battle coral battle coral june series actions fought vietnam war 1st australian task force north vietnamese 7th division main force units kilometres north east following defeat communist offensive january february late april australian infantry battalions 1st 3rd battalions royal australian regiment supporting arms deployed base province positions routes leading renewed movement capital wider allied operation launched response intelligence reports impending communist offensive australians experienced little fighting period successfully penetrated capital chaos offensive attempt influence upcoming paris peace talks scheduled begin 13th days intense fighting attacks repelled south vietnamese forces attack launched days later offensive defeated significant losses sides causing extensive damage civilian casualties fighting north vietnamese forced withdraw having suffered heavy casualties casualties heavy proved costly week war withdrawal forces capital battalions establishing fire support base named coral east province area operations known poor reconnaissance inadequate operational planning led delays confusion fly australians partially completed coral evening north vietnamese mounted number battalion sized assaults night heavy bombardment signalling start exploiting defence penetrate australian perimeter north vietnamese regiment temporarily captured forward gun position close quarters fighting repulsed superior firepower following morning casualties heavy sides australians won convincing victory come close suffering political military defeat hands north vietnamese following day deployed defend coral established west ambush staging areas routes coral assaulted early hours coming heavy barrage followed regimental sized attack base penetrated hour battle north vietnamese forced withdraw suffering heavy losses expecting fighting australians subsequently reinforced tanks additional artillery coral attacked overnight coming short accurate mortar bombardment broken australian artillery mortars australians moved communist base areas east route establish kilometres north supported tanks arrived coral hours infantry subjected battalion attack north regiment following rocket mortar barrage attack fell primarily company repelled heavy casualties combined firepower tanks infantry day australians coral assaulted number located outside base troop supported infantry destroying occupants loss second major north vietnamese attack regimental strength called minutes defeated supporting fire tanks artillery mortars regardless battle continued june australians patrolled area operations contacts decreasing returned june relieved south vietnamese forces battle time australians clashed regular north vietnamese army units operating regimental strength conventional warfare days fighting communists sustained heavy losses forced postpone attack suffered significant casualties largest unit level action war australians today battle considered famous actions fought australian_army vietnam war background military situation based province 1st australian task force field force vietnam overall command lieutenant general frederick early reinforced strength infantry battalions supported armour artillery aviation engineers arrangements provided 1st australian support group based port commanded brigadier ron hughes continued operate independently war series large scale search destroy operations war attrition americans australians largely pursued counter campaign despite differences australian american methods times producing friction allies regardless available deployment iii corps tactical zone province coming progressively control australians increasingly spend significant period time conducting operations offensive began january north vietnamese troops simultaneously assaulting population centres allied installations south vietnam attempt general uprising south vietnamese government american supporters response deployed likely routes order defend vital long complex near january march operation heavy fighting resulted australians killed wounded communist casualties included killed wounded captured removed battlefield remaining australian forces stretched thin elements successfully assault later attack long conducting sweep long killing wounding loss killed wounded strategic level general uprising late february communist offensive collapsed suffering killed south vietnamese allied losses men regardless proved turning point war tactical disaster north vietnamese emerged significant political victory confidence american military political leadership collapsed public support war united_states prior american commanders politicians talked winning war arguing general william strategy attrition reached point communists losing soldiers equipment faster replaced scale offensive surprise violence launched shocked american public contradicted predictions imminent victory wake president johnson announced longer seek second term office similar effect australian public opinion caused growing uncertainty government determination united_states remain militarily involved southeast_asia amid initial shock prime minister john unexpectedly declared australia increase military commitment vietnam current level personnel ground war continued respite hughes commander turned attention provincial mobile battalion deciding strike base areas dam secret zone located long hills south long kilometres 5th battalion royal australian regiment suffered heavy casualties february operating long heavily defended mines traps despite previous operations airborne brigade june smaller south vietnamese operations area remained safe haven time australians use battalions supported tanks air strikes attempt reduce base area operation began february complex rifle companies patrolling night order prevent escaping march australians conducted wide movement sustained bombardment heavy bombers artillery targeted hill day combined force infantry supported armour advanced foothills clearing minefields destroying extensive base area included deep cave system french 1950s australian rifle company searched area operations engineers destroyed underground facilities task required use tonnes explosives operation lasted april mines including lifted controversial barrier minefield laid australians claiming significant toll australians killed wounded known casualties included killed wounded captured seven camps bunker systems destroyed large quantities weapons munitions supplies judged success australians despite heavy losses operation resulted significant disruption hindered operations time regardless lacking manpower hold area failure south vietnamese forces permanently occupy long meant gains battalion headquarters soon returned area south vietnamese regional force company months later finished operation march relieved april returning australia having completed month tour prelude planning preliminary operations despite losses previous fighting north vietnamese appeared gained initiative offensive devastated costing half strength south defense minister democratic republic vietnam general moved quickly replace losses reinforcements early north vietnamese soldiers serving units south vietnam april launched series large scale sweeps involving south vietnamese american australian new_zealand thai troops code named operation launched attacks provincial district capitals military installations major cities offensive attempt gain advantage session peace negotiations scheduled begin paris 13th successfully event received widespread international media coverage resulted considerable embarrassment americans allies attacking battalions penetrating city outer defences capital chaos resulting heavy civilian casualties days intense fighting american south vietnamese forces successfully repelled assault peace talks neared fresh wave attacks launched days later fighting communists forced withdraw having suffered dead week fighting casualties heavy amounting killed wounded costly week war americans australians initially employed operations inside province operation activity traditional base areas hat north hills increasing february march subsequently commenced operations north western border province april operations resulted little contact light commander australian forces vietnam major general arthur believed task force better employed north vietnamese conventional forces local operations later following request outside province operation similar months earlier planned help block overall responsibility defence capital assigned included 1st 9th 25th divisions light infantry brigade number south vietnamese units main deployment began april response intelligence reports impending offensive headquarters established american base deployed long border block likely routes east large american base complex long included large long logistics depot task force base defended infantry battalion squadron tanks remainder cavalry squadron remained period continuing reconnaissance surveillance operations province tasked patrolling tracks likely rocket launching sites disrupt expected attack battalion established hunt conducted number small successful established evans conducted search ambush operations returning replaced joined sweep response attacks elements relieving light infantry brigade area operations known columbus released operations companies battalions deploying ambush suspected routes expectation attack regiment 5th division days later relieved having completed major operation returning australia australians waited proved elusive contact light killed wounded days operations having missed north vietnamese units capital planned australians order withdrawal forces following defeat task force subsequently concentrate route major north south supply routes kilometres north east east province new area operations known forces operate support flanks opposing forces headquarters infantry battalions cavalry artillery engineer aviation elements operating support including armoured personnel carriers squadron 3rd cavalry regiment 12th field regiment royal australian artillery bell light observation helicopters reconnaissance flight mortar locating radars divisional locating battery concept operations called establishment battalion named newport allocated artillery support field battery established fire support base named coral initially allocated west supported coral supporting battery battery royal new_zealand artillery operation conducted phases command lieutenant colonel jim conduct air assault coral early lead elements securing landing zone fly remainder battalion lieutenant colonel bennett leaving supporting artillery infantry company protection west establish blocking positions patrol order intercept north vietnamese forces attempting withdraw south south west establish supporting artillery mortars coral company clear route village tan kilometres south battalion occupy blocking positions patrol headquarters coral forward task force maintenance area road convoy operational number people army vietnam units identified including regular north vietnamese 7th division consisting north vietnamese regiments command 5th division consisting regiments regiment divisions believed participated assault allied intelligence considered