dog february ship dog board hms hms stationed world war proved able hear incoming aircraft providing crew early warning crew transferred june ship sent singapore british declaration war germany board ship battle singapore saw evacuate dutch_east_indies sunk route nearly killed having trapped falling row rescued returned stricken vessel looking supplies deserted island surviving crew managed find fresh water source saving way dutch_east_indies sumatra aiming link evacuating british forces miles jungle weeks survived attack crew arrived day final vessel left subsequently prisoners war japanese eventually smuggled camp met leading frank williams time spend rest life williams convinced camp commandant register official prisoner war number dog registered prisoner war second world war moved camps survived sinking transport ship van aftermath saved passengers drowning les smuggled camp reunited frank williams end war life danger death japanese guards following outbreak prisoners williams hid dog allied forces arrived williams smuggled aboard spent months arriving awarded medal considered animals victoria_cross died travelling williams work food scheme medal collar subsequently display imperial war museum london animal war exhibition early life pure bred liver white born dog shanghai china escaped kept alley months old following altercation sailors japanese navy found worker returned originally called autumn crew insect class hms voted ship mascot competitive nature hms bee cricket having captain chief mate chief petty officer charles purchased presented crew hoped train men began treat like pet instead day log stated chances making trained small military career hms able jan cooper given job keeper ship dog ship butcher given open box blanket sleep trained stop going certain areas ship inhabited chinese disliked november fell overboard river spotted ship called stop power boat deployed retrieve incident recorded ship log man overboard exercise undergoing trials following refit met ship dog kept away took fancy care early morning departed alerted ship presence river pirates board darkness attack easily repelled pirates lost surprise element days later taken ashore shooting party time unsuccessful stay crew repeatedly tried use time resulting failure known pointing approach hostile japanese aircraft long human crew hear occurred prior outbreak war aircraft fly low passed outing took walk outside city ran ahead pulling realised looked pulling away leopard november met american river uss held party ship companies crew departed realised contacted signal lamp insisted seen following morning crew heard chinese trader board retaliation party boarded american vessel stole ship bell contacted offered bell return returned hour early cooper sent britain crew rotation docked took liking board french francis ship companies held impromptu wedding ceremony dogs french paul remained days returning ship fell pregnant gave birth thirteen survived eventually given away variety sources including francis american uss guam involved incident october year resulted ending trips ashore whilst walked sailors confronted japanese soldiers pointed loaded rifle soldiers thrown river following days japanese officers came board decided better stay ship hms june class arrived operations existing insect class vessels crew transferred hms including following british declaration war germany september year river included british base singapore initially sea sick crew ensured properly exercised time ship arrived station recovered initially stay singapore peaceful stayed customs official family week ashore ship rarely deployed january deployed provide covering coast malaya retreating troops occasionally carry evacuations battle singapore took place february february sister ship largest vessels left singapore february vessels ordered evacuate personnel leave singapore ships left evening travelled ships headed island dutch_east_indies hoping island group sat hiding place approached indicated approach japanese aircraft anti aircraft gunners took positions readiness hit single bomb planes departed decks planes returned hit bombs sank quickly hit bombs order given abandon ship fire spread close ammunition compartment boats lowered crew ferried yards shore whilst japanese planes vessels ashore realised island arrived turned little food apparent water camp set ashore petty officer george white sent floating supplies boarded vessel descended decks search items use whilst felt darkness trapped row constructed materials rowed items island lack water issue began dig point waterline took couple minutes managed fresh water spring credited saving lives days bombed arrived took survivors left wounded survivors travelled days later chinese sumatra hoped british force remained sri_lanka arrival took vessel series rivers narrowed pass embarked mile cross country trek island attempt reach journey jungle attacked suffered cut shoulder journey weeks arrived missed evacuation ship day japanese arrive city moment arrival japanese survivors taken custody prisoners war prisoner war crew prisoners war initially held soon moved smuggled board transport trucks hidden rice sacks days arrived prisoner war camp chief petty officer williams recorded began years horrific labour torture starvation degradation japanese inflict arrived camp met leading frank williams adopted shared daily handful rice august onwards camp intervene distracting guards punishment animal officially registered prisoner war second world war frank william intervention protect dog guards threaten shoot dog williams managed convince camp commandant drunk sake sign registration papers promise future official prisoner war stay camp alert prisoners approach japanese guards animals snakes camp looking food bring rats snakes williams group survived given camp commandant promised smuggled women camp food men spare given red_cross beaten death drunken guard final remained camp williams left june men transferred singapore aboard van dogs allowed board frank williams managed teach lie silent inside rice sack boarded ship climbed sack williams shoulder board hours men forced stand deck heat entire time remained silent bag conditions board ship cramped prisoners june ship torpedoed williams pushed attempt save life feet drop sea escape ship knowing survived passengers survive return sumatra frank williams recaptured sent new camp news survival stories began told dog helping drowning men reach pieces debris hold recalled dog bring afloat dog allow men hold swimming safety found water survivors sinking hidden japanese arrival dock found les tried truck discovered japanese captain threatened kill order newly arrived commander camp allowed travel new camp williams giving hope finding arrived new camp couldn believe eyes entered camp dog hit square shoulders knocked glad old girl think felt weeks new camp moved sumatra steamer told special mission pick fruit instead spent year sumatra japanese men cut jungle lay railway track rations handful ridden day frank continued share proved useful conducting trades locals indicate hiding near track deliberately alerted guards large handle jungle tigers elephants frank credited saving life time spent saved life ways greatest way giving reason live look weary eyes ask happen died going meant waiting miracle post war awards hostilities ceased prisoners war told remain allied troops came relieve japanese guards point outbreak led japanese condemning death williams hid dog days guards allies arrived smuggled aboard heading liverpool williams managed avoid dock police delivered care ship cook ensured fed voyage home return stayed months surrey williams reunited april headed immediately london williams given white cross awarded medal animals major chairman returned british association enrolled association member citation reads magnificent courage endurance japanese prison camps helped maintain morale fellow prisoners saving lives intelligence medal referred animal equivalent victoria_cross interviewed bbc coverage london victory celebrations june broadcast nation radio programme town tonight frank spent year war visiting relatives survived frank remarked presence pair left work government funded food scheme east africa difficulty getting permission travel feared williams split issue promoted evening standard involvement william 2nd permission given travel williams final litter time africa years discovered age frank spent months building granite marble memorial memory included plaque told life story february remembered church services portsmouth story featured british children blue peter collar medal went public display time imperial war museum london animals war exhibition presented williams frank son


gun german naval gun world war world war classes german pre dreadnought battleships large german naval gun use horizontal sliding block breech design interrupted screw commonly guns size large german naval gun load single case adapted land service pre dreadnoughts began disarmed beginning guns served coast defense duties island world war fixed mounts world war guns transferred brest railway world wars description gun weighed tonnes long tons short tons overall length meters bore length meters designated actual caliber centimeters early guns possibly designated built older method construction later guns modern built techniques inner gun tube outer jackets large german naval gun use krupp horizontal sliding block wedge referred breech design interrupted screw commonly heavy guns nations required charge loaded metal case usually brass provides seals breech prevent escape expanding gas large german naval gun load single case later guns required fore charge addition main charge cartridge case naval turrets guns twin gun turrets main armament class pre dreadnoughts turret class battleships twin gun turret end guns elevate traverse centerline fire armor piercing shell maximum range meters maximum elevation ships rounds gun rate fire types turrets rounds minute land beginning guns adapted use ashore obvious change land service placement large forward counteract weight breech heavy simpler adding perform function fitted system absorb firing return gun firing position ready round guns placed firing platform coast defense duties island semi portable mount weeks labor prepare position rotated pivot mount rear supported resting rail equipped gun shield gun rate fire mounts round minutes guns battleships railroad railway guns ammunition world war gun tube powder mix small amounts value explosion temperature world war replaced substituted value explosion temperature virtue harder risk catastrophic fire explosion reduced effects gun bore sources differ gun world war campbell says says guns mounted fired types shells world war armor piercing high explosive types world war guns fired wider variety shells including high explosive shells heavy rounds weighed heavy weighed greater elevation available mount mit maximum range armor penetration source credits shell ability penetrate millimeters armor meters history naval guns treaty versailles allowed germans retain pre dreadnoughts rearmed original guns fired shots world war began bombarding polish defenses september participated polish campaign ships relegated training duties shortly coast defense guns guns transferred german_army navy kaiserliche_marine pre dreadnoughts began disarmed relegated training duties battle jutland proved suitable contemporary naval combat guns sms placed coast defense duty island world war seven guns coast defense duties guns survived world war transferred brest france railway guns approximately guns battleships railroad railway guns number kept kaiserliche_marine coastal defense duties traditional roles long range heavy artillery surviving weapons germans world war coast defense duties

