available business improvement roads trade society social structure king small number usually descended close relatives king formed senior nobility barons period beginning merge local tenants chief group roughly equivalent english gentlemen variety groups ill defined included called owning substantial land practice tenant paid entry sum annual duty pass land heirs meant number people holding possession lands previously controlled church nobility expanded probably numbered seventeenth century government defined financial legal local government increasingly fall substantial lesser free tenants described majority working population died scotland fourteenth century virtually restored statute law miners system courts baron sessions exerted considerable control tenants society headed merchants held local office member council workers majority urban population society men unemployed numbers times economic clans unlike england derived males females scotland members group sharing fictional common ancestor women retained original surname marriage marriages intended create friendship groups new bond borders reflected common surname shared surname seen test proving large bodies support beginning period help intensify idea feud usually carried form revenge large bodies counted support rival sides conflict members groups occurred reign james systems judicial law enforced early eighteenth century feud suppressed borders leadership heads great largely replaced authority seventeenth century combination feudal system obligation seen creating highland clan system head clan usually eldest son chief powerful branch leading families clan formed fine seen equivalent lowland providing council peace leadership war scots managed clan lands collected isles adjacent western acted military elite defending clan lands raids taking attacks clan enemies followers clan tenants supplied labour clan heads acted soldiers early modern period usually took clan surname turning massive group highland clans direct threat restoration government relations england effort suppressing independence focused borders glorious revolution economic change royal justice begun undermine clan system eighteenth century process accelerated rebellion highland dress banned enforced compulsory purchase jurisdictions exile chiefs sending ordinary colonies labour largely reducing clan leaders status simple generation reliable sources track population scotland late seventeenth century estimates based english records suggest end middle ages black death subsequent recurring plague caused population scotland fall low half million people price inflation generally reflects growing demand food suggests probably expanded half sixteenth century famine prices relatively stable early seventeenth century calculations based tax returns indicate population level seriously effected reliable information available national population census conducted reverend alexander showed inhabitants scotland persons compared situation population later industrial revolution numbers evenly spread kingdom roughly half living north cent population lived grew later medieval period mainly east south suggested mean population smaller largest edinburgh probably population beginning modern era suburbs reached towns end period glasgow late medieval scotland evidence occasional individuals causing harm declining half sixteenth century aftermath initial reformation settlement parliament passed act similar passed england year earlier capital crime despite fact scotland probably quarter population england times number entire period james visit denmark country familiar witch hunts encouraged interest study return scotland attended north witch trials major persecution scotland act people notably convicted send storms james ship james obsessed threat posed inspired personal involvement wrote tract opposed practice provided background material shakespeare tragedy james known personally supervised torture women accused views seventeenth century pursuit largely taken sessions attach catholic practices scottish society accused cent women executed witch hunt scotland seen means controlling women intense witch hunt involved named counties point began decline trials tightly controlled judiciary government torture standards evidence raised growing relative peace stability economic social tensions contributed accusations reduced occasional local like east recorded executions trial british parliament repealed act poverty population growth economic second half sixteenth century led growing problem government reacted major pieces legislation major element system poor relief justices peace given responsibility dealing issue act modelled english act passed years earlier limited relief poor old sick imposing long list including parish elders draw lists poor assessed belonging parish sent place birth stocks punished probably actually increasing level unlike english act attempt provide work able bodied poor practice begging disregarded times extreme legislation provided basis later known old poor law scotland remained place mid nineteenth century subsequent legislation built principles provision local poor punishment mobile important later act declared local assessed session provide financial resources local relief relying voluntary contributions system largely able cope general level poverty minor crises helping old survive provide life support periods relatively low cost overwhelmed major crisis government crown early era authority crown limited large number minorities seen early fifteenth century tended decrease level royal revenues alienated land revenues regular taxation adopted called increasing frequency scale demand resulted opposition new tax annual amounting cent interest loans mainly directed merchants introduced widely resented collected decade later charles annual income sources scotland sterling inadequate normal costs government court london financed english revenues sum month county assessment demanded regime scotland failed fully supply contribute year parliament formal grant year charles_ii rising costs civilian government war meant inadequate support scottish government william union engagement continental colonial wars led heavier existing taxes new taxes including poll taxes sixteenth century court central patronage renaissance works ideas lavish court display tied ideas evolving period ornamental cult tournaments provided focus display pursued enthusiastically james proud membership international orders brief personal rule mary queen scots brought elaborate court activities grown french court balls celebrations designed illustrate resurgence monarchy facilitate national unity james court returned centre culture learning cultivated image philosopher king james scottish monarch wear closed imperial crown place open medieval kings suggesting claim absolute authority kingdom reworked include arches added reconstructed remains crown scotland idea imperial monarchy emphasised dignity crown included role national force defending national borders interest royal supremacy law distinctive national church catholic communion new monarchy seen reliance crown new men great use clergy form civil service developing standing armed forces navy major intellectual figures reformation included george works major texts outlining case resistance young james failed convince ideas limited monarchy james asserted concept divine right king appointed god gained degree ideas passed charles ability compromise undermined helping lead political difficulties executed scottish objected avoided advancing kings reason scottish estates find justification james vii turned argument contractual nature monarchy claim right council council met west drawing room palace edinburgh early modern period council time body critical smooth running government primary function judicial acted body advisers king result secondary function executive absence minority monarchy james departure england functioned executive carrying instructions london theoretical membership council relatively large thirty persons business carried informal inner group consisting mainly officers state restoration charles_ii nominated set council london directed affairs edinburgh situation continued glorious revolution council abolished act union parliament