economy england middle ages economy england middle ages norman invasion death henry vii fundamentally agricultural invasion market economy important producers norman institutions including superimposed existing system open fields mature established towns involved international trade centuries economy grow suffer acute crisis resulting significant political economic change despite economic urban extraction economies including shifts holders wealth location economies economic output towns mines developed intensified period end period england weak government later standards overseeing economy dominated rented farms controlled gentry thriving community indigenous english merchants corporations 12th 13th centuries saw huge development english economy partially driven growth population million time creation book million england remained primarily agricultural economy rights major landowners duties increasingly english law land expense royal forests brought production feed growing population produce wool export europe hundreds new towns planned sprung england supporting creation charter important medieval institutions descendants jewish come england william played significant role growing economy new religious orders came major players wool trade north mining increased england silver boom 12th century helping fuel fast expanding currency economic growth began end 13th century owing combination population land shortages depleted soils loss life great famine shook english economy severely population growth ceased outbreak black death killed half english population major implications post plague economy agricultural sector higher wages lower prices profits leading final demise old system advent modern farming system cash lands peasants revolt shook older feudal order limited levels royal taxation considerably century come 15th century saw growth english cloth industry establishment new class international english merchant increasingly based london south west expense older economy eastern towns new trading systems brought end international rise chartered company improvements represents end medieval economy beginnings early modern period english economics invasion early norman period william invaded england defeating anglo saxon king battle hastings placing country norman rule campaign followed fierce military operations known north extending norman authority north england william system government broadly feudal right possess land linked service king ways invasion little alter nature english economy damage invasion north west england recorded key features english agricultural financial system remained place decades immediately conquest agriculture mining english agriculture agriculture formed bulk english economy time norman invasion years invasion england covered land pasture covered woodlands remaining predominantly wheat formed single important crop cultivated extensively fertile parts country thames valley east england beans cultivated sheep cattle pigs kept english holdings breeds smaller modern slaughtered winter system century prior norman invasion england great estates owned king bishops monasteries slowly broken consequence inheritance marriage settlements church purchases smaller nobility lived properties managed estates pre norman landscape seen trend away isolated larger villages engaged cultivation band running north south england new villages adopted open field system fields divided small strips land individually owned crops rotated field year local woodlands common lands carefully managed agricultural land manor divided fields landowner manage directly called land majority fields cultivated local peasants pay rent landowner agricultural labour lord fields cash produce varying power efficiency built order grind flour freeing peasant labour productive agricultural tasks early english economy economy crops grown peasant farmers sale early english towns initially significantly alter operation manor village economy william reassigned large tracts land norman elite creating vast estates areas particularly welsh border sussex biggest change years invasion rapid reduction number slaves held england 10th century slaves numerous number begun diminish result economic religious pressure nonetheless new norman aristocracy proved harsh independent anglo saxon peasants found rapidly sinking economic hierarchy swelling numbers workers forbidden leave manor seek alternative employment anglo saxon nobles survived invasion rapidly norman elite economically crushed creation forests established royal forests anglo saxon times special woods hunting called norman forests larger backed legal mandate new forests necessarily heavily wooded defined instead protection exploitation crown norman forests subject special royal jurisdiction forest law harsh arbitrary matter purely king forests expected supply king hunting grounds raw materials goods money revenue forest fines came extremely significant forest wood castles royal ship building forests played key role mining iron mining working forest dean lead mining forest high peak groups bound economically forests monasteries special rights particular forests example hunting tree royal forests accompanied rapid creation locally owned parks chases trade manufacturing towns primarily rural england number old economically important towns large trade came eastern towns including london york winchester lincoln trade france low countries germany north east england traded partners far away sweden cloth imported england invasion trade towns york suffered norman william northern campaigns towns saw widespread demolition houses room new bailey fortifications case lincoln norman invasion brought significant economic changes arrival jews english cities william brought wealthy jews community normandy settle london apparently carry financial services crown years immediately invasion lot wealth drawn england ways norman rulers normandy making william immensely wealthy individual ruler coins saxon period borough mandated mint centre trading nonetheless strict royal control coin dies london william retained process generated high standard norman coins leading use term sterling norman silver coins governance taxation william inherited anglo saxon system king drew revenues mixture customs profits fines profits lands system english land based taxation called william reaffirmed system enforcing collection new system increasing taxes trade william famous commissioning book vast document attempted record economic condition new kingdom mid medieval growth 12th 13th centuries period huge economic growth england population england rose million million increased agricultural export raw materials europe contrast previous centuries england relatively secure invasion years anarchy military conflicts economic impact proved temporarily english economic thinking remained conservative seeing economy consisting groups fought nobility worked particular prayed trade merchants played little model frequently start period increasingly tolerated end 13th century agriculture fishing mining english agriculture landscape agriculture remained far important english economy 12th 13th centuries remained wide variety english agriculture influenced local geography areas grain grown resources exploited instead example agriculture centred