hardest day hardest day second world war air battle fought battle britain august nazi german luftwaffe british royal_air_force raf june allies defeated western_europe scandinavia come terms germany britain rejected negotiated peace consequently adolf_hitler issued german armed forces directive ordering invasion united_kingdom invasion united_kingdom operation sea lion carried air supremacy air superiority required luftwaffe destroy raf order prevent attacking invasion fleet providing protection attempt royal_navy home_fleet intercept landing sea hitler ordered luftwaffe commander chief der luftwaffe high command air_force prepare task primary target raf fighter command july luftwaffe began military operations destroy raf july early august germans targeted convoys english channel occasionally raf airfields august major german effort known eagle day raf airfields failed failure deter germans air raids raf infrastructure august luftwaffe effort destroy fighter command air battles took place day largest aerial engagements history time sides suffered heavy losses british luftwaffe air achieving favourable ratio number raf aircraft caught destroyed ground total losses sides large costly aerial battles took place august sides lost aircraft combined day point campaign including september battle britain day generally considered climax fighting reason air battles august known hardest day britain background luftwaffe detailed destroy fighter command planned invasion britain place hoped destruction british fighter force force british come terms air power risky operation sea lion needed enormous numerical superiority british naval forces german opponents crossing channel dangerous air superiority furthermore aircraft losses spring campaign weakened luftwaffe battle britain begin campaign fighter command immediately forced wait reached acceptable levels main assault raf august luftwaffe ready begin operations mainland phase german air offensive targeted british shipping channel raids rarely involved attacks raf airfields inland encouraged raf units engage battle attacking british channel convoys operations lasted july august attacks shipping successful grt sunk laying aircraft proved profitable sinking tons impact fighter command minimal lost fighter pilots killed missing wounded july british strength rose august leaving short pilots attacks succeeded forcing british abandon channel convoy route shipping ports north eastern britain achieved luftwaffe began second phase air offensive attacking raf airfields supporting structures britain major raid inland raf airfields came august luftwaffe quickly escalated offensive germans achieve degree success date belief having considerable effect fighter command prepared launch assault raf following day august german air strength reached acceptable levels bringing rates luftwaffe carried heavy attacks eagle day cent bomber force cent fighter units cent heavy fighter fighter bomber units operational day went badly germans failed fighter command bases command control system large poor intelligence failed identify fighter command airfields distinguish bomber coastal commands germans pursued strategy fighter command august suffering losses prepared large scale attack raf bases august month august witnessed air combat germans concentrated effort fighter command luftwaffe plan german intelligence suggested raf fighters august taking consideration german pilots claims estimates british production capabilities fact machines storage units training units resources included total fighters twice beginning july expecting weakening opposition luftwaffe prepared major action raf sector stations august luftwaffe plan attack simple german bombers strike raf airfields south east corner england important airfields region command air officer commanding keith park group raf sector stations raf hill north periphery greater london south near coast north near airfields housed squadrons sector operations room fighters directed satellite airfields combat satellite airfields raf heath heath housed squadrons remainder housed finally raf inland airfields targeted august despite failure considerable loss rates august convinced sound strategy continue send heavily escorted bombers destroy british airfields advocated use fighter wings free chase tactics single engine fighters sent advance main raids force british fighters large scale air battles theory destroy raf aircraft combat british defences time changed operational methods consultation hugo commanding air fleet chose effort large targets instead narrowed targets short list order concentrate strength striking power sector stations raf north hill chosen prime targets raf defences initial strategy tactics late spring fighter command preparing meet possible air attack british isles coming east germany prior german victory western_europe possibility france fall britain continue fight considered air attack germany meant luftwaffe bombers operate range fighters vulnerable attack twin engine fighters fighting limits range doubted fast fighter aircraft engage force effect human body suggest prospect air air combat fighters impractical threat saw related return fire bomber gunners war effectiveness return cross fire bombers exaggerated air staff air ministry short sighted belief detrimental impact tactical effectiveness raf fighter command summer german bombers perceived prey fighter command hugh planners devised system tactics tight fighter formations bring raf fighters combat bombers followed set piece tactics engagement bomber return fire considered dangerous fighter pilots trained open fire long range yards break away closing short range tactics practised thoroughly years proved totally useless battle situation facing britain tactics unsuitable fighter versus fighter combat packed tight formation raf pilots concerned keeping position keeping watch enemy vulnerable surprise attacks british fighters reached bombers interception chaos modern aerial combat impossible concentrate attacks large rigid formations pilots forced paying far respect bomber defensive capabilities attacks broken far early caused little damage bombers tactical failures evident battles belgium france rushed training pilots barely able use old tactical methods meant airmen cope needed radical changes formation developed june greater emphasis pilot looking enemy search capability avoiding taken surprise inferior german fighter tactics german fighter tactics flexible spanish civil war developed new system fighter tactics primary deployment use large numbers free hunting missions sweeps battle area instead flying standard formation air forces germans paired fighters consisted fighters pilot yards abreast flying way meant cover blind spots enemy attack protect member expanded flight formation eventually given finger offered maximum protection members threats targets command communication control operational level british fighter defences proved far sophisticated raf defences based combat power fighter command important teeth defence eyes ears nervous system carried intelligence information position teeth strike summer chain home radar stations english scottish coasts able track incoming aircraft continental europe lowest altitudes best detection altitude feet aircraft height detected miles away assess identity identification friend foe means distinctive radar screens distinguish german british aircraft radar technology flawless struggled gauge heights incoming formations feet measure numerical strength minutes assess line advance aircraft course radar looked sea unable track aircraft overland job royal observer corps tens thousands volunteers length breadth britain tracked german formations land connected sector airfields communicate intelligence real time detection interception incoming raids follows radar enemy aircraft radar plots dispatched filter room fighter command headquarters park