sixteenth century parliament usually met castle old edinburgh rebuilt orders mary queen scots charles ordered construction parliament hall built remained parliament home dissolved end middle ages parliament evolved king council bishops political judicial role attendance knights important commissioners joined form estates acquired significant powers taxation strong influence justice foreign policy war legislation legislative business scottish parliament carried parliamentary committee known lords articles drafted legislation presented assembly confirmed like continental assemblies scottish parliament called frequently early sixteenth century crown series minorities dominated parliament played major reformation crisis mid sixteenth century james uphold catholic asserted right determine nature religion country royal authority parliament included protestant claimed right sit parliament provision failed election act position parliament remained uncertain presence fluctuated act revived provision annual election commissioners property qualification voters held land crown value extent excluded growing class gain rights clerical estate parliament reformation acquired monasteries sitting catholic clergy excluded small number protestant bishops continued clerical estate james attempted revive role bishops abolished parliament entirely lay assembly group appeared parliament minority james members council representing king interests excluded james continued manage parliament lords articles filling royal officers non elected members forced limit having officially suspended end regime parliament returned restoration charles_ii parliament later known drunken parliament revoked presbyterian gains thirty years subsequently charles absence scotland use commissioners rule northern kingdom undermined authority body james parliament supported rivals attempted rebellions escape exile william parliament dominated supporters contrast situation england effectively deposed james claim right offered crown william mary placing important limitations royal power including abolition lords articles new parliament subsequently bring demise act union local government sixteenth century central government increasingly involved local affairs feud limited regulated local taxation regular local commissions justices peace english model established deal petty crimes greater control exerted borders joint commission english set james hostile culture highlands predecessors sent colonists parts region forced highland chiefs accept lowland language culture statues seventeenth century function expanded judicial functions wider local administration commissioners supply appointed collect land tax parish important unit local government pressured justices early eighteenth century responsible taking care periods famine like prevent impoverished taking roads causing general disorder behaviour regulated sessions composed local church elders replaced church courts middle ages dealt moral religious conduct local court baron remained important regulating minor property offences held behest local baron cases appoint usually senior tenants resolve disputes issues combination sessions courts baron gave considerable power local control behaviour populations communities law late middle ages justice scotland mixture royal local overlapping jurisdictions undertaken clerical lawyers local leaders james legal functions council royal court session meeting daily edinburgh deal civil cases office justice general created earl held family study law popular scotland middle ages students travelled continental europe study canon law civil law royal college justice founded leading training emerging group career lawyers court session placed increasing emphasis independence influence including king superior jurisdiction local justice judges increasingly able control entry ranks bench led entry requirements latin law property qualification designed limit danger helping create exclusive wealthy powerful professional dominated government posts way clergy middle ages high_court founded college justice supreme_court appeal act union largely distinct scottish legal system courts separate english jurisdiction warfare later middle ages scottish armies assembled basis common service feudal obligations money contracts bonds systems successful producing large formidable force evidence mid sixteenth century authorities experiencing increasing difficulty recruitment individuals expected provide equipment heavy armour abandoned campaign indistinguishable majority troops highland lords tended continue use lighter ordinary dressed weapons included forms axes pole arms highland troops brought bows handed swords crown took increasing role supply equipment pike began replace spear axe bow began replaced gunpowder firearms feudal heavy cavalry begun disappear scottish armies scots fielded relatively large numbers light horse drawn borders james brought experts france germany netherlands established gun gunpowder weaponry fundamentally altered nature castle architecture mid fifteenth century period french intervention scotland given defended border series forts additions existing castles attempts create royal naval forces fifteenth century james enterprise new founding harbour dockyard pools acquired total ships including great michael time largest ship europe scottish ships success accompanied king expeditions islands intervened conflicts scandinavia baltic sold campaign scottish naval efforts rely captains hired james share father interest developing navy fell low countries despite england scotland periodic course james built new harbour chief use naval power reign series expeditions isles france union crowns conflict scotland england ended scotland found involved england foreign policy opening scottish shipping attack squadron ships bought equipped fleets royal scots navy accompanying contingents participated major expedition scots returned west_indies took capture quebec early seventeenth century relatively large numbers scots took service foreign armies involved thirty years war armed conflict charles bishops wars likely hundreds scots mercenaries returned home foreign service including experienced leaders like alexander david veterans played important role training recruits systems form basis armies intervened civil wars england ireland scottish infantry generally armed universal western_europe combination pike shot scottish armies individuals variety weapons including bows axes cavalry probably equipped pistols swords evidence included royalist armies like led james graham rising mainly composed conventionally armed infantry pike shot forces short heavy artillery suitable siege warfare small force cavalry bishops wars king attempted blockade scotland planned amphibious assaults england east_coast ireland west scottish took number english prizes allied english parliament established patrol squadrons atlantic north_sea coasts known collectively guard scottish navy unable withstand english fleet accompanied army led conquered scotland scottish ships crews split commonwealth fleet english occupation scotland commonwealth fortresses style trace built restoration council established force infantry regiments troops horse attempts found national militia english model standing army mainly employed suppression rebellions war undertaken east important late seventeenth century introduction bayonet disappeared altogether muskets replaced reliable eve glorious revolution standing army scotland men regiments veterans major garrison towns glorious revolution scots drawn king william continental wars beginning years war flanders scottish seamen received protection arbitrary english men war fixed royal_navy levied sea coast second half seventeenth century royal_navy patrols found scottish waters peacetime second anglo dutch wars captains took scottish letters played major naval conflict small fleet ships established merchants scheme professional navy established protection commerce home waters years war purpose built warships bought english act union vessels transferred royal_navy time act union kingdom scotland standing army seven units infantry horse troop horse guards varying levels fortress artillery garrison castles edinburgh british_army scottish regiments took war spanish