likely attempt withdraw australian area operations order forces included north vietnamese regiment groups units reconnaissance guiding logistics liaison tasks total estimated strength men regardless despite earlier warnings concentrate regimental strength breakdown passage intelligence led australians believe north vietnamese remain dispersed small groups attempt avoid detection australians assumed communist forces pose little threat envisioned patrolling company find ambush withdrew risk heavy ground fire limited aerial reconnaissance new area operations undertaken later significant implications battle occupation coral night hours australian scheduled commence american forces 1st division operating attacked west proposed landing zone continuing night following morning fighting prevented americans leaving area led initial delays occupying coral delays arose terrain proposed found unsuitable helicopters forced designate new location metres south west battalion american company providing security lead australian elements secure alternate communications problematic operation compounded delays infantry company fly company command major airborne directed new landing moved quickly original position despite rapidly clearing delayed practised flying setting large fire support base poorly prolonged operation caused considerable delay getting ground scattering number units confusion continued affect operation battery arriving coral ready forced land improvised clearing metres south west continued presence american forces prevented deploying planned battalion began landing forced remain western field battery direct support battery subsequently landed coral major brian second command 12th field regiment artillery tactical headquarters subsequently designated commander guns physically delays turn affected fly companies forced wait departure point commenced air coral hughes visited bennett coral discuss aspects defence events planned following day deployment second battalion complete mortar platoon arriving flight hours late clear bennett need deploy east hours light companies moved hasty defensive positions established deployment dusk battalions supporting elements scattered coral roughly connected groups defensive position task force headquarters advance party defence platoon located centrally task force tactical headquarters artillery tactical headquarters lieutenant colonel jack kelly commanding officer 12th field regiment remained hughes present having left attend matters task force rear headquarters forward tactical headquarters coral following day little opportunity australian infantry routes away coral preparation day responsible security coral company defending north west approaches remaining companies dispersed kilometres west spread new_zealand gun positions south west occupied eastern approaches rifle companies dispersed kilometres night ambush positions company isolated south east road tan order provide security convoy arrive following day bennett kept anti tank assault pioneer inside protect battalion command post mortar platoon particularly exposed located adjacent field battery gun position open area outer edge base facing north east rifle companies north east provided protection large gaps positions easily bypassed australians efforts defences prior light attempting tie positions achieve mutual support sub units arrangements remained incomplete night fell command posts dug weapons pits shell commenced completed depth lack time heavy rainfall started soon filled pits water mines barbed wire laid wire arrived lack materials prevented construction overhead protection machine guns placed perimeter time test fire properly tie arcs fire rifles anti tank platoon armed high explosive anti tank heat anti personnel ammunition sited support forward machine guns previous experiences fighting province australians overly alarmed despite defences coral suffering hasty deployment recent fighting involving 1st division kilometres west additional cause concern extent unknown australians time expecting north vietnamese operating small groups trying avoid battle weeks little thought major threat commencing night routine posted rest australians stood sleep attack coral unknown headquarters north vietnamese 7th division located approximately kilometres east coral units division based vicinity north vietnamese regiment operating north regiment east battalion strength group recently arrived having left trail border hours earlier north vietnamese divisional commander quickly dispatched reconnaissance elements observe fly australians defensive preparations afternoon soon reported opportunity attack exposed gun positions field battery battalion regiment augmented groups subsequently tasked attack coral night reconnaissance gone unnoticed australian infantry companies contacts small groups north vietnamese light evening company major tony contacted man group north vietnamese moving ambush positions metres north coral late afternoon brief exchange north vietnamese broke contact losing killed firing rocket propelled grenades trees australians wounding evening company command major bob contact east man group later major company detected north vietnamese moving perimeter newly issued subsequently killed wounded events appeared chance encounters caused australians particular concern midnight rain stopped minutes later mortar position fire fight ensued resulting possibly north vietnamese killed later apparent marking assault lanes north vietnamese forward reconnaissance party walked company ambush ensuing contact killed broke contact firing rocket propelled grenades killed australian wounded single platoon despite number minor clashes north vietnamese successfully bypassed australian rifle companies conducting forced march cover darkness rain dig metres coral finally rocket mortar fire began falling coral concentrating field battery mortar platoon positions intense bombardment lasting minutes following minute pause number signalled start assault intending capture field guns north vietnamese companies rushed australians north east firing assault rifles mortar platoon taking initial attack defence platoon pinned heavy machine gun fire new_zealand mortars began firing support failed halt north vietnamese initial assault succeeded running mortars killing wounding flank main assault force ran position speed moving gun position earlier reconnaissance north vietnamese likely observed guns laid facing east probably planned assault north result shortly main attack battery fired mission north guns directly facing axis assault moving long straight lines frontage men main north vietnamese assault moved gun position australian gunners opened fire open sights rounds point blank range thousands ranks breaking successive waves small groups amid confusion follow sections reaching mortar position groups flanks artillery mortars anti tank platoon commanded lieutenant les engaged firing mortars relieving immediate pressure north vietnamese having successfully achieved break faced possibility imminent mortar platoon second command lieutenant tony forced direct position bennett agreed north vietnamese attempted turn captured mortars australians swept area clearing ground causing heavy casualties assaulting force damaging number mortar tubes north vietnamese assault reached australian gun position running guns desperate close quarters fighting broke attackers subsequently succeeded capturing gun extreme edge gun line attempted destroy charges mortar artillery positions north vietnamese australians occupied adjacent pits fighting close range possession gun position officer captain defence australians finally drove assault grenades small arms rounds fired anti tank platoon assault falling mainly field battery west largely remained contact north vietnamese troops trained equipped ultimately unable prevail superior firepower australian infantry gunners turned battle favour night fire support command post fire support centre controlled integral fires field battery direct support battery battery mortars australian gunners soon ran rounds forced use standard high explosive direct action set delay guns depressed fire shell ground approximately metres caused round explode air heads assaulting force proved effective australians supported artillery number neighbouring american batteries range aerial helicopter continuous illumination forward observers adjusted artillery metres australian position armed mini guns fired thousands rounds assaulting forces hour intense fighting main attack began north vietnamese subsequently withdrew rubber plantation north east carrying dead wounded attempt prevent australians following company sized force remained australian gunners attempted engage remaining rounds high explosive taking advantage fire australians direct helicopter north vietnamese attacked effort cover withdrawal greatly reduced strength attack quickly broken high explosive series sporadic contacts took place australians withdrawing north vietnamese parties helicopter light fire team effective forced north vietnamese rearguard abandon positions time rockets mortars landed company metres south east killing australian wounding battery began firing likely withdrawal routes pre dawn light began appear australians began sweep position field battery clearing gun position bennett accompanied anti tank platoon regimental medical officer party clear rest perimeter number north vietnamese soldiers subsequently located killed gun position patrols met mortar position patrol carried similar sweep north south coral finally cleared evacuation australian dead wounded began helicopter communists finally completed withdrawal fighting costly sides australian casualties included killed wounded mortars damaged north vietnamese casualties included dead lay perimeter small arms seven crew served weapons captured australians radio quickly announced major north vietnamese victory little doubt australians convincingly repulsed attack come close suffering military political task force headquarters nearly destroyed initial delays fly left defenders spread north vietnamese assaulted preparatory fire ultimately alerted australians result different equally fortunes war resulted australian guns laid direction main north vietnamese assault firepower afforded probably decisive occupation coral operations conducted deficiencies evident inexperience command control insufficient lack setting defence avoided appointment local defence commander absence proper aerial reconnaissance prior resulted units supporting elements landing unsuitable ground view north vietnamese delay second battalion denied time establish positions night fell failures assessment timely distribution intelligence identified forward tactical headquarters arrived additional personnel stocks brought road convoy establish forward task force maintenance area hughes arrived directed bennett companies round defence coral consolidating defensive arrangements wire overhead protection mines mounted machine guns fire fixed lines established metres west company securing fire support base rifle companies conducted search operations resulted australian killed battery air armoured personnel carriers squadron troop command major john arrived