renaissance renaissance period europe 14th 17th century regarded cultural bridge middle ages modern history started cultural movement italy late medieval period later spread rest europe marking beginning early modern age intellectual basis renaissance invented version derived classical greek philosophy said man measure things new thinking manifest art architecture politics science literature early examples development perspective oil painting recycled knowledge concrete invention metal type sped ideas later 15th century changes renaissance uniformly experienced europe cultural movement renaissance encompassed innovative flowering latin vernacular beginning 14th century resurgence learning based classical sources contemporaries credited development linear perspective techniques rendering natural reality painting gradual widespread educational reform politics renaissance contributed development customs conventions diplomacy science increased reliance observation reasoning renaissance saw revolutions intellectual pursuits social political best known artistic developments contributions inspired term renaissance man consensus renaissance began florence 14th century theories proposed account origins characteristics focusing variety factors including social civic florence time political structure patronage dominant family migration greek scholars texts italy following fall constantinople ottoman turks major centres northern italian city states venice genoa milan finally rome renaissance renaissance long complex historiography line general debate historians reacting 19th century renaissance individual culture heroes renaissance men questioning renaissance term historical art historian observed resistance concept renaissance accident italian renaissance vigorously questioned obliged professional interest aesthetic aspects civilization historians economic social developments political religious situations particularly natural science exceptionally students literature hardly historians art observers called question renaissance cultural advance middle ages instead seeing period nostalgia classical antiquity social economic historians especially instead focused continuity eras linked observed thousand ties word renaissance literally meaning rebirth french appeared english 1830s word occurs work france word renaissance extended historical cultural movements renaissance renaissance 12th century overview renaissance cultural movement profoundly affected european intellectual life early modern period beginning italy spreading rest europe 16th century influence felt literature philosophy art music politics science religion aspects intellectual inquiry renaissance scholars employed method study searched realism human emotion art renaissance sought europe monastic libraries latin literary historical texts antiquity fall constantinople generated wave greek scholars bringing precious manuscripts ancient greek fallen obscurity west new focus literary historical texts renaissance scholars differed markedly medieval scholars renaissance 12th century focused studying greek arabic works natural sciences philosophy mathematics cultural texts revival neo renaissance reject christianity contrary renaissance greatest works devoted church works renaissance art subtle shift took place way intellectuals approached religion reflected areas cultural life addition greek christian works including greek new testament brought byzantium western_europe engaged western scholars time late antiquity new engagement greek christian works particularly return original greek new testament promoted help way protestant reformation artistic return exemplified sculpture painters led portray human form developing techniques render perspective light naturally political philosophers famously sought describe political life understand critical contribution italian renaissance wrote famous text dignity man consists series philosophy natural thought faith magic defended opponent grounds reason addition studying classical latin greek renaissance authors began increasingly use vernacular languages combined introduction printing allow people access books especially bible renaissance viewed attempt intellectuals study improve secular revival ideas antiquity novel approaches thought scholars stark play renaissance favor earlier innovations italian city states high middle ages married responsive government christianity birth capitalism analysis argues great european states france spain direct church control independent city italy took principles capitalism invented monastic estates set vast unprecedented commercial revolution preceded financed renaissance origins argue ideas renaissance origin late 13th century florence particular writings paintings writers date renaissance precisely proposed starting point rival competed contract build bronze doors florence cathedral won general competition artists artistic commissions sparking creativity renaissance remains debated renaissance began italy began accordingly theories forward explain origins renaissance money art went hand hand artists depended entirely patrons patrons needed money foster artistic talent wealth brought italy 14th 15th 16th centuries expanding trade asia europe silver mining increased flow money eastern world brought home increased prosperity genoa venice defined 16th century renaissance france period europe cultural history represented break middle ages creating modern understanding humanity place world latin greek phases renaissance stark contrast high middle ages latin scholars focused entirely studying greek arabic works natural science philosophy mathematics renaissance scholars interested recovering studying latin greek literary historical texts broadly speaking began 14th century latin phase renaissance scholars libraries europe search works latin authors early 15th century bulk latin literature recovered greek phase renaissance way western european scholars turned recovering ancient greek literary historical theological texts unlike latin texts preserved studied western_europe late antiquity study ancient greek texts limited medieval western_europe ancient greek works science philosophy studied high middle ages western_europe medieval islamic world normally translation greek literary historical works homer greek studied latin medieval islamic worlds middle ages sorts texts studied byzantine scholars greatest achievements renaissance scholars bring entire class greek cultural works western_europe time late antiquity arab inherited greek ideas invaded conquered egypt levant translations commentaries ideas worked way arab west spain sicily important centers transmission ideas work translation islamic culture largely disorganized constituted greatest ideas history movement regular study greek literary historical theological texts western european curriculum usually dated invitation byzantine diplomat scholar teach greek florence legacy continued number greek scholars leo social political structures italy unique political structures late middle ages italy led unusual social climate allowed emergence rare cultural italy exist political entity early modern period instead divided smaller city states territories kingdom naples controlled south republic florence papal states center north west respectively east fifteenth century italy areas europe cities stood ruins ancient roman buildings likely classical nature renaissance linked origin roman empire historian political philosopher skinner points german bishop visiting north italy 12th century noticed widespread new form political social organization observing italy appeared exited society based merchants commerce linked anti thinking represented famous early renaissance cycle good bad government painted strong message virtues justice good administration holding church empire bay city devoted notions liberty skinner reports defences liberty celebration genius art sculpture architecture remarkable moral social political philosophy occurred florence time cities states central italy republic florence time notable merchant especially republic venice practice bore little resemblance modern democracy democratic features responsive states forms participation governance belief liberty relative political freedom afforded academic artistic advancement likewise position italian cities venice great trading centres intellectual crossroads merchants brought ideas far corners globe particularly levant venice europe gateway trade east producer fine glass florence capital wealth business brought italy meant large public private artistic projects commissioned individuals leisure time study black death plague theory advanced devastation florence caused black death hit europe resulted shift world view people 14th century italy italy particularly badly hit plague speculated resulting familiarity death caused lives earth spirituality argued black death prompted new wave manifested sponsorship religious works art fully explain renaissance occurred specifically italy 14th century black death affected europe ways described italy renaissance emergence italy likely result complex interaction factors plague carried sailing vessels returning ports asia spreading quickly lack proper population england million lost million people plague florence population nearly year result populace value working class increased came enjoy freedom answer increased need labor workers traveled search favorable position economically demographic decline plague economic consequences prices food dropped land values declined parts europe faced great loss ordinary men women survivors plague found prices food cheaper lands abundant inherited property dead relatives spread disease significantly rampant areas poverty ravaged cities particularly children easily spread drinking water armies poor children hit hardest diseases target immune system left young children fighting chance children city dwellings affected spread disease children wealthy black death caused greater florence social political structure later despite significant number deaths members ruling classes government florence continued function period formal meetings elected representatives suspended height epidemic chaotic conditions city small group officials appointed conduct affairs city ensured continuity government cultural conditions florence long matter debate renaissance began florence italy scholars noted features unique cultural life caused cultural movement emphasized role played banking family later ruling house arts catalyst enormous arts patronage encouraging commission works leading artists florence including works commissioned additionally convent san order florence renaissance certainly underway came power family achieved society historians florence birthplace renaissance result luck great men born chance born arguing chance historians contended great men able rise prominence prevailing cultural conditions time characteristics ways philosophy method learning contrast medieval mode focused resolving contradictions authors study ancient texts original combination reasoning evidence education based programme study poetry