succession quadruple alliance wars spain war spanish succession official highland regiment raised british_army black watch growth highland regiments delayed rebellion bulk armies serving clan regiments clan gentlemen formed ranks unit heavily armed impoverished tenants bulk regiment served ranks gentlemen suffered higher proportional casualties common started campaigns poorly armed arms tended conventional campaigns progressed culture education protestant shared concern widening education desire people replacing aim having educated citizens book discipline set plan school parish proved financially impossible old schools maintained song schools number new foundations reformed grammar schools ordinary parish schools schools supported combination funds contributions local councils parents pay inspected sessions checked quality teaching purity large number adventure schools fulfilled local needs took pupils away official schools outside established schools masters combined position employment particularly minor posts clerk best curriculum included latin french classical literature sports act council commanded parish establish school convenient means parliament scotland ratified education act tax local landowners introduced provide necessary allowed tax closed education act established solid institutional foundation schools principles restoration brought position new legislation restored provisions means enforcement suitable age took late seventeenth century produce largely complete network parish schools highlands basic education lacking areas passing education act basis administration system rural communities act obliged local provide pay ministers local oversaw quality education scottish towns schools operated local councils highlands problems distance physical isolation people spoke teachers ministers understand parish schools supplemented society promoting christian knowledge established aim teach english language end roman catholicism associated rebellious society schools eventually taught bible overall effect contribution erosion highland culture reformation scotland universities underwent series reforms associated andrew returned geneva principal university glasgow distinguished philosopher poet trained paris studied law moving geneva developing interest protestant theology influenced anti placed emphasis simplified logic elevated languages sciences status philosophy allowing accepted ideas areas challenged introduced new specialist teaching staff replacing system tutor took students entire arts curriculum abandoned greek compulsory year followed hebrew launching new fashion ancient biblical languages glasgow probably declining university arrival students began arrive large numbers assisted reconstruction college glasgow appointed principal mary college results scottish universities producing quality education equal offered europe religious political seventeenth century universities recovered lecture based curriculum embraced economics science offering high quality liberal education sons nobility gentry helped major centres medical education scotland forefront enlightenment thinking key figures scottish enlightenment mark mid eighteenth century included francis professor moral philosophy glasgow important link ideas later school scottish common sense realism chair mathematics age college university leading british mathematician era significant intellectual figure era scotland david treatise human nature essays moral political helped outline parameters philosophical major influence later enlightenment figures including adam smith language early modern period geographical decline centuries begun second class language confined highlands islands gradually replaced middle scots language nobility majority population derived substantially old english french influences called close language spoken northern england sixteenth century established literary norms largely independent developing england mid sixteenth century written scots increasingly influenced developing standard english southern england developments royal political interactions england increasing influence availability books printed england writing scotland came english fashion unlike predecessors james generally despised culture having virtues scots accession english throne increasingly favoured language southern england adopted authorized king james version bible declared longer necessary port london scots far different describes james creating tier system english union shift political power england use scots discouraged authority education notion leading scots period david considered northern british scottish attempted rid scots bid establish standard english official language newly formed union scots took learning english activities thomas gave series lectures english charging guinea time today money attended men freeman city edinburgh following city intellectuals formed select society promoting reading speaking english language scotland scots remained vernacular rural communities growing number urban working class scots literature patron poets authors james supported william stewart john translated latin history scotland compiled verse prose sir david mount lord head court diplomat prolific poet produced interlude palace thought version play james attracted attention international authors married mary guise italian scholar abbey scotland dedicated couple new edition work true significance like henry_viii james employed foreign enhance prestige renaissance court james promoted literature country birth treatise rules observed scottish published aged poetic manual description poetic tradition mother tongue scots applied renaissance principles statutory provision reform promote teaching music seeing connection patron member loose circle scottish court poets musicians band included william alexander favourite king late native scottish tradition extent prospect english throne poets followed king london william alexander began written language james characteristic role active literary participant patron scottish court defining figure english renaissance poetry drama reach pinnacle achievement reign patronage high style scottish tradition largely sidelined period ballad emerged significant written form scotland ballads date late medieval era deal events people traced far thirteenth century including sir patrick thomas known existed eighteenth century probably composed transmitted began written printed later recorded noted books collectors including robert burns walter scott seventeenth century literary form aristocratic authors including robert lady elizabeth lady laid foundations interest older scottish literature leading trend pastoral poetry helping develop stanza poetic form music outstanding scottish composer half sixteenth century robert canon abbey complex music performed large highly trained choir employed chapel royal james patron figures including david best known work text john voices probably accomplished composers era work largely survived fragments era scotland followed trend renaissance courts instrumental accompaniment playing james major patron sacred music talented player introduced french court secular chamber music survives reformation severe impact church music song schools collegiate churches closed disbanded music books manuscripts destroyed organs removed churches influenced early scottish reformation attempted accommodate catholic musical traditions worship drawing latin hymns vernacular songs important product tradition scotland spiritual popular ballads composed brothers james john robert adopted remained popular reprinted later came dominate scottish reformation hostile catholic musical tradition popular music placing emphasis biblical meant scottish commissioned assembly church drew work french musician contributions english writers particularly edition produced william english congregation geneva intention produce individual tunes proper tunes seventeenth century common tunes metre frequent need simplicity congregations sing unlike trained sung parts hymns necessitated simplicity church compositions confined settings evidence survived incorporated editions usually congregation singing melody trained singers tenor bass parts return mary france begin personal reign position catholic gave new lease