coral day escorting rear self propelled artillery battery 35th artillery regiment split fire support bases troop assigned troop appointed local defence commander coral order actions units perimeter 1st field squadron provided engineer teams combat arm elements prepared command post fortifications fire support bases unsuccessful assault coral night demonstrated north vietnamese react violently australian attempts control deployed key route threatening number communist bases staging areas located nearby heavy fighting expected following days response australians forced tactics hughes decided establish strong defensive positions order destroy north vietnamese fire patrolling familiar australians heavily defended night battalions conduct defensive patrols day later fighting patrols company size armoured support locate destroy main force bases australian concept operations subsequently evolved searching clearing order locate cut withdrawal routes series reconnaissance force operations heavily defended bases continued patrolling seven days successfully staging areas routes loss soldier killed number patrol clashes sides tried determine intentions australians sent platoon sized defensive patrols kilometres coral contacts suffered killed wounded north vietnamese casualties included killed wounded later australians wounded rocket propelled grenade fired coral afternoon patrol activity resulted heavy fighting separate actions fought half hour different led australians awarded distinguished conduct medal lance corporal david private richard communists appeared australians gain information efforts continued following day defenders observing north vietnamese near perimeter coral patrols later contacted number small groups uncovered recently company sized camp metres base australians considered defences properly nearby north vietnamese regiment preparing attack coral intensive patrolling night large number lights observed defenders effectively warning impending assault second attack coral north vietnamese began heavy barrage rocket propelled grenades mortar fire concentrating company headquarters forward task force maintenance area heavily reinforced australian american artillery mortars quickly responded heavy counter battery fire total guns batteries field guns battery inch battery mortars firing support augmented air support heavy fire teams helicopter fighters bombs regardless north vietnamese launched battalion sized attack initially fell companies artillery mortars concentrating close defensive fire tasks assault largely held perimeter succeed running platoon company commanded lieutenant platoon hit heavily indirect fire initial bombardment suffered casualties concentrating gap created australian perimeter north vietnamese assaulted support heavy machine guns ordering men fix successfully reorganised defences called close mortar fire position resulting heavy casualties assaulting force later awarded military cross leadership unable achieve break north vietnamese attack include company engaging australian companies perimeter successfully opening number gaps wire failed press home attack company heavily engaged australians called helicopter light fire teams dropped continuously battlefield main attack halted north vietnamese began withdrawing australians beginning run low ammunition company australians pushed team forward provide additional support north vietnamese attacked targeting boundary companies northern edge perimeter repulsed mortar fire later battalion attack companies turned australians counter attacked elements company supported regaining lost platoon section post finally hour battle north vietnamese broke contact withdrew dead wounded fighting series rearguard actions prevent follow australians began collecting casualties evacuation resupply completed subsequently commenced clearance area australian rifle companies patrolling depth metres killing north vietnamese soldier capturing australians killed wounded wounded fighting north vietnamese bodies counted perimeter dawn intelligence later indicated fewer attacking troops survived attempt disrupt north vietnamese withdrawal led troop cavalry coral engaging north vietnamese battalion pursuit lasted visited coral congratulated task force defence australian battalions continued patrol minor contacts incident north vietnamese killed group approximately engaged artillery armed helicopters observed scouts company week followed australian patrols clashed groups north vietnamese moving north vietnamese regiment believed withdrawing war zone attacking tan son near company subsequently occupied blocking position creek north vietnamese moving northwards directing mortar firing routes killing capturing company located destroyed number base camps vicinity approval hughes departed long planned leave singapore colonel task force second command took commander respected experienced leader quickly took control amidst growing tension coral attacked scale coming short accurate mortar bombardment subsequently broken artillery mortar fire order bolster defences provide increased offensive capability ordered tanks squadron 1st armoured regiment kilometres command major peter slow moving armoured column departed traversing difficult terrain included number old bailey bridges threatened collapse weight moving inland route cover provided observation aircraft reconnaissance flight drove north route west highway long staged overnight north lead vehicle convoy hit road damaging tank resulting casualties finally arrived coral tanks troop subsequently allocated troop allocated american self propelled anti aircraft guns accompanied tanks strengthened australian ground support role attack achieving limited results suggested establish battalion new location east route order locate destroy north vietnamese bases suspected area subsequently occupied newport kilometres north coral hope provoking battle keen avoid mistakes earlier occupation coral sent companies forward foot occupy new fire support base battalion tactical headquarters accompanied number contacts australians north vietnamese north vietnamese soldier killed companies securing landing zone remainder inserted helicopter late afternoon developed battalion defensive position battery subsequently flown coral order concentrate artillery location able cover new north vietnamese caught surprise time prepare attack unable respond evening regardless worked quickly establish defensive position digging laying wire mines began local defensive patrols tanks troop squadron ordered bolster defences escorted infantry company captain bob route north vietnamese contacted australian infantry series pinning machine gun fire close range response australian tanks moved forward suppressing rounds infantry extracted australians struck edge large defended base camp estimated company size orders continue nightfall broke contact column subsequently arrived incident company returned coral helicopter north vietnamese killed encounter australian wounded relatively minor action tanks decisive engagement early proof effectiveness operation infantry north vietnamese commander longer able tolerate australian base areas located metres away subsequently tasked regiment commanded attack evening rounds shots lights alerted defenders impending attack north vietnamese began heavy bombardment mortar rockets accompanied machine gun small arms fire immediately following barrage subjected ground assault open ground north east force battalion strength falling primarily company commanded major peter phillips time north vietnamese conducted southern perimeter opposite company major howard torpedoes break wire gap exploited sited directly main axis assault concealed day rolled forward cover darkness machine guns rounds proved telling fighting main attack stalled reached wire repelled heavy casualties combined firepower australian infantry tanks sporadic mortar rocket propelled grenade small arms fire continued south coral hit suppressing fire mortars rifles rocket propelled grenades killing australian wounded defenders directed fire helicopter aircraft likely assembly areas mortar base plate locations north vietnamese finally broke contact withdrew removing majority casualties covering fire australian artillery fired escape routes clearing patrols swept area light found north vietnamese dead large quantity weapons ammunition equipment australians subsequently began evacuation casualties having lost dead wounded bunker clash patrolling subsequently directed clearance bunker system located previous day combined force company troop squadron command major tony tasked carrying reconnaissance force departing morning lead australian infantry platoon contacted small arms fire rocket propelled grenades metres coral having direct air strike canberra bombers squadron raaf nearby bunker system australian combined infantry tank assault campaign japanese second world war tanks called forward attacked anti tank solid shot machine guns infantry indicated targets grenade launchers moving forward abreast crushed tracks engaged point blank range main armament exposed foliage cut away rounds infantry followed tanks rifles grenades assault pioneers provided support flame artillery mortar fire engaged depth targets constructed visibility limited metres dense vegetation consequently located australians sited mutually supporting north vietnamese defending responded rocket propelled grenades heavy armour proved remained undamaged hour battle australians north vietnamese fought bunker bunker aerial reconnaissance revealing bunker system larger base area australian force judged small deal bennett directed retire late afternoon amidst heavy rain australians broke contact cover artillery mortar fire moved quickly coral fourteen destroyed seven north vietnamese bodies counted quantities weapons ammunition documents captured men undoubtedly crushed tanks making comprehensive body count impossible fierce engagement australians suffered casualties fact attributed effectiveness tanks decision forward second lieutenant john later awarded military cross leadership actions following days continued patrolling operations resulted small scale contact north vietnamese australian light observation helicopter damaged ground fire reconnaissance flight kilometres outside newport air strikes area exposed likely north vietnamese headquarters subsequently destroyed artillery fire second attack second regimental sized attack launched north vietnamese battalion assault preceded mortar fire south coral attacked indirect fire similar attack nights began south north vietnamese blew wire company successfully broken reached wire australian defenders mines small arms fire machine guns self loading rifles assault rifles main assault began north east borne phillips company australian supported tanks firing shot machine guns artillery mortars provided continuous close indirect fires combined effect firepower stopping north vietnamese wire penetrate position assault north vietnamese lost element surprise preparatory fire defenders assault subsequently called minutes small probe developed east quickly dissipated sporadic mortar rocket fire continued fall helicopter light fire teams engaged north vietnamese directed forward