grammar history moral philosophy rhetoric historians struggled define precisely settled middle road definition movement recover interpret language literature learning values ancient greece rome asserted genius man unique extraordinary ability human mind scholars shaped intellectual landscape early modern period political philosophers thomas revived ideas greek roman applied critiques contemporary government wrote manifesto renaissance dignity man vibrant defence thinking known work civic life printed advocated civic influence vernacular level latin drew roman philosophers especially like lived active public life citizen official theorist philosopher expression perspective poetic work earlier work civic life wide ranging composed series dialogues set country house countryside outside florence plague qualities ideal citizen dialogues include ideas children develop mentally physically citizens conduct morally citizens states ensure public life important debate difference useful honest believed important perfect mind body attained education purpose create universal man person combined intellectual physical excellence capable functioning virtually situation ideology referred ancient roman ideal education renaissance mainly composed ancient literature history thought classics provided moral instruction intensive understanding human behavior art renaissance art marks cultural rebirth close middle ages rise modern world distinguishing features renaissance art development highly realistic linear perspective credited treating painting window space demonstrations architect subsequent writings perspective artistic technique development perspective wider trend realism arts painters developed techniques studying light shadow famously case human anatomy underlying changes artistic method renewed desire depict beauty nature aesthetics works representing artistic imitated artists notable artists include working florence venice netherlands particularly vibrant artistic culture developed work hugo van der goes jan van particularly influential development painting italy technically introduction oil paint canvas terms representation renaissance netherlands later work elder inspire artists depict themes everyday life architecture inventive gifted designer time foremost studying remains ancient classical buildings rediscovered knowledge 1st century writer discipline mathematics formulated renaissance style emulated improved classical forms major feat engineering building dome florence cathedral building demonstrating style church andrew built outstanding architectural work high renaissance rebuilding peter combining skills renaissance architects aimed use columns integrated system roman orders types columns composite structural supporting arcade purely decorative set wall form buildings use integrated system old arches semi circular style arcades supported piers columns capitals section capital arch use arch monumental renaissance ribs semi circular square plan unlike gothic vault frequently rectangular renaissance artists admired antiquity kept ideas symbols medieval past imitated classical forms portraying scenes bible demonstrates classical models influenced italian art renaissance took root literary movement science ancient texts invention printing learning allowed faster propagation ideas period italian renaissance favoured study natural philosophy applied mathematics reverence classical sources views universe writing nicholas anticipated philosophical fashion science art early renaissance artists making drawings anatomy nature set controlled experiments water flow medical systematic study movement devised principles research method led classify father modern science suitable environment developed question scientific doctrine discovery new world christopher columbus challenged classical works geography medicine found match everyday observations protestant reformation counter reformation clashed northern renaissance showed decisive shift focus natural philosophy chemistry biological sciences anatomy medicine willingness question previously held truths search new answers resulted period major scientific view scientific revolution beginning modern age acceleration continuous process stretching ancient world present day significant scientific advances time earth moved sun workings human body gave new confidence role observation view anatomy important development process discovery scientific method focusing evidence importance mathematics science early influential proponents ideas included francis bacon new scientific method led great contributions fields astronomy physics biology anatomy applied innovation extended commerce end 15th century published work making founder accounting music changing society emerged common musical language particular style franco flemish school development printing distribution music possible wide scale demand music entertainment activity educated increased emergence class masses europe coincided unification practice fluid style culminated second half sixteenth century work composers victoria william religion new ideals secular aspects developed christian backdrop especially northern renaissance new art commissioned dedication church renaissance profound effect contemporary theology particularly way people perceived relationship man god period foremost followers method including thomas martin john renaissance began times religious turmoil late middle ages period political intrigue surrounding culminating western men simultaneously claimed true bishop rome resolved council resulting reform movement known sought limit power pope eventually emerged supreme ecclesiastical matters fifth council continued accusations corruption famously person pope alexander accused variously children married presumably consolidation power cardinal proposed reform church based criticism new testament october published challenging papal authority criticizing perceived corruption particularly regard instances sold led reformation break roman_catholic_church previously claimed western_europe renaissance played direct role sparking reformation contemporaneous religious debates conflicts pope paul iii came papal throne sack rome prevalent catholic_church following protestant reformation dedicated revolutions spheres paul iii grandfather cardinal paintings important collection drawings commissioned masterpiece arguably major illuminated manuscript hours self awareness 15th century writers artists architects italy aware taking place phrases antique manner manner romans describe work referred pre christian times ancient christian period nova new italian perspective new period included time age national eclipse use history people periods based added period believed italy longer state decline similar framework decades history deterioration roman empire historians argued contemporary scholarship restored direct links classical period bypassing medieval period named time middle ages term appears latin media middle times term rebirth appeared broad sense lives artists revised divides age phases phase contains second phase contains centers growing awareness classical antiquity drove development according growing desire study imitate nature spread 15th century renaissance spread rapidly birthplace florence rest italy soon rest europe invention printing press german printer allowed rapid transmission new ideas spread ideas changed adapted local culture 20th century scholars began break renaissance regional national movements northern europe renaissance northern europe termed northern renaissance renaissance ideas moving north italy simultaneous southward spread areas innovation particularly music music 15th century school defined beginning renaissance music moved musicians italy formed core true international style music chant 9th century culmination school music italian composer end 16th century italy center musical innovation development style venetian school spread northward germany paintings italian renaissance differed northern renaissance italian renaissance artists paint secular scenes breaking away purely religious art medieval painters northern renaissance artists initially remained focused religious subjects contemporary religious portrayed later works influenced artists paint scenes daily life religious classical themes northern renaissance flemish brothers jan van perfected oil painting technique enabled artists produce strong colors hard surface survive centuries feature northern renaissance use vernacular place latin greek allowed greater freedom expression movement started italy decisive influence development vernacular languages fact focus writing italian neglected major source ideas expressed latin spread printing press technology boosted renaissance northern europe venice world center printing england england sixteenth century marked beginning english renaissance work writers william_shakespeare christopher sir thomas francis bacon sir philip great artists architects jones introduced architecture england composers thomas john william france word renaissance borrowed french language means birth eighteenth century later popularized french historian work france history france italian renaissance arrived france imported king charles viii invasion italy factor promoted spread inability church offer assistance black death francis imported italian art artists including built ornate palaces great expense writers painters jean musicians jean borrowed spirit renaissance fourteen year old born florence tour married henry_ii france second son king francis queen famous infamous role france religious wars direct contribution bringing arts sciences music including origins ballet french court native florence germany second half 15th century renaissance spirit spread germany low countries development printing press early renaissance artists painters jan van composers jacob des influence italy early protestant areas country closely linked turmoil protestant reformation art writing german renaissance frequently reflected dispute gothic style medieval philosophy remained exclusively turn 16th century emperor ruling truly renaissance monarch holy roman empire netherlands culture netherlands end 15th century influenced italian renaissance trade flanders wealthy nobles commissioned artists known europe science led way map assisted explorers art dutch flemish renaissance painting ranged strange work everyday life depictions elder spain renaissance arrived peninsula mediterranean possessions crown city early spanish renaissance writers come kingdom including march kingdom early renaissance heavily influenced italian starting writers poets introduced new italian poetry spain early 15th century writers juan del juan kept close resemblance italian canon masterpiece don credited western novel renaissance flourished early 16th century influential writers philosopher juan natural historian later spanish renaissance tended religious themes poets john cross treated issues related exploration new world writers las giving rise body work known spanish renaissance literature late renaissance spain produced artists composers victoria portugal