filter room enemy plots compared known plots raf fighters assess identity unidentified hostile plots dispatched fighter group sector operations rooms plotting situation maps groups operations room raf kept record status unidentified hostile raid state raf squadrons landing combat fighter controllers sector operations rooms choose formations engage exactly squadrons scramble issue relevant orders satellite controllers fighter controllers satellite fields bring squadrons field directed sector controllers squadrons loosely deployed south east prevent enemy slipping squadron leaders responsible combat engagement anti aircraft defences number unusual defence mechanisms raf bases august conventional anti aircraft artillery piece main types service inch inch inch batteries modern effective feet world war vintage weapon effective feet usually batteries sited range measured speed height aircraft taking account time shell took reach patch sky calculating detonate fuse shell artillery firing aircraft higher shell travelled effective shell fired feet half effective feet quarter accurate feet german bombers usually tried fly heavy concentrations forced fly chose fly heights feet heavy artillery defences located london thames estuary concentrated dover portsmouth southampton docks low level defence rate fire rounds minute pound shells highly effective low flying aircraft capable blowing hole big man fit twice needed protect raf hill difference inch guns firing open sights fire rounds minute unusual defence weapon designed use august parachute cable north airfield foot intervals fired vertically upwards rocket enemy aircraft came low altitude parachute device deployed held foot long steel cable altitude feet enemy aircraft hopefully fly struck second parachute deployed unfortunate victim left away cable picked wing good chance aircraft control device august support barrage balloons cutting cables capable tearing bombers wings engagement german build morning weather clear sunny making ideal flying conditions headquarters brussels albert commanding air fleet directed wings command carry attacks targets nos luftwaffe catalogue hill hill handed send base conduct high level attack raf responsibility based airfields north paris bomber wing consisted mixed formation force attacking smaller numerically hitting hill carried thirds bomb load planners reasoned accurate low level strike carried compensate weaker firepower main formations fighter escort provided carry free hunting close escort bases airfields contained sector operations rooms british fighters directed action airfields selected luftwaffe largest ones known operating raf fighters german intelligence knowledge sector operations rooms rooms ground little protection poorly protected buildings hit inside killed wounded blow control system region airfield squadron commander captain conduct low level attack flying navigator lead aircraft unit specialised low level attacks france great success head channel landfall head follow brighton london rail line north east target area crews ordered concentrate attacks buildings southern end airfield carry bombs fitted fuse allow function released feet higher type bomb previously release twice height making unit vulnerable ground fire attack coordinated movement airfields dive bomb buildings high altitude minutes later level bomb high altitude crater landing grounds knocking defences specialist low level strike unit finish buildings standing bold imaginative plan worked wreck end end high flying bombers fighter escort low flying bombers use stealth avoid interception target area operation began postponed heavy reducing visibility feet intervening time skirmishes took place raf fighters german reconnaissance aircraft shot morning formations took main formations headed sea form difficult bases covered cloud cover base feet reached feet bombers climbed formation soon lost valuable time lost reformed unfortunately iii overtaken iii ahead minutes delay consequences leading iii total crossing dover sweep skies clear main raid miles iii escorted strike close iii escorted formation miles miles rear bound hill escorted formations moving miles minute feet miles south west wave height half way maritime head intent british radar beams altogether raiding force contained bombers fighters british scramble british followed main raids aware approaching aircraft save low altitude radar station near dover began reporting build area activity increased separate concentrations reported estimated strength force aircraft actual size raf group raf keith park controllers directed squadron raf hurricanes air canterbury feet way raf having spent morning patrol operating raf near minutes squadrons dispatched meet hill north heath short time fighters assigned engage airborne squadrons hurricanes moving patrol canterbury line block attack thames estuary ports airfields north squadrons hurricanes went position hill total raf fighters meet attack park send forces aloft held reserve squadrons raf kept ready meet attacks south reserve meet possible follow coming raid attacks advance led way past coast spotted formation raf fighters hurricanes squadron conducting wide gain height bounced shot minutes killing pilot wounding departed members wing squadron inconclusive ensued victims pilot officers bland kenneth lee bland killed iii engaged aaa defences crossed dover escorted iii led escorted remarked impressive numerical strength german formations fortunately german bombers flown far_east canterbury avoided main concentration fighters canterbury line passed clear mile run reached hill defending squadrons crossed coast fired royal_navy patrol boats machine gun fire ineffective royal observer corps post situated beach head spotted immediately warning observer group headquarters fighter sector stations area including raf wing commander thomas station commander noticed low flying plot appear situation map appeared heading away west unsure target controllers organising nos squadrons meet high altitude raid headed past picked rail line brighton london turned north west observer corps passing steady stream reports approaching german formations soon realised coordinated attack underway squadrons approaching high altitude attack diverted fighters asked engage squadron ground area squadron raf hurricanes raf usually responsibility park controllers took matter hands ordered aircraft air combat condition flown north east avoid caught ground squadron managed position feet luck intercept hill soon took precaution ordering fighters air order group captain richard german bombers miles bbc high power accordance policy shut deny germans opportunity use direction finding beacon bbc home service kicked air process railway lines lead south miles away low level navigation extremely accurate unit minutes flying time target interception unfamiliar enemy territory time exactly planned route neared airfield noticed smoke signs damage expected damaged fighter station germans burst airfield air suddenly filled rounds gunners engaged british aaa defences squadron hurricane shot british ground fire pilot flight lieutenant stanley killed rest pulled away avoid friendly fire flew northern edge airfield catch raiders emerged hurricanes taking attack minutes hit flying higher hit caught fire carried lined order attack hangar released bombs starboard engine knocked junior officer watched destroyed bombs hit black smoke lost speed engaged harry newton newton shot accurate return fire newton fired burst machine gun fire frustration leaving hurricane damaged flew lieutenant lining hangar hit quick reactions navigator year old friedrich saved crew took control climbed defensive fire ordering crew abandon aircraft bombers worked airfield roberts waited northern boundary parachute cable launchers heading climbing slowly range fired cables rockets flew upwards saw rockets understand banked avoid lines smoke