air control aircraft light artillery coral provided continuous battlefield illumination north vietnamese attempts clear dead wounded finally withdrew light clearing patrol company swept area tanks support killing capturing number attackers pinned old bomb north daylight revealed north vietnamese defeated leaving dead seven prisoners australian losses killed wounded quantities weapons clothing ammunition equipment recovered australians phillips subsequently awarded military cross leadership battle north vietnamese dead teenagers years evidence begun drafting year old boys combat units happened earlier fighting bodies collected buried mass grave later large number shell discovered north east aerial reconnaissance light observation helicopter thought likely north vietnamese assembly area engaged artillery firing defensive fire tasks early battle successful defence high ratio north vietnamese killed confirmed judgement decision adopt aggressive defence strong static positions forceful patrolling failed assault proved final attempt remove attacks north vietnamese coral operation concludes june australians continued patrol aggressively clashes occurring companies north vietnamese morning company major campbell patrolled bunker system kilometres east coral contacted large dug north vietnamese force lead platoon platoon came fire pinned rocket propelled grenades light machine guns platoon moved assist pinned section suffering heavy casualties losing machine gun campbell struggled establish company defensive position pushing platoon forward covered armed helicopters indirect fire forces facing metres australian artillery mortars rendered ineffective subsequently dispatched tanks coral reinforce heavy fighting developed supported australian infantry tanks assaulted cleared allowing lead platoon withdraw hours fighting suffering killed seven wounded company broke contact withdrawing metres artillery mortars air strikes engaged bunker system days later company returned area recover lost machine gun find position left dead bodies battlefield having abandoned north vietnamese withdrawn following australian assault tanks destroyed communist casualties included dead believed killed group engaged open artillery possibly killed north vietnamese appeared abandon australians increasingly diverted movement coral operation continued days regardless patrolled extensively june contacts decreasing june judged australian blocking operation successful limiting communist offensive directed units relieve hughes returned leave visited coral discuss situation task force subsequently declared closed june direct support battery returning air coral closed following day operation finally concluded june returning handing area operations 1st infantry division artillery armoured elements returned road convoy approach wet season concerned hughes believed hinder movement leave stranded kilometres base dry season nonetheless tanks departed coral june travelling route road went incident returned june aftermath casualties operation begun relatively quietly australians ended far days fighting inflicted losses communists forced north vietnamese 7th division postpone attack north vietnamese casualties included killed confirmed body count possibly killed wounded captured australian losses killed wounded new american soldiers wounded impressed results achieved june south vietnamese forces undoubtedly borne fighting allies time featured prominently american reports battle occasion australians met north vietnamese army regimental strength operating depth series engagements akin conventional warfare ultimately fought largest hazardous sustained battle war involvement action royal australian regiment 3rd cavalry regiment 1st armoured regiment subsequently awarded battle honour coral presented australian units war field battery awarded honour title coral recognition involvement battle award australian sub unit assessment fighting represented watershed campaign australians deployed outside province previously faced regular north vietnamese formations main force units operating battalion regimental strength southern deploying communist lines communication north vietnamese forced respond resulting set piece battle far removed counter doctrine australians normally espoused battle ended victory come close suffering defeat hands north vietnamese inexperienced large air mobile operations poor reconnaissance inadequate operational planning caused delays confusion fly coral leaving australian force exposed attack night north vietnamese fought greater numbers heavier firepower greater intensity previously experienced australians vietnam forcing tactics later australian use platoon patrols search area conduct challenged constant movement north vietnamese forces operating superior strength threatened quickly isolated patrol prolonged operations outside half placed considerable strain australian system australian resupply arrangements operation modelled experience operation required based split order provide forward element base long forward task force maintenance area established later coral supply road continued daily long following coral supply primarily air threat possible movement unit forward maintenance area undertaken helicopter units field received fresh meal day meals based half american half australian combat supply fuel ammunition generally satisfactory stocks run dangerously low occasion heavy fighting coral calculation usage rates based previous operations requiring emergency night time resupply base attack supply water particularly difficult permanent water point ultimately water delivered air long rate gal day rubber fuel australian command arrangements evident initial stages battle rapidly developed exact standard operating procedures future operational planning need pay greater intelligence determining strength patrols providing quick reaction forces rapidly responsive indirect fires support sub units operating independently ultimately firepower australian combined arms teams proved decisive value armour vietnam originally questioned australian_army performance tanks fighting coral demonstrated advantages battle infantry doubted necessity like working years tanks provide close support particularly clearance bunker systems proving powerful weapons offence defence later credited limiting casualties australian infantry contrast north vietnamese battle offensive later claimed killed australians single attack fact indicated importance placed time reacted quickly mount battalion attack night attempt push australians line communications attacks coral north vietnamese repeatedly surrendered element surprise preparatory fire poor light discipline defenders occasion rigid command control arrangements lack radio communications forced north vietnamese operate fixed schedules preventing taking initiative responding rapidly changing situations resulted communist commanders ultimately committing forces frontal assault coral night mounting similar attacks nights ended costly failures subsequent operations 4th battalion royal australian regiment arrived replace joined new_zealand infantry companies companies designated command lieutenant colonel lee commenced operations june later june deployed protect bases long rocket attacks operating north east wider allied operation known operation june battalion joined headquarters deployed command operation expanded july relieved returned largely uneventful operation resulted minimal contact lasted july killed captured australian casualties included killed wounded australians attempted supplies small force tanks supported company occupying area route west north west june operation operation tanks ambushed river sank seven loaded pounder main armament june general replaced change command resulted transformation concept war conduct directed allied main effort switch protecting population centres searching attempting destroy north vietnamese main force units previously equally prosecution war increasingly handed south vietnamese policy americans aiming north vietnamese units balance prevent interfering resupply reinforcement south vietnamese fight war australians change allied strategy return province operations outside province previous eighteen months costly australians killed wounded war point thirds killed january july completed number search clear operations northern border areas west tactical area responsibility province began general offensive year august attacking dozens towns military installations south vietnam rockets mortars including allied response australians deployed defend provincial capital august company troop tanks involved intense urban fighting supporting south vietnamese forces clear company sized force battalion occupying long killed fighting australian casualties included wounded weeks australian battalions deployed search destroy operations successfully continuing september renewed offensive lacked scale previous attacks resulted heavy communist casualties failing produce lasting military gains contributing overall decline north vietnamese combat power south failures final decisive increasingly hold upper hand war continued regardless allied military strategic objectives increasingly coming question deployed outside base operating suspected communist bases hat areas operation operation led sustained fighting day sweep december february later known battle hat


german involvement spanish civil war german involvement spanish civil war commenced outbreak war july adolf_hitler immediately sending powerful air armored units assist general francisco franco nationalist forces soviet_union sent smaller forces assist republican government britain france dozen countries set munitions soldiers spain germany signed simply ignored war provided combat experience latest technology german military intervention posed risk escalating world war hitler ready limited aid instead encouraged send large italian units franco nationalists victorious informal ally germany remaining neutral second world war spanish episode lasted years smaller scale prelude world war broke nazi support general franco motivated factors including distraction hitler central european strategy creation fascist spain friendly germany threaten france provided opportunity train men test equipment tactics military operations hitler decided support nationalists july german air_force carry army africa spain spanish german spanish transport company entirely german company raw materials good purchasing company established german transports moved nearly troops spanish morocco spain early intervention helped ensure nationalists successes war initial stages training provided nationalists proved valuable direct actions july october germans transported troops kilograms war material morocco franco african forces transported supplied decisive factor war germany signed non intervention agreement august consistently broke republican air attack german warship germany italy said withdraw non intervention committee maritime patrols early june saw return germany italy committee patrols withdrew patrols following attack german military spain later reorganised renamed legion claimed destroyed total republican planes spanish republican navy ships lost aircraft hostile