grazing animals woodland whilst fishing bird hunting supplemented basket making cutting locations lincolnshire salt manufacture important including production export market fishing important trade english coast especially great herring particularly popular catch coast shipped inland exported europe piracy competing english fishing fleets unknown period sheep common farm animal england period numbers doubling 14th century sheep increasingly widely wool particularly welsh borders lincolnshire pigs remained popular holdings ability food remained primary animal horses widely farms south england end 12th century rabbits introduced france 13th century farmed meat special underlying productivity english agriculture remained low despite increases food production wheat prices fluctuated heavily year year depending local grain produced england potentially sale ended growing towns despite involvement market wealthiest peasants spending housing clothing little left personal consumption records household belongings possessing old worn tools royal forests grew size 12th century contracting late 13th early 14th centuries henry extended size scope royal forests especially yorkshire anarchy henry_ii continued expand forests comprised england charter forest enacted worst royal jurisdiction established structured range fines peasants illegally hunted trees forests end century king come increasing pressure reduce size royal forests leading great significantly reduced extent forests thirds size royal revenue streams forests diminished considerably early 14th century development estate management retained reinforced system division peasant lands paid agricultural labour landowners profit sales goods lands local lord expect receive income fines local customs whilst powerful nobles regional courts rights 12th century major landowners tended rent lands money motivated static prices produce chaos anarchy practice began alter spurred greater political stability years john reign agricultural prices doubled increasing potential profits estates increasing cost living landowners landowners attempted possible bring lands direct management creating system administrators officials run new system estates new land brought cultivation meet demand food including drained marshes marsh somerset levels royal forests late 12th century onwards poorer lands north south west welsh marches england began appear south east coasts 12th century expanding number 13th adding power available estimated england grinding corn cloth fish ponds created estates provide freshwater fish consumption nobility church ponds extremely expensive create maintain improved ways running estates began circulated walter famous book written regions landowners investment innovation increased yields significantly improved particularly norfolk yields eventually later 18th century levels role church agriculture church england major landowner medieval period played important development agriculture rural trade centuries norman rule order arrived england establishing new monastic houses years wealthy established expanded occupy houses supported agricultural estates north england 13th century orders acquiring new lands major economic players landowners expanding wool trade particular led development system separate fields cultivated monastic officials divided rented fields known new agricultural techniques period monasteries significant economic impact landscape monks responsible draining somerset levels create new pasture land military order knights held extensive property england bringing time fall comprised primarily rural holdings rented cash included urban properties london following dissolution order france philip france edward ordered properties seized passed order practice properties taken local landowners hospital attempting reclaim years later church responsible system levy produce natural products gained labour wages received servants labourers profits rural merchants gathered form produce consumed recipient sold resources relatively typical peasant instances actual levy fell desired clergy moved towns urban growth period city clergyman effect transfer considerable agriculture wealth cities spent urban clergy need sell produce consumed local clergy spurred growth trade expansion mining mining large english medieval economy 12th 13th centuries saw increased demand metals country thanks considerable population growth building construction including great churches metals mined commercially england period iron tin lead silver coal mined 13th century onwards variety techniques iron mining occurred locations including main english centre forest dean durham iron meet english demand imported continent especially late 13th century end 12th century older method acquiring iron ore strip mining supplemented advanced techniques including tunnels trenches bell pits iron ore usually locally processed 14th century water powered iron forge england built result diminishing woodlands consequent increases cost wood demand coal increased 12th century began commercially produced bell pits strip mining silver boom occurred england discovery silver near huge quantities silver produced mines reaching cumberland durham northumberland tonnes silver mined year times previous annual production europe result local economic boom major 12th century royal finances tin mining centred cornwall devon exploiting deposits governed special courts tin formed valuable export good initially germany later 14th century low countries lead usually mined product mining silver mines yorkshire durham north devon economically fragile lead mines usually survived result silver production trade manufacturing towns growth english towns end anarchy number small towns england began increase sharply new towns established expansion effectively ceased towns england new towns centrally planned richard created portsmouth john founded liverpool successive monarchs followed new towns usually located access trade routes mind defence streets laid access town market convenient growing percentage england population lived urban areas estimates suggest rose london held special status english economy nobility purchased consumed luxury goods services capital early london markets providing exotic products palm oil gems foreign weapons london important hub industrial activity making wide range goods including decorative early working english tin lead widespread london period provincial towns substantial number trades end 13th century large town like example contained different specialist smaller town durham support different increasing wealth nobility church reflected widespread building prestigious buildings larger towns turn making use lead english mines land transport remained expensive river sea transport period towns period including york exeter lincoln linked oceans rivers act bristol port coming dominate lucrative trade wine 13th century generally remained modest scale economically england time transport remained costly comparison overall price products 13th century groups common carriers ran businesses existed london link traders major land routes crossing england street way street street large number bridges built 12th century improve trade network 13th century england primarily supplying raw materials export europe finished processed goods exceptions