Weapons, military equipment and programs


smith gun smith gun hoc anti tank artillery piece british_army home guard second world war german invasion great_britain likely defeat battle france available weaponry diverted regular british_army leaving home guard short supplies particularly anti tank weaponry smith gun designed retired army major named william smith makeshift anti tank weapon production following demonstration prime minister winston_churchill weapon consisted inch barrel approximately inches long mounted carriage capable firing modified inch mortar anti tank anti personnel rounds despite promising sounding nature weapon trials ideal conditions achieved maximum range yards attempts increase maximum range yards having abandoned excessive consequent instability generally regarded short range weapon accepted maximum range yards accepted effective range yards furthermore heavy awkward simply tip correct wheel firm level lay remained correct firing configuration alleged developed terrifying reputation killing crew finally issued following production difficulties issued mainly home guard units units regular army tasked point defence guarding airfields ammunition shortages meant average units seven modified mortar rounds gun despite limitations home guard units developed attachment weapon later claiming best pieces equipment issued force development end battle france evacuation british expeditionary force port june german invasion great_britain likely british_army equipped defend country event weeks evacuation field seven divisions army particularly short anti tank guns left france available britain ammunition scarce remaining guns regulations forbade single round training purposes given shortcomings modern weapons available allocated british_army home guard forced supplement outdated anti tank weapons ammunition hoc weapons smith gun describes unorthodox origin weapons produced use home guard invented retired british_army major william smith managing director toys civil engineering background smith gun intended cheap easily manufactured anti tank weapon submitted ordnance board remained merits prime minister winston_churchill witnessed demonstration weapon ordered production design smith gun consisted inch calibre barrel inches length mounted carriage like wheeled baby carriage unlike average weighed pounds basic shield provided wheels cover crew unconventional aspects design mobile weapon lay fire smith gun tipped heels acted combined proved overhead protection crew meant firing configuration smith gun resembled miniature naval gun mount pre dreadnought era unorthodox gave smith gun degrees rotation combined maximum degree elevation produced basic weapon aspiring condition basic firing plate mounted field weapon light towed civilian vehicle despite designed home guard units quickly discovered fact having prohibited damage weapon wheels possibly axle preventing traverse happily ammunition shortages similarly constructed redundant source capable firing anti personnel anti tank rounds capable penetrating armour smith gun provided home guard local defence units potentially potent anti personnel anti armour weapon flaws design liked home guard units issued heavy awkward particularly rough ground urban areas recommended ropes manoeuvre weapon position possessed low muzzle velocity implies rainbow like trajectory making precise range calculations experience vital difficult rounds available problem compounded early possessing faulty led alleged terrifying reputation killing crew probably arises fatal malfunction live fire exercise corporal squadron raf regiment killed explosion operational history production smith guns began late problems manufacture meant batch delivered home guard beginning total smith guns issued home guard units production problems affected ammunition weapons delay manufacturing anti tank ammunition meant weapon supplied seven rounds number smith guns issued regular army units tasked guarding airfields soon issue malfunction causing explosion resulting death corporal squadron raf regiment similar incidents followed smith guns withdrawn raf regiment units mounted carrier innovation repeated despite problems weapon tendency kill manned government attempted portray positive light issuing special instructions autumn stated smith gun simple powerful accurate weapon properly handled add greatly fire power home guard period initial distrust home guard units appear taken smith gun attempted best use states units growing sense affection weapon describes letter published times end conflict criticizing weapon numerous home guard volunteers replied letters describing satisfactory smith gun stated best pieces equipment issued force smith guns active service declared obsolete


gunpowder artillery middle ages artillery middle ages primarily consisted introduction cannon large tubular firearms designed fire heavy long distance guns bombs rockets cannons invented china han chinese song dynasty later spread europe middle_east period gunpowder known europe high middle ages usage guns explosives chinese firearms experts employed mercenaries conquests europe late middle ages european versions cannons widely developed cannons introduced europe probably christian wars muslims 13th century use documented middle_east time english cannons appeared later saw general use years war primitive cannons engaged battle end 14th century use cannons recorded russia byzantium ottoman_empire earliest medieval cannon pot like shape psychological effect causing physical damage later transitional cannon anti personnel weapon 15th century cannon advanced significantly effective siege engines end period cannon gradually replaced siege engines forms aging weaponry battlefield middle english word canon derived old italian word meaning large tube came latin meaning cane reed word canon gun italy english word bombard earliest term cannon came refer largest weapons early use china east asia documented battlefield use gunpowder artillery took place january song general han capture city world earliest known hand cannon hand cannon dated found held known illustration cannon dated poem iron cannon affair accounts use gunpowder artillery china wrote fired pierce heart belly strikes man horse persons use islamic world arabs acquired knowledge gunpowder time time written arabic recipes gunpowder instructions descriptions gunpowder claims battle ain saw use cannon history gunpowder identical ideal composition explosive gunpowder claims known china europe later khan states invading introduced gunpowder islamic world cites early infantry example gunpowder weapons met open acceptance middle_east interprets ibn reporting use cannon siege machines sultan siege super sized troops capture constantinople urban hungarian cannon engineer credited introduction cannon central europe ottoman realm fire heavy stone balls mile sound blast reportedly heard distance miles piece slightly later date cast bronze parts chase breech weighed tonnes parts facilitate work use europe europe earliest mentions gunpowder appeared roger bacon describes recipe gunpowder recognized military use substances compose artificially fire launched long distances small quantity material light created accompanied horrible possible destroy town army order produce artificial lightning thunder necessary norwegian mentioned military chapter use coal best weapon ship ship combat muslim christian dynasty cannon defensively reference siege spanish historian recorded new machine caused great terror threw iron balls fire spanish historian juan recalled use cannon siege besieged great harm christians iron bullets shot time find mention gunpowder ball histories juan relates english earl derby earl salisbury participated siege transferred knowledge effectiveness cannon england kings initial stages enlisted help experts artillery masters peninsula probably christian service king service las time fame capacity britain france cannon introduced kingdom england 14th century mentioned use scots metal cannon pot depicted illuminated manuscript walter presented edward iii accession english throne manuscript shows legged stand supporting bottle gunner stands firing charge red hot iron bar bolt muzzle shown illustrated treatise explanation description given weapon similar french english years war cannon saw real use european battlefield cannon 14th century limited respects modern historian early cannon inferior respect great siege engines slow small limited 14th century firing bolts limited range weaknesses limited technology inability forge cast piece iron balls probably dangerous users enemy affected morale men horses damaged persons buildings cannon relatively rare small numbers states mentioned english wardrobe accounts preparations battle believed shot large arrows simple important directly controlled royal wardrobe according contemporary chronicler jean english cannon taken mean individual shots guns time taken primitive artillery agreed destructive field indicated guns continued fire french cavalry later battle english guns cast iron balls means fire noise like thunder caused loss men horses continually hit gunners end battle plain covered men struck arrows cannon balls advances late middle ages similar cannon appeared siege year clearly mounted wheels wheeled gun carriages commonplace end 15th century cast bronze banding iron sections logistical problems transporting operating cannon dozen horses required great guns period small bore cannon 14th century derives snake like handles attached transitional cannon anti personnel weapon forged iron fixed wooden stock usually placed rest firing common 15th century battles particularly armies smallest medieval gunpowder weapons relatively light portable fired lead shot inexpensive relative available materials smaller bore inches considerable developments 15th century produced effective early form cannon walls towers defensively castle previously thought taken northumberland described having storeys great murder holes shot great stone stage timber great shot example bombard found moat castle replica kept inside artillery crews generally recruited city master gunner usually person larger contingents master gunners responsibility heavier artillery pieces accompanied rope makers smaller field pieces manned trained volunteers battle cannon crew gunner drivers group pioneers assigned level path ahead level path gunpowder mixture unstable easily separate transport site fired ground level timber provide protection artillery crew timber control barrel elevation majority medieval cannon effort usual loading equipment consisted copper loading felt brush bucket water kept cannon skins soaked cold water cool barrel added water clean inside barrel hot heat shot wire going scottish kings interested development cannon including unfortunate james killed accidental explosion cannon besieging castle dates time famous example scottish cannon james scotland renaissance figure fascination cannon land sea able invest scottish navy large number cannon flagship great michael launched great guns lesser pieces gunners use eastern_europe russia cannon appeared russia initially use confined defence fortresses mention cannon russian chronicles small type cannon fired case shot defend moscow khan cannon existed