action accidents german aid nationalists amounted approximately prices german air crews supported nationalist advance madrid relief siege legion aircraft accompanied armoured units end germans spain nationalists supported german units equipment battle madrid battle february fighting demonstrated legion aircraft compared superior soviet fighters war north supported constantly legion operation waves planes bombed targets leaving people dead injured offensive supported ground units extensive air operations proved worth legion nationalist cause legion took battle land air forces involved battle sorties day launched nationalists counter offensive continued nationalist offensive april june including battle involved bombing raids use legion ground forces july republican forces launched battle reconnaissance units legion warned nationalists forces went sorties legion aircraft considerable effect reinforcement legion enabled important nationalist counter attack sea maritime reconnaissance legion acted republican shipping ports coastal communications occasionally inland targets german north_sea group spain kriegsmarine consisted pocket battleships admiral light cruiser torpedo boats addition operation saw group german boats active spain ultimately failure motivation volunteers years following spanish civil war hitler gave possible motives german involvement distraction provided german prevention spread communism western_europe creation state friendly germany disrupt britain france possibilities economic expansion offensive madrid abandoned march series attacks weaker republican controlled areas supported germany despite civil war help distract western powers hitler ambitions central europe offensive mining industrial centre help fuel german industry june hitler speech declared supported franco gain control spanish ore discussions german objectives intervention occurred january germany keen avoid prompting europe wide war time felt committing resources spain contradictory views held german officials von suggested merely matter graceful withdrawal stated germany recognise red spain joint italian german decision shipments start february agreed german aid prevent nationalist defeat minimum commitment involvement spanish civil war drawn closer hitler helping agreement hitler plans union austria authoritarian catholic anti nazi government autonomous austria successfully opposing rise following assassination austria authoritarian chancellor successfully invoked italian military assistance case german invasion hitler need prevent italian invasion settled rome berlin axis spanish civil war germans austrians served international brigades political refugees volunteers nationalist country comparison non intervention agreement non intervention non intervention agreement proposed joint diplomatic initiative governments france united_kingdom order prevent war escalating major pan european conflict august non intervention nazi_germany french german position declaration needed discussions held preventing spread war rest europe long ussr present mentioned meeting germany supplying nationalists august germans informed british war materials sent germany false german captured came republican territory release required germany signed non intervention pact growing belief countries agreement admiral urged german government nationalists completely bring europe brink war abandon 24th germany signed point non intervention committee created uphold agreement double dealing ussr germany apparent germany consistently broke agreement signed non intervention committee established enforce non intervention agreement germany represented von christian von deputy left running italian found working difficult clear non intervention agreement preventing german aid nationalists november german government recognised nationalists true government spain germany met request ban volunteers january hitler authored german declaration german scale limitations outcomes intervention spain remained german diplomats spoke men spain genuine volunteers britain france germany italy russia continued believe european war best interests control plan observers posted spanish ports borders told governments agree plan significant shipments having taken place cost scheme germany pay german delegation appears hoped control plan effective committee noted attack german pocket battleship germany italy said withdraw committee patrols guaranteed attacks early june saw return germany italy committee patrols continued crime germany mention german operations following attacks attributed republicans germany denied german cruiser leipzig june germany italy withdrew patrols committee discussions patrols remained complicated britain france offered replace germany italy patrols sections powers believed patrols partial early intervention following military coup spain start spanish civil war spanish second republic turned soviet_union france support nationalists requested support hitler germany fascist italy attempt secure german aviation july request transport aircraft franco contacted hitler directly german ministers split support nationalists possibly embroiled european war result ultimately hitler decided support nationalists july wary provoking europe wide war air travel ministry concluded nationalist forces need flown pilots carry army africa spanish morocco spain mission known operation magic fire german joint spanish german spanish transport company entirely german company raw materials good purchasing company german und established involvement kept covert hidden foreign economic funded million organisation recruitment german volunteers kept secret july pilots major german cities contingent men left august civilian clothes unaware going accompanied fighters anti aircraft guns tons supplies placed airfield near accompanied german air transport began franco troops spain germany involvement grew september encompass branches operation magic fire renamed operation november wide belief soldiers train spanish nationalists engage republicans august tons bombs transferred germany portugal military aid provided head kriegsmarine initially refused provide submarines changed october signing rome berlin axis clear italy kriegsmarine provided surface ships coordinated movement german supplies spain german boats dispatched spanish waters weeks following july german transports moved nearly troops army africa spain july august transport planes moved spain germany san italy german aircraft continued provide cover ship movements gibraltar fuel shortages eased fuel arrived germany october mission official end troops machine guns field guns carried spain morocco period movement training supply missions overt combat operation leader alexander von replaced walter moved franco headquarters coordinate military diplomatic efforts september tons bombs tanks personnel landed spain accompanied aircraft july october period split aircraft nationalist faction planes german volunteers spain german air crews supported nationalist advance madrid successful relief siege ultimately phase siege madrid unsuccessful soviet air support republicans growing particularly supply aircraft appealed nazi_germany step support nazi figures including opposed following german recognition franco government september german efforts spain reorganised expanded existing command structure replaced military units spain formed new legion briefly called iron rations german iron legion german legion renamed legion german legion german franco government general von arrived november told interfere military matters mid november german shipments arrived spain carrying supplies like ammunition aviation fuel rifles grenades radio equipment civilian military vehicles controlled supplied arms republicans shipped greece supposedly use arms transferred ships supposedly sailing mexico supplying nationalists got best latest weapons republicans got oldest supply peaked nationalists identified vessels republican ports january estimated received equivalent pound sterling rifle earlier shipment hamburg october welsh ship rifles machine guns million militia barcelona nazi_germany helped propaganda war gift newly created national radio service legion legion establishment consisted squadrons bombers squadrons fighters reconnaissance supplemented anti aircraft group signals group overall command given hugo alexander chief staff transferred military armoured units command von operational nationalists supported german italian units equipment battle madrid military situation madrid remained poor nationalists german italian aircraft franco direction began bombing raids city germans keen observe effects civilian bombings deliberate burning city involving german aircraft bombings unsuccessful increasing republican air superiority apparent particularly strength soviet aircraft historian hugh thomas described armaments primitive november december urged creation single german unit believing turn tide war nationalists argued insufficient larger measures provoke wrath spanish late early new aircraft sent legion older aircraft passed nationalists end germans spain british estimated january august rifles transferred nationalists germany german forces operated battle began nationalist offensive february included german supplied ground forces including batteries machine guns tank division legion anti aircraft guns bombing republican nationalist aircraft helped ensure stalemate showed legion aircraft faced superior soviet fighters legion efforts partly significant defeat nationalists battle march joint italian german general set january advise franco war planning defeat significant italian force growing soviet superiority tanks aircraft led germans support plan abandon offensive madrid instead concentrate series attacks weaker republican controlled areas countries believed troops proven effective thought italians fighting force dominated german thought campaign isolated area predominantly northern spain immediate target called war north largely nationalist italian offensive supported consistently legion remained von replaced january deputy actual command legion air_force initially attacked towns anti aircraft defence minor defences according civilians died march including priest congregation church ceremony germans air raids hated ground forces retreat town attacked april controversial events spanish civil war operation waves planes bombed targets town number casualties matter controversy people killed number reported dead dead wounded explanations forward nationalists including blaming attack republicans attack town prolonged offensive nature operation makes unlikely offensive eventually came july supported ground units legion extensive air operations proved worth legion nationalist cause campaigns legion took battle legion sent north reinforce broken line repeated raids spanish republican army armoured vehicles later defensive positions bombers fighters based spanish republican air_force aircraft ineffective despite nationalist fears compared german aircraft legion lost aircraft claimed victories german tactics improved experience particularly use tanks nationalists nationalists returned focus capture northern spain german test aircraft latest models faced outdated