concealed banked cables hit bomber slid wing lower parachute time deploy pilot lucky fire ran cable dragged sky crashed killing crewmen carrying managed avoid collision fire hit destroying fuel tanks bomber caught fire barely able control eventually crash landed leaves green kent shot squadron hurricanes killed survived burns bombers evaded defences squadron sea crash landed france german crew picked kriegsmarine ships lost damaged crash landings damaged friedrich awarded knight cross iron cross helping wounded pilot guide home died wounds soon efforts destroyed hit buildings destroyed hurricanes ground according sources destroyed damaged operations room action buildings destroyed worse bombs released higher lot bombs landed horizontally explode impact achieve level damage dropped tons bombs end day hangar left operational low level raid airfield commission hours combat hurricanes shot return fire return lost slightly damaged seriously damaged low level attacks abandoned hardest day hit hill west nos squadrons guarding air space near hill operating feet waiting high altitude force reach area unfortunately german escort fighters climbed higher taken surprise flying extended cover spotted bounced raf fighters destroyed hurricane taken losses served important purpose keeping escorting german fighters busy engaged squadron leader michael led squadron iii bombers having worry enemy fighter aircraft flying near formation tried offer support fighters failed led head attack downed squadron damaged close raf fighters pressed home attacks bombers avoid fire bomb aim close targets pilots formation passed aiming point having thwarted bombing official targets aimed rail tracks north east airfield unit targeted raf miles north west hill turned releasing bombs crews bombed rail lines found difficult target hit feet released bombs intervals hope hitting targets bombs fell residential property attempted second pass bombers soon time succeeded getting bombers squadron damaged gunners shot wounded flight lieutenant russell seconds later squadron turned led squadron leader high altitude squadron including squadron leader attacked believing damaged flown crash landed taken prisoner confusing broke lasted time arrived target find smoke hanging target impossible begin dive bombing attacks conditions given damage unnecessary bomber crews deciding action attacked led difficult job defending passing hill way raf west british aaa fire began targeting formation hit gave special protection position formation jumped hurricanes lost squadron pilot officer attack began turned west began dive bombing attacks alternate target clear run target battles drawn raf squadrons british sent squadron deal confronted large number escorting german fighters successfully defended charges raf fighters break bombers flying stepped waves feet german bomber crews noted absence fighter opposition speculated raf end personnel hill time cover bombers arrived lost damaged failed damage hill likely losses sustained inflicted squadron raf locked combat far german fighters performed came difficult operation withdrawing attack german fighters low fuel protect bombers damaged main bomber streams easy prey raf fighters found german raiding formations heading different directions clear south heading head completing bomb run held arms length attacked west escorts battling nos squadrons heading home attack elements squadrons east nos squadrons totalling hurricanes moving meet main formations withdrawal raf controllers faced difficulties impossible observer corps plot route german formations concentrated force raf fighters able engage main formations able inflict damage enable germans slip leave concentrated force raf fighters near canterbury striking thin air instead adopting approach park ordered fighters spread engage singly needed park plan paid soon discovered squadron quickly found attack short sharp engagement lost damaged squadron worse follow engaged lost shot damaged squadron raf squadrons reported losses engagements lost machines squadrons arrived join battle according source total losses amounted destroyed seven damaged entire day source gives list written destroyed written damaged august actual losses hardest day marked start decline operations production keeping pace losses simply aircraft squadron unit trade shots german formations battles destroyed percent damaged german pilots killed wounded captured missing base crippled fighter crash landed fell squadron fell squadron bomber losses amounted destroyed damaged including destroyed lost british suffered casualties squadron lost hurricane pilot killed squadron suffered loss hurricane destroyed squadron lost hurricane shot pilot missing squadron lost hurricane destroyed ground damaged ground shot aerial combat pilots survived squadron suffered heavy losses amounting hurricanes destroyed pilots killed seriously wounded lost hurricanes pilots killed squadron lost damaged pilot wounded squadron took casualties lost hurricanes pilot killed wounded hurricanes destroyed raid casualties challenged source indicates squadron lost ground main battle took place sent support withdrawing bombers engaged raf fighters near isle bombers left british air space lost destroyed damaged battle hurricanes squadron suffering pilot missing wounded lost action squadron raf pilots killed posted missing presumed dead picked channel air sea rescue aircraft large scale operations german build hugo ordered dive bomber units begin operations radar stations airfields southern coast britain targets afternoon august raf ford raf island belonging fleet air arm coastal command included target selection radar station west sussex near reconnaissance aircraft identified airfields fighter bases high altitude poor resolution photographs meant aircraft ground identified properly germans mistakenly believed fighter fields fact airfields belonged fighter command housed torpedo development unit island housed squadron raf squadron raf bristol assigned raf coastal command ford naval air station housed squadron fleet air arm working aircraft time targets given dive bombing wing committed dive bombers raid largest concentration operate britain date strike island assigned ford iii destroy radar station fourth unit dive bombing wing sent attack dive bombers supported acting close escort sweep portsmouth area advance main raid independently based far away attacks morning moved closer airfields right channel coast fuel tanks filled bombs loaded crews given final briefing took formation beginning mile trip major led iii knew target bound ford iii heading left formation island walter headed extreme left loaded bombs main fuselage bombs wing time long trip low speed meant plenty time catch burning fuel keeping close contact british scramble radar station picked german formations reported strong smaller forces ranging plus represented german fighters moving british estimated luftwaffe attack force aircraft strong half group raf group alerted units operations rooms box wiltshire groups dispatched squadrons support airborne hurricanes squadron group dispatched squadron raf middle raf exeter raf raf raf raf order battle included hurricanes squadron raf led squadron leader frank carey patrolling island squadron raf protected squadron raf patrolled portsmouth air space squadron raf isles engage attackers squadron raf hurricanes miles eastward patrol catherine point finally squadron raf remained reserve middle meet unexpected german moves having lost bristol night fighters raid august dispatched hurricanes fighter interception unit fitted airborne radar test device action raf coastal command joined committed squadron raf bristol defence reliant hurricanes numerical standing meant ratio raf fighter german fighters bombers words british aircraft german fighters fighter controllers realised strength raid little fighters attacks hill available british scramble