italian renaissance modest impact portuguese arts portugal influential european inquiry renaissance arrived influence wealthy italian flemish merchants invested profitable commerce overseas pioneer headquarters european exploration lisbon flourished late 15th century attracting experts mathematics astronomy naval technology including martin crucial advances mapping world physicians collected published works plants soon translated flemish pioneer botanist architecture huge profits trade financed composite style decades 16th century incorporating maritime elements primary painters music produced including literature introduced italian forms verse developed pastoral romance plays fused popular culture reporting changing times inscribed portuguese feats overseas epic poem travel literature especially flourished described new lands translated spread new printing press joining portuguese exploration brazil coined term new world letters intense international exchange produced cosmopolitan scholars including francisco friend wrote rare independence reign king relevant teaching reforms france foreign news products portuguese factory antwerp attracted interest thomas wider world profits know helped dutch renaissance golden age especially arrival wealthy jewish community expelled portugal hungary italy hungary european country renaissance appeared renaissance style came directly italy hungary central european region thanks development early hungarian italian relationships connections cultural commercial relations growing strength 14th century relationship hungarian italian gothic styles second reason exaggerated breakthrough walls avoided preferring clean light structures large scale building schemes provided ample long term work artists example building new castle castles court patrons descendant family florence invited hungary new italian trend combined existing national traditions create particular local renaissance art acceptance renaissance art continuous arrival thought country young hungarians studying italian universities came closer center direct connection florence evolved growing number italian traders moving hungary specially helped process new thoughts carried archbishop founders hungarian long reign emperor royal castle probably largest gothic palace late middle ages king rebuilt palace early renaissance style expanded marriage king naples important artistic centres renaissance north alps important living court famous hungarian poet set printing press library europe greatest collections secular books historical chronicles scientific works 15th century library second size vatican library vatican library mainly contained religious materials florence wrote founded greek latin library encouraged example hungarian king library world heritage important figures hungarian renaissance poet poet composer master painter poland early italian came poland century italian artists came poland milan married king old supported temporarily strengthened areas newly established universities polish renaissance lasted late 15th late 16th century golden age polish culture ruled dynasty kingdom poland known polish lithuanian commonwealth actively participated broad european renaissance multi national polish state experienced substantial period cultural growth thanks century major wars aside conflicts sparsely populated eastern southern reformation spread peacefully country giving rise polish living conditions improved cities grew exports agricultural products enriched population especially nobility gained dominance new political system golden liberty polish renaissance architecture periods development russia renaissance trends italy central europe influenced russia ways influence limited large distances russia main european cultural centers strong adherence russians orthodox traditions byzantine legacy prince iii introduced renaissance architecture russia inviting number architects italy brought new construction techniques renaissance style elements general following traditional designs russian architecture architect came rebuild cathedral moscow damaged earthquake given 12th century cathedral model produced design combining traditional russian style renaissance sense proportion symmetry iii commissioned building royal residence palace architect floors italian architects contributed construction walls towers small banquet hall russian called palace upper story work italians shows italian style italian known russia arrived moscow venetian sculptor built churches iii including cathedral building remarkable successful blending russian tradition orthodox requirements renaissance style believed cathedral metropolitan peter monastery work later served inspiration called architectural form moscow baroque late 17th century early 16th late 17th centuries original tradition stone roof architecture developed russia unique different contemporary renaissance architecture europe research terms style russian gothic compares european gothic architecture earlier period italians advanced technology influenced invention stone roof wooden tents known russia europe long according hypothesis italian architect called author ascension church earliest prominent roof churches 17th century influence renaissance painting resulted russian icons slightly realistic following old icon painting seen works simon russian artists era gradually new type secular portrait painting appeared called persona person transitional style abstract real paintings mid 16th century russians adopted printing central europe known russian printer 17th century printing widespread especially popular led development special form folk art known printing persisted russia 19th century number technologies european renaissance period adopted russia early subsequently perfected strong domestic tradition military technologies cannon casting adopted 15th century cannon world largest bombard caliber masterpiece russian cannon making cast notable rich decorative relief technology according hypothesis originally brought europe italians resulted development national russia early ambassadors brought living water moscow presented grand duke likely developed help arab invented apparatus convert alcohol monk called technology produce original russian countries renaissance croatia renaissance scotland historiography conception italian artist critic term book lives artists published book attempted define described break gothic art arts held fallen decay collapse roman empire artists beginning began reverse decline arts saw antique art central rebirth italian art 19th century french word renaissance achieve popularity describing self conscious cultural movement based revival roman models began century french historian defined renaissance work france entire historical period previously limited sense renaissance development science art culture asserted spanned period columbus end 15th century middle 17th century distinguished called bizarre monstrous quality middle ages democratic values vocal republican chose character french nationalist sought claim renaissance french movement swiss historian jacob civilization renaissance italy contrast defined renaissance period italy 14th centuries saw renaissance emergence modern spirit middle ages book widely read influential development modern interpretation italian renaissance accused setting forth linear view history seeing renaissance origin modern world recently historians keen define renaissance historical age coherent cultural movement historian university california berkeley stated period definitive beginnings endings consistent content renaissance occasionally seen movement practices ideas specific groups identifiable persons variously responded different times places sense network diverse conflicting cultures single time bound culture debates progress debate extent renaissance improved culture middle ages keen describe progress renaissance modern age likened change veil removed man eyes allowing clearly middle ages sides human consciousness turned turned lay dreaming half awake beneath common veil veil woven faith illusion world history seen clad strange hand historians point negative social factors popularly associated medieval period poverty warfare religious political persecution example worsened era saw rise politics wars religion corrupt intensified witch hunts 16th century people lived renaissance view golden age imagined certain 19th century authors concerned social significantly artists writers patrons involved cultural movements question believed living new era clean break middle ages historians prefer describe renaissance material terms holding view changes art literature philosophy general economic trend capitalism resulting class leisure time devote arts acknowledged existence renaissance questioned positive change book middle ages argued renaissance period decline high middle ages destroying important latin language instance evolved greatly classical period living language church renaissance obsession classical purity halted evolution saw latin revert classical form robert contended period deep economic recession george argued scientific progress original traditionally supposed finally joan kelly argued renaissance led greater gender agency women middle ages historians begun consider word renaissance loaded implying positive rebirth supposedly primitive dark ages middle ages historians prefer use term early modern period neutral designation highlights period transitional middle ages modern era roger come consider italian renaissance myths ideals western history general instead rebirth ancient ideas period great innovation term renaissance define periods outside 15th 16th centuries charles example case renaissance 12th century historians argued renaissance 8th 9th centuries later renaissance 10th century periods cultural rebirth termed renaissance tamil renaissance renaissance harlem renaissance