high quality lincoln including famous lincoln scarlet dyed cloth despite royal efforts encourage barely english cloth exported expansion money supply gradual reduction number locations allowed mint coins england henry_ii able use controls continued 13th century reign edward outside london king created new official called master mint oversee thirty operating london meet demand new coins money circulation hugely increased period norman invasion circulation coin risen million particular point time currency stored prior support military campaigns sent overseas meet payments resulting bursts temporary coins ceased english economy physical consequence growth coins manufactured large numbers moved barrels sacks stored local royal use king travelled rise english emerged early 12th century set manage local affairs including prices welfare workers suppression sharp practices early merchants ran local markets towns represented merchant community discussions crown early included craft representing specific trades major english towns guild winchester following decades created increasingly involved local national politics merchants largely replaced official groups established new royal charters craft required relatively stable markets relative equality income opportunity members function effectively 14th century conditions increasingly uncommon strains seen london old guild system began collapse trade conducted national level making hard manufacture goods trade growing richer poorer result edward iii companies companies chartered companies focusing trade finance leaving guild structures represent interests smaller poorer manufacturers merchants development charter period saw development charter england reached 13th century 12th century onwards english towns acquired charter crown allowing hold annual fair usually serving regional local customer base lasting days practice increased century charters issued markets english kings grew popularity international wool trade increased allowed english wool producers ports east_coast engage visiting foreign merchants english merchants london keen profit time wealthy magnate consumers england began use new way buy goods like wax preserved fish foreign cloth bulk international merchants bypassing usual london merchants grew major international events falling set sequence economic year fair lent easter boston july winchester september november smaller falling large famous champagne france english great huge events great fair example drew merchants flanders norway germany france week event year turning normally small town major commercial structure reflected importance foreign merchants english economy english wool trade actually controlled english merchants trade primarily dominated italian merchants early 14th century german merchants begun present competition italians germans formed self governing alliance merchants london called eventual league role confirmed great charter paying customary tolls foreign merchants response creation company staple group merchants established english held royal approval granted monopoly wool sales europe jewish contribution english economy jewish community england continued provide essential money lending banking services banned laws grew 12th century jewish immigrants fleeing fighting jewish community spread london major english cities primarily major trading east england functioning suitable castles protection persecuted jewish minority time anarchy reign stephen communities providing financial loans king henry_ii jewish financial community continued grow richer major towns jewish centres smaller towns windsor saw visits travelling jewish merchants henry_ii jewish community instruments collection money crown placed royal protection jewish community york lent extensively fund order acquisition land prospered considerably jewish merchants grew extremely wealthy aaron lincoln death special royal department established financial holdings affairs end henry reign king ceased borrow jewish community instead turned aggressive campaign taxation fines financial anti violence grew richard massacre york community numerous financial records destroyed seven towns nominated separately store jewish bonds money records arrangement ultimately evolved jews initially peaceful start john reign king began money jewish community members including huge new paid baron war jews subjected fresh anti semitic attacks henry iii restored order jewish money lending sufficiently successful allow fresh taxation jewish community poorer end century finally expelled england edward largely replaced foreign merchants governance taxation 12th century norman kings attempted feudal governance system initially created invasion invasion king enjoyed combination income lands anglo saxon tax fines successive kings found needed additional revenues especially order pay mercenary forces way exploit feudal system kings adopted french feudal aid model levy money imposed feudal subordinates necessary method exploit system feudal military service cash payment king taxation option old tax increasingly ineffective growing number instead succession kings created alternative land taxes taxes increasingly unpopular feudal charges condemned constrained royal finances henry created chancellor post lead maintenance pipe rolls set royal financial records lasting significance historians tracking royal finances medieval prices royal revenue streams proved insufficient middle 13th century shift away earlier land based tax system based mixture indirect direct taxation time henry iii introduced practice consulting leading nobles tax issues leading system parliament england agreed new taxes required great ancient custom began tax products hides great charter imposing additional foreign merchants england tax introduced tax system finally abolished edward iii assessing total impact changes royal revenues difficult best edward struggling match real terms revenues henry_ii enjoyed considering growth size english economy king share national income dropped considerably english towns tenure urban properties established early medieval period based primarily tenants paying cash providing labour services development set taxes raised towns included walls streets temporary tax repair bridges combined set codes customary practices governing trading provided reasonable basis economic governance towns 12th century saw attempt remaining rights peasant workers set labour explicitly form english common law process resulted explicitly feudal landowners settle law cases concerning feudal labour fines courts royal courts class relationships lords peasants complex economic implications peasant workers resented having continuing access agricultural land important rare circumstances peasants offered choice freedom land continued chose freedom minority chose remain land lords benefited economically control courts dominating courts easier manipulate land ownership rights favour land particularly short supply end period labour duties lords local peasant communities useful period duties fixed custom resented workers involved result end 13th century productivity forced labour significantly lower free labour employed task number lords responded seeking duties peasants cash alternatives aim hiring labour instead mid medieval economic crisis great famine