throwing machines century overtook terms destructive power russian city fell cannon fire time wall destroyed stone wall destroyed russia cannon fire came byzantine ottoman 14th century byzantine_empire began accumulate cannon face ottoman threat starting medium sized cannon feet long calibre large empire control definite use artillery region ottoman siege constantinople attackers gunpowder loud byzantine weapons possibly operated forced turks withdraw ottomans acquired cannon siege short wide cannon sides evenly matched turks build order receive stones empire time facing economic problems pope promoted affordable donation cannon european monarchs means aid new cannon siege gifts european states aside advances byzantine arsenal contrast sultan laid siege constantinople april hungarian cannon largest feet long weighed tons fired pound stone required operating crew men initially offered byzantines hungarian artillery expert urban pinnacle gunpowder technology time boasted reduce walls fact byzantines afford illustrates financial costs artillery time cannon needed men transport extremely loud adding psychological impact believed unexpectedly heard struck dumb day bombardment constantinople left massive destruction recounted greek chronicler stone borne enormous force velocity hit wall immediately shook knocked broken fragments scattered pieces killing happened nearby byzantine counter artillery allowed repel visible turkish weapons defenders repulsed attempts storm broken points walls hastily repaired damage walls adapted artillery towers good gun worry largest byzantine cannon cause damage walls turkish cannon gunpowder devastating greek fire obsolete final fall strongest walls europe end era ways cannon end middle ages end middle ages development cannon revolutionary changes siege warfare europe castles susceptible artillery fire primary aims castle wall construction height thickness obsolete damaged inevitably fortifications previously deemed proved inadequate face gunpowder walls towers fortifications lower wider italian tracing developed corner basis fortifications centuries come introduction artillery siege warfare middle ages geometry main element european military architecture 16th century england henry_viii began building device forts artillery fortresses counter threat invasion france spain built state strategic points powerful cannon batteries deal castle perfectly symmetrical low circular centre cannon gun ports set walls fort essentially firing platform shape allowed lines fire low curved designed guard artillery gunfire increasing use brick stone geometric fortresses 17th century french castles fortifications developments cannon 14th century medieval castles managed prolonged resistance artillery english civil war 17th century


type revolver type model revolver modern revolver adopted imperial japanese army developed arsenal named year adoption japanese dating system 26th year reign emperor revolver saw action conflicts including russo japanese war world war world war design features time period revolver design flaw allows cylinder rotate align wrong chamber distinct phases production different markings depending time individual type produced japanese revolver ammunition unique weapon type double action mechanism difficult aim accurately type replaced pistol half 20th century history known meaning pistol pattern 26th year era type revolver indigenous revolver adopted japanese military type produced replace aging smith new model officially adopted march design widely believed mixture features taken lock design similar designs frame similar smith designs plate covering lock similar modèle revolver cartridge loaded black powder began loaded powder type considered remarkable leap japanese pistol development despite international influence common domestic japanese years earlier production stopped arsenal destroyed great earthquake assembly continuing exhaustion parts approximately type produced additional pre production restoration issue removed service damage wear carried needed basis period years original type missing external markings later produced identifiable numbers stamped internal parts type according firearms expert author considered testament original suitable combat weapon later japanese produced pistols design type revolver length tall weighing octagonal barrel blade embedded directly barrel rear sight incorporated frame allows access mechanism weapon opened lifting barrel swung downward automatic notch allows access cylinder rear frame revolver double action absence spur intended avoid clothing firing accidentally lock self slow respond delay response accurate shooting virtually impossible cylinder contains design flaw hammer allows cylinder revolve brushed object sudden sideways motion cylinder freely fired chamber rotate position instead shot dangerous event user combat later type lateral place earlier pattern differences external finish depth look die stamped markings steel excellent steel soft compared western standards japanese revolver ammunition type unique weapon type revolver ammunition later replaced semi automatic pistols beginning 20th century production periods differences markings appearance surviving type led production runs categories limited early production markings early production type external markings markings indicate arsenal worked believed produced late early official adoption possible external marking produced known examples type duplicate serial numbers limited early production small number known external arsenal symbol stamped external serial number stamped frame interspersed standard production markings unknown reasons production range examples reported chamber ammunition later modification standard production standard production type checked pattern grip panels original finished characteristics standard production serial number standard production models suffered extreme wear long military service served limited final production final production possibly produced great earthquake possibly produced known examples serial numbers ranging arsenal reworked arsenal reworked type lack bright blue finish standard checked patterned grip panels grip panels common reworked type marking arsenal indicate repairing type past production arsenal existing arsenal reworked type indicating official thai government additional reworked type pointed star stamped plate revolver indicating indonesian service world war accessories type revolver issued similar french modèle revolver earliest type black cotton issued dark blue color known japan leather pocket cleaning rod provided forward edge body examples stamped inside maker identification arsenal inspection markings year manufacture early issued late 1890s early 1900s slightly different size shape pocket cleaning rod developed noted black hardware missing brass steel fittings produced end world war ditch fabric similar late production type pistol shoulder cleaning rods ammunition grenade type tear gas grenade developed fired type revolver gas grenades fired special cartridge place regular ball ammunition


early thermal weapons early thermal weapons devices substances warfare classical medieval periods 8th century century heat burning action destroy damage enemy personnel fortifications territories devices frequently projectiles warfare particularly naval battles substances boiled heated inflict damage burning substances relied chemical properties inflict burns damage weapons devices individuals manipulated war machines utilised army strategy simplest common thermal projectiles boiling water hot sand poured attacking personnel anti personnel weapons included use hot pitch oil animal fat similar compounds smoke confuse drive attackers substances toxic fire weapons enemy structures territory personnel massive scale large tracts land towns villages frequently destroyed earth strategy oil based greek fire launched throwing machines administered oil soaked materials ignited thrown enemy attached spears arrows bolts fired hand machine siege techniques mining boring relied fire complete collapse walls structures period gunpowder invented increased weapons led eventual development cannon firearms development early weapons continued modern war weapons flame throwers explosives having direct roots original early thermal weapons fire raising destructive strategies seen modern strategic bombing fire sword destruction enemy possessions territory fundamental strategy war serving dual purpose punishment resources 5th century greeks little expertise siege warfare relied strategy devastation draw enemy destroyed crops trees houses centuries later byzantines recommended strategy developed siege technology fire easiest way destroying territories easily quickly small forces strategy good use scots wars independence repeatedly launched raids northern england burning countryside region transformed king edward england pursued raiding party following lights burning villages tactics replicated england years war fire chief weapon laid waste french countryside lightning raids called form economic warfare estimate records destruction villages castles raid causing destruction lands foods belongings fire divert manpower 13th century armies regularly sent small detachments main forces start grass fires fire settlements devastation fire offensive tactic countries armies employed earth policies land invading armies food forage robert scotland reacted english invasion launching north west england retreating burning went scottish lands lay path english army english ran food abandon campaign employed earth tactics subdue boer forces south_africa years warfare resulted stalemate acts aggression limited wars territorial enemies form strategies conquest punishment rebellion alexander great suppressed revolt greece ordered city laid waste alexander ordered allowed similar arson policy repeated period william england following conquest england 11th century asserted control destructive campaigns region ordered crops tools food burned ashes people perished hunger reported contemporary chronicler scene repeated following century anarchy stephen england reign civil war erupted stephen supporters empress rival throne tells deeds stephen supporters philip gloucester describing directions fire sword violence reducing territory bare fields desert techniques use simplest level fire weapon cause large scale destruction target specific enemy positions machinery frequently siege engines wooden structures weapons set fire towns fortifications wide range thermal weapons enemy personnel armies developed specialised fire troops muslim armies groups fire raised fleet attack cyprus simple fire raising burning enemy positions equipment necessarily complicated procedure fires set individuals common materials william normandy army besieged shot fire castle panic garrison boys stole castle order start fire garrison surrendered besieged forces launch sorties attempt fire attackers camps equipment hugh besieged troops drunk night duke charles men forth camp forcing hugh abandon siege besieged ones fire siege equipment frederick abandoned siege burned camp equipment like weapons fire raising dangers attempted win castle building base beams wind changed direction fire blew men abandon attack wind change credited saint saw smoke islands prayed defenders throwing machines throwing machines use classical medieval periods generally referred artillery engines fire shoot missiles adapted throwing thermal weapons attacking defending forces barrels fire containers pitch greek fire thrown