partition poland partition poland partition polish lithuanian commonwealth took place ended existence polish lithuanian commonwealth growth russian_empire power threatening kingdom prussia austrian empire primary motive partition frederick great engineered partition prevent austria jealous russian successes ottoman_empire going war weakened commonwealth land including controlled russia powerful neighbors austria russia prussia restore regional balance power central europe countries poland unable effectively defend foreign troops inside country polish parliament ratified partition partition convened powers background late 17th early 18th centuries polish lithuanian commonwealth reduced status major european power russian vassal satellite state russian effectively choosing polish lithuanian monarchs free elections deciding outcome poland internal politics example named russian ambassador unofficially presided proceedings partition occurred balance power europe shifted russian victories ottomans russo turkish war strengthening russia interests region particularly point austria started considering war russia france friendly russia austria suggested series territorial adjustments austria compensated parts prussian prussia turn regain prussian parts polish baltic german king frederick prussia intention giving gained recently wars interested finding peaceful solution alliance russia draw potential war austria seven years war left prussia treasury army weakened interested protecting weakening ottoman_empire utilized event prussian war russia austria frederick brother prince henry spent winter representative prussian court saint_petersburg austria annexed towns hungarian region violating treaty catherine russia advisor general suggested henry prussia claim polish land henry informed proposal frederick suggested partition polish austria prussia russia largest share going party weakened recent changes balance power austria frederick attempted encourage russia direct expansion weak non functional poland instead ottomans austrian statesman counter proposed prussia lands poland return austria plan rejected frederick decades times silent russia seen weak poland poland devastated civil war forces bar confederation formed bar attempted disrupt russian control poland recent peasant uprising ukraine weakened polish position russian supported polish king august seen weak independent minded eventually russian court decided poland diminished powers officially justified actions compensation dealing troublesome neighbor restoring order polish anarchy bar confederation provided convenient excuse fact interested territorial gains russia occupied henry convinced frederick maria austria balance power maintained division polish lithuanian commonwealth instead russia taking land ottomans pressure prussia long time wanted annex northern polish province royal prussia powers agreed partition poland light possible austrian ottoman alliance token objections austria instead preferred receive ottoman territories balkans region long time russians withdrew away austrian border attempt bar kidnap king november gave courts pretext showcase polish anarchy need neighbors step save country citizens partition begins austria prussia taken border territories commonwealth austria taking county prussia incorporating february agreement partition signed vienna previous agreement prussia russia saint_petersburg february early august russian prussian austrian troops simultaneously entered commonwealth occupied provinces agreed august parties signed treaty respective territorial gains commonwealth expense regiments bar confederation executive board forced leave austria previously supported country joined russian alliance lay arms fortresses command held long possible castle fell end april fortress held end july commanded held late august end bar confederation defeated members fleeing abroad deported siberia russians division territories partition treaty ratified signatories september major success frederick prussia prussia share smallest significantly developed strategically important prussia took polish royal prussia including allowing frederick link east prussia prussia annexed northern areas greater poland river district northern cities danzig territories annexed prussia new province called west prussia overall prussia gained km2 people according frederick great soon introduced german colonists territories conquered engaged polish territories frederick settled germans polish influenced ethnic situation region time inhabitants enforced according christopher clark certain areas annexed prussia like royal prussia percent population percent urban populace german speaking century german historians justify partition irrelevant contemporary calculations frederick dismissive german culture instead pursuing policy acting security interests state new gained territories connected prussia germany proper major economic importance seizing northwestern poland prussia instantly cut poland sea gained control commonwealth total foreign trade enormous custom duties prussia accelerated inevitable collapse polish lithuanian state despite token criticism partition austrian empress maria austrian statesman considered austrian share ample compensation despite austria interested partition received largest share polish population second largest land share km2 people austria fell little poland embracing parts counties rich salt mines city russia received largest important area economically northeast diplomatic document russia came possession commonwealth territories east line formed roughly rivers section remained commonwealth control embracing counties russia gained square kilometers people reorganized newly acquired lands included provinces appointed governor general new territories partition polish lithuanian commonwealth lost square kilometers territory amounting time square kilometers population million people population fourteen million aftermath having occupied respective territories powers demanded king august approve action king appealed nations western_europe help european powers reacted partition indifference voices like raised objection help forthcoming armies combined nations occupied warsaw force arms calling assembly alternative chosen save passive submission senators advised step threatened russians represented ambassador von declared face refusal capital warsaw destroyed threats included execution estates increases territory according edward henry senators arrested russians exiled siberia local land assemblies refused elect deputies great difficulties half regular number representatives came attend session led adam particular polish nobles russians following orders known partition order prevent disruption veto defeat purpose invaders undertook turn regular majority rule prevailed spite efforts individuals like samuel prevent deed accomplished aid bishops poland occupied high positions senate poland elected committee thirty deal matters presented september committee formally signed treaty claims commonwealth lost territories


holocaust albania holocaust albania consisted murders crimes humanity committed jews minorities greater albania german italian forces country italian german occupation second world war war nearly jews sought refuge albania proper jewish refugees treated local population despite fact country occupied fascist italy nazi_germany following traditional custom known sheltered jewish refugees mountain villages transported adriatic ports fled italy jews joined resistance movements country jews lived dominated experience different survive war surrender italy september german forces occupied albania territories annexed country division formed arrested handed germans jews subsequently deported bergen concentration camp killed late german forces driven albania proper communists led came power country time axis forces annexed regions western macedonia defeated yugoslav partisans subsequently incorporated areas newly communist federal people republic yugoslavia approximately jews killed albania proper annexed western macedonia war jews living albania proper end war estimated country emerged second world war population jews times greater beginning subsequently emigrated israel remained fall communism early 1990s republic albania declared nations role dozens families played saving jewish refugees country second world war recognized nations background according census jews lived albania jewish community numbered nearly granted official recognition country rise number german austrian jews took refuge albania embassy berlin continued issue jews end time european country willing prior outbreak second world war contact jews small number country result widespread albania countries war jews lived town southeastern country jewish community kingdom yugoslavia numbered approximately developed country europe albania subjected italian economic political influence 1930s march italian dictator gave king ultimatum demanding acceptance italian military albania refused accept italians invaded april deposed established state kingdom italy installed regime headed biggest landowner country national assembly established quickly voted economic political union albania kingdom italy led italian king victor iii direction general italian administration implemented laws prohibited jewish immigration albania mandated foreign jews country month italian occupation fascist party formed enacted laws prevented jews joining excluded education composed ethnic italians residing albania party existed branch italian fascist party italian members required swear oath loyalty serving italian required join legal political party country war progressed italy transformed kingdom greater albania italy included portion western macedonia detached yugoslavia axis powers invaded enthusiastically welcomed italian occupation officially italian rule controlled region encouraged open schools prohibited yugoslav rule given citizenship italian authorities allowed fly flag italians kept hundreds thousands troops albania surrounding areas yugoslav sources indicated approximately italian soldiers italian police frontier guards soldiers police border guards annexed portion macedonia time italian military authorities warned hostages shot italian soldier killed wounded regions holocaust invasion yugoslavia jewish community albania grew jews macedonia northern serbia jewish refugees germany austria poland came italian controlled annexed settled towns refugees arrived attributed german sources jewish organization responsible smuggling jews country refugees experience persecution level jews experiencing german controlled territories italians considered economic importance representative italian interests abroad italians arrest approximately jewish refugees transferred town albania given chance work earn money arrested jews italian annexed bay transferred nazi concentration camps albania july transferred camps located italy jews sought refuge albania war local population albania protective jewish refugees transported ports adriatic travel italy jews hid remote mountain villages joined resistance movements country treatment jews accordance traditional customs word honour despite instances cruelty jews occur albania war occasions jews smuggled country killed seized jewellery money january germans estimated conference albania inhabited jews month jews interned italians camp town feared handed germans italian commander camp promised happen march italians blockaded camp arrested jews detained handed german forces transported concentration camp near belgrade killed serbs taken camp remained italy capitulation estimated jews interned camps italian occupation italy surrendered allies september concentration camps albania dissolved shortly germans invaded occupied albania italian soldiers country surrendered germans german forces began target jews living albania dominated regions occupied yugoslavia jewish community western macedonia remained untouched italian occupation targeted groups jews dispatched camps property belongings later taken organizations institutions private individuals germans arranged albania administration reorganized shortly occupying country september national committee established german sponsorship governed regency council established recognized germany official government country november ally germans region