pre raid sweep raf fighters open raf led attacked british fighters passes germans claimed fighters destroyed fact squadron raf destroyed hurricanes damaged single hurricane destroyed attack unopposed reached coast respective groups split headed assigned targets time miles isle caught dive bombers led iii attack north west dead wind order bomb accurately usually attacked line astern chose attack groups split aaa fire enemy heads fired machine guns degree dive soon left altitude feet releasing bombs pulling feet rest unit followed took severe punishment accurate bombing radar station knocked attack demonstrated attack fighter command command communication control system possible emergency equipment installed site case breakdown information reading radar significantly reliable fact badly damaged action rest august fortunately chain mobile radar station isle fill set near chain remained unaffected damage park member parsons studying plots attack awarded military medal actions september action unit attacked ford lewis machine guns manned ford able attack complete confidence bombs building aircraft drawn maintenance early bombs struck field oil tanks storage compounds causing enormous blaze contributed damage airfield came attack soon air opposition targets causing large scale damage began attack squadron engaged strong escort commanded commander group commander heard battle developing communications poor decided let experienced squadron leaders fight resulting combat shot disaster groups reached bombed targets interception attacked squadron sporting force hurricanes escorting flying far away stop hurricanes making attack shot exchange damaged hurricane hit return fire soon came attack assist dive bombers effectively attacks german crews saw taking defend base hit damage escorts turned meet engaging raf squadrons aircraft filled patch sky miles long squadrons engaged germans island engaged attacked ford iii bounced squadron claiming destroyed hurricanes squadron destroyed running air battles cost units heavily lack protection cost damaged repair total manpower losses unit amounted killed mortally wounded wounded captured men lost fighter attack damaged repair crewmen dead captured iii lost damaged men killed casualties amounted killed taken prisoner wounded battles brought number lost far campaign damaged price high exception sporadic attacks convoys later year played battle britain dead lost fighters pilots saved source gives destroyed claimed victories likely seven allowed stand luftwaffe raf casualties air battles amounted fighters destroyed damaged squadron suffered damaged hurricane squadron damaged squadron lost hurricanes squadron lost damaged aftermath damage ford great local fire brigades helped numerous fires clear dead station foam main water pipe burst fire units water static water tanks ditch filled fractured pipe ford received warning targets suffered heavier casualties killed wounded aircraft destroyed sharks aircraft damaged petrol oil installations motor transport hangar stores buildings ratings petty officers numerous accommodation buildings destroyed aircraft lost damaged buildings wrecked damaged casualties attack accurate bombs fell outside military compounds area barrage balloons shot damaged attacks squadron disrupted raid island damage concentrated buildings wrecked aircraft destroyed vickers wellington damaged casualties civilian workers injured bomb landed shelter loss long range radar station caused problems chain home low radar working far sea surrounding coastline miles radar stations gave stations provided cover hole system days mobile units moved wooded areas nearby provide cover repaired weather intervention raf france second attack followed hours quiet nos groups tired considerable stopped draw breath sides channel unit commanders round trying establish missing crews aircraft safely time dead wounded refuel aircraft potential mission interim bristol squadron raf attack passed high altitude dropped bombs germans recorded damage attack gone unnoticed bombers headed home passed photographic reconnaissance unit aircraft armament removed stripped radios essential mission fitted extra fuel tanks cameras carry work achieve greater speed machines polished reduce drag fastest aircraft raf luftwaffe time achieving speed mph flying feet usually came went photographed ports airfields returned fresh german operations luftwaffe ready strike radar stations plotting german formations kent coast area having attacked hill going sector station raf north raf sent bomb directed attack north raiding formations pass coast time attacking north left minutes earlier cross deal fighter escort provided british correctly estimated german strength aircraft meet threat fighter controllers group centre squadrons group passed ordered soon combined total hurricanes air raf fighters air squadron hurricane squadron armed cannon group moved squadrons totalling hurricanes canterbury line engage enemy formations remaining units climb altitude wait near threatened fighter airfields picture emerged enemy intentions raid approached north east essex squadron hurricanes engaged bombers squadron engaged escorting engagement shot line advance clear british ground controllers squadrons hurricanes intercept bombers target airfield covered feet thirty minutes cloud base fell feet german formation leaders soon realised hope hitting target feet particularly turned away headed base lost single bomber squadron things change turned hurricanes nos squadron prepared head attack hurricanes squadron closed germans pilot officer richard shot major blew killing aboard escorting counter attacked shooting squadron hurricanes killing pilot wounding squadron engaged lost pilot killed crash landing combat squadron group unit engaged shortly hurricanes squadron led peter struck bombers blocked present inconclusive engagements began likely belonged iii providing cover intense bombers squadron leader david accounted squadron accounted lost hurricane pilot pilot officer channel survived pilot flight lieutenant dick lee veteran battle france flying ace victories reported missing action seen chasing sea body found british squadrons left fight owing fuel ammunition running low squadron commander gray destroyed retreated sea german bombers dumped bombs german bombs fell town houses destroyed damaged bomb landed anderson air raid shelter killing man wife landed railway signal box killing bombs fell war department gunnery range causing damage german bombs fell mud flats delayed action bombs went irregular intervals lost destroyed damaged personnel losses amounted dead wounded prisoners war rescued british ships bringing total number captured low losses group face fighter attacks determination cost unit seven damaged raid squadron leader michael action squadron units attempted engage bay strong hurricanes blocked escorting came attack shot pilot george killed victor austrian pilot quickly counter attacked destroying flown ace victories fourth highest luftwaffe time victim german pilots killed fell peter brothers year old pilot killed shared destruction pilot walter severely injured taken prisoner short time germans turned tables hurricanes pilot officer pilot officer shot survived suffered burns raf fighters kept busy escort continued interception passed anti aircraft defences opened fire protect naval yard chatham kent south bank thames estuary gun positions fired heavy shells german bombers opened little spread cloud target ruined german bomb run bombers began return trip loads board crossing coast deal kent attacked royal marines barracks continued channel having contact enemy fighters night raids german night began fall luftwaffe sent bombers bomb targets sheffield leeds hull island british records mentioned damage bombs scattered rural districts incident shortly midnight attacked flying training school gloucestershire night flying progress