machines fired arrows bolts ignited adapted carry 12th century muslims syria clay glass grenades fire weapons thrown machines terms throwing machines vague refer different engines went changes developments period common similar form larger string winding mechanism fire missile bolt placed groove giant period based threw large bolts developed 13th century powered arrow adapted stones wooden shaped arm hold stone manipulated tension twisted rope advanced development 12th 13th century counter weight power throwing arm major siege engine cannon widespread mining forces attacking castle strong fortification sought undermine foundations digging mines tunnels underneath usually mining digging machinery protected called cat owl covered shed wheels shielded miners missile attack tunnels constructed generally supported wooden beams posts finished internal space filled substances ignited burn supporting props causing collapse bringing structures lying 15th century gunpowder aim remained burn props defenders dig counter tunnels order reach enemy mines launch attack frequently thermal weapons drive tunnels structure drill holes outer walls effort destroy methods effective brick walls tended absorb ram differed size mechanism typical machine log wood tipped iron supported driven ropes series holes bored length wall holes typically filled rods dry wood saturated pitch ignited encourage blaze fire ships fire ships occasions period alexander great laid siege tyre coastal base order bring siege engines range alexander ordered construction responded attacking mole large destroyed large horse transport ship packed cedar pitch dried brush suspended sort material flame towed mole lit jumped overboard swam away example occurred siege paris filled warships material pulled failed attempt destroy fortified bridges fire ships containing straw powder chinese battle lake methods ingenious methods developed weapons 10th century reported tied burning birds released flew nests hostile town set siege towers fitted long narrow beam groove hot oil water poured enemy defenders attack castle fortification defenders launch pour substances heads attackers purpose built holes murder holes indian records suggest smoke fire defensively fortress confuse attackers iron heated block night attacks defenders drop walls enemy seen chinese muslim sources describe light gained hung walls use stone castles stone castles susceptible fire contained materials henry tracy forced surrender castle simple stone susceptible intense heat cause crack collapse byzantine sources recorded demolition stone structures caused placing clay burning base walls 6th century treatise engineer army includes lighting fires beneath walls instructions stone castles offered targets muslim defenders frequently hung straw walls stones turn set fire arrows defence thermal attack defence thermal weapons fire attacks usually water hides soaked vulnerable wooden siege engines barrels liquid collected stored defenders attackers hides hung overlapping manner water run structure flames thermal weapons oil extinguished eased water case sand earth wooden structures frequently soaked increase fire resistance romans covered mobile siege sheds raw hides packed soaked serve protection regular missiles period sacks nets filled wet moss hung exterior wooden siege engines vulnerable attack byzantine muslim fire weapons troops inside siege towers kept stores water high middle ages majority poland castles wood uncut stone frequently added improve fire defences attackers defenders needed prepared thermal attack besieged syracuse lost siege engines fire ruler taken note success laid siege organised special fire brigades successfully fires siege engines bombarded english civil war devices city centers defenders london advised combat flames milk sand earth fires caused hand grenades weapon called combatants extinguished wet clothes saturated milk types weapons arrows bolts spears rockets lit burning sticks likely earliest form device followed arrows ancient medieval periods simplest arrows soaked tied effective wooden structures fire arrows siege sophisticated devices developed romans iron boxes tubes filled substances attached arrows spears arrows needed shot loose bows swift flight extinguished flame spears launched hand throwing machine arrows bolts period fifteenth century writer witnessed spanish attack town later described night cease firing bolts tar town near sea noise cries came town great reason havoc wrought anna records battle fixed spears chinese song dynasty created fire arrows rockets attached arrows launched mass platforms later created rockets long rocket naval combat primitive rockets bamboo leather khan inaccurate chinese arrows 11th century probably included experimented rocket powered weapon described egg moves burns metre long iron bolt probably designed carry fire cartridge found century castle eastern russia large machine thrown bolts ideal weapons bow machine throw bolts burning pitch range british civil wars century great_britain royalist armies devices attack enemies destroy property military purposes according historian stephen porter destruction english civil wars arrow attack set fire buildings distance arrow substance attached shaft close tip shot bow short musket arrows shot musket feathers removed fit inside muzzle called fire devices cheap easy prepare wars arrows proved destructive shot arrows homes suburbs chester causing extensive damage partly razed arrows greek fire greek fire effective thermal devices extremely dangerous users liquid shot burst flames impact developed byzantines 7th century later turks probably western_europe 12th century early experiments byzantines 6th century mixture oil terrifying destructive versions existed recipes frequently kept secret experts today debate exact composition recipes known probably regional variations islamic derivative known petroleum base persian word petroleum liquid shot burst flames impact frequently copper developed appearing 10th 11th centuries shoot stream 10th century source claimed men ali wrote military manual 12th century suggested placed inside blown thrown horseback 12th century mouth blown tubes developed use mines similar petroleum based known centuries invention greek fire new recipe created blaze extremely difficult burned water effectively naval warfare primarily anti personnel weapon ship remained effective sea use declined land 13th century greek fire recipes continued developed centuries high middle ages sophisticated early versions called chinese salt added mixture islamic world china developed dry mixture 12th century eventually gunpowder royalist armies greek fire like petroleum based devices known british civil wars hot oil oil kinds heated high temperatures poured enemy extremely expensive use limited frequency quantity dangerous volatile smoke point oil lower boiling point oil heated boiled pouring oil historic battles described use saying oil easily run body head foot entire armour fed flesh like flame oil usually create devices roman byzantine armies 6th century created fire oil based weapons launched hand siege mixture nuts heated iron containers launched burst flames impact chinese early grenades oil soaked cotton ignited thrown use oil seen naval battle years war sprayed oil decks english ships ignited shooting arrows water sand heated missiles hot oil considerably common boiling water heated sand cheap extremely effective dust street penetrate armour cause terrible burns sand especially work way small gaps armour siege tyre dropped burning sand attacking greeks got armour burned flesh heated missiles mining situations 1st century roman writer describes counter dug attackers gallery defenders siege piercing floor mines defenders poured boiling water hot sand hot pitch heads enemy innovative defenders chester boiled mixture water copper poured viking causing skin frederick besieged italy 12th century defenders threw red hot iron objects pitch tar burning pitch occasion known fire containers burning tar wheels covered pitch set rolled technique commonly besieged set siege engines attacking forces dropping burning logs soaked able fires pitch base ingredient devices period developed fire machine wooden fortifications battle burning pitch suspended end log fixed end similar mixture years later scots dropped wood tar crane english large protective shield covering ram siege animal parts siege rochester castle king john ordered fat pigs set fire mines beneath caused collapse cheap effective technique place complicated mixture pitch france previous year animal fat uncommon 13th century french sortie parties equipped animal fat straw use fuel setting fires enemy siege engines intriguing uses animal parts siege paris dropped bucket loads hot mixture pitch oil wax fish attacking mixture got armour stuck skin describes poisonous mixture tar horses ingredients included egg sheep documented uses animals thermal live insects sting enemy 4th century writer suggested defenders let bees enemy mines fired early bombardment naval battles besieged romans dug mines walls defenders filled clay chicken feathers lit blow smoke tunnel unable approach pot defensive spears romans forced abandon works smoke 15th century engineer recommended use went ancient times component greek fire violently water cause burns naval battles appear standard issue board ships danger blowing burning user substances smoked sacks burning effective clearing enemy mines toxic smoke produced smoke small confines greek military writer recommended burning wood straw drive enemy smoke gunpowder cannon discovery gunpowder probably product centuries experimentation known chinese century strong evidence use largely medicinal combinations impetus development gunpowder weapons china increasing tribes borders earliest known formula gunpowder found chinese work dating probably 9th century chinese wasted little time applying warfare produced variety gunpowder weapons including rockets bombs mines firearms european descriptions gunpowder appear written english philosopher roger bacon century mixture effective composition gunpowder varied period settle current coal 17th century years saw use projectiles called flying fires argues gunpowder warfare china fuse greek fire initially gunpowder utilised traditional engines throwing mechanisms containers grenades thrown explosive rockets arrows developed gunpowder like firearms cannon descendant fire lance gunpowder filled tube like material placed barrel fly flames course proportion increased increase explosive power better withstand explosive power paper bamboo fire lance barrels originally came replaced metal advantage power came replaced projectiles size shape filled barrel closely basic features gun barrel metal high gunpowder totally muzzle powder charge potential effect firearms remained use china following centuries gunpowder firearms spread quickly gunpowder widely known 13th century europeans arabs obtained firearms 14th century turks indians got firearms later 15th century case directly indirectly europeans japanese acquire firearms 16th century portuguese chinese earliest known european picture gun appeared treatise entitled majesty wisdom kings february year florence appointed officers obtain ammunition town defense reference describes attack mounted knights del gunpowder weapons sort cannon muslims french raiding party sacked burned southampton brought bolts pounds gunpowder battle europe cannons early cannon effective main benefits psychological frightening men horses short large calibre