appointed minister interior albania later founded nazi aligned second league declared holy war jews sought create greater albania league backing jerusalem leading supporter nazis pressed implementation final solution new administration place germans demanded authorities provide lists jews deported local authorities comply provided jewish families forged documents situation dominated different began recruiting join 21st mountain division 1st formed composed ethnic named national hero george fought ottoman turks 15th century members took religious oath division strength men time creation better known murdering looting predominantly serbian areas participating combat operations behalf german war effort members division raided jewish homes arrested native foreign jews handed germans june taken bergen concentration camp killed allied victory balkans imminent men attempted purchase weapons withdrawing german soldiers order organize final solution slavic population came powerful yugoslav partisans prevented large scale ethnic occurring generally jews counterparts albania historical experiences serbs ottoman_empire tended non enthusiastically supported germans result claims protected jews german forces took territories italian authorities controlled war protection jews received early years war italian authorities local population estimated jews perished war official yugoslav state report published recorded jewish wartime fatalities region approximately jews killed albania controlled territories war somewhat greater number refugees hid survived assistance local population aftermath october november yugoslav partisans supported western allies soviet_union assisted forces newly anti fascist bulgarian regime brigades partisans retook region germans withdrew area federal people republic yugoslavia defeat guaranteed withdrawing germans helped collaborators escape country communist forces drew closer failed escape executed communists capture november communist forces emerged victorious albania subsequently implemented government banned religions country estimated jews albania end second world war times number jews living country beginning war jewish community fully recovered war jews remained region emigrated israel communist period similarly jews albania decided following communist takeover approximately remained country early 1990s official census april recorded jews living country fall communism albania eased restrictions religion foreign travel resulted virtually entire jewish community country israel december june jews albania israel operation flying carpet remaining jews country left outbreak political violence republic albania recognized nations united_states holocaust memorial museum washington february recognized nations role helping jews albania survive holocaust public space albania dedicated holocaust small display national historical museum consisting photographs texts maps wartime documents opened november


prussia prussia german early modern realm based electorate main branch branch ruling prussia secured succession extinction male line consequence incorporation lower mark treaty thirty years war especially devastating changed sides times result protestant catholic armies swept land forth killing burning seizing men taking food supplies upwards half population killed berlin major cities ruins recovery took decades peace ended thirty years war gained succession farther incorporated incorporated treaty concluded second northern war freed polish prussia gained treaty saint expanded lower second half 17th century laid basis prussia great players european politics later emerging prussian military potential based introduction standing army widely noted victories warsaw great drive prussia established navy german colonies gold coast frederick william known great opened prussia large scale immigration protestant refugees europe notably immigration following frederick william started prussia administration reduce influence estates frederick iii succeeded status king prussia possible prussia sovereign status outside holy roman empire german nation approval emperor european course forming alliances war spanish succession great northern war onward domains referred kingdom prussia simply prussia legally personal union prussia continued dissolution holy roman empire time emperor empire legal fiction facto treated prussian kingdom frederick successors continued expand state transforming personal union politically diverse typical prussian era system provinces subordinate berlin establishment john seat main branch prince holy roman empire treaty prussia created partial state order vassal kingdom poland governed duke albert prussia member cadet branch house behalf mother anna marie albert second wife bore successor albert frederick branch granted right succession polish crown albert frederick duke prussia albert death mother died year showed signs mental disorder duke illness prussia governed albert nephew george frederick albert frederick married marie daughters albert frederick year old daughter anna married son frederick john marriage ensured right succession prussian george frederick death regency prussian passed frederick treaty concluded members house ruling territories internally divided future inherited prussia albert frederick death continued held polish crown john suffered stroke consequence severely handicapped physically mentally wife anna ruled prussia john died second stroke aged george william george william duke prussia proved unable break dominance electorate upper saxon circle saxon rendered defense circle ineffective subsequently overrun von thirty years war george william claimed neutrality presence army forced join catholic imperial camp treaty accept garrisons swedish empire entered war advanced george william claimed neutrality sweden compelled george william join sweden ally occupying substantial territory prussia concentrating army town walls berlin george william conclude alliance granted sweden transit rights fortresses subsidies consequently roman catholic armies repeatedly ravaged lands great frederick william thirty years war george william succeeded frederick william born known great der character young stamped long stay dutch republic grand tour events war meeting uncle sweden impressive conclusion thirty years war frederick william took prussia times political economical demographic crisis caused war succession new retired army army raised frederick william concluded truce neutrality agreement sweden disputed relevant document exists ratified repeatedly described established growth prussia time forces swedish empire dominated northern germany ally france sweden guarantee power peace swedish aim controlling baltic_sea establishing coastline thwarted frederick william ambitions gain control estuary stettin long sought expand northwards connecting land locked baltic_sea treaty guaranteed succession extinction local house come effect death duke treaty stettin effectively handed control sweden refused claim peace settled partition sweden determined exact border treaty stettin sweden retained western including lower swedish gained eastern farther frederick william dissatisfied outcome acquisition main goals foreign policy peace frederick william compensated western right succession likewise prussia gained smaller territories county primarily french efforts power emperor strengthening frederick william valued territories lower western step stones creation closed dominant realm germany long run devastation prussian territories electorate devastated end thirty years war war population density wealth electorate low compared territories empire war destroyed towns castles villages average population dead regions survived rural population deaths flight towns dropped war important towns berlin frankfurt der population drop respectively territories gained war likewise devastated population survived wealthiest cities empire burned population slain hit prussia involved war despite efforts devastated territories took century reach pre war population density cow war june frederick william broke provisions peace invading bordering possessions mark lower rhine river treaty ended war succession count united ruled catholic counts thirty years war william count disregarded agreement frederick william favored frederick william insisted agreement upheld religious motives frederick william invasion aimed territorial expansion conflict potential spark international war william wanted army continued operate region despite peace intervene frederick william sought support dutch republic followed policy neutrality refused aid frederick william campaign furthermore opposed imperial estates local ones politically isolated frederick william aborted campaign treaty negotiated imperial october underlying religious dispute solved military confrontations avoided prussian army primarily occupied stealing cattle considerably lowered frederick william reputation standing army wartime experiences frederick william convinced prussia prevail standing army traditionally raising financing army reserves privilege estates frederick william envisioned standing army financed independently estates succeeded getting consent necessary financial contributions estates decree july turn confirmed privileges knights including tax exemption assertion jurisdiction police powers estates initially estates contributions limited years frederick william obliged estates continue payments created dedicated office collect contributions contributions confirmed estates transformed decree real estate tax tax towns contribute soldiers monetary payments army estates able free contributing soldiers additional payments initial army size men risen men frederick william accomplished second goal finance army independently estates military costs amounted considerable half state budget ensuring solid financial basis army estates foremost objective frederick william administrative reforms regarded military success way gain international reputation second northern war swedish invasion polish lithuanian commonwealth following year started second northern war frederick william offered protection royal prussian towns treaty yield swedish military supremacy withdraw prussian pursued swedish forces prussian capital frederick william peace allied sweden taking prussia charles sweden treaty january alliance proved victorious battle warsaw june enhancing international reputation continued pressure charles resulted conceding sovereignty prussia frederick william treaty november ensure maintenance alliance treaty concluded december sweden allies awarded greater poland prussia case victory anti swedish coalition gained upper hand frederick william changed sides polish king john confirmed sovereignty prussia treaty legally revert poland line extinct sovereignty prussian confirmed peace ended war prussian campaigns swedish result permanent gains dutch wars franco dutch war broke prussia involved ally dutch republic alliance based treaty resulted french occupation prussian june frederick william abandoned dutch alliance concluded treaty france return withdrew holy roman