bomber piloted alfred crashed piloted sergeant bruce aircraft crashed killing men involved british luftwaffe attacking britain bristol raf bomber command took ones attack score german airfields netherlands france sole success netherlands damaged time armstrong attacking works italy heading aluminium works southern germany august ended force reached target aftermath propaganda aerial victories uncommon sides claimed aircraft shot case august action british propaganda claimed german aircraft destroyed twice actual figure response germans claimed lost figure proven half actual figure german propaganda elements claimed destroyed british aircraft twice actual figure british admitted losing actual figure sources insist raf losses fighters destroyed aircraft destroyed ground including fighters german fighter pilot stated losses reported pointed german high command public losses according german aircraft crashed channel counted official figures loss aircraft total aircraft unit damaged hits broken taken germany added loss record sorties losses august luftwaffe units flew total sorties britain medium bombers fighters reconnaissance units total bomber sorties flown night august remainder flown daylight hours august half available aircraft order battle involved action day clear luftwaffe greatly extended providing forces offensive fighting reconnaissance aircraft active england scotland altogether luftwaffe lost aircraft destroyed damaged repair result operations britain august total lost certain probable action fighters fell ground fire combination collided british training aircraft remaining crashed german held territory owing technical failures altogether losses represented seven cent force committed aircraft crashed england personnel losses german crews killed captured returned wounds german aircraft returned damage gross fighter command strength issued luftwaffe units meant british reaction stronger expected hour period fighter command flew sorties slightly fewer germans sorties flown night august august remaining sorties flown day number exactly equal hurricane defiant day fighters available squadrons average operational sortie rate fighter spread evenly command nos groups north britain fighters cent day sorties contact enemy group fighters sorties thirds total average hurricanes flew operational sorties squadron flew sorties operations including beginning day percent total number sorties flown fighter command directed major german raids cent standing patrols protect shipping coast remaining sorties nearly cent engage reconnaissance aircraft usually half squadrons committed excessive sending units counter flights german aircraft forced fly higher denied opportunity drop low altitude higher resolution photographs contributed lack german intelligence failed distinguish fighter bomber naval airfields time strength directed non fighter airfields date sorties fighter command meet major german attacks contact enemy meaning percent fighters sent intercept bombers percentage higher bombers afternoon raid turned short targets raf fighters destroyed specialist source battle indicated figure destroyed repair fell german fighters return fire bombers shot british ground fire error loss remainder established fighters lost hurricanes personnel losses raf amounted british fighter pilots killed day died wounds pilots wounded seriously rest battle losses ground amounted fighters aircraft types destroyed ground total destroyed damaged repair amounted aircraft trainers non operational types spent hardest day fighter pilots adolf combined pilots observation badge gold diamonds achieved success recent weeks took opportunity bomber losses particular saw lack aggression men moved quickly reconcile ordering promotion wing commander command respective wings felt younger generation combat leaders help force dismissed august read reports losses august unhappy extent losses recalled pilots hitler directive ordered luftwaffe achieve air superiority remain strong sea lion launched recognised luftwaffe power base failure bad severe weakening luftwaffe far worse emphasised commanders need preserve luftwaffe strength essentially core theme conference fighter protection fighter leaders advocated sweeps clear skies advance attacks commanders present thought combination sweeps close escort effective reducing losses agreed listed number forms sweeps important tactical change wholesale purge older favour younger men leaders drawn ranks given responsibility based skill experience rank allowing free tactical engagements form aerial placed emphasis correct rendezvous bombers lacking recent operations longer range bombers ordered directly fighter airfields pick escorts way target determined fighters possible remain sweeps smaller number maintained close contact bombers main tactical arrangement fighter bomber cooperation outcome german target selection sound hardest day means open luftwaffe destroying fighter command bombing airfields destroying command control system radar stations attacking aircraft factories producing fighter aircraft way operations hill north potential destroy group major sector stations defences draw defending fighters battle attempt attack failed paid high price weather prevented chance raids north successful hand poor intelligence raids radar stations ineffective radar elimination enable luftwaffe destroy command control system fighter command despite severe damage station existence stations nearby gave system plenty cover airfields air fleet attacked ford island main battle belonged coastal command command remained unaware errors intelligence tactical handling good escorting fighters stretched far mile chance half defending fighters went action attacking groups disastrous results group concerned german fighters outnumbered raf units unable protect units targets closer concentration fighters allowed germans destroy raf fighters air protecting charges considering weight attack airfields hardly fighters destroyed ground figures indicated hurricanes lost manner main reason high state readiness raf units daylight command depended radar observer corps warning advance giving plenty time airborne successful attack depended combination circumstances chance occur battle attacks airfields day battle cause real danger raf fighter command hill service battle britain action hours august german medium bombers usually sent waves carry tons bombs destroy airfield airfield buildings destroyed work aircraft open summer periods troublesome raf units field necessarily airfield operate fighters provided yards long yards wide allow operations vulnerable operations buildings airfields hidden underground flaw vulnerability operations rooms sector operations buildings ground difficult hit luftwaffe known location vital communications telephone cables buried underground making vulnerable accidental direct hit attacking destroying radar chain difficult stations vulnerable dive bombers low flying aircraft british mobile units moved cover gaps rapid repair services quick rarely radar stations action days option attack fighter factories attempted august factory southampton factory surrey range escorted bombers bombers suffer heavy casualties attempting attack factories north daylight attacks southern factories require large concentrations bombers fighters powerful destroy sustaining heavy losses overall suffered losses date day battle britain terms outcome battle appear strategically favourable loss rates british favour air forces sustained level attrition support long historian alfred price day action went defenders aim luftwaffe wear fighter command suffering excessive losses process failed cost attackers killed wounded taken prisoner british pilot casualty terms aircraft cost luftwaffe bombers fighters hurricanes destroyed air ground battle continued rate luftwaffe wreck fighter command come close process