black death great famine great famine began number acute crises english economy famine centred sequence harvest failures combined outbreak sickness sheep fatal fungus remaining stocks wheat people died ensuing famine said forced eat horses dogs cats conducted children reports usually considered royal forests mass scale sheep cattle numbers fell half significantly reducing availability wool meat food prices doubled grain prices particularly inflated food prices remained similar levels decade salt prices increased sharply wet weather factors exacerbated crisis economic growth begun slow significantly years prior crisis english rural population increasingly economic stress half estimated possess insufficient land provide secure additional land brought cultivation existing land cultivated soil exhausted useless bad weather played important disaster saw torrential rains incredibly cold winter combination badly impacted stored supplies rains years followed drought fierce winter recovery disease independent famine high period striking poorer classes commencement war france added economic difficulties great famine firmly reversed population growth 12th 13th centuries left domestic economy profoundly shaken destroyed black death black death epidemic arrived england occurring waves sporadically immediate economic impact disaster widespread loss life mortality upper classes despite high loss life settlements abandoned epidemic badly affected nearly eliminated altogether medieval authorities best respond organised fashion economic disruption immense building work ceased mining operations short term efforts taken authorities control wages enforce pre epidemic working conditions coming previous years famine longer term economic implications profound contrast previous centuries rapid growth english population begin recover century despite positive reasons resurgence crisis dramatically affect english agriculture wages prices remainder medieval period late medieval economic recovery events crisis subsequent produced challenges english economy decades disaster economic social issues arising black death combined costs years war produce peasants revolt revolt suppressed undermined feudal economic order countryside dominated estates organised farms frequently owned rented new economic class gentry english agricultural economy remained depressed 15th century growth time came greatly increased english cloth trade manufacturing economic consequences varied considerably region region generally london south west prospered expense eastern older cities role merchants trade increasingly seen important country gradually widely accepted english economic thinking increasingly influenced renaissance theories governance taxation end outbreak black death efforts authorities stem upward pressure wages prices parliament passing emergency ordinance labourers statute labourers efforts regulate economy continued wages prices rose putting pressure landed classes parliament attempted unsuccessfully centrally regulate craft production trading rising royal courts time involved enforcing failing labour legislation land owners attempted vigorously enforce agricultural service money local manor courts leading attempts village communities legally challenge local feudal practices book legal basis claims wages lower classes rising government attempted regulate demand consumption laws laws banned lower classes consuming certain products wearing high status clothes reflected significance consumption high quality way signifying social class late medieval period saw government facing difficulties funding war france impact years war english economy remains uncertain suggestion high taxation required pay conflict depleted english economy whilst argued modest neutral economic impact war english government clearly found difficult pay army turned new system poll taxes aiming spread costs taxation entirety english society peasants revolt result economic political tensions peasants revolt widespread rural discontent followed invasion london involving thousands rebels rebels demands including effective end feudal institution cap levels rural ensuing violence took political classes surprise revolt fully autumn rebels executed aftermath result revolt parliament retreated poll tax instead focused system indirect taxes foreign trade drawing tax revenues exports wool parliament continued collect direct tax historically high levels reduced later years result successive monarchs found tax revenues uncertain henry enjoyed half annual tax revenue late 14th century england monarchs increasingly dependent borrowing forced loans meet gap taxes expenditure faced later rebellions levels taxation including yorkshire rebellion rebellion reign henry vii agriculture fishing mining collapse creation farming system agricultural sector english economy far largest transformed black death shortage manpower black death wages agricultural labourers rapidly increased continued grow steadily 15th century increased labourers living conditions diet improved steadily trend labourers eat wheat replace bread diet meat apparent black death intensified later period nonetheless england smaller population needed food demand agricultural products fell position larger landowners increasingly difficult revenues lands diminishing demand remained low wage costs increased nobles finding difficult raise revenue local courts fines privileges years peasants revolt despite attempts increase money end 14th century paid peasant lands declining revenues falling noble church landowners responded ways began invest significantly agriculture land increasingly taken production altogether cases entire settlements abandoned nearly villages lost period landowners abandoned system direct management lands begun turned instead farming large blocks land fixed money initially livestock land rented stock lease contracts found increasingly impractical contracts farms centred purely land rights church parish farmed exchange fixed process encouraged trend revenues increasing appropriated central church authorities support local clergy parish way major estates transformed new economic grouping gentry evident opportunities farming system land distribution remained heavily unequal estimates suggest english nobility owned english lands church crown gentry remainder owned peasant farmers agriculture continued loss english sickness crisis increased number horses fields 14th century significant improvement older methods forests fishing mining royal forests continued diminish size decline economic importance years black death royal enforcement forest rights laws harder certainly 15th century royal forests shadow size economic significance contrast english fishing industry continued grow 15th century domestic merchants owned fleets fishing vessels operating key ports herring remained key fishing catch demand herring declined rising prosperity fleets began focus instead deep sea fish waters despite critical fishing industry salt production england diminished 15th century competition french producers use expensive freshwater fish ponds estates began decline period gentry nobility opted purchase freshwater fish commercial river fisheries mining generally performed end medieval period helped demand manufactured luxury goods tin production black death