late 15th century europe period grew increasingly larger century mortars appeared smaller weapons existed including powder poor quality small quantities prevent explosion barrel effective range cannon rarely barrels cannon forged cast gun generally differed calibre length early powder resembled paste tended burn slowly composition varied different geographical areas powder europe different islamic world projectiles generally stone balls mortars forged iron balls smaller calibre cannon coated lead smooth 15th century cast iron balls caused great destruction stone small balls destructive cannon smaller calibre longer barrels increased range later development use devices decreased 14th century economic realities war increasingly important captured castles towns undamaged fewer wooden engines structures employed battlefield late 13th century prior success weapons destroying use dropped end middle ages devices sophisticated principle wielding fire sword remained present early modern modern periods improving technology merely allowed process efficient principle fire sword fire remained warfare war british soldier recorded french soldiers regularly burn ground place pass following find town village smoking ruins world war belgium looted burned medieval fashion german soldiers set fire town destroying library cultural buildings causing outrage world tactic world war bombs carried germans britain blitz allies germany japan heavy raid tokyo march resulting destroyed quarter predominantly wooden buildings ancient greeks strategy devastation fire continued destructive measure warfare gulf war iraq set fire quarters kuwait oil wells fire remained extremely successful weapon naval warfare napoleonic wars thing likely destroy ship fire fires merely effect weapon technology early firearms proved use start fires war tremendous started guns battle french ship caught fire musket flashes men guns set fire tar sail rigging ship eventually exploded smoke screens continued attackers defenders means confusion hiding movements naval battles 19th centuries shots fired early defensive screen erected ships aim enemy development continued use weapons major development weapons early modern modern periods occurred firearms progressively efficient gunpowder settled standard ratio 17th century general technology improved initially iron round shot replaced earlier stone balls cannon different types shot invented hollow usually formed iron cage ribs joining small rings cast iron ball holes named iron cage thought resemble ribs body filled highly mixture time french louis short range use personnel smaller naval popular 19th century comprised smaller iron lead contained case bag scattered explosion henry invented spherical case shot later named case hollow iron sphere filled musket balls detonated gunpowder charge shot fired cannon hot set fire materials brushed ancient medieval periods developed modern world war saw development modern version byzantine gas pressure mixture oil petrol ignited burning similarly found new use primitive mortar throw large liquid soon poison gas instead technology improved 20th century half saw development use liquid formed main ingredient arabic flames continued defensive light artificial lights developed siege french defenders burning straw attacking british seen like old british met weapons took form explosive grenades mines powder barrels enemy guns specific weapons ancient medieval periods continued develop modern rocket technology originally indians chinese improved 19th century example rocket tail fuse powder charge carbon inside hollow shell grenades continued develop retaining aspects medieval grenades carried board british_royal_navy ships late 18th century early 19th century constructed hollow cast iron filled gunpowder fuse hollow wooden tube filled material world war grenades occasionally launched use weapons continued little change fire arrows japanese battle island british ship shot covered set fire later periods english sent loaded gunpowder pitch tar anchored spanish spanish fleet broke formation setting later battle battle sail battle greek war independence utilised turks chemical warfare experimented early period calcium developments continued world war saw gases including extremely effective gas


formally designated tank light tank model designed light tank mainly slovakia world war suspension based purchased plus manufacturing license dissatisfied prototypes czech army decided easier design light tank scratch modify chassis carry fully rotating armored turret built delivered germans captured occupied march promptly scrapped seized remaining declared independence czechoslovakia time service saw combat national uprising description assembled framework steel angle iron beams armor plates separated engine compartment crew door allowed access engine crew compartment ventilation openings closed driver sat right millimetres observation port protected flaps inner field view connected armored outer opening closed outer right vision millimetres protected millimetres glass inner driver rest head driving radio operator sat left millimetres vision port millimetres glass armored radios mounted left wall hull hull machine gun driver radio operator ball mount traverse elevate machine gun barrel mount protected armored trough mount spotting open sights plug ball mount removed necessary driver lock mount position fire cable turret ring diameter metres turret sides thick roof thickness turret manually traversed rotation handle allow commander shoulder turret desired turret flat face center mounted main armament right machine gun ball mount commander mirror extend removed armored cover hatch vision meant commander responsible loading aiming firing main gun turret machine gun simultaneously commanding tank vertical armor thick plates thickness engine hatch thick plates thickness deemed armor piercing bullets fired distances greater metres litres water cooled horsepower cylinder engine gasoline alcohol mix speed road kilometres hour mph kilometres hour mph cross country litres gal fuel tank located engine transmission forward gears reverse gear drive mounted drive suspension enlarged modified version consisted small road wheels frame frames paired sprung leaf springs wheel carrier wheel carriers track guided return wooden metal lined frames rear mounted wheel adjust track tension ground pressure cm2 cross ditch metres wide climb obstacle metres high ford stream metres deep trees metres thick breach wall metres thick main armament gun muzzle brake prominent armored cylinder barrel fired kilograms armor piercing shell metres second credited penetrating plate inclined vertical millimetres thick metres millimetres thick metres millimetres thick metres millimetres thick metres source quotes penetration vertical plate millimetres thick metres machine gun ball mount coupled main gun independently weapons elevate power sights field view tank heavy machine guns ball mounts development prototype ordered development slow accepted november positive order placed april serve pre production models delivered september delivery date batch year final batch july production delayed quality problems initial batch armor plates delivery pre production series occur april bigger problem army rejected proposed armament centimetres vickers gun machine guns contract signed design work desired armament configuration design december tanks delivered pair machine guns tanks delivered january pre production models returned factory upgraded proper armament modified latest standards delivered august operational history czechoslovakia czech army realized armor tanks thin program replace quickly mounted resulted meantime offered army opportunity train modern tanks surviving world war era armored regiments received replaced munich agreement october army tried sell find november decided concentrate armored regiment slovakia eighteen transferred german occupation czechoslovakia declaration independence march germany germans captured prototype occupied czechoslovakia record use presumably quickly scrapped captured abandoned insurgents national uprising shipped repairs local military representative ordered scrapped poor condition tried order planned transfer nazi puppet state croatia saved march turrets salvaged rearmed machine guns mounted fixed fortifications slovakia seven formed company armored battalion martin formed army later expanded armored regiment relegated training duties began receive modern tanks germany abandoned insurgents national uprising began september quickly captured germans dug approaches


light tank viii tank light viii known harry american president roosevelt chief diplomatic advisor british light tank produced vickers armstrong world war viii line light tanks company built british_army intended successor previous light tank designed vickers armstrong vii number changes viii notably increasing width length weight increasing thickness armour design tank submitted war office late initial order models tank board war office month number increased november production began june immediately began encountering problems tank number modifications design complaints war office fighting vehicle proving establishment problems acute tanks produced production ended february officials war office british_army taken decision light tanks longer british_army inferior weapons armour poor performance conflict consequently viii obsolete time significant number tanks produced saw combat number plans war office design light decision including reconnaissance units unsuccessful idea wings aircraft tow position support airborne forces eventually decided hand tanks built royal_air_force use airfield defence variant viii designed self propelled gun mounted close support vehicle airborne forces produced combat development history viii light tank designed vickers armstrong successor vii british_army company intended viii improve design number areas particularly armour protection thicker armour frontal hull turret armour increased thickness millimetres armour millimetres turret hull given sloping surfaces help shells dimensions design changed viii longer inches wider foot inches weight increased alterations meant tank longer air portable heavy carried general aircraft cylinder engine fitted viii increased weight meant maximum speed decreased miles hour armament remained machine gun pounder millimetre main gun tank kept unusual steering system design steering mechanical system accomplished turns lateral movement road wheels tracks driver turned steering wheel road wheels turned order bend tracks tank turn idea reduce mechanical strain waste power caused traditional system turn tanks braking track unlike steering system viii power assisted vickers armstrong submitted viii design war office september month tank board war office ordered tanks increased november board hoped production commence june rate approximately month produced metro subsidiary vickers armstrong time tank given specification number given harry production began june expected immediately began experience problems specified appears testing prototypes viii provided vickers armstrong raised number issues minute sent prime minister winston_churchill september ministry supply stated delays delivery tank developmental problems report issued war office december stated number modifications required production continued suspension system singled requiring extensive modification problems encountered july report fighting vehicle proving establishment indicating defects found models tested problems