empire declared war france prussia changed sides joined imperial forces france pressured ally sweden relieve attacking prussia north charles sweden dependent french subsidies reluctantly occupied starting german theater war swedish war frederick william reacted promptly marching armies rhine northern encountered rear swedish army process crossing swamp battle minor skirmish military perspective frederick william victory turned huge symbolic significance great started counter offensive pursuing retreating swedish forces swedish polish king john iii planned restore polish prussia purpose concluded alliance france june france promised assistance subsidies turn allowed french recruitment poland lithuania promised aid hungarian rebel forces distract war france plan work poland lithuania conclude war ottoman_empire french diplomacy despite great efforts failed achieve furthermore opposed polish gentry saw ottomans greater threat polish berlin vienna inner polish catholic opposition intervention protestant hungarian rebels added treaty ended polish ottoman war sided emperor instead plan prussian campaign dropped frederick william cleared swedish occupied exception held denmark norway followed success sweden frederick william cleared prussia swedish forces known great drive louis france concluded dutch war treaties marched armies east relieve swedish ally forced frederick william basically return status quo treaty saint war resulted minor territorial gains small strip swedish right bank lower prussian war resulted huge gain prestige frederick iii frederick iii frederick prussia born years reign father friendly relations france established saint cooled question frederick william turned emperor concluded alliance december alliance frederick william relinquished rights favor turn received county bordered frederick iii present negotiations crown prince assured continuation alliance power secretly concluded amendment return eventually reign prussia remained ally repeatedly deployed troops fight france frederick iii began sound possibility elevation status court vienna attempt unsuccessful elevation king remained central goal agenda envisioned status elevation merely serve decorative purpose regarded necessity prevail political competition frederick iii held elevated status prince status gained bavaria thirty years war peace house exclusive club prince members secular princes changes possible circle prince august strong secured polish crown house secured succession british throne frederick iii perspective status meant loss power perspective confirmed european ignored prussia claims treaty frederick decided raise prussia kingdom holy roman empire king emperor king prussia outside empire fully sovereign plan doubted advisors case crown valuable recognized european nobility important holy roman emperor negotiations renewed emperor turn need allies war spanish succession break november emperor approved frederick coronation crown tract respect poland lithuania held provinces royal prussia agreed frederick king prussia instead king prussia great_britain dutch republic similar reasons emperor accepted frederick elevation prior coronation january frederick dedicated royal coat arms prussian black eagle motto january crowned wife charlotte baroque ceremony castle january august strong congratulated frederick polish king saxon february denmark norway accepted frederick elevation hope ally great northern war russia likewise approved princes holy roman empire followed charles sweden accepted frederick prussian king france spain accepted frederick royal status coronation accepted order despite prussia upheld claims region grand master protested emperor court pope sent circular catholic accept frederick royal status papal documents continued speak prussian kings polish lithuanian nobility accept frederick royal status seeing polish province royal prussia endangered prussian accepted legally holy roman empire personal union prussia technically continued empire dissolution emperor power nominal time soon came treated facto province prussian kingdom frederick portions domain empire acknowledged emperor formal way administration century highly dependent estates counts lords knights towns protestant reformation tax income finances controlled institution controlled great committee estates concessions turn financial aid estates went bankrupt yield veto estates issues concerning better worse country legal commitments issues concerning sale real property reduce influence estates frederick created council called rat die council electorate instead estates function supreme advisory council council permanently established failed gain influence thirty years war thirty years war territories prussia politically independent connected common feudal superior frederick william envisioned transformation personal union real union started prussian government attempt establish rat central authority territories project proved instead continued appoint governor rat territory cases member rat powerful institution territories remained governments estates named prussia mark highest government agencies jurisdiction finances administration attempted balance estates governments creating chambers administer coordinate domains tax income privileges chambers introduced mark prussia came frederick william tax replaced property tax raised prussia standing army estates consent raised consultation estates conclusion second northern war strengthened politically enabling reform constitution mark introduce officials loyal independent local estates prussia confirmed traditional privileges estates accepted privileges interfere sovereignty frederick william ignored privilege prussian estates confirm veto taxes raised raised estates consent force collected taxes approved prussian estates time prussian estates facto relinquished right approve taxes formally entitled introduced mark introduced frederick william reforms state income increased reign tax burden subject reached level twice high france rule frederick iii prussian territories facto reduced provinces monarchy frederick william testament divided prussia sons frederick iii emperor backing succeeded sole ruler based treaty forbade division territories new central chamber prussian territories created called chamber functioned superior agency territories chambers general war emerged second central agency superior local agencies initially concerned administration army transformed agency concerned general tax police tasks map list territories religion immigration john converted failed achieve conversion estates rule february granted religious freedom court remained largely frederick william rebuilt prussia war torn economy attracted settlers europe especially offering religious asylum prominently attracted navy colonies prussia established navy colonies reign frederick william great spent childhood court port cities stettin studied dutch universities frederick william invited dutch engineers sent engineers study netherlands married educated dutch house orange nassau thirty years war frederick william tried acquire finances rebuild country participating trade attempted found prussian east indies company engaged dutch admiral van advisor tried persuade holy roman emperor princes empire participate emperor declined request considered dangerous interest european powers frederick william bought danish fort frederick william unable raise sum asked people towns invest project able willing sufficient money treaty denmark navy victory prussian advance swedish war frederick william decided establish navy engaged dutch merchant benjamin advisor personal meeting frederick william settled major figure prussia emerging naval colonial enterprise prussian navy established ships frederick william leased achieved successes war sweden supporting siege stettin invasion east prussian coast established shipyards enlarged port facilities treaty saint navy swedish ships baltic_sea prussian vessels captured spanish vessel near pressure spain pay promised subsidies spanish ship renamed von flagship atlantic fleet ordered capture spanish vessels carrying silver successful mission following years navy expanded policy ships replaced policy building purchasing october frederick william bought ships leased east port replaced main prussian naval base shipyard admiral house wooden church employees transferred prussia owned nearby castle negotiated agreement town maintain garrison port west african gold coast presented frederick william plan establish colonies african guinea approved july frederick william issued respective orders ships selected establish trade contacts african tribes explore places colonies established september frigate von seal poetic negro left guinea ships reached guinea january crew von sold barrel territory claimed dutch west_indies company confiscated ship march crew remaining ship managed sign contract dutch expelled vessel coastal waters treaty officially declared trade agreement included clause chiefs frederick william agreement allowing prussia establish fort regarded beginning prussian colonial era facilitate colonial expeditions african company founded march initially headquarters berlin shipyards existence company expeditions financed private capital including payments frederick william july expedition east prussian friedrich von der sent guinea erect fortress february treaty indigenous chiefs signed allowed erection second fort nearby named frederick william second wife february treaty signed chiefs kilometers east fourth fort built spring near village named overall colony comprised roughly kilometers coastline extend second colony established archipelago west african coast contrast colony colony portugal build fort main island portugal came spanish control conquered dutch republic france high maintenance costs abandoned demolished fort soon july expedition mounted frederick william took possession vacated colony october subsequently fort rebuilt contacts indigenous population established france alarmed sent vessel conquer fort late attack french frigate smaller vessel beaten prussian garrison victory improved relations indigenous people carried slaves french reach economic importance temporarily advanced world primary staple port slaves caribbean african colonies enabled prussia participate triangular trade lacked trading post caribbean_sea prussia denied purchase french islands saint vincent november failed attempt purchase saint thomas denmark norway danish agreement reached allowed african company rent saint thomas base years sovereignty remained denmark administration danish west_indies company vessel arrived slaves prussia allotted area near capital city charlotte called territories named bay estates west europeans slaves lived estates november french forces looted danish colony prussian company saint thomas abandoned island remains sold auction prussia tried acquire crab island island claimed denmark great_britain spain second expedition found island danish hands plan abandoned prussia annexed peter island small rock proved ineligible trade settlement prussia agreed partition longer present island claimed great_britain agreement negotiations great_britain result agreement prussia tried hold great_britain denied settlement likewise great_britain declined offer purchase