life choir scottish chapel royal destruction scottish church organs meant instrumentation accompany mass employ bands musicians drums like father played unlike father fine singer brought french musical influences employing players household james major patron arts general statutory provision reform promote teaching music attempting revive song schools rebuilt chapel royal choir state occasions like baptism son henry followed tradition employing private entertainment members family went south throne england james removed major sources patronage scotland scottish chapel royal occasional state visits beginning fall disrepair court westminster major source royal musical patronage secular popular tradition music continued despite attempts particularly suppress dancing events like penny weddings tunes played large numbers musicians continued perform including simpson highlands seventeenth century saw development families including evidence adoption highlands martin martin noting description western isles scotland knew eighteen lewis oppression secular music dancing began ease level musical activity reflected flood musical publications music verse tea table william italian style classical music probably brought scotland italian composer travelled scotland introducing cello country developing settings lowland scots songs possibly hand scottish opera pastoral gentle shepherd architecture james encountered french version renaissance building visiting marriage second marriage mary guise resulted longer term connections influences work reign largely disregarded style adopted england henry_viii adopted forms european beginning extensive work scottish royal residence described palace followed buildings edinburgh described finest examples renaissance architecture britain copying continental forms scottish architecture incorporated elements styles traditional local patterns adapting scottish materials particularly stone work undertaken james demonstrated continued renaissance influences chapel royal having classical entrance built north wing built classical similar themes seen private houses castle built earl unique style great private house scotland later known scots located origin period kept features high walled medieval castles influenced french brought scotland work royal palaces drew tower houses towers built hundreds local lords fourteenth century particularly borders abandoned curtain walls fortified refuge designed raid sustained siege usually stories typically crowned projecting continuing circular corner new houses retained external features larger ground plan plan rectangular block towers castle castle particularly influential work william wallace king master mason death worked rebuilding collapsed north range house george 3rd earl began work hospital edinburgh adopted distinctive style applied elements scottish fortification flemish influences renaissance plan like style seen lords houses built house edinburgh castle highly influential style gave way english forms associated jones later seventeenth century rejected ornamentation places worship need elaborate buildings divided ritual resulting widespread destruction medieval church ornaments decoration need adapt build new churches suitable reformed services particularly putting pulpit preaching centre worship earliest buildings simple style continued built seventeenth century variation rectangular church developed post reformation scotland plan adapting existing churches allowed maximum number near pulpit seventeenth century greek cross plan churches cases arm cross closed aisle meaning effect churches era civil wars commonwealth significant building scotland largely confined military architecture restoration large scale building began incorporating comprehensive ideas reviving sir william bruce key figure introducing style scotland following principles venetian architect built country houses including castle house significant work mansion surveyor royal works undertook rebuilding royal palace gave palace present appearance james smith worked mason bruce rebuilding palace father law master mason robert smith worked caroline park edinburgh castle smith country houses followed pattern established william bruce roofs fronts plain handsome style act union growing prosperity scotland led new building public private william adam foremost architect time scotland designing building numerous country houses public buildings individual style built style baroque details inspired continental architecture art surviving stone wood carvings wall paintings suggest sixteenth century royal art castle stone carvings royal palace reign james taken german patterns like surviving carved oak portrait king presence chamber known heads include contemporary biblical classical


national national national relief food committee dutch abbreviated relief organization created distribute humanitarian aid civilians german occupied belgium world war directed belgian acted network aid brought international commission relief belgium distributed belgium background outbreak world war belgium relied supplies imports quarters food consumed german invasion august ceased economic crisis created invasion escalated distribution food available began break particular british_royal_navy began year blockade europe aimed germany cut food supplies neutral countries german occupied belgium foundation operation committee established september shortly german_army occupied brussels central central relief food committee supported voluntary contributions small group notable businessmen including initially committee activity restricted city brussels suburbs germans extended control belgium following fall city antwerp october threat famine belgium increased committee linked similar organizations country took title national initial direction committee given position head general company belgium giant semi holdings company allowed access nationwide distribution network start committee organized sections responsible providing selling food charitable aid clothing sections highly relied heavily local committees country operations american citizen neutral country contacts abroad find overseas sources food shipped belgium resupply populace food abroad viable immediate solution belgium food shortage committee chief initial difficulty obtaining permission british german governments import food providing guarantees military purposes supported early activities charles belgian government exile logistical problems involved coordinating huge shipments food belgium meant began look foreign assistance transporting material belgium personal acquaintance future president united_states create external body assist management director commission relief belgium led successful attempts raise money abroad order improve humanitarian situation belgium officially american organization necessary assure food delivered immediately seized germans provided international support necessary convince british government permit shipments received food material distributed network agents country continued expand occupation april german government allowed extend operations occupied regions northern france auspices called france food committee northern france distributed billion belgian worth aid belgium evaluation work war considered extremely successful contemporaries modern historians alike providing network food distribution managed avoid major famine belgium occupation network criticized holding responsible occasional food germans providing inadequate security shipments belgian arm felt pressure petitioned british allow charge international network away appeal dismissed position held occupied country relations bodies remained generally good committee played important political role providing alternative supply food prevented german administration belgium able use food tool force work war industries contributed passive resistance movement occupied belgium activities meant germans having seven million million territory fed consequently face major food riots disruption arisen germans feed population occupied territories germans exploited deal agreeing food shipments seizing food produced belgium belgian government exile supported hoped words minister underground parliament fulfill day day running belgian state occupation impossible official government carry historians described organisation central committee local networks activities providing unemployment benefits belgian workers echoing official government peacetime serving symbol national unity works