section spanish republican air_force heavy aerial bombardment nationalist german italian aircraft far lines august leading fall battle september formal battle ended fall october germany immediately began ship products region industry germany argued repeatedly monopoly replaced von franco returned germany replaced following disagreements von replaced early legion began week strikes republican airfields halted republican advance ensuing battle legion land air forces poor weather resulted flights town fell republican forces january sorties day launched nationalist counter offensive valley february continued nationalist offensive april june including battle involved bombing raids use legion ground forces legion switched focus north river moving south following nationalist successes hitler words colleagues change attitude war germany quick victory war desirable mere continuation war german policy prevent republican defeat casualties beginning mount legion combined resurgence republican air activity nationalist advance stalled arguments bill germans rising million month continued unresolved legion exhausted july republican forces launched major offensive war battle reconnaissance units legion noticed troop build warned nationalists forces warning went republic gained ground republican forces failed gain control sorties legion having considerable effect tensions czechoslovakia shortage pilots germany led return pilots legion trained complained central command berlin led recall september battle saw days fighting aircraft lost accident legion claimed republican aircraft killed captured aid germany temporarily halted mid september germany nationalist spain settled issue german interests spanish mines legion took short break active duty receive new aircraft including bringing strength aircraft fifth nationalist force von returned spain overall command chief staff reinforcement single important intervention foreign war enabling counterattack battle mainly took operations remaining republican air_force january february considerable success rapidly dissolved men returned best aircraft returned germany rest equipment bought new spanish regime legion claimed destroyed republican aircraft aerial combat shot anti aircraft guns claimed destroyed ships lost aircraft hostile action accidents maritime operations legion maritime reconnaissance german legion maritime unit command operating independently land based division acted republican shipping ports coastal communications occasionally inland targets bridges starting began operating october beginning june operations expanded allow attacks republican ports long british ships present ships attacked second half norwegian torpedoes proved ineffective bombing targets instead arrival martin saw operations expand targeting barcelona naval activity declined inland targets numerous night missions began activities support ground forces main focus unit end hostilities total men killed action died accident illness kriegsmarine overtly kriegsmarine force enforcing non intervention agreement signed september barred countries interfering civil war agreement clearly broken france ussr germany italy supported faction result german pocket battleships admiral stood guard gibraltar prevent interference republican ships franco transported troops spanish mainland mid october german north_sea group spain consisted pocket battleships admiral light cruiser torpedo boats quickly uncovered evidence soviet_union supplying republicans helped aircraft bound legion cross mediterranean assisted battle attacked republican planes claimed soviet pilots mistaken nationalist ship fired sailors killed kriegsmarine greatest loss life war attack original target minefields posed great problem germany came close withdrawing agreement british diplomatic efforts germany patrolling prevailed germans claimed leipzig attacked unidentified submarine formally withdrew international patrols enforce agreement republican minister defense considered declaration war germany soviet fear world war prevented operation operation named daughter saw group german boats active waters near spain spanish republican navy overall command april berlin began november movement wilhelmshaven identification marks obscured mission kept secret entered mediterranean night november taking italian submarine patrols damaged sail enter italian ensign operated difficulties identifying legitimate targets concerns discovery limited operations torpedoes return wilhelmshaven december spanish republican submarine sunk germans claimed torpedo fired republicans claimed loss internal explosion return marked official end operation submarines sent details operation known believed involved submarine commanders received spanish cross bronze swords outcome early intervention helped ensure nationalist faction survived initial stages war german involvement steadily expanded training provided nationalist force proved valuable direct actions approximately nationalist soldiers trained german detachments spain technically proficient covered infantry tanks anti tank units air anti aircraft forces trained naval warfare legion spearheaded nationalist victories particularly providing air dominance onwards air air victories claimed claimed italian forces spain provided proving ground german tank tactics aircraft tactics moderately successful air superiority allowed certain parts legion replicated year world war ultimately failing prevail battle britain total approximately german citizens fought civil war pilots ground crew artillery men tank crew military advisers instructors germans maximum strength time approximately germans killed course war germany sent combat aircraft trainer aircraft spain german aid nationalists amounted approximately prices broken expenditure salaries expenses direct delivery supplies spain expended legion detailed list german supplies furnished spain found franco agreed sign output mines help pay german aid

German involvement in the Spanish Civil War


expeditions expeditions connected major french_navy operations spring french revolutionary wars french naval squadron brest seeking reinforce besieged french garrison egypt separate futile efforts reach eastern mediterranean french army egypt trapped shortly start napoleonic campaign egypt french mediterranean_fleet destroyed battle defeat french_navy maintained minimal presence mediterranean_sea numerous british allies succeeded blockading defeating french bases unopposed squadron direct effort restore balance situation mediterranean consul napoleon cruise reached toulon february providing vital reinforcements remnants fleet second expedition launched toulon month later forced port combination bad weather british blockade expedition actually reached eastern mediterranean fruitless attempt land troops british ships blockade egypt successfully drove forces away french squadron returned toulon july point expedition called despite failure land troops north_africa win series minor victories lone british warships including frigate hms success ship line hms ships detached expedition subsequently involved campaign july ultimately inability french break british blockade egypt resulted defeat surrender garrison later year background large french fleet warships transports crossed mediterranean_sea army men general napoleon intent invasion egypt nominally held neutral ottoman_empire capture malta french force pressed eastwards aware fleet rear admiral sir nelson entered mediterranean pursuit successfully avoiding nelson forces fleet reached alexandria june immediately invaded rapidly advancing inland defeating rulers egypt battle july army pushed inland fleet vice admiral paul anchored bay near alexandria found afternoon august nelson fleet despite growing darkness nelson attacked day battle destroyed captured ships line frigates ships line frigates escaped casualties admiral killed flagship orient route france suddenly closed consolidated position egypt attacked north ottoman syria operation achieved initial success british dominance sea heavily influenced campaign siege train captured coastal barges supplies brought overland french operations near shoreline came heavy fire royal_navy warships particularly culminating siege acre attempt french atlantic fleet intervene mediterranean known failed july defeated acre driven egypt decided return france november order charge deteriorating situation war second coalition evacuate small number advisors frigates promised army remaining egypt general jean send support reinforcements europe successfully reached france interception british forces november seized power coup proclaimed consul preoccupied middle_east french politics royal_navy returned mediterranean force british forces withdrawn region france spain allies treaty san nelson victory eliminated french threat allowing large scale second half year malta besieged islands captured joint turkish russian force successive efforts reach trapped garrison egypt defeated sea negotiations return french troops europe collapsed defeated ottoman attack battle march assassinated june morale fell situation egypt increasingly desperate french garrison british planned invasion march news british intentions reached france successfully reorganised french army driven allied advances italy bringing continental war end ordered squadron french atlantic fleet based brest reinforce garrison egypt expedition squadron selected reinforcement egypt placed command survivor battle officer experience service eastern mediterranean command gun gun ships line frigates carried troops reinforcements army egypt general jean rumours spread expedition destined caribbean oppose revolution demonstrations arranged french atlantic channel port intended confuse british blockade squadrons ships actually sailing giving impression squadron ordered sail brest january diversion plan successful british squadron permanently maintained brest rear admiral henry harvey immediately gave chase ships emerged passage hours forced shelter batteries mouth river pretending voyage like operations coast days later managed slip brest harbour january heavy storm struck brittany coast fierce northerly winds driving british sea leaving entrance brest clear escape driving french ships scattered storm suffered damage masts squadron broke bodies main force ships line frigate commodore smaller force ship line frigate absent british forces passed southwest following days hoping rendezvous cape encounters scattered british warships larger body encountered british frigate hms captain robert january approximately nautical miles northeast seized swedish merchant vessel abandoned ship soon ship line frigate closed investigate initially retreated advancing ships nautical miles distant squadron turned meet advancing approached captain louis demanded surrender met musket fire ships commenced close range engagement main half hour battle continued wreckage seen falling ordered ship assumption french ship surrendered fact hastily turning ship squadron support gave chase rigging severely damaged continue operation turning europe january seen distance following morning continued presence ships rendered efforts attack dangerous british ship lost killed wounded total crew members french