polish ultimatum lithuania polish ultimatum lithuania ultimatum delivered lithuania poland march lithuanian government refused diplomatic relations poland protesting annexation region poland pre world war tensions europe intensified poland perceived need secure northern borders days earlier poland feeling supported international recognition annexation austria nazi_germany decided deliver ultimatum lithuania ultimatum demanded lithuanian government agree establish diplomatic relations warsaw hours terms finalized march establishment diplomatic relations mean facto lithuanian claims region containing historic capital known polish lithuania preferring peace war accepted ultimatum march diplomatic relations established result ultimatum lithuania agree recognize loss government poland similar government prague september took advantage crisis demand portion occasions poland international crises address long standing border disputes dispute lithuania severed diplomatic ties poland polish general staged mutiny october order invaded lithuanian held territory captured disputed city known poles established short lived republic central lithuania entity incorporated poland demographic terms lithuanian lithuanian cities divided evenly polish speaking population jews lithuanian speaking inhabitants population according russian german lithuania demanded polish troops withdraw line drawn agreement poland falsely maintained authorized actions league attempted dispute paul presented concrete proposals form federation sides unwilling negotiations collapsed january january lithuanian troops crossed allied held staged revolt lithuanian occupation main factors led decision conference ambassadors award poland march result state war peace lithuania avoided recognizing polish claims city region refusing undertake actions recognize poland control facto lithuania broke diplomatic relations poland continuously emphasized remained permanent capital designated temporary capital poland refused formally recognize existence dispute region lent legitimacy lithuanian claims railroad traffic telegraph lines cross border mail service complicated example letter poland lithuania needed sent neutral country new envelope remove polish signs delivered lithuania conflict remained important foreign policy issue lithuania increasingly international arena unsuccessful informal attempts situation notably lithuanian prime minister foreign minister asked establish diplomatic relations poland sides engaged emotional rhetoric rationale march day austria annexed greater germany following lithuanian border patrol shot polish soldier line village near exact circumstances clear obscure event variously portrayed lithuanian polish unfortunate accident 1920s 1930s similar incidents occurred seven lithuanian border guards killed course events usually incidents handled local level attempt occasion polish radio newspapers picked story anti lithuanian sentiment protests held warsaw cities crowds shouted military action lithuania evidence camp national unity involved organizing protests march polish government issued threatening statement accusing lithuania following day senate republic poland called establishment diplomatic relations lithuanian claims receiving news poland considering extreme measures president agreeing discuss diplomatic relations changed mind minute night march acting france envoy warsaw proposed commission investigate shooting incident agree measures avoid incidents future partial measure clearly satisfy poland responded refusing ultimatum delivered days later establish commission time lithuanian diplomats approached foreign powers bid international support initial version version ultimatum drafted edward prime minister jan contained demands establish normal diplomatic relations poland allow normal railway road traffic direct telephone telegraph lines line amend lithuanian constitution acknowledge longer capital lithuania conclude convention protecting rights polish minority lithuania conclude trade agreement fully investigate incident polish foreign minister returned trip called government meeting night march meeting argued ultimatum needed contain demand establishment diplomatic relations view ultimatum violated genuine lithuanian interests offer improved prospects peaceful resolution conflict relief tension accordance vision eastern_europe based warsaw dominated polish baltic scandinavian free soviet german influence modified version required relations lithuania removal demands reflected political pressure poland soviet_union france united_kingdom prevent conflict escalating warfare polish government agreed proposal ultimatum toned time ordered military preparations poland assembled divisions line polish troops present lithuanian troops polish troops reinforced armored vehicles air_force regiments consisting aircraft polish fleet waters baltic_sea lithuanian shore ultimatum final text ultimatum completed delivered polish envoy lithuanian envoy follows proposition lithuanian government march accepted sufficient guarantees concerning security frontier view negative results polish lithuanian negotiations present time reason polish government declares considers solution corresponding gravity situation immediate establishment normal diplomatic relations previous condition way regulate questions government animated good faith avoid events dangerous peace polish government allows lithuanian government hours moment note presented acceptance proposition making known diplomatic representations warsaw later march year date discussions technical character polish lithuanian governments shall continued envoys extraordinary ministers exchange notes attached concerning establishment diplomatic relations shall place period hours mentioned polish lithuanian ministers proposition mentioned subject discussion regard content form proposition failure respond presentation reservations shall considered polish government refusal event negative reply polish government guarantee interest state proper means ultimatum contained attachment draft deemed acceptable response ultimatum proposed response stated lithuania agreed establish regular diplomatic relations send warsaw guarantee normal conditions operation polish international reaction soviet lithuanian peace treaty ratified russian recognized lithuanian claims region continued support responses ultimatum soviet_union expressed concerns lithuania independence threatened soviet polish non aggression pact clear wish drawn armed conflict stance attributed growth threat japan armed assistance lithuania required red army invade poland resulted war fronts soviets urged france major ally poland time conflict encourage moderate version ultimatum france united_kingdom preoccupied pressured lithuania relationship poland soon possible feared ultimatum approved nazi_germany germany led adolf_hitler turned attention region held lithuania april hitler stated control port german surrounding area germany second important issue following status area event armed hostilities poland lithuania german troops defend occupy region significant portions western lithuania polish ambassador nazi_germany informed plans poles agreed cooperate german troops respect german interests armed conflict arise hitler assessment immediate bid wished maintain status quo time passed german suggestion lithuania polish demands lithuania estonia baltic states formed baltic principal purposes coordination joint foreign policy mutual international diplomatic support military alliance opinion polish lithuanian dispute outside scope wished resolution considering conflict detrimental stability region attempted persuade estonia exert mutual pressure lithuania acceptance ultimatum reaction ally unexpected acceptance president held government meeting late night march decide accept ultimatum lithuania clearly lacked international support demand refusal cast lithuania unfavorable light rejected peaceful diplomatic relations eighteen years lithuanian diplomats divided issue popular opinion strongly accepting ultimatum campaigns lithuanian liberation attracted massive participation mourning day october invaded lithuania captured annual event largest social organization interwar lithuania league liberation members passionate feelings expressed popular slogan rest poem paul regional peace plans league nations negotiation lithuanian prime minister barely survived assassination attempt government decision open polish schools lithuania probable factor lithuanian coup état government making concessions poland time president received organizations urging government reject ultimatum decisive comment general commander lithuanian army testified military victory poland impossible argued peaceful resolution government decision confirmed fourth minimal discussion march relayed acceptance ultimatum poles gave hour extension decide ultimatum good faith aftermath ultimatum contributed general atmosphere tension fear europe relieved pressure germany arisen aftermath tested soviets willingness defend interests eastern_europe fears expressed lithuania abroad establishment diplomatic relations goal warsaw far reaching follow arose poland seek polish lithuanian commonwealth germany annexation austria precedent poland announced planned create neutral comprising poland lithuania estonia romania counter communism stated wish incorporate lithuanian territories maintained formed basis non aggression economic treaties according new_york_times impact ultimatum felt wall street march foreign currency bond markets cases reaching lowest points seen years markets recovered march ultimatum accepted acceptance triggered government crisis lithuania march prime minister held positions time ultimatum undergoing medical treatment switzerland stepped successor favor relations poland assembled new cabinet ministers despite increasing pressure form broader coalition new cabinet composed solely members lithuanian nationalists union acceptance hurt lithuanian pride damaged reputation party suppressed opposition damage opportunity renew activities formed group called axis poland acceptance greeted enthusiasm described great victory celebrated military march days ultimatum lithuania poland named ambassadors sent warsaw sent march deadline indicated ultimatum negotiations practical matters began march june agreements covering rail transit mail service river navigation concluded railroad torn apart kilometers border repaired customs post established opened lithuania closed league liberation foundation organization given financial support lithuanian activities region lithuania continued claim capital new constitution adopted echoed previous constitution statement permanent capital lithuania merely temporary capital poland continued suppress lithuanian organizations polish lithuanian relations began spring german czech german lithuanian crises poland active efforts ensure lithuania assistance neutrality event war nazi_germany lithuanian general polish foreign minister high profile visits countries poland improved conditions region lithuania believe poland western allies strong resist germany soviet_union germany invaded poland september lithuania maintained policy strict neutrality refusing repeated german offers joint attack poland capture instead lithuania interned polish soldiers accepted polish civilian refugees soviet_union returned lithuania soviet invasion eastern poland september country aware time secret pact signed august germany soviet_union agreed divide region spheres influence june soviet_union occupied annexed lithuania accordance pact year later russia attacked nazi_germany leading nazi occupation lithuania