acute trials viii abandoned earlier scheduled august viii tanks produced compared war office requirement beginning year war office persisted retaining design issued official requirement november tanks built built production officially ended february operational history officials war office army finally decided light tanks concept liability vulnerable british_army poor performance british light tanks battle france caused shortage tanks designed engage enemy tanks led light tanks deployed german armour resulting high casualties led war office light tank design pre war role light tank reconnaissance found better carried scout cars smaller crews better cross country abilities consequently time significant numbers viii produced metro obsolete combat requirement limited number light tanks organization british armoured divisions met american produced stuart light tank policy report issued december suggested tank issued reconnaissance regiments special light tank regiments raised specialized operations suggestions discussed discarded instead decided tanks built handed royal_air_force use defending airfields viii discussed terms plan known carrier wing plan flying surfaces wings fitted viii towed transport aircraft battle support airborne forces plan dropped prototype crashed taken single variant viii designed self propelled gun originally known harry close support eventually given general staff specification number mounted millimetre lightweight version viii chassis turret removed placed low hull armour reduced thickness reduce weight resulting maximum speed miles hour designed replace half tracks carrying support weapons british airborne formations conflict developed late place gun equipped armoured cars war office ordered small number produced saw service converted use royal engineer units


light tank airborne american designed light tank produced world war began development british war office requested american government design purpose built airborne light tank transported battle support british airborne forces war office originally selected light tank mark vii light tank use airborne forces designed exact purpose mind war office believed purpose built tank required replace united_states ordnance department asked produce replacement turn selected design build prototype airborne tank prototype designated light tank airborne designed transported underneath douglas transport aircraft dimensions allowed fit inside general aircraft series modifications initial prototype production began april significantly delayed faults found tank design began produce significant numbers late early design considered obsolete built time production ended february result ordnance department gave tank specification number combat units equipped war office believed tank perform adequately despite faults tank given title shipped great_britain lend lease act seventeen received 6th airborne armoured reconnaissance regiment late mechanical problems led tanks withdrawn favour previously regiment october remaining regiment replaced operation varsity march tanks perform action damaged landing process knocked german self propelled gun able reach planned rendezvous point action occupying piece high ground infantry company tanks forced withdraw position hours attracted artillery fire caused infantry suffer heavy casualties saw active service british_army classified obsolete number foreign post war period belgian army command tanks tank regiments egyptian army company sized units arab israeli war development history background light tank airborne known began development late response request british military earlier year light tank transported battlefield time request war office considered equipment britain fledgling airborne forces formed june order prime minister winston_churchill officials war office examined equipment required british airborne division decided integral component force transport troops heavy equipment include artillery form tank plans transport airborne tank went number revisions considered feasible tank weighing long tons carried specifically designed task conference held january decided general aircraft development time transport single tank universal carriers decision recently war office light tanks longer generally british_army performed poorly battle france considered liability result vickers armstrong light tank vii light tank considered obsolete available use airborne forces chosen war office tank transported designed specifically airborne tank possessed faults size limited possible crew driver hull gunner commander turret found crew members operate effectively gunner commander addition duties act pounder caused delays combat report tank written january stated commander fight control tank controlling troop combat impossible war office aware tank faulty cooling system unsuitable service climates middle_east north_africa purpose built airborne light tank required replace decision taken war office produce tank britain lack production capacity instead american government approached request produce replacement request british air commission washington proposal calling tank long tons long tons developed maximum weight war office decided carried current technology proposed tank primary armament millimetre main gun secondary armament crew specification called maximum speed mph operational radius miles turret hull armour thickness millimetres millimetres sides tank thickness millimetres united_states ordnance department given task developing proposed tank turn requested designs american companies general motors walter design offered rejected failed meet specified size requirements modified design company produced november conference ordnance department chose design requested company produce prototype tank completed late designated light tank airborne company ordnance department development crew weighed metric tons short tons armed millimetre main gun machine gun machine guns right hand bow main gun machine gun mounted powered turret gun installed allow gun fired tank moving powered horse power cylinder air cooled engine thickness armour varied rear sides hull thickness millimetres sloped portions hull thickness millimetres tank engine able maximum speed mph primarily designed transported significant change original request instead carried belly douglas transport aircraft lifting hull tank turret designed detached transported inside battlefield loading took men minutes unloading minutes aircraft required proper airfield land correct shape weight size carried inside suggesting dimensions chosen deliberately tank transported inside required number changes prototype testing main change addition supporting steel beams improve strengthen suspension tank increased weight metric tons short tons maximum weight carried new prototypes ordered ordnance department january delivered november designated new tanks incorporated number requested changes turret altered shape removal power traverse mechanism main armament hull altered stepped appearance sloped profile provide better shape machine guns removed bow tank suspension altered try reduce weight design contrary normal practice ordnance department placed order original design april models delivered november ordered april order rapidly increased total deliveries begin november production difficulties design changes caused date delayed times april production actually began production peaked tanks produced month august january number rapidly declined results british american testing programmes reported ordnance department produced faults discovered design led ordnance department giving specification number limited standard american combat units equipped tank produced training purposes experimental units formed equipped airborne tank company formed august despite concerns insufficient transport aircraft deliver unit battle 28th airborne tank battalion formed december year unit saw combat army lack interest airborne capacity airborne tank company remained united_states base base war 28th airborne tank battalion refitted conventional tanks october ordered april use european theater operations delivered september small number sent united_states sixth army group france testing combat british required replacement prototype shipped britain testing followed second prototype july opinion possessed number faults war office believed perform adequately airborne tank tank received official title shipped britain lend lease act majority ended placed tank parks scrapped end conflict saw action british airborne forces faults extensive testing occurred conducted ordnance department british armoured fighting vehicle gunnery school ranges tests uncovered number faults problems school noted process loading transport aircraft took considerable time involved use complex equipment overall process took men minutes believed shortened sufficient training unloading long process taking approximately minutes noted time took battlefield meant tank aircraft excellent targets enemy fire operational use tank restricted availability airfields large accommodate fully laden right geographical location captured advance planned airborne operation heavy transport aircraft developed specifically carry inside fuselage set shell doors enter service war ended army armored board released critical report september stating inadequate areas reliability indicating able successfully airborne operations realized design tank actually obsolete armor areas found thin incapable resisting armor piercing ammunition caliber machine gun complaints main armament powerful penetrate armor tanks axis powers similarly report march elements 6th airborne armoured reconnaissance regiment complained high explosive shell fired gun resulting shell burst weak observers difficulty seeing impacted mechanical problems design caused unreliable engine found possibly problems characteristics engine inefficient transmission system operational history world war initial service late new british units raised specifically trained conduct airborne operations largest unit newly formed 1st airborne division january war office took decision light tank detachment support units attached division designated light tank squadron unit formed nineteen light tanks operate fore division speed capture objectives hold relieved units unit chosen conversion light tank squadron special services squadron seen service independent tank unit operation ironclad invasion madagascar squadron equipped recently designated airborne tank war office squadron officially transferred 1st airborne division june bringing seven vehicles equipped unit immediately began training stay attached 1st airborne division long division transported middle_east eventually participate operation allied invasion island sicily squadron remained britain built transport deploy squadron transferred division spend rest war 6th airborne division raised april squadron continued train air portable unit participated number exercises intended duties perform including reconnaissance enemy positions performing counter attacks enemy infantry armor mid july american pilot sent britain illustrate tank fit inside landed october light tank squadron received shipment seventeen november new tanks issued squadron replacing majority small number fitted inch infantry support designated close support retained fitted increase range penetration power main armament clear fitted fitted manufacture reached squadron squadron expanded 6th airborne armoured reconnaissance regiment december late march plans regiment equipped seventeen took