killed wounded including captain lost hand entering mediterranean january shortly separated squadron reunited cape ships encountered british vessel chasing small hms commander richard unable resist larger warships removed crew captors set fire passing southwards united squadron reached straits gibraltar february passed resistance british fleet operating mediterranean_sea news operation reached authorities gibraltar royal_navy ship hand observe french squadron gun frigate hms success captain lay anchor british base correctly assumed french squadron sailing egypt decided follow french february day french captured scuttled gun cutter hms evening called ships halt cape sea passed night morning february french position pursue frigate days sailed north east occasions believing lost french ships horizon light winds hampered escape dawn february realised eventually caught defeated swung success west hoping lead french straight british forces searching plan failed wind disappeared completely noon french ships line approached gunshot outnumbered frigate surrendered resistance attached french squadron crew provided detachments vessels men joined prisoners taken flagship closely questioned british movements mediterranean interrogated informed invasion egypt underway eastern mediterranean controlled powerful fleet lord keith squadron sir john warren actively hunting french appear moment information captive largely false large expeditionary force fleet lord keith mediterranean arrive egypt weeks british landings eventually going ahead march time questioned force anchored southern coast struggling reluctant ottoman allies bad weather addition little active pursuit squadron february reached plymouth february urgent messages sent earl vincent admiralty ordered fast squadron ships line frigates brig search ships attached command force rear admiral sir robert traveled slow second rate ship line significantly delayed passage squadron case intentions admiralty resulted orders squadron sail west_indies played campaign warren squadron based learned passage february sailed gibraltar pursuit continuing february arriving february seeing sign french subsequently sailing sicily march hearing news impending treaty florence france kingdom naples despite lack genuine pursuit information ordered squadron sail toulon arriving february contact royal_navy second expedition learned anchored toulon egyptian coast furious ordered squadron return sea complete mission ordered anger news frigate orders resupply egypt captured action february british frigate hms western mediterranean emphasise instructions sent general jean deliver person ordered sail alexandria immediately egyptian port attack british forces troops landed practical cape tripoli way alexandria overland sailed march soon delivered orders seven ships line frigates merchant ships carrying supplies hours departing toulon squadron struck heavy gale ships line lost mainmast turned toulon remainder force scattered british blockade force sighted disparate squadron following morning french escaped pursuit hms succeeded capturing isolated merchant vessels march ships recovered force southwards sea ran directly warren squadron returned sicily turned escape warren gave chase faster vessels squadron gaining french slower ships particularly hms gibraltar hms falling far concerned placed squadron danger separated night warren ordered faster ships slow gradually lost sight french evening took advantage respite turn northwards darkness returned toulon expedition news reached returned toulon second time issued orders admiral sea fulfill original orders resupply egyptian garrison april french force sailed time seven ships line frigates corvette sailing egypt cruised sea achieving regional superiority long force able cross island rapidly fortress besieged ships bombarded fortress outbreak squadron significantly reduced operational effectiveness divided force taking ships healthy crews south formidable frigate perform efficiently sent toulon having reorganised force passed straits june squadron sighted chased british frigate hms captain james young able effect escape alexandria warn keith approach planned rendezvous frigates occur june squadron close egypt send corvette investigate situation alexandria june reached egyptian coast immediately came pursuit british ships line hms kent hms brig detached lord keith fleet previous day pressure captain sought safety alexandria harbour french hands trapped keith acting report captain young arrived june turned remainder ships west search corvette return squadron assumed captured powerful enemy presence lay harbour believing landing egypt impossible searched alternative site determined soldiers aboard landed small town situated tripoli alexandria sighting french inhabitants formed militia control available beaches rendering landing impractical french squadron dropped anchor ships keith fleet appeared east panicked instructed captains cut anchor cables flee west slower rest squadron abandoned warships subsequently seized fast frigate hms captain valentine surviving squadron gradually keith pursuit june sailing cape sail sighted northeast ordered ships pursue strange ship discovered british ship line hms captain benjamin keith warn warren squadron eastern mediterranean attempted series increasingly desperate efforts escape ship poor repair short exchange fire forced surrender warning warren able intercept return french squadron able reach toulon unharmed july aftermath ships reach egyptian garrison joining frigate corvette passage independently arrived march reinforcement army egypt supplies royal_navy dominant eastern mediterranean french forces egypt outnumbered british expeditionary force defeated campaign summer surrendering capitulation alexandria august totally failed achieve primary objective naval forces significantly reinforced battered french mediterranean_fleet ships detached subsequently engaged battles july british ship line captured franco spanish force suffered severe losses subject severe criticism historian william writing considered prevent squadron overwhelmed british particularly attempt land suffered repeat situation ships anchored close british fleet bore position described mad idea choosing dictated departed toulon second time considered caution dangerous country naval strategy master hold sea command commander mediterranean governor toulon following peace march order battle


douglas escape philippines douglas escape philippines began march world war general douglas members family staff left island forces surrounded japanese traveled boats patrol torpedo boats days stormy seas patrolled japanese warships reach party flew australia pair boeing flying fortresses ultimately arriving melbourne train march australia famous speech declared came shall return known experienced officer distinguished record world war retired united_states_army defense advisor philippine government recalled active duty united_states_army july months outbreak pacific war united_states empire japan commander united_states_army forces far_east uniting philippine united_states armies command march japanese invasion philippines compelled withdraw forces headquarters family moved doomed defense captured imagination american public time news fronts uniformly bad living symbol allied resistance japanese fearing soon fall taken prisoner president franklin roosevelt ordered australia submarine available elected break japanese blockade boats command lieutenant junior grade john staff brought known gang nucleus general headquarters southwest pacific area background douglas known experienced officer son lieutenant general arthur awarded medal honor services american_civil_war graduated united_states military academy class aide camp father president roosevelt world war commanded brigade 42nd rainbow division fighting western war served superintendent united_states military academy chief staff united_states_army retired united_states_army field marshal philippine army job advise philippine government defense matters prepare philippine defense forces philippines fully independent philippine army entirely manned small number american advisors raised conscription classes men trained year starting addition regular army garrison half serving army known philippine scouts recalled retirement july commander united_states_army forces far_east age united philippine united_states armies command getting philippine army ready war faced enormous task visit united_states lobbied navy department development boats small fast boats armed torpedoes believed geography philippines shallow waters suited nascent philippine navy acquired known boats president august navy created motor torpedo boat squadron command lieutenant junior grade john half strength squadron boats instead normal numbered arrived manila september understood fleet consisting boats required successful defense philippines early naval military planners concluded impractical repel invasion philippines best hoped garrison hold peninsula help arrived 1920s estimated days 1930s planners decidedly view increased capability aircraft agreed philippine written july decision abruptly reversed policy government defend hold philippines based belief boeing flying fortress bombers deter defeat invading force soon japanese invasion philippines accordance pre war plan declared manila open city ordered forces withdraw philippine government high commissioner office headquarters moved island military personnel sent united_states recall retirement philippine government employee family remained philippines wife jean young son arthur went arthur celebrated fourth birthday february aide asked arthur possible fate replied soldier son united_states fleet retired south philippines small force left command rear admiral francis consisting submarine tender uss submarine rescue ship small patrol boats boats motor torpedo boat squadron loss manila naval base bay meant fuel spare parts scarce boats relied floating dry dock uss assistance maintenance despite motor torpedo boat squadron continued patrol december rescued survivors carrying refugees australia struck sank manila bay week later ran aground patrolling south manila bay set fire prevent salvaged japanese met similar fate month later engines failed drifted reef boats attacked enemy barges night january small japanese warship february small vessel probably fishing february decision washington message president franklin roosevelt washington february announced family intended share fate garrison meant surrender best knew death artillery fire air raid likely days later chief staff united_states_army george marshall urged send family away ignored message singapore considered fell february washington possibility fall taken prisoner considered america experienced general little use prisoner war camp living symbol allied resistance japanese brave doomed defense captured imagination american public saw allied general knew fight japanese walter noted fragile period american general american public stunned shock pearl harbor uncertain lay ahead europe desperately needed hero embraced douglas good press copy simply choices came close matching mention evocative lone wolf stand americans secretary state hull raised