Comité National de Secours et d'Alimentation


dynasty dynasty roman imperial dynasty ruled roman empire encompassing reigns sons rose power civil war known year emperors died quick succession emperor mid claim throne quickly challenged stationed eastern provinces declared commander emperor place second battle balance decisively favour forces entered rome december following day roman senate officially declared emperor roman empire commencing dynasty dynasty proved short lived significant historic economic military events took place reign reign struck multiple natural disasters severe eruption mount surrounding cities completely buried ash lava year later rome struck fire plague military dynasty witnessed siege destruction jerusalem following failed jewish rebellion substantial conquests great_britain command unable decisive victory king war addition empire strengthened border defenses expanding fortifications initiated economic cultural reforms new taxes devised restore empire finances roman increasing silver content massive building programme enacted celebrate ascent dynasty leaving multiple enduring landmarks city rome spectacular better known rule came end september assassinated succeeded longtime supporter advisor marcus founded long lived dynasty establishment family history decades civil war 1st century contributed greatly demise old aristocracy rome gradually replaced prominence new italian nobility early 1st century family rose relative obscurity prominence generations acquiring wealth status emperors dynasty grandfather served civil war military career ended disgrace fled battlefield battle managed improve status marrying extremely wealthy fortune guaranteed upwards mobility son amassed wealth possible equestrian status services tax collector asia banker modern switzerland marrying allied prestigious ensuring elevation sons rank married elder daughter equestrian sons born born daughter born elder died emperor mistress wife died political career included offices culminated year born military commander gained early renown participating roman invasion britain ancient sources poverty family time upbringing claiming fallen emperors modern history refuted claims suggesting stories later circulated rule propaganda campaign diminish success emperors dynasty maximize achievements emperor son appearances imperial favour high 60s received court education company pursued successful political military career following prolonged period retirement 50s returned public office serving africa province accompanying emperor official tour greece military later served wife died years marriage took new wife distinguished family family closely linked opposition emperor uncle daughter killed failed conspiracy modern historians divorced wife family connection conspiracy remarried appears multiple daughters known survived adulthood julia child mother named julia period practiced law attained rank jews province revolted roman empire syria forced retreat jerusalem defeated battle pro roman king sister fled city later gave romans appointed rebellion dispatched region fifth tenth later joined bringing fifteenth legion strength professional soldiers romans quickly swept marched jerusalem rise power june amidst growing opposition senate army committed suicide dynasty came end chaos ensued leading year brutal civil war known year emperors influential generals roman empire imperial power news death reached preparing city jerusalem simultaneously senate declared governor modern spain emperor rome continue campaign decided await orders send greet new emperor reaching italy learnt murdered replaced governor modern portugal time armies risen revolt prepared march rome intent wanting risk taken hostage abandoned journey rome rejoined father realised potential threat posed faction disposal commanded strength nearly soldiers position granted advantage nearest vital province egypt controlled grain supply rome brother city commanded entire city garrison rome tensions troops ran high long remained power refused action defeated battle armies egypt took matters hands declared emperor july accepted entered alliance governor syria strong force drawn syrian marched rome command travelled alexandria leaving charge ending jewish rebellion rome placed house arrest safeguard future aggression support old emperor empire pledged allegiance october forces clashed second battle ended crushing defeat armies despair attempted negotiate surrender terms peace including voluntary agreed soldiers guard imperial bodyguard considered resignation prevented carrying treaty morning december emperor appeared deposit imperial insignia temple concord minute steps imperial palace confusion leading men state gathered house proclaiming emperor multitude dispersed clashed armed escort forced retreat hill night joined relatives including armies nearing rome besieged party hold longer day december burst capitol resulting skirmish captured executed managed escape isis spent night safety father supporters afternoon december dead armies having defeated feared enemy came forward meet invading forces universally title mass troops conducted father house following day december senate proclaimed emperor roman empire war officially ended state anarchy days following demise order properly restored early headed interim government representative family senate receiving rival defeat death alexandria new emperor supplies needed grain rome declaration policy gave assurance entire reversal laws especially relating treason early egypt continuing consolidate support departing end finally returned rome properly installed emperor dynasty little factual information survives government years emperor spent year ruler egypt administration empire given aided son modern historians believe remained order consolidate support came rome immediately embarked widespread propaganda campaign consolidate power promote new dynasty reign best known financial reforms following demise dynasty institution tax numerous military campaigns fought 70s significant jewish roman war ended destruction city jerusalem addition faced uprisings egypt reportedly survived helped rebuild rome civil war adding temple peace beginning construction better known died natural causes june immediately succeeded eldest son ancient historians lived period elder speak condemning emperors came despite initial concerns character ruled great acclaim following death june considered good emperor contemporary historians role best known public building program rome completing construction relieving suffering caused disasters mount eruption fire rome continued father efforts promote dynasty revived practice imperial cult father laid foundations later temple finished barely years office unexpectedly died fever september roman senate declared emperor guard day death commencing reign lasted years longer man governed rome strengthened economy roman expanded border defenses empire initiated massive building programme restore damaged city rome britain expanded roman empire far modern day scotland unable decisive victory war september assassinated court officials dynasty came end day succeeded friend advisor founded long lasting dynasty memory condemned roman senate difficult relationship reign authors younger published histories death view cruel paranoid modern history rejected views instead ruthless efficient cultural economic political programme provided foundation peaceful 2nd century successors restrictive reality policies differed little administration government fall republic authority roman senate largely eroded quasi system government established known allowed existence facto regime maintaining formal framework roman republic emperors upheld public facade democracy return senate acknowledged emperor status facto monarch civil war clear real power empire lay control army time proclaimed emperor rome hope restoring republic long dissipated approach government implicit explicit exclusion returned rome immediately embarked series efforts consolidate power prevent future revolts offered