operation british airborne landings normandy records indicate april regiment refitted carry late march appear completely replaced mechanical gunnery problems specific problems design gearbox regiment took operation 6th brigade june equipped thin armor armament proved completely tanks self propelled guns deployed german forces iii august preparation 6th airborne division participation planned breakout normandy majority squadron replaced fast cruiser tanks retained remaining headquarters troop squadron september division returned britain week october 6th airborne armoured reconnaissance regiment underwent extensive reorganization regiment completely retired remaining tanks equipped replacing operation varsity march 6th airborne division informed participating operation varsity airborne operation support 21st army group crossing river rhine operation march division conjunction american united_states 17th airborne division dropped parachute near city capture strategically important village important bridges river southern portion major forest regiment divided troops land 6th brigade landing zone east west acting divisional reserve rest regiment arrive road crossing rhine 21st army group loaded separate march morning march towed airfield page halifax heavy bombers join rest transport aircraft carrying airborne divisions weather conditions operation excellent clear visibility arrived vicinity landing zone incident attempts land small force severely depleted broke away halifax apparently result structural failure inside falling ground came heavy german anti aircraft fire crashed landed tank survived damaged machine gun crashed house wireless radio set main armament action broke loose landed flipped turret rendering useless landed intact landing zone including significant damage tanks reach rendezvous point chosen regiment undamaged tank came aid group american fire german self propelled gun rapidly knocked german vehicle wounding second tank broke attempted tow crashed crew remained tank supported british airborne troops area reached rendezvous point undamaged fully fit action immediately deployed high ground east covered damaged tanks arrival engaged german troops supported infantry company soon presence began attracting great deal artillery anti tank fire tanks hit number killed wounded hours tanks forced withdraw tanks remaining infantry formed small force repelled german attempts attack position eventually relieved tank squadron 44th royal tank regiment elements rest 6th airborne armoured reconnaissance regiment post war operation varsity time action 6th airborne armoured reconnaissance regiment british_army report issued end conference held director air war office january confirmed design considered obsolete light tanks post war airborne formations completely new designs british_army disposed small number transferring foreign main armaments removed belgian army command tanks regiments found way turrets removed served agricultural larger number served egyptian army replacing number older tank models vickers armstrong mark light tank egyptian military acquired interwar period company sized units arab israeli war users belgium egypt united_kingdom united_states survivors today tanks known survive conditions vehicle tank museum england tank owned royal dutch army museum currently stored undisclosed location vehicle owned royal museum armed forces brussels belgium runner regularly events static display israel tank displayed armoured corps museum india displayed military museum southern new_england usa currently stored fort lee usa new army ordnance museum opens vehicle turret reproduction currently stored fort usa new national armor cavalry museum opens tank displayed rock island arsenal museum usa running vehicle owned roberts world war museum usa turret vehicle reproduction tank displayed military vehicles technology foundation usa running vehicle owned world war military vehicle museum san usa turret reproduction hull currently owned hugh movie supplies england owner turret cast reproduction engine missing original tracks original tracks replaced stuart ones hull converted british use personnel carrier stored condition military museum southern new_england connecticut vehicles owned kevin england tank displayed institute military technology florida condition turret installed hull serial number tank undergoing restoration located georgetown texas


letter letter letter written signed albert sent united_states president franklin roosevelt august written consultation fellow hungarian edward eugene letter warned germany develop atomic bombs suggested united_states start nuclear program prompted action roosevelt eventually resulted manhattan_project developing atomic bombs origin discovery december reported january issue die correct identification nuclear february issue nature generated intense interest publication news brought united_states danish physicist opened fifth washington conference theoretical physics january results quickly experimental notably john columbia_university hungarian physicist living united_states time realized driven heavy create nuclear chain reaction yield vast amounts energy electric power generation atomic bombs reaction idea formulated reading remarks generating power team experiment split able achieve driven chain reaction rich light theory driven chain reaction number secondary produced greater reaction trigger multiple additional reactions producing increasing number reactions teamed build nuclear natural columbia_university fortunate having sympathetic head physics department george time disagreement natural abundant maintained primarily responsible conducted series experiments concluded chain reaction natural possible find suitable found hydrogen water slowed tended capture suggested carbon needed large quantities carbon create convinced succeed materials concerned german scientists attempt experiment german nuclear physicist published influential articles exploitation nuclear energy discussing prospect fellow hungarian physicist eugene decided warn belgian best source ore suggested albert suitable person knew belgian royal family connection pre dates letter knew berlin early 1920s jointly invented letter july drove car new_york long_island staying explained possibility atomic bombs replied think dictated letter german belgian ambassador united_states wrote signed suggestion prepared letter state department explaining giving weeks respond objections left problem getting government support research friend austrian economist suggested approaching alexander access president franklin roosevelt told spoken president reported prospects building atomic bomb remote told deliver letter suggested come prestigious obvious choice drafted letter spelling errors set long_island august unavailable time opted hungarian physicist edward driving dictated letter german returning columbia_university dictated letter english young later recalled mentioned extremely powerful bombs sure working ending letter truly albert alter impression letter longer explanatory letter posted letter warned course months probable work france america possible set nuclear chain reaction large mass vast amounts power large quantities new like elements generated appears certain achieved immediate future new phenomenon lead construction bombs certain extremely powerful bombs new type constructed single bomb type carried boat exploded port destroy port surrounding territory bombs prove heavy transportation air specifically warned germany understand germany actually stopped sale mines taken taken early action understood ground son german secretary state von attached kaiser berlin american work repeated delivery letter signed posted received august gave short long letters letter august asked white_house staff appointment president set administration embroiled crisis germany invasion poland started world war delayed appointment october president letter attention securing appointment october date met president president secretary brigadier general watson ordnance experts army lieutenant colonel keith navy commander gilbert roosevelt summed conversation alex nazis don blow roosevelt sent reply informing found data import convened board consisting head bureau standards chosen representative army navy thoroughly investigate possibilities suggestion element sent letters roosevelt march april calling action nuclear research drafted fourth letter signature urged president meet discuss policy nuclear energy dated march reach roosevelt death april results roosevelt decided letter required action authorized creation advisory committee committee chaired james director bureau standards members convened time october meeting attended fred bureau standards richard roberts institution washington skeptical prospect building atomic bomb willing authorize current dollars purchase experiment advisory committee beginning government effort develop atomic bomb vigorously pursue development weapon superseded national defense research committee office scientific research development memorandum british reports eventually prompted roosevelt authorize scale development effort january work research taken united_states_army corps engineers manhattan district june directed bomb development program work manhattan_project army denied work clearance needed july saying security risk allowed work consultant united_states_navy bureau ordnance knowledge atomic bomb development influence decision bomb dropped according later regretted signing letter led development use atomic bomb combat adding justified decision greater danger nazi_germany develop bomb told newsweek magazine known germans succeed developing atomic bomb


flame flame contracted spelled gas type improvised explosive device uses explosive charge project burning liquid target flame developed petroleum warfare department britain anti tank weapon invasion crisis period flame barrels deployed batteries southern england little later sites scotland combat britain design saw action later greece later world war germany russia developed flame throwing mines worked somewhat different principle world war flame similar original british design conflicts including korean vietnam wars improvised easily available parts flame remains army field battlefield present day development history following evacuation britain faced shortage weapons particular severe anti tank weapons left france resources short supply petroleum oil supplies intended europe filling british storage facilities cabinet minister portfolio joined ministerial committee civil defence chaired sir john anderson secretary state home office home security ideas brought stable hobby horse ridden hard war use burning oil defensive purposes believed oil denied end june brought scheme meeting oil control board produced commander chief home forces extracts paper experiments oil world war june churchill authorised lloyd secretary petroleum press ahead experiments taking matter general supervision end petroleum warfare department created responsible developing weapons tactics sir banks charge department soon received assistance william howard known world war invention gas oil bomb known simply large simple mortar throw containing pounds explosives oil commonly poisonous gas great advantage cheap allowed hundreds occasions thousands set fired simultaneously catching enemy surprise demonstrations probably seen mid july gap particularly promising barrel oil blown beach lloyd said particularly impressed observed party high ranking officers witnessing test