possibility evacuation brigadier general dwight wrote diary help thinking disturbed editorials reacting public opinion military logic watson certain worth army corps president considered sending coordinate defense philippines consideration arose fall singapore sealed fate american british dutch australian command command nominally discussions held british future command arrangements broad agreement reached united_states assume responsibility southwest pacific senior american officer required obvious choice february received message drafted president secretary war henry marshall read president directs arrangements leave proceed directed change quickly possible proceed australia assume command united_states troops instructions given request movement submarine plane enable carry instructions authorized chief staff general responded request select time departure right moment chosen delicate operation wrote sudden collapse occur regard actual movement went combined use surface craft submarine air movement submarine time consuming marshall replied president allow choose time method departure dissolved february nominally came dutch command ordered continue communicating directly war department inspected boat squadron march air cover provided remaining wife jean took half hour ride sea jean felt ostensibly purpose visit presenting distinguished service cross sinking unidentified ton enemy ship torpedoes damage ship casualty crew took aside asked possible mile kilometre journey waters night boats told piece cake days passed word matter follow messages sent march march decided danger imminent collapse replied planned depart march submarine uss permit scheduled arrive radio broadcasts united_states calling placed charge australia picked headquarters assumed japanese heard ominous signs japanese surface patrols stepped bay area reports japanese destroyers heading north southern philippines elected wait permit leave soon possible boat night march major general left command told lieutenant general replied alive decision depart boat wait submarine lieutenant robert kelly executive officer motor torpedo boat squadron commander later recalled having served lieutenant second command prior assignment conferences general decision making process decision use boats evacuation dramatically emphasized american public overwhelming odds united_states fighting philippines old score united_states_navy tendency making trip submerged submarine commander personally know provided acceptable alternative elected exercise escape preparations crews overhauled boats voyage engines performed hard war service operated double recommended mileage overhaul result reduced operating half speed replacement parts normally discarded carefully cleaned replaced boat carry drums additional fuel deck reduced speed boats knots kilometres hour miles hour room passengers leave men sent fight infantry chief staff major general richard drew passenger lists chief staff captain ray ordered accompany orders return submarine switched accompanying date departure brought forward united_states_army air corps officer major general george included request united_states_army air forces accompanied family wife jean year old son arthur arthur later defended decision instead american nurse people outside orient wrote know completely member family arthur birth relationship family death certain left case doctor needed major charles summoned accompany party remaining thirteen members staff loyal experienced years creating new staff australia taken time taking existing enable commence work soon arrival australia valuable philippines included men assistant lieutenant colonel francis wilson master sergeant paul rogers promoted private day rogers enlisted man list number men gave letters post food passengers boats jean aide camp lieutenant colonel packed food bags boat removed star rank number plates car australia took lie stories later circulated cash gold stories furniture residence manila hotel loaded board boats version story piano fact passenger limited piece weighing pounds kilograms jean took small clothes sported label hotel new grand stayed honeymoon wrapped possessions took boat voyage carried family departed north dock passengers remaining boats taken launches boarded boats family boarded spoke major general george moore commander harbor defenses manila bays george told flag flying coming departed march joined minutes later navy led boats protective minefield single file boats assumed diamond formation lead bringing rear attacked japanese flee boats engaged enemy seas moderate passengers quickly later recalled weather deteriorated steadily waves tiny war weary vessels spray drove skin like fall trough climb steep water peak slide boat toss forth hang free space breach break away forward rush recall describing experience afterward like trip concrete night boats separated spent time looking boats unable find darkness dawn gave headed alternative hiding places kelly reach rendezvous point cove island hours late sign boats boat kelly far convinced kelly found correct island repairs boat hand pumps drums men posted atop island tallest hill watch japanese boats good engines dawn spotted appeared japanese destroyer heading fuel drums increase speed run ordered crew man caliber machine guns ready launch torpedoes akin prepared toss barracks bag filled code books overboard light improved vessel drew closer look revealed japanese destroyer carrying angry ordered recover drums proved time consuming task dangerous broad daylight abandoned drums recovered gunners sink rest boats hid day nearby cove afternoon way found discussion proceed wait permit warned seas higher assurance submarine decided continue departing daylight sure meet air transport fuel passengers divided soon departed arrived rendezvous point found crew discovered boats gone set hour left spotted japanese cruiser sharp turn west headed speed knots mph setting sun high waves sun simple cruiser spot midnight weather began heavy swells sporadic kelly later recalled big waves feet high cockpit everybody water eyes continuously salt couldn addition pitch black making good speed strange waters islands outlines big ones horizon storm dozens small ones probably hundreds reefs hand eyes avoid force water needed hold admiral pretty wrought sailed type ship navy shouted wind worst bridge wouldn duty world dawn winds swells subsided delay caused bad weather slowed boats travel sea daylight sighted shortly march led way kelly let lead channel charts pulled wharf bow met colonel william officer staff brigadier general william sharp commander forces told giving officer man silver star gallantry taken jaws death won forget hours later reached later recalled schedule reached north coast broad daylight clear dazzling day fortunately japanese planes cut blue sky enemy known regular mail flights pretty conspicuous hours dragged uss permit command lieutenant reached march found engines action felt boat longer destroy boat permit deck gun took crewmen crew disembarked embarked passengers thirty nonetheless ordered conduct regular war patrol finally reached australia april unaware attempted locate days flew area passenger aircraft including hope finding aircraft commander army forces australia lieutenant general george received general marshall washington requesting bombers transport party australia subsequent message requested experienced pilots best available planes condition long range aircraft boeing flying fortresses 19th bombardment group seen hard service philippines dutch_east_indies campaigns approached vice admiral commander naval forces area ask loan newly arrived navy reputation refusing requests navy benefit turned sent 19th bombardment group old planes forced turn engine trouble accidentally dumped gallons litres imperial gallons fuel pilot flew nearly del field miles destination fuel tanks ran dry engines stopped crash landed sea crew killed rest shore del field piloted lieutenant reached del poor condition brakes faulty sharp ordered australia arrived despite lack brakes return trip carrying sixteen passengers arrival group reached safely aircraft del field meet taken del plantation lodged guest houses breakfast sent couple sharp messages melbourne marshall washington second day filipino woman arrived wanted speak son fighting walked miles kilometres hope general news fact aware presence disturbing party japanese miles away south coast went expecting turned time gave aircraft wanted speculated heard washington newly formed 40th reconnaissance squadron manned bombers turned del field march landing dark runway lit lieutenant frank pilot plane calculated carried planes left baggage divided groups bombers took march rode radio operator seat need manned aircraft travelling radio silence passengers trip dark cold blanket metal skin aircraft planes approached darwin word received japanese air raid progress flew airfield touched awarded silver stars crews bombers chief staff brigadier general hand greet sent australian national bring melbourne jean refused fly asked nearest railway station alice springs miles away received word incoming japanese air raid asked intervene told arthur suffered badly feed guarantee survive trip desert agreed planes alice springs hurry aircraft took air raid sounded alice springs party split family took special train borrowed australians rest staff flew melbourne adelaide famous speech said came shall return small town south_australia march changed trains march journey completed train rolled street station greeted australian minister army frank aftermath roosevelt issued public statement march know man woman united_states general determination fight finish men philippines know man woman agreement important decisions view successful termination war knowing sure american faced individually question general best serve country come answer reaction escape mixed american filipino troops feeling bitter betrayed broke news generals depressed news soon saw understood understood people family members philippines dismayed wrote roosevelt broken morale parents home thoroughly held joseph fleeing general labeled marshall decided best way counter award medal honor april led squadron attack japanese cruiser boats scored hit cruiser torpedo failed explode damage resulted loss city torpedoes active careers remaining boats squadron came end gave boat officers high priority flown flown orders april kelly evacuated april flights sharp surrendered subsequently nominated medal honor commander chief fleet admiral king going let award medal honor naval officer wrote citation behalf navy roosevelt presented ceremony oval office august wrote book exploits entitled parts serialized reader digest life magazines bestseller adapted movie robert montgomery playing character based john wayne based kelly reed role army nurse kelly brief liaison postwar analysis found book claims exaggerated staff brought formed nucleus general headquarters southwest pacific area gang came called remained duration noted loyalty lauded greatest general statesman george_washington hailed decision escape boats stroke genius eventually kept promise returned philippines gang returned march boats

Douglas MacArthur's escape from the Philippines