leading doubling prices tin exports collapsed picked years turn 16th century available tin deposits cornwall devon begun decline leading commencement bell surface mining support tin boom occurred late 15th century lead mining increased output doubled wood cheaper black death coal production declined result remaining depressed rest period nonetheless coal production occurring major english 16th century iron production continued increase south east began increased use water power overtook forest dean 15th century england main iron producing region blast england major technical step forward metal created trade manufacturing towns towns percentage england population living towns continued grow absolute terms english towns significantly consequence black death especially prosperous east importance england eastern ports declined period trade london south west increased relative significance increasingly elaborate road networks built england involving construction thirty bridges cross rivers obstacles nonetheless remained cheaper goods water consequently timber brought london far away baltic stone brought channel south england particular south west major industry time investment trading ships probably single biggest form late medieval investment england rise cloth trade cloth manufactured england increasingly dominated european markets 15th early 16th centuries england exported cloth year exported trade reached peak exports reached trade fell slightly depression century picked reached year centres weaving england shifted westwards valley west riding exeter away weaving centres york wool cloth trade primarily run english merchants foreigners increasingly trade passing london ports south west export trade english hands 15th century risen london managed exports wool cloth exports growth numbers chartered trading companies london company company merchant london continued english producers began provide credit european buyers way grew period cases prosecuted authorities attempts english merchants break league directly baltic markets failed domestic political chaos wars roses wine trade fell half war france eventual loss province brought end english domination business temporary disruption bristol prosperity began imported city years later disruption baltic trade contributed sharp reduction consumption wine english gentry nobility 15th century advances manufacturing especially south west despite french attacks war created coastal prosperity thanks huge expenditure war south west centre english piracy foreign vessels continued grow particular working generated exports second cloth 15th century working london large industry workers recorded london working spread capital major cities england london remained significant saw relatively little growth working london period iron working continued expand cast iron cannon england reflected rapid growth number iron working fourteen result substantial influx money turn encouraged import manufactured luxury goods shipments abroad routinely included ivory mirrors armour paper painted clothes tin images sugar candy marking horns quantities imported formed noble gentry quantities consumed varying according wealth household english government large quantities raw materials including copper manufacturing weapons major landowners tended focus efforts maintaining single major castle house dozens century usually decorated luxurious previously major merchants dwellings lavish previous years decline fair system end 14th century position began decline larger merchants particularly london began establish direct links larger landowners nobility church landowner buying chartered fair buy directly merchant growth indigenous england merchant class major cities especially london gradually crowded foreign merchants great chartered largely depended crown control trade towns especially emerging newer towns end 15th century lacked central civic government increasingly weaker making chartered status relevant trade occurred private properties took place year nonetheless great remained importance 15th century illustrated role exchanging money regional commerce providing choice individual consumers historiography studies medieval economy england began 1880s principally work english historian scholarship drawing extensively documents book known view economic history focusing law government late victorian writers argued change english medieval economy stemmed primarily towns cities leading progressive interpretation development period focusing trade commerce influenced evolution norman laws argued clear anglo saxon norman economic systems 1930s view english economy challenged group scholars university_of_cambridge led power power colleagues widened focus study legal government documents include archaeological demographic settlement landscape urban evidence combined neo leaning odds older victorian tradition subject power died student later husband michael took forward work coming dominate post war field argued principal driving force medieval english economy distinctly fashion proposed english economy saw little technical development period early 14th century unable support growing population leading inevitable economic depression population came balance land resources began trend stressing post invasion economies aided fresh evidence emerging use archaeological techniques understand medieval economy 1950s onwards critique emerged 1950s onwards captured academic journal past present school thought agreed economy central medieval england argued issues mode production feudal class relations model english economy entered crisis early 14th century struggles peasant resources excessive extraction nobility similar issues peasants revolt later tax rebellions historians frank developed honour unit economic analysis focus understanding feudal relations peasant communities developed idea rise gentry key feature understanding late medieval period fresh work 1970s 1980s challenged approaches medieval economy local studies medieval economics considerable detail new archaeological techniques rescue historical sources ran counter broader interpretations change development degree existed operated england initial years invasion thrown considerable doubt historians david arguing existed primarily legal fiscal model actual economic system studies contemporary economies including work showed flaws key assumptions land use current academic preference english medieval economy overlapping network diverse communities active local choices decisions result independent agency historical