gifts military dismissed punished soldiers loyal equestrian orders removing enemies adding allies executive control largely distributed members family non virtually excluded important public offices earliest supporters civil war slowly disappears historical records time believed died intention found long lasting dynasty govern roman empire evident powers conferred eldest son shared power father received seven censorship remarkably given command guard effectively acted emperor father abrupt change policy occurred brief reign approach government subtle father brother emperor quickly republican facade transformed government formally divine monarchy believed moving centre power imperial court openly rendered senate powers obsolete personally involved branches administration issued governing smallest details everyday life law taxation public morals enforced concessions opinion father brother virtually excluded non public office rarely favoured family members distribution strategic posts admitting surprisingly large number potential opponents assigning men equestrian order run imperial bureaucracy financial reforms acts emperor enforce tax reform restore empire depleted treasury arrived rome continued press collect taxes possible old ones instituted new ones increased tribute provinces kept eye treasury officials latin non money smell created introduced tax public toilets accession roman standard increasing silver content imminent crisis forced standard higher level maintained reign rigorous taxation policy ensured standard sustained following years coin types era display highly consistent degree quality including meticulous attention exceptionally refined artwork reverse portraits jones estimates annual income million presumably spent maintaining roman army major area expenditure encompassed vast reconstruction programme carried city rome challenges military activity significant military campaign undertaken period siege destruction jerusalem destruction city culmination roman campaign following jewish uprising second temple completely demolished soldiers proclaimed honor victory jerusalem sacked population killed dispersed claims people killed siege majority jewish captured enslaved including simon bar john fled areas mediterranean reportedly refused accept victory merit people god return rome awarded triumph accompanied rode city enthusiastically roman populace preceded lavish parade containing treasures captives war describes procession large amounts gold silver carried route followed elaborate war jewish prisoners finally treasures taken temple jerusalem including leaders resistance executed forum procession closed religious sacrifices temple arch stands entrance forum victory conquest britain continued command expanded roman empire far modern day scotland crossed unidentified body water defeated peoples unknown romans fortified coast facing ireland recalls father law claimed island conquered single legion given refuge exiled irish king hoped use excuse conquest conquest happened historians believe crossing referred fact small scale expedition ireland following year raised fleet pushed forth aid advance expansive fortress constructed summer faced armies led battle romans inflicted heavy losses thirds army managed escape hide scottish marshes highlands ultimately preventing bringing entire british island control military campaigns undertaken reign usually defensive nature emperor rejected idea warfare significant military contribution development encompassed vast network roads forts constructed rhine river defend empire important wars fought danube frontier led king invaded province considerable havoc killing governor immediately launched resulted destruction legion ill fated expedition commander killed battle standard guard lost romans invaded time command finally managed defeat late site previously killed attack capital canceled crisis arose german frontier forcing sign peace treaty severely criticized contemporary authors remainder reign remained relatively peaceful client kingdom roman money defenses continued rome reign decisive victory roman army sustained heavy losses succeeded capturing importantly annexed gold silver mines natural disasters administration marked relative absence major military political conflicts faced number major disasters brief reign august barely months accession mount erupted resulting complete destruction life property cities resort communities bay naples cities buried metres stone lava killing thousands citizens appointed organise coordinate relief effort personally large amounts money imperial treasury aid victims volcano additionally visited eruption following year city lost nearly years accidental excavation provided detailed insight life city height roman empire frozen moment buried august forum houses town like villa mysteries remain surprisingly preserved today popular tourist attractions italy world heritage site going excavations reveal new insights roman history culture second visit disaster area fire struck rome lasted days extent damage disastrous great fire districts records long list important public buildings destroyed including temple parts theatre julia personally compensated damaged regions according plague similarly struck fire nature disease death toll unknown claims continuously met conspiracy known specifically attempted guard mutiny conspiracy thwarted according historian john alleged conspiracy fact calculated plot faction remove members opposition tied address found body faced real treated enemies kill dog words expressing temper demonstrated emperor inviting men suspected aspiring throne dinner rewarding gifts allowing seated games appears met reign led eventual assassination significant revolt arose january governor superior rebelled roman empire aid precise cause rebellion uncertain appears planned advance officers disapproved military strategies decision german frontier attack recent retreat britain finally policy rate uprising strictly confined province quickly detected spread neighbouring provinces governor inferior moved region assisted spain summoned whilst came rome guard stroke luck prevented crossing rhine coming aid days rebellion crushed leaders punished sent assisted defeat duly rewarded speak escalating end reign identifying point sharp increase failed revolt opponents executed including husband family members marcus men executed early lending little credit notion reign terror late reign according convicted corruption treason trivial charges justified suspicion culture propaganda reign rulers dynasty power adopted line descent longer claim relation massive propaganda campaign initiated justify rule having divine providence early rumours circulated healing sick raising dead egypt time propaganda emphasised role peace following crisis nearly coins rome celebrated military victory peace word removed coins remind public rebellious construction projects bore inscriptions praising condemning previous emperors temple peace constructed forum controlled public opinion literature approved histories written reign assuring removed giving financial rewards contemporary writers ancient historians lived period elder speak condemning emperors came admits status elevated identifies patron dedicated natural histories spoke punished number philosophers accused students inappropriate teachings expelled rome pro republic philosopher executed teachings revived practice imperial cult fallen somewhat use significantly act emperor brother deaths infant son niece julia likewise enrolled gods foster worship imperial family erected site house completed temple shrine dedicated worship father brother military family ordered construction completed arch order justify divine nature rule emphasized connections chief deity significantly impressive restoration temple hill construction dynasty best known vast construction programme city rome intended restore capital damage suffered great fire civil war added temple peace temple statue apollo begun statue finished orders dedicated stage theater construction presently better known probably nearby statue begun finally completed addition providing spectacular roman populace building conceived gigantic monument commemorate military achievements jewish wars adjacent golden house ordered construction