woman woman woman body woman found naturally preserved jutland denmark dating bce pre roman iron age workers found body estate conditions contributed body excellent preservation intact skeleton found skin internal organs scientists settled disputes age identity preserved body dating determined woman death occurred 5th century bce woman body permanent display ornate glass covered inside church central denmark mistaken identity discovery body early theories identity centered persona queen norway lived bodies recovered indicate victim died violent murder sacrifice theories consistent body opposed burial dry earth according saga denmark ordered queen drowned based belief royal king frederick denmark norway commanded carved hold body careful treatment woman remains explains excellent state conservation corpse conversely man later discovery properly body lost leaving head original remains display young danish archaeologist disagreed woman pioneer archaeological presented evidence woman dated iron age later dating confirmed body woman early iron age lived bce proved woman royal lineage body lies state display north saint church details found body woman position excellent state preservation naked clothes consisting leather cape placed branches wooden poles pinned body complete skin envelope internal organs intact body wound knee joint area object possibly sharp poles penetrated depth skin deeply robust skin tone body joints preserved skin state died recently doctors determined years old died good health signs diseases typically found human remains age doctors hospital undertook forensic examination woman time body skin severely folded scan accurately determined age years old time death body height measured doctors original descriptions estimate stood lone museum green cardiff university department forensic science university performed examination woman forensic analysis revealed stomach contents neck faint groove applied rope torture scientists concluded caused swelling knee joint woman probably dead branches pinned careful placement prevailing mode period jutland determined woman victim ritual sacrifice relation bodies principal locations bodies discovered northern european countries germany netherlands united_kingdom ireland especially denmark oldest bodies dates bce majority specimens denmark pre roman iron age roman iron age era bce ancient bodies discovered sites estimates placed number thousands difficult scientists precise number bodies lost destroyed archaeologists began actively searching bodies bodies discovered routine extraction discarded discovery systematic conservation iron age bodies acidic major excavations occurred jutland bodies recovered jutland peninsula undergone extensive analysis woman include man man woman woman woman literary references danish author amateur archaeologist visit site literary reference woman published parody mistaken archaeological find changed mind woman identity wrote poem lament dead queen danish playwright christian wrote comedy crane dance ghost queen gives magical ring tailor makes blind actions play indirectly theory woman queen major public endorsement hypothesis


golden republic golden republic italian short lived government founded milan members university popular support aid held forces venice betrayal defected captured milan duke republic history foundation maria duke milan died august city thrown confusion duke quick way title acted maria heir male day death written charles duke nephew maria mother cousins albert house great frederick iii holy roman emperor declared reverted holy roman empire extinction male heirs prominent candidates supported population duke son law marriage illegitimate daughter maria supporters king seized night 13th maria died forcing captains swear allegiance despite general support influential citizens believed old republic restored learned bodies college painted days old republic golden age merchants seeing prosperity republican venice idea morning 14th republicans stirred populace rise led members college republic declared palace captains abandoned favor republic driven milan new republic called golden republic named 4th century bishop milan taken republic patron took old constitution revised day suited needs captains defenders liberty frame laws elected regularly later reduced early existence idea radical renovation liberties cities suit powers north italy league territorial gains decades long series wars interrupted recently peace november venice war milan republic struck sore blow previously cities including defected declared independence loss support defensive locations drop revenue caused brief financial crisis resolved new taxes venice occupying refused listen milan pleas peace milan turned greatest military leader day offering position captain general city wished planned succeed father law duke decided accept position promised rewards draft declared milan september quickly captured independent mother law persuaded city ruling relinquish republic allowed title count fearing large arsenal instead offer venice refused promised new taxes respect old laws payment hired officials repair city bridges walls kept promises won people establishing previously second capital milan gave seat power city strategic location river situated block coming relief water returning siege finding city likely starvation resolved storm employing cannons manner opened breach walls sacked city news sack greeted days milan captain captured previously proclaimed lord stealing dangerously powerful caused greater feared january terms previous captains defenders ended following election rose political prominence especially adverse entered peace negotiations venice threatened growing power willing come terms albeit dictated helped found republic stirred populace massive demonstration court council forced abandon plans peace given ahead campaign seize river plans voted republic favor traditional tactics besieging directly happened venetian fleet assaulted bridge wife led defense husband relieved city venetian fleet withdrew entrenched waited arrival venetian army trapped fleet defenses unorthodox use artillery utterly destroyed captured seventy ships victory celebrated milan leaders republic feared sent occupy besieged hoping fall end war ultimately forces brought venetian army gathered siege remained july september launched surprise attack rapid time armor rout turned great victory set example troops line utterly defeated venetian army capturing generals fell despite milan little gratitude given government architect victory republic sent determined end war satisfactory end war imminent took fatal feud milan enemies worked continually brothers sons famous captains general replaced supreme military commanders convinced suspicious republic work secretly rumors spread troops receiving payment end war remained ordered siege city promised citizens secretly told hold peace works signed learned defected milan return service treaty signed october past year powerful man venetian beginning end golden republic public opinion despite government position generally pro patriotic speech subdued brothers captains general capable brilliant reinforced internal prominent milan crime mob violence rampant harsh measures served divide populace members government filled suspicion attempt resolve situation given absolute power financial problems grave fines state lottery instituted try alleviate deficit continued regularly elected began republic far democratic captain people lived law supported turned politicians prominent government affairs began replacing officials supporters saw ideals republic eyes friends regime exposed letter intercepted friend kept knowledge secret knowing influential citizens formation republic support captains defenders slain sent envoys frederick iii february road caught imprisoned beheaded trial tortured gave names fellow conspirators following execution leaders massacre leading city escaped safety heads slain placed began greater threat republic louis invaded spring sent earlier defected defeat leading uneasy peace faced ranks added fact accepted great enemies brothers gaining access promptly returned milan unfortunately considered martyr republic worse fact leadership refused run elections april june forced populace families took milan election defeated including imprisonment blamed probably massacre led populace violently friend killed uprising departed milan hoping peace end republic coming close milan conquests decided powerful taken force surround populace surrender loss outer cities conquest milan underwent famine offered hoping tempted remained staunch instead offered city abandon accepted support quickly victory certain found venetian allies beginning doubts captain general decided milan run far dangerous detrimental interests run weak republic territory claimed venice captured venice went signed peace treaty republic conceded conquered land republic return peace let narrow strip land ordered accept treaty find venice enemy republic citizens confident war future secured accept conditions treaty decided struggle powerful close milan assurance peace nearly exhausted resources plant crops return old way life confident milan quickly fall reinforcing peace concession castles defeated rival continued siege chose headquarters castle south east city starvation suffering rampant milan engineered coup february day citizens met suggestions opinions great variety save condemned venice apparent convinced people surrender popular fighting milan countryside common commanders day debate public convinced following day terms offered accepted earned city devotion distributing food people march declared del right wife duke milan secured popular support letting office holders positions leaders briefly imprisoned relegated estates generally pardoned soon old enemies coronation allowed return safety restored favor aftermath remained war venice years downfall republic venice allied kingdom naples previously contender succession milan allied friend florence venice naples continued war finally closed peace house established rulers milan year existence republic won major battles defeated french battle battle victories ensured republic territory republic remarked order create republic milan necessary nobility nobles laws needs kept living voice royal power leading city captains defenders charge government elected months beginning august originally numbered eventually reduced