german ultimatum lithuania german ultimatum lithuania oral ultimatum presented foreign minister lithuania von foreign minister nazi_germany march germans demanded lithuania region known territory detached germany world war invade lithuania years rising tension lithuania germany increasing pro nazi propaganda region continued german expansion demand expected ultimatum issued days nazi occupation czechoslovakia signatories convention guaranteed protection status quo region offer material assistance united_kingdom france followed policy italy japan openly supported germany lithuania forced accept ultimatum march germany territorial acquisition world war lithuania major economy morale europe pre war tensions dispute german important east prussia detached germany article treaty versailles governed allies according article france assumed administration region lithuania continued lobby control claiming belong lithuania significant lithuanian population lithuania minor country access baltic_sea poland laid claim territory allies hesitant decision region remain free state like free city danzig lithuania took initiative organized revolt january soviet russia germany supported action region autonomous territory parliament parliament attached lithuania region covered population approximately 1920s lithuania germany maintained relatively normal relationship united anti polish sentiment january long difficult negotiations germany lithuania signed border treaty left lithuanian tensions began rising 1930s republic replaced nazi_germany especially tense period came february lithuanian government arrested dozens pro nazi activists response arrests trials germany declared boycott lithuanian agricultural imports boycott caused economic crisis southern lithuania farmers organized violent protests pro nazi prisoners received amnesty wake lithuanian prestige suffered abroad allowing germany strengthen influence region rising tension spring adolf_hitler personally stated gaining highest priorities second gaining poland presented ultimatum lithuania march germany openly declared event military clash poland lithuania army invade lithuania capture large portion western lithuania week lithuania accepted polish ultimatum germany presented point memorandum demanded freedom action pro german activists region lithuanian influence points deliberately vague manner enable germany accuse lithuania violations lithuania chose postpone dealing problem hoping international situation improve meantime hoped german population reasons complaint tactic prove successful pro nazi propaganda protests rampant lithuanian population local government powerless prevent nazis physically harassed lithuanian organizations november lithuania pressured lifting martial law press censorship december elections parliament pro german parties received votes seats territory chief defendant trials released prison february leader pro german movement december received adolf_hitler assured issue resolved march april nazi activists claimed right self determination region demanded lithuania open negotiations political status parliament expected vote return germany convened march germany official channels maintained silence issue germany hoped lithuania voluntarily troubled region public stance disturbed sensitive discussions engaged poland anti communist alliance soviet_union ultimatum rumors reached lithuanian government effect germany specific plans march foreign minister represented lithuania coronation pope rome return lithuania stopped berlin hope growing rumors march agreed meet asked wait room conversation lasted minutes demanded return germany threatened military action relayed verbal ultimatum lithuanian government ultimatum set writing include formal deadline historians import describing set demands ultimatum clear force lithuania resist warned seek help nations clear deadline given lithuania told decision clashes german casualties inevitably provoke response german military lithuania secretly informed signatories convention demands technically lithuania transfer approval signatories italy japan supported germany matter united_kingdom france expressed sympathy lithuania chose offer material assistance followed publicized policy hitler treated issue way treated crisis plans assist lithuania baltic states attacked germany soviet_union supporting lithuania principle wish disrupt relations germany point contemplating alliance nazis material international support lithuania choice accept ultimatum lithuanian diplomacy characterized concession necessary evil enable lithuania preserve independence maintained hope merely temporary retreat acceptance march signed treaty effective march stating lithuania voluntarily transferring region germany treaty comprised articles aftermath treaty signed german soldiers entered port adolf_hitler board cruiser personally toured city gave short speech sailing included cruiser admiral light cruisers leipzig destroyer squadrons torpedo boat tender flotilla time lithuanian navy warship ton converted germans celebrating return city european politicians expressed fears free city danzig hitler target president acceptance second ultimatum space little year major source dissatisfaction authoritarian rule german ultimatum triggered political crisis passive cabinet replaced cabinet headed general time coup état government included members opposition lithuanian christian democratic_party named minister education lithuanian popular peasants union named minister agriculture parties banned officially billed independent private citizens generals members cabinet international crisis induce lithuanian politicians unite continued engage petty political disputes loss access baltic_sea major blow lithuanian economy foreign trade passed region represented lithuania territory contained industry lithuania lost heavy investments port infrastructure refugees jews left region sought shelter support lithuanian government doubted fate country march april deposits banks credit institutions totaled total deposits loss lithuania drifted german sphere influence especially terms trade end germany accounted lithuanian exports imports germany soviet_union concluded pact dividing eastern_europe respective spheres influence surprisingly lithuania assigned germany nazis went far suggest german lithuanian military alliance poland promised return region lithuania held policy strict neutrality


adolf_hitler 50th birthday 50th birthday adolf_hitler april celebrated national holiday nazi_germany parts world gifts received germany allied countries western allies ignored event birthday celebration saw events largest military parade history army air_force navy units numbering total marching streets berlin hitler honor celebrations april government nazi_germany declared adolf_hitler birthday april national holiday festivities took place municipalities country free city danzig british historian comments events organised berlin nazi minister propaganda joseph astonishing cult lavish surpassed previous festivities began afternoon day birthday hitler rode lead car white architect albert newly completed east west axis planned central boulevard new capital planned victory world war hitler anticipating speech evaded briefly announcing work speak event procession appointments germany hitler reviewed balcony midnight hitler congratulated presented gifts including statues bronze casts oil paintings rare coins antique weapons mass presents hitler admired fun ignored presented hitler scale model gigantic arch planned rebuilding berlin hitler pilot gave model machine engined service later year hitler official airplane military parade key birthday celebrations large demonstration nazi_germany military capabilities display intended warning western powers parade lasted hours included companies luftwaffe companies army companies navy units total german troops took flew berlin comprised official guests parade watched thousand spectators features parade large long range air defence artillery guns emphasis artillery development air defense units joseph event organizer