new public bath house bear construction building hastily finished coincide completion bulk construction projects carried reign spent restore city rome renovation project building programme intended achievement empire wide cultural renaissance structures erected restored completed number second erected important new structures stadium expansive palace hill known palace designed master architect important building restored temple hill said covered roof completed temple arch added fourth level finished interior seating area entertainment fond games realised importance citizens rome newly constructed provided spectacular inaugural games lasted days said extremely elaborate including combat fights wild animals elephants cranes mock naval battles theatre flooded horse races races games wooden balls dropped audience inscribed prizes clothing gold slaves traded designated item estimated million spent reign addition revived practice public reduced simple distribution food invested large sums entertainment games founded games contest comprising athletic displays races competitions music acting supported travels competitors empire attributed prizes innovations introduced regular games naval contests night time battles female dwarf fights finally added new factions gold purple races regular white red green blue teams legacy relatively short lived dynasty helped restore stability empire knees criticised especially based style rule issued reforms created stable empire 3rd century background military dynasty led senate conclusive away citizen emperor little factual information survives government years emperor reign best known financial reforms following demise dynasty noted loyalty people example money spent public works restoration rome new forum temple peace public record ancient historians stands emperor surviving accounts period written contemporaries elder present highly favourable view character especially prospered comparison brother contrast ideal portrayal roman histories jewish memory wicked remembered evil destroyer temple example legend describes having sex inside temple destruction contemporary historians death administration provided foundation peaceful empire 2nd century culmination successors restrictive reality policies differed little coda 1st century roman empire prospered reign described intelligent timeline secondary material john online encyclopedia roman rulers families retrieved john online encyclopedia roman rulers families retrieved john online encyclopedia roman rulers families retrieved gallery silver coins


glorious revolution scotland glorious revolution scotland wider change regime known glorious revolution revolution british kingdoms stuart monarchy began england saw removal catholic james vii scotland england england scotland ireland replacement protestant daughter mary husband william orange restoration monarchy person charles_ii scotland ruled london series commissioners led divisions church began attend separate catholicism charles heir james duke albany york alienated support built following highland clans accession attempts invasion opponents failed birth heir prince james prompted english politicians support william orange major invasion netherlands james fled france scotland little option accept change monarch presbyterian dominated convention offered crown scotland william mary abolished dominant politics series favour james heirs result revolution scotland drawn major international wars ultimately union england background scots rebelled religious policies charles established national abolished scotland militarily defeated occupied short time annexed english commonwealth leadership oliver restoration monarchy england meant parallel restoration scotland scots weak position event scotland regained system law parliament committee articles crown controlled parliamentary business bishops king charles_ii visit country ruled largely reference parliament series commissioners began john ended king brother heir james duke york known scotland duke albany effectively ran small scottish court palace church ministers forced accept restoration lose ministry refused ministers chose voluntarily abandon parishes wait forced government occurred south west scotland area particularly strong sympathies abandoning official church people began attend illegal field assemblies led excluded ministers known known leaders official attempts suppress led rising defeated james duke king illegitimate son battle bridge early intense phase persecution began later known protestant historiography killing time executed james graham sentenced transportation death sir george lord advocate england exclusion crisis divided political society given scottish attempted unsuccessfully exclude openly catholic duke albany succession opposed similar divisions began emerge scottish political life little organised opposition succession james rights heir received explicit recognition scottish parliament passed succession act charles james acted campbell 9th earl feudal rights south west highlands powerful figures kingdom rights eroded favour families james consciously building following region eventually tried fled dutch court focus scottish english political included scottish peer lord george implicated house plot alleged attempt assassinate charles james deposition james vii charles died brother succeeded james vii scotland england james catholics key positions government attendance death disregarded parliament council forced religious roman catholics protestant subjects failure invasion led earl timed duke rebellion england demonstrated strength regime unable raise sufficient force threaten regime soon captured executed believed king succeeded daughter mary protestant wife william orange main provinces netherlands james produced male heir james francis edward stuart clear policies invitation seven leading prompted william launch invasion landing england men november edinburgh rumours orange plots december lord chancellor scotland earl perth quit capital castle planning abortive escape ireland later captured embarked france approached abbey fired soldiers resulting deaths city guard called abbey stormed large mob catholic placed restored chapel james torn tombs stuart kings crowd students burnt pope took heads executed hanging city gates crisis resolved james fled england december leading revolution significant scottish involvement coup members scottish council went london offer services william result revolution scotland carried opponents existing regime agents keen preserve offices described reluctant revolutionaries contrast tim harris argues lack popular support james regime william political support grew crisis similar way england january members scottish council asked william responsibilities government scotland convention estates william called scottish convention convened march edinburgh initially william supporters clear advantage hamilton chosen william represent gained presidency associated james narrow margin faction supported james including led figures including john archbishop glasgow divided james previous attempts achieve tolerance roman catholics letter james received march contained threat punish rebelled declared assembly illegal resulted followers abandoning convention leaving largely unopposed william supporters control edinburgh castle formidable arsenal held catholic earl gordon raising troops highlands convention met highly charged political atmosphere closed doors guarded april votes convention formulated documents claim right articles grievances suggested james crown actions contrast england relied legal fiction offered william mary accepted crown scotland william mary principles documents roman catholic hold crown office royal law parliament meet frequently able debate freely interference committee articles taxation consent parliament condemned trouble nation proposal union kingdoms discussed dropped opposition english parliament england convention converted regular parliament june view convention william accepted crown basis articles claim agree arguing constrained oath uphold true religion maintain balance realm privileges crown scotland clearly defined william accept scottish parliament interpretation constitutional position primary political institution kingdom leading