raid raid november attempt large british naval force destroy dutch squadron based java dutch_east_indies posed threat british shipping straits british admiral command eastern indian_ocean rear admiral sir edward led force ships line frigates brig capital java later renamed search squadron reported consist number dutch ships line smaller vessels largest dutch ships sailed eastwards month earlier discovered frigate phoenix number smaller warships bay driven ashore crews engage force subsequently burnt unaware whereabouts main dutch squadron returned base madras winter raid series actions intended eliminate threat posed british trade routes dutch squadron action july action october british frigates sent reconnaissance missions region succeeded attacking capturing dutch frigates number vessels raid reduced effectiveness dutch base continued presence main dutch squadron concerned led second operation following year complete defeat dutch years later french driven western indian_ocean british forces region strong prepare expeditionary force dutch_east_indies effectively ended war east background early relieved news large french squadron rear admiral charles sailed indian_ocean atlantic departure years operations eastern waters freed small squadron based madras operations dutch_east_indies particular target island java principal dutch squadron base located dutch kingdom holland french client state emperor napoleon brother louis preparations battle valuable british convoy came attack position close straits threatened british trade china departure east indies delayed mutiny spring instead sent frigates situation dutch forces region july hms captain edward cruised islands captured dutch convoy action july months later frigate hms caroline captain peter cruised successfully java sea managed capture dutch frigate action october entrance harbour shortly engagement principal ships dutch squadron ships line sailed westwards port rear admiral seeking divide forces preparation coming british attack prevent complete destruction sailed madras early autumn expecting dutch squadron present preparing accordingly ship line hms captain christopher cole flagship accompanied hms powerful captain robert hms russell captain thomas gordon hms captain george ships line accompanied frigate hms captain admiral son brig hms lieutenant william owen attack november squadron approaching southwest encountered british frigate hms sir francis drake attached force days later squadron passed port seized dutch east india company brig maria continuing night approaches port squadron separated frigates brig passing island shore ships line took longer route deeper water able surprise capture corvette william near island main body squadron spotted dutch distance initially approaching vessels french squadron dutch officers led captain frigate phoenix decided resistance large british squadron useless warships remaining harbour phoenix small armed ships contend approaching british force effort dissuade british pressing attack dutch captains drove vessels ashore joined merchant vessels anchored harbour determined prevent dutch grounded ships admiral ordered landing parties assemble boats squadron alongside distant covering fire british frigates led boats phoenix coming fire grounded vessels gun batteries ashore passing bombardment shoreline men boarded phoenix find dutch crew abandoned vessel frigate departed useless ship phoenix guns turned beached vessels cover british boats spread board burn operation followed destruction grounded merchant ships harbour successfully refloated captured final act withdrawing squadron offshore captain set fire wreck phoenix burning ship waterline entire operation conducted heavy fire shore british casualties royal marine killed men wounded sufficient troops attempt landing admiral withdrew harbour preparing prizes return madras ordered prisoners taken captured burnt ships returned shore condition parole captured william found poor state repair worth keeping corvette admiral ordered ship burnt noting official report lieutenant owen senior lieutenant placed command command reward services engagement preparations complete ordered squadron disperse sailing aftermath british raid destroyed vessels addition phoenix william merchant ships squadron burnt gun patriot gun gun gun gun ships captured merchant vessels maria elimination smaller vessels dutch squadron important victory leaving larger ships line large ships old poor condition limiting threat posed british trade routes returned java sea search warships destroying raid november year success lack resources region threat posed french indian_ocean island bases delayed larger scale british operations east indies series invasions rapidly eliminated remaining dutch presence pacific


buffalo grove ambush buffalo grove ambush ambush occurred black hawk war man detail carrying dispatches united_states colonel james illinois general henry ferry ambushed native americans attack william killed buried near site ambush remains initially interred party victims massacre men bullet holes clothing polo historical society moved remains plot beneath memorial erected west polo illinois background consequence treaty governor indiana territory group fox leaders land settlement fox tribes vacated lands illinois moved west mississippi chief black hawk disputed treaty claiming tribal councils consulted representing tribes authorization lands angered loss birthplace black hawk led number incursions mississippi_river persuaded return west time april encouraged promises alliance tribes british moved called british band warriors non combatants illinois finding allies attempted return iowa ensuing events led battle run number engagements followed state militias wisconsin illinois mobilized hunt black hawk band conflict known black hawk war prelude black hawk war began spring settlers buffalo grove notified black hawk victory run ordered leave grove settlers went remained duration war small unit detailed carry dispatches colonel james general henry ferry present day illinois group men included soldiers fred william vincent smith bennett james smith mail contractor john winters left ambush buffalo grove ambush occurred near buffalo grove illinois small unincorporated settlement present day county group neared edge grove party noted increased chances ambush suggested party avoid usual route taking roundabout route suggestion opposed horse entered wooded area grove traveled bounds cut gunfire previously suggested ambush sergeant returned ferry survivors attack reported party ambushed group native americans evening edge grove reported killed instantly left spot james smith bullets rip articles clothing died attack aftermath events buffalo grove ambush closely massacre group men including aaron john casualties massacre route body buffalo grove group returned ferry reported find stayed overnight returned dispatches destined fort armstrong ordered indian agent join group discovered body travel group left traveled north found interred remains buffalo grove polo historical society erected memorial anniversary attack time remains moved party buried near fallen interred beneath memorial buffalo grove ambush historical marker memorial located west city polo illinois eagle point road