declared broadcast address german people stands shadow german sword trade industry cultural national life flourish guarantee military forces hitler political programme imagination realism combined military leaders country gave addresses troops celebrate occasion major general later von especially praise supreme commander official guests representing countries took celebrations papal envoy president republic heads branches nazi_germany armed forces german cities offered birthday hitler italian dictator exchanged assuring friendship germany kingdom italy ruled fascist regimes time disturbed enemies ambassadors united_kingdom france united_states present parade having withdrawn hitler march czechoslovakia represented troop review president franklin roosevelt hitler birthday accordance practice sending birthday ruling monarchs king george united_kingdom dispatched message hitler strained relations countries advisors considered king ignore birthday altogether polish representation parade commemoration luxury edition hitler political manifesto autobiography published honor 50th birthday known anniversary issue came dark blue sharp red boards gold sword cover german author photographer wrote book hitler 50th birthday entitled nation honors leader composer wrote hymn occasion film birthday celebration hitler 50th birthday regarded important example nazi propaganda subsequently shown packed audiences youth film hours held sundays birthday gifts free city danzig hitler honorary citizen city birthday gift hitler received citizenship papers hands albert city nazi leader political military tension germany poland heightened time time magazine reported possibility danzig returned germany martin hitler private secretary eagle nest constructed nazi party birthday gift hitler like location fear heights hitler drink alcohol munich brewery created special batch low alcohol beer birthday regular order occasion birthday families small received birthday gift german plus dependent expenditure totalling million printed triumph propaganda film national socialism books isbn hitler nemesis publishing isbn albert inside books isbn field marshal von portrait company isbn sterling christopher military communications ancient times 21st century abc isbn online watch parade nazis celebrate pittsburgh press april retrieved march adolf_hitler life september retrieved march foreign news birthday present time april retrieved march george sends hitler message pittsburgh press april retrieved march hitler commemorative rare limited edition watch created dictator 47th birthday discovered polish customs officials daily_mail march retrieved march hitler aid evening april retrieved march hitler holds great display san evening news april retrieved march hitler big guns celebration miami daily_news april retrieved march hitler 50th birthday party sparked world war daily_mail april retrieved march luxury edition honors hitler evening independent april retrieved march nazi play revived jerusalem post november retrieved march roosevelt hitler hour april retrieved march hitler hitler german der october retrieved march worship hitler age april retrieved march


scandinavian scotland scandinavian scotland refers period 8th 15th centuries norse settlers mainly smaller extent parts periphery modern scotland viking influence area commenced late 8th century hostility scandinavian emerging kingdom isles rulers ireland intervention crown norway recurring themes scandinavian held territories included northern isles islands clyde associated mainland territories including historical record scottish sources weak irish annals later norse saga principal source information contradictory modern beginning provide broader picture life period competing theories addressed early process clear northern isles conquered relinquished norwegian crown rule 11th century included expansion north mainland scotland scandinavian influence pre norse names replacement norse ones total emergence alliances native speakers produced powerful norse culture wide influence scottish influence increased 13th century line norse ended title held scots nobles ill fated expedition later century led islands west scottish crown century transferred scottish rule negative view viking activities held popular imagination notwithstanding norse expansion factor emergence kingdom forerunner modern scotland trading political cultural religious achievements later periods norse rule significant geography northern isles known norse closest parts united_kingdom norway islands experienced long lasting norse influence scotland kilometres west norway favourable conditions reached hours viking kilometres south west kilometres south scottish mainland northerly provinces mainland scotland fell norse control early date south entire western mainland scotland ross subject significant scandinavian influence southern isles include western isles comprising outer aka long_island west separated northern inner waters islands kilometres west inner including islands clyde kilometres south largest isle man located irish sea modern england ireland scotland wales total distance southern tip isle man butt lewis northern outer approximately kilometres entire region dominated norse culture period consideration example likely norse language dominant inner lewis 10th 11th centuries significant direct norse influence exerted south west scotland period treaty perth norwegian danish foreign policy activities independent semi independent norse rulers parts scandinavian dominated scotland powerful influence affairs scotland process scholarly interpretations period led widely viking age scotland especially early period identified competing theories regards proven traditional explanation hypothesis assumes period norse expansion northern isles creation aristocratic dynasty lasted medieval period exerted considerable influence western scotland 11th century version events essentially told norse supported archaeological evidence criticised influence second theories genocide hypothesis asserts populations northern western isles replaced wholesale settlers scandinavian stock strength argument total replacement pre existing place names norse origin region weakness place evidence relatively late date nature transition remains controversial genetic studies identical proportions scandinavian ancestry suggesting islands settled men women equal measure pagan reaction hypothesis proposed suggests long tradition mobility populations north_atlantic expansion christian missions resulted ethnic tensions led exacerbated viking expansion evidence mobility irish missionary activities iceland 8th century little conclusive fourth suggestion hypothesis word appears forms early irish literature usually assumed refer norway preferred locate norse dominated parts scotland proponent view claims substantial scotland northern western isles large areas coastal mainland conquered quarter 9th century viking kingdom set earlier middle century essentially variant hypothesis little archaeological evidence favour clear extensive viking incursions irish coasts supported presence kind date prominent far certain admits conquered occupied isles unknown early viking incursions norse contacts scotland certainly written records 8th century nature frequency unknown excavations island indicate