series disputes parliament edinburgh government london parliament leading figures parliament included political rivals returned exile servant james vii regime john 1st earl earl sole secretary state scotland lord advocate appointed joint secretary state session parliament deteriorated stalemate constitutional position william able appoint ministers parliament withheld taxation refused accept right nominate judicial offices meaning law courts remained closed parliament passed series acts william refused royal major issues contention committee articles result emergence organised opposition known club support members theoretical parliamentary votes court conceded issue july continued resist committee articles soon news defeat forces battle parliament august background james vii invasion ireland possibility irish invasion scotland continued pockets resistance highlands parliament met april stalemate broken discovery montgomery plot sir james montgomery major supporter william cause convention frustrated offered minor office government entered secret negotiations extreme plot involved club conservative including duke resulting panic conceded committee articles agreed series agreements court parliament act grant supply king agreed june constitutional settlement emerged parliament sessions radical arrived william mary retained important powers particularly right summon dissolve parliament allowing william parliament death parliament considerable gains independence difficult manage court june parliament exercised new found independence passing act abolished lay patronage local right appoint ministers parishes religious settlement general_assembly meet november months fall stuart regime convention series bands ejected ministers result ministers elders attended south river sympathies strongest second half ministers deprived refusing prayers william mary turning restoration militant purge commissions created south north years remove thirds ministers general_assembly refused ministers pledged accept result left parish clergy king tolerant tended issued acts allowing accepted king return church clergy took advantage offer hardened given leaving small remnant final settlement closer position radical position despite frequent statements independent state relationship remained ambiguous lay patronage theory abolished elders right nominate candidates parishes called congregation resistance william supporters dominated government parliament remained significant following james particularly highlands cause known latin james led series initial military attempt led john graham forces defeated william forces battle took heavy losses slain fighting leadership army soon defeated battle newly raised government regiment land forces defeated battle gordon surrendered edinburgh castle june complete defeat james cause ireland forces william battle ended phase military effort massacre aftermath defeat february incident known massacre members clan killed members earl regiment foot accepted grounds prompt allegiance new monarchs women children died exposure homes burned brutality incident embarrassing new government subsequent inquiry ordered massacre forced resign massacre helped create greater sympathy stuart cause contributed later support significance glorious revolution settled dominance church scotland politics whig dominance continued scotland england mid eighteenth century countries revolution marked triumph parliamentary determining legal monarch succession furthermore revolution decisively determined future structure short term removal ministers probably impact seven ill years severe able operate system parish poor relief revolution provided political dimension cultural religious divisions particularly largely highlands presbyterian helped scottish highlands main focus resistance regime resulting series military adventures threatening revolution led scotland involvement large scale european wars resulting heavy demands men taxation led ultimately acts union created kingdom great_britain danger divided succession scotland england drove need lasting resolution


salon salon high class berlin nazi intelligence service espionage purposes world war created early 1930s salon taken general subordinate walter managed entire existence original owner plan seduce german dignitaries foreign visitors diplomats alcohol women disclose secrets express honest opinions nazi related topics individuals notable guests included joseph joseph building housing salon destroyed air raid project quickly lost importance salon inspiration subject featured films involving nazi espionage history 1930s salon high class located wealthy district berlin usual included german dignitaries foreign diplomats industrialist high ranking civil servants senior nazi party members madame better known running creation nazi takeover secretly sending money british banks fleeing refugees nazis took power germany january eventually tried leave country june agents arrested dutch border took headquarters seen walter time worked counter intelligence department gave ultimatum cooperate nazis sent concentration camp idea use salon espionage purposes came leading general police chief nazi_germany instead decided altogether converted basement workshop operators conversations love making room rooms salon expanded renovated highest standards 1930s idea entertain prominent guests wine women disclose secrets talk real opinions ensure support relied girls salon purpose espionage started looking young women work circular deemed secret asked administrative offices berlin assistance requirement profile read wanted women girls intelligent minded furthermore man crazy und die intelligent und berlin vice squad arrested dozens berlin prostitutes selected beautiful sexually attractive potential agents work salon things trained recognize military uniforms secrets conversation told report encounter ladies particular attractions trained satisfy customers historian paul notes women entertained members nazi elite respected ladies berlin high society given contributions nearly married men good financial means march told continue business happened special book additional girls certain clients customer phrase come instructed book allow decision girl selected girl spend night guest depart later notable guests salon popular selected guests military diplomatic corps told secret monitors thousands recordings visits customers son law italian dictator foreign minister fascist italy opinions particularly positive visitor general wanted special girls night revealed secrets additionally propaganda minister joseph marked client enjoyed lesbian displays considered anti social acts outside context number inspection tours turned occasions british agent roger wilson cover identity romanian press secretary noticed microphone wires regular customer salon regular girl later arranged cables british intelligence heard conversations air raid closing war progressed salon decreased july building demolished air attack relocated year decided abandon project handed salon threat silent face retaliation madame talk matter war died age revealing identity employees total number recordings estimated east german security service virtually recordings lost destroyed post war according article die continued exist world war management son daughter 1990s turned home asylum closed soon local protest residents media story happened salon came light walter memoirs published germany title labyrinth peter later expanded story book salon book basis highly controversial film salon directed brass starring walter renamed renamed bbc comedy drama private german petty criminal unwilling world war service prominently features salon episode given job manning listening post basement recording conversations picked hidden concept spies find nazi regime recycled times european nazi exploitation films printed john peculiar war espionage terrorism twentieth century publishing isbn christopher adam art production design isbn montgomery crimes punishment marshall isbn jean illustrated dictionary publishing isbn paul nazi women attraction evil publishing isbn women nazi_germany publishing isbn online private british broadcasting corporation retrieved august den german online retrieved july tina nazi das german die retrieved july