cliff making movement rear work dangerous banks experimenting drums short circuit triggered weapons good fortune battery drums party standing failed experiments led particularly promising arrangement steel drum buried bank round end exposed drum explosive triggered drum shot jet flame feet wide yards long design reminiscent weapon dating late medieval times called hollow placed barrel gunpowder covered rocks explosives detonated fuse moment new weapon duly dubbed flame flame demonstrated general july experiments flame continued rapidly evolved fuel mixture petrol gas oil mixture calculated useless vehicle fuel tar lime petrol known developed dark coloured sticky smooth paste burned fiercely minutes stuck easily came contact flow burning early flame designs complex arrangement explosive charges small fuel main charge throw fuel forward important discovery including waste product pieces main charge rear barrel reliable eliminated need separate charge associated aluminium time known trade design variations original british flame designs main variants safety metal barrels similar pre prepared explosive charges varied details construction charge safety common form flame safety design allowed charge stored separately needed safety constructed follows small section excavated slope leaving shallow platform earth barrel mixture placed horizontally low position round face pointing target section drain pipe placed vertically rear face barrel lower end pipe blocked thin cover positioned inches barrel pipe fitted loose cap water pipe makes safety allows later installation charge soil built weapon seen disk barrel pipe charge prepared electrically triggered bound tape explosive assembly placed small rubber bag turn placed inside tin added ensure fuel electrical wires passed small hole lid tin tightly fitted charges kept storage deployed enemy action imminent activate device charge lowered pipe dry soil connected firing point yards away firing required current delivered battery private later recalled non safety built simply burying charge fuel drum running leads soil instructions variants design published construction increases hazard leads left exposed surface electrical current applied theoretically charge underground moisture easily ruin charge extended period time safety design advantage charge sufficiently safe require guard banks records installing charge clear danger relatively close hand safety feature required protect public accidents main charge cheap industrial explosive effective moisture charge packed rubber bag tin sealed tape good idea store long damp conditions flame installation flame covering light material heavier significantly affect range easily merged banks sunken lane view hidden firing point placed vehicle obliged stop slow flame offer instant horrific wounds unprotected men caught fiery cause vehicle engine stop seven seconds simply deprived oxygen easily start subsided provided damaged british soldier fred lord later recalled simpler variant flame barrel petroleum mixture laid tin charge shallow pit barrel ridges barrel flip contents area square yards left open attempt disguise hide firing wires indistinguishable barrels tar commonly road repair hoped addition damage weapon experience cause enemy treat innocent barrel greatest caution variant flame barrel petroleum mixture placed upright tin charge containing cartridge buried inch deep pit placed underneath slightly centre carefully aligned barrel firing barrel projected feet air yards forwards wall hidden difficult charge right great advantage quick install easy conceal home guard member william frost later recalled seeing action placing worked properly proved difficult right war office discouraged use favour conventional flame installation variant idea devised margaret bay barrels sent rolling cliff edge deployment flame barrels distributed great majority installed batteries southern england little later sites scotland barrels held reserve deployed storage sites destroy petrol depots short notice size battery varied drum fourteen barrel battery common installation recommended minimum possible half barrels battery contain mixture half sticky mixture battery placed location corner steep vehicles obliged slow later development flame britain idea exported greece couple officers german invasion threatened reported powerful effect enemy units proposals completely buried flame oil mines emergency flame removed end war instances traces original locations disappeared instances missed remains found example remnants barrel battery contained discovered west sussex russians germans later weapons described flame throwers flame mines worked different principle flame flame throwers comprised cylinder containing gallons gasoline oil hidden typically buried triggered electrically operator trap mechanism gas generator ignited pressure thin metal seal liquid forced central pipe automatically fired fuel range flame varied considerably generally tens yards lasted seconds german weapons imperial gallons gal fuel tank wired control point fired individually flame remained army field battlefield present day weapons improvised available fuel containers combined standard explosive charges hand grenades triggered electrically lengths cord designs cord container immediately triggering charge order guarantee improvised devices frequently feature explosive charges throw fuel weapons sort widely korean vietnam wars conflicts


russian soviet world war era gun developed design bureau headed based carriage barrel powerful mobile wide range ammunition significantly increased firepower breakthrough abilities red army tank motor rifle formations manufactured end world war post world war saw combat numerous conflicts mid- late 20th century long operational history national armies numerous countries testimony qualities gun remains service number post soviet states countries widely considered valuable element soviet artillery development production background soviet_union decided cease production reasons disbanding rifle corps august september consequent removal corps artillery excluded divisional artillery result series production rifle corps established late previous organization artillery corps level reintroduced result halting production red army corps artillery lacked weapon mobile heavy gun typically employed army level reserve main command artillery units powerful response challenge trying solve problem lack suitable mobile design bureau headed started work privately new based carriage barrel fitted muzzle brake order reduce prevent damage lighter carriage approach allowed production begin new immediately parts earlier guns given war situation shortages artillery solution elegant early notified people armaments new project april informed state committee defence requested new guns sent testing grounds pieces received trials days later gun recommended adoption august officially adopted half months later series production delivered red army representatives production manufactured solely plant late world war produced small numbers plant responsible mass production resulted critical shortages red army corps artillery end war description essentially combination barrel model carriage new carriage lighter barrel fitted massive double muzzle brake shock breech block interrupted screw type system consisted hydraulic separately loaded ammunition included variety shells different charges carriage nearly identical carriage suspension steel wheels rubber tires trails initially construction eventually replaced production ones late production pieces equipped wheels ease time set combat minutes emergency possible fire splitting trails price drastically reduced traverse gun equipped towed vehicle maximum speed paved roads roads road crew protection bullets shell fragments gun fitted shield comparison contemporary technical tactical point view project provided red army corps artillery modern combined good mobility firepower compared typical contemporary similar caliber shorter range lighter example german range meters kilometer longer weighed tons kilograms traveling position said meters kilograms manufactured italian meters kilograms german characteristics similar reach mass production compared older pieces french model meters advantage weight range organization employment employed corps artillery reserve main command units rifle corps red army artillery regiment regiments consisted batteries totaling guns equipped gun gun gun reserve main command included regiments pieces heavy brigades pieces merged form artillery divisions red army employed onwards final stages world war primarily personnel fortifications key structures enemy rear anti concrete shell armored vehicles good results service gun earned reputation reliable accurate finally withdrawn service mid war gun supplied countries globe including warsaw pact allies poland early 2000s remains service afghanistan albania china cuba hungary iraq syria vietnam countries gun employed arab israeli conflict conflicts soviet_union long operational history national armies numerous countries additional testimony qualities seen use april battles defense army forces defense forces surviving seen military museums war memorials museum artillery engineering forces saint_petersburg russia museum heroic defense liberation mountain museum great patriotic war ukraine citadel poland memorial piece variants addition towed team developed vehicle mounted variant red army offensive operations summer fall interest idea heavy artillery tank similar provide close fire support rifle tank units capable heavy fortifications probable causes development vehicle cessation mass production medium assault gun diversion heavy assault guns anti tank actions tank variant originally intended mounting variant heavy tank utilized mount leading unofficial eventually official designation example built information gun mounted tank october soviet authorities anticipating start mass production powerful heavy tank result idea specialized artillery tank based obsolete chassis dropped project combining tank chassis gun considered designated medium assault gun intended replacement project received lot support authorities entered production shortcomings heavy gun strain suspension ammunition limited redundant lessons learned mounting powerful gun allowed rapid development tank destroyer ammunition large variety ammunition including high explosive armor piercing heat illumination chemical separate loading ammunition different charges charges included charge smaller charges ranging sixth smallest special charge heat charges produced variants munitions factories charges derived removing small gunpowder bags charge cartridge flash suppression special chemical mixture inserted cartridge night firing projectiles weighed difficult job carry projectiles set mode produced fragments covered area meters wide meters deep set high explosive action exploding shell produced crater meters diameter meters deep despite withdrawal service mid- 1970s fired modern ordnance pieces russian army anti concrete shell muzzle velocity fired charge range kilometer terminal velocity able punch centimeters reinforced concrete tnt charge increased total penetration centimeters fired charge putting crew risk having shell explode barrel special version shell developed allow use charge heat world war armour penetration millimeters incident angle millimeters millimeters late 1950s old ammunition stocks removed soviet inventory shells retained possibly chemical shells soviet army possessed nuclear shell clear shell