uprising uprising revolt polish lithuanian refers polish uprising lithuanian authorities august mixed area surrounding town lithuanian german forces occupied territory world war retreated area turned administration trying prevent armed conflict poland lithuania drew line known line line assigned disputed region poland required lithuanian army retreat retreated areas refused leave polish irregular forces began uprising august soon received support regular polish army military skirmishes polish forces secured retreated line uprising solve larger border conflict poland lithuania mixed region sides complained measures conflict intensified causing military skirmishes polish lithuanian war changed hands frequently agreement october left polish uprising undermined plans polish leader planning coup état lithuania replace lithuanian government pro polish cabinet agree union poland proposed federation uprising prompted lithuanian intelligence intensify investigations polish activities lithuania discovered plans coup prevented arresting polish hostilities strained polish lithuanian relations eventually poland lithuania reached agreement new border left polish border polish lithuanian border region remained exception world war period background ages lands surrounding town variously lithuanian polish german era polish lithuanian commonwealth territory belonged kingdom poland grand lithuania property dominican 19th century town russian controlled congress poland world war region captured german empire intended incorporate area province east prussia german defeat victorious willing assign territory newly independent poland lithuania future region discussed paris peace conference january germans administration preparing evacuate initially supported leaving area polish administration poland ally france german support gradually shifted lithuania july german troops began slow retreat area delegated administration local lithuanian authorities lithuanian officers troops arrived region began organize military units pre war county according russian statistics poles generally agreed formed majority population northern poles concentrated south lithuanian polish historians political scientists continued disagree location line separated lithuanian polish claimed surrounding area inhabited primarily poles claimed exactly opposite german census showed population lithuanian lines closing days world war conference ambassadors drew line poland lithuania june line satisfied polish troops continued advance deeper lithuanian controlled territory attacks coincided signing treaty versailles june eliminated danger germany attempting halt hostilities marshal france ferdinand proposed new line known line july line negotiated polish war mission led general jordan paris lithuanian representatives invited line major modifications compared june line entire line moved west extra protection strategic warsaw saint_petersburg railway second region including towns assigned poland despite assurances time line temporary measure situation negotiations place southern line regarded border lithuania poland july line accepted conference ambassadors provisional border states informed decision august country satisfied lithuanian polish forces retreat regions respectively germans present region objected boundary line lithuanian forces strong left town august stopped formed line river lake believed line final decision duty protect lithuanian outposts region uprising preparations august days germans retreated polish meeting town attracted delegates neighboring polish communities meeting passed resolution securing area polish army solve problem branch polish military organization led polish regular army officers adam began preparing uprising august members local militia volunteers numbered men sources vary uprising scheduled night august date chosen coincide withdrawal german troops town poles hoped capture territory line advance control towns far according polish historian planning coup état discouraged local activists carrying uprising reasoned hostilities leave opposed proposed union poland local disregarded recommendations launched uprising locally successful led failure nationwide coup august lithuanian counter demonstration staged participants read aloud recently issued recruiting proclamation lithuanian volunteer army citizens nation danger arms shall leave single lands august prime minister lithuania visited called defend lands end axes according time lithuanian command infantry cavalry personnel stretched long line defense lithuanian guards clerical staff town note polish insurgents estimated lithuanian forces infantry adds estimate cavalry including strong garrison military skirmishes according lithuanian historian polish assault members august repelled day forced retreat imprisoned commander sided poles polish insurgents attacked towns lithuanian line early morning august recaptured polish sources claim aided company germans volunteers lithuanian sources assert excuse explain defeat lithuanian forces recovered important documents property freed lithuanian prisoners according executed fighters found wounded evening august regular unit 41st infantry regiment polish army received order advance lithuanian forces retreated day learned approaching polish reinforcements according based retreat erroneous report large polish cavalry unit operating rear small groups polish partisans operated later day afternoon august forces joined 41st infantry regiment august large anti polish protest took place cries march lithuanian attempt retake town august men defeated combined forces polish army men volunteers men august poles officially demanded retreat line september announced incorporation volunteers 41st infantry regiment negotiations september representatives groups agreed settle detailed line agreed retreat september polish regular army units cross line refused aid insurgents operating lithuanian polish sources total polish casualties uprising killed action wounded aftermath uprising poland lithuanian cultural life lithuanian schools pupils surrounding villages closed local lithuanian clergy evicted priest seminary relocated according far reaching including ban public use lithuanian language closing lithuanian organizations total members new_york_times reporting renewed hostilities year later described events violent occupation poles lithuanian inhabitants teachers religious ministers expelled polish historian notes sides civilian population exaggerated reports gain internal foreign support uprising contributed deterioration polish lithuanian relations discouraged joining proposed federation uprising doomed polish plan overthrow lithuanian government coup état uprising lithuanian police intelligence intensified investigation polish soon uncovered planned coup mass arrests polish activists august end september investigations lists supporters found law enforcement completely suppressed organisation lithuania arresting members hostilities region resumed summer polish army began retreat course polish soviet war moved secure claimed new borders set soviet lithuanian peace treaty july peace treaty granted surrounding area lithuania poland recognize treaty ensuing tensions heightened outbreak polish lithuanian war changed hands frequently controlled polish forces september situation agreement october effectively returned town polish border


german fleet scapa_flow german fleet took place royal_navy base scapa_flow scotland end world war high_seas_fleet interned terms armistice whilst negotiations took place fate ships fearing ships seized divided allied powers german commander admiral von decided fleet carried june intervening british guard ships able beach number ships interned vessels sank salvaged decades towed away scrapping remain popular diving sites background signing armistice november france effectively ended world war allied powers agreed germany boat fleet surrendered possibility return unable agree course action german surface fleet americans suggested ships interned neutral port final decision reached countries approached norway spain refused admiral suggested fleet interned scapa_flow skeleton crew german sailors guarded interim grand_fleet terms transmitted germany november instructing high_seas_fleet ready sail november allies occupy night november rear admiral hugo representative admiral von hipper met admiral david aboard flagship hms queen elizabeth presented terms expanded second meeting following day boats surrender rear admiral supervision force surface fleet sail forth surrender led scapa_flow interned pending outcome peace negotiations asked extension deadline aware sailors mood earlier led wilhelmshaven mutiny officers difficulty getting obey orders eventually signed terms midnight surrender fleet craft surrendered boats began arrive november eventually handed hipper refused lead fleet surrender task rear admiral von german fleet met light cruiser cardiff morning november led rendezvous ships grand_fleet allied navies german ships total battleship light cruiser dresden engine trouble left destroyer struck crossing sank german ships escorted forth anchored signalled german flag hauled sunset today hoisted permission order broken twice anniversary battle jutland day german fleet fleet moved november scapa_flow destroyers sound battleships cruisers north west island eventually total ships interned dresden having arrived december accompanied destroyer replaced sunken ship arrive battleship january initially interned ships guarded battle cruiser force later reduced battle cruiser squadron commanded succession vice admiral rear admiral oliver rear admiral vice admiral second battle squadron atlantic fleet took guard duties succeeded vice admiral sir sydney battle squadron captivity naval historian arthur described state affairs german ships complete identified reasons exacerbated situation lack discipline standard food lack recreation slow postal service cumulative result problems created ships november second command grand_fleet admiral sir charles wrote brother law superior lord proposed orders considered counter signed men committee executed carried convenient visiting interned ship german officers reported dumb shame food sent germany twice month good quality catching fish provided supplement recreation large sent recreation men limited ships british refused allow interned sailors ashore visit german ships british officers men allowed visit official business outgoing post germany censored beginning later incoming post german seamen granted cigarettes month german doctors interned fleet british refused provide dental care command interned ships exercised rear admiral von flying flag battleship friedrich der british disposal visiting ships issuing written orders urgent business staff occasionally allowed visit ships arrange officers men von health poor requested flag transferred light cruiser march repeatedly prevented sleeping cabin roof group revolutionary sailors called red guard seven months number men command continually reduced men sailed ships november returned germany december december december leaving approximately repatriated month negotiations fate ships way paris peace conference french italians wanted quarter ships british wanted destroyed knew detrimental proportional advantage numbers compared navies article armistice germans permitted destroy ships approved plans seize german ships case attempted recommended ships seized crews interned ashore island suggestions taken concern justification early january von mentioned possibility fleet chief staff having learned possible terms treaty versailles began prepare detailed plans ships admiral later wrote von informed fleet scuttled costs reduction crews departure transports germany june meant von left reliable men carry preparations day sent orders stated intention sink ships enemy attempt obtain possession government government agree peace terms surrender ships ships handed lasting disgrace placed position orders sent interned ships june meantime signing treaty versailles scheduled noon june battle squadron prepared board german ships force check signs fleet preparing june admiral requested person admiralty daily political appreciation june onwards prepared action related shortly reliable indication german attitude peace terms admiral submitted june scheme seizing german ships midnight june treaty meant signed approved plan june informed deadline signing treaty extended june neglected officially inform news extension seen newspaper day assumed true orders time exercise battleships torpedo attacks required good weather order recover torpedoes weather night june favourable ordered battle squadron sea morning june operation seize german ships postponed night squadron return scapa_flow june deadline sign treaty expired later claimed left unofficially informed von armistice effect fleet scuttled june von sent flag signal ordering fleet stand signal flag signal sent commanding officers leader torpedo boats day date acknowledge chief interned squadron signal repeated began immediately flood opened internal water pipes smashed watertight doors covers left open ships holes bored bulkheads facilitate spread water began german ship commander recorded prior june set hair turning heavily large placed noticeable effect noon friedrich der began list heavily starboard ships hoisted imperial german ensign crews began abandon ship british naval forces left scapa_flow comprised destroyers repair seven number started receiving news cancelled squadron exercise steaming speed scapa_flow division ships arrived time large ships afloat ahead order available craft prevent german ships sinking beach german ship sink battlecruiser time capital ships sunk survived light cruisers thirty destroyers sunk germans shot killed sixteen wounded aboard rowing land afternoon germans picked transported battleships battle squadron sent general order declaring germans treated prisoners war having broken armistice destined prisoner war camps von number officers brought quarterdeck hms revenge interpreter denounced actions von men looked faces admiral subsequently remarked privately resist feeling sympathy von preserved dignity placed highly unpleasant position reactions french disappointed german fleet gone having hoped acquire ships british admiral privately remarked german admiral declared aftermath german ships scapa_flow capital ships cruisers destroyers sunk remainder remained afloat towed shallower waters beached beached ships later dispersed allied navies sunken ships initially left scapa_flow cost deemed worth potential returns owing scrap metal left end war plenty obsolete warships having broken complaints locals hazard navigation salvage company formed raised sunken destroyers time entrepreneur cox involved bought destroyers admiralty began operations destroyers old german dry dock purchased subsequently modified able lift destroyers year half began work larger vessels developed new salvage technique divers holes submerged hulls pumped air rise surface towed breakers technique refloated ships methods costly final cost raising ran industrial action coal strike nearly brought operations halt cox instead dug coal submerged power machines end strike proved difficult ship sank attempt raise salvage equipment cox tried ordering raised news cameras capture witnessing moment plan nearly accidentally refloated cox switzerland cox told workers sink returned britain present duly refloated second time cox company eventually raised destroyers battlecruisers battleships cox sold remaining interests company later metal industries group retired man bought navy company went raise cruisers battlecruisers battleships outbreak second world war brought operations halt remaining lie deeper waters depths metres economic incentive attempt raise minor salvage carried recover small pieces steel low background steel manufacture radiation sensitive devices contaminated having produced prior chance nuclear contamination seven remain scheduled ancient monuments archaeological areas act divers allowed visit need permit rebuilding german_army 1930s based combined myths battlefield stab attitude actions high_seas_fleet scapa_flow symbol defiance new recruits officers kriegsmarine living military witness fleet died aged known living combat veteran world war new eyewitness account subsequent angry meeting von published family hugh david june list german ships fate

Scuttling of the German fleet in Scapa Flow