scandinavian settlers reached early mid 7th century consistent dates produced viking levels old onwards repeated raids british isles recorded islands britain devastated sacked attacks christian settlements islands west new 6th century raided forces island attacked early 7th century marine fleet companions murdered named viking leaders probably based scotland appear irish annals king mac king mac dead major defeat early reference norse presence irish records king viking scotland heir brought army ireland find reported leader fighting ireland record conquest inner died described son king annals ireland suggesting early date organised kingdom viking scotland source recorded having gone aid father assault circa died succeeded son died year lament mac king died suggests lost kingdom time isle man taken norse certainly held northern isles culture speech prior norse incursions recorded destroyed king likely kings exerted significant degree ongoing control island affairs according saga king united norway opponents fled islands scotland pursued enemies incorporated northern isles kingdom little decade later following year local viking rebelled sent subdue achieved quickly declared independent king isles title retained rest life hunter states charge extensive island realm result sufficiently prestigious making agreements alliances according ruler region settled scholars believe entire story based later example suggests appearance looks like story created later days norwegian claims sovereignty region suggests early 11th century creation prior local competed influence local populations farmers nonetheless norse tradition states received death son battle scotland passed brother mighty line barely survived son slave founded dynasty controlled northern isles centuries death succeeded son turf time deposed norwegian king raiding base killed death presumed burial south led long period strife historical details likely rapidly absorbed norse culture time evidence language celtic number clear local version old norse widely spoken inhabitants historic times spoken evidence elements virtually non existent island names contains extensive remains viking site visible britain believed norse inhabited site continuously 9th 14th centuries important finds drawings slate dragon ships bronze harness mounting ireland 8th 9th centuries important archaeological site like continuity settlement spanning norse periods remarkable collection 12th century inscriptions inside early irish literature referred isles cats pre norse inhabitants islands cat tribe certainly occupied parts northern scottish mainland found meaning cats limited evidence intermediate phase speaking control era norse takeover existed likely short lived red moved northern scotland conquering large areas variously described possibly including territory ross decade 9th century saga relates defeated died unusual post battle injury married native aristocracy son recorded having sought support king scots 10th century pursuing claim saga relates stout ruler ross possible late 10th century scots kings alliance earl expanded father realm south 11th century norwegian crown come accept held kings scotland norse character retained 13th century mac granted assisting scots king conflict earl early 13th century joint ceased border scotland norway norse place names found northern scottish mainland south far archaeological evidence norse activity found north west mainland like northern isles outer northern inner predominantly early 9th century contrast southern inner formed kingdom pre norse names outer inner total little continuity style pottery north viking period similarities exist suggests later norse settled ireland irish slaves frequent references early history slaves ireland certainly continued exist spoken language southern settlement period place evidence suggests status norse survived spoken language 16th century outer evidence direct norwegian rule area brief written record weak contemporary records norse period outer exist known system evidence suggests settlers prosperous families similar status northern isles possibly relaxed political regime sent representatives lewis harris southern parliament man produced important pagan norse burial grounds 11th century cross slab decorated irish viking art found today peninsula south hills contains small connected sea short artificial canal important site maritime activity centuries spanning viking later periods scottish clan rule stone built system maintain constant water levels boat discovered dated 12th century stones known west_coast scotland christian memorials found clyde norse found place evidence suggests settlement pattern developed mainland coast cluster norse place names ornate silver found near likely 7th century irish origin 10th century inscription monuments found hint scandinavian inland isle man absorbed scotland 14th century dominated norse early date onwards dynasty attested chronicles evidenced numerous norse place names modern day diocese man retains centuries old south considerable place evidence norse settlement entire western coast unlike islands settlement south prolonged undertaken tandem pre existing settlement replacing entirely distinction islands foreigners suggestive distinction island mainland early date ross names exist coastline today likely medieval pre norse origin lost charter refers mainland village opposite having possession king man entirely replaced norse encountered 9th century references foreign appear term variously succeeding centuries refer individuals mixed scandinavian celtic descent culture dominant west south west scotland parts northern england isles alliance cultures took place ireland instrumental saving fate north west evidence norse settlement mainland limited port ship burial boat burial site discovered mainland britain south west scotland mid 10th century controlled region gets modern mixture viking irish settlement produced said subdued people 11th century centre norse traded irish sea end millennium place written archaeological evidence extensive norse opposed norse settlement area convincing system widespread west_coast including true south west apart land adjacent inner place evidence complex mixed norse danish influence likely stemming contact extensive danish holdings northern england feature area number names prefix followed saint interpretation certain indicative mixed norse population eastern scotland evidence permanent viking settlement east_coast south norse raids invasions certainly occurred taken reign mac saga records attack isle sailed south scotland came monastery head abbot baldwin men detained seven nights stress bad weather said sent earl king scots monks suspected tale thinking pirates sent mainland men comrades aware went hastily aboard ship having plundered treasure monastery place evidence scandinavian settlement limited east_coast south east predominant influence period history internal politics phase norse expansion war bands seeking creation new settlements second phase involved integration settlers organised political structures prominent early north south commencement formal matter discussion little doubt institution experienced continuity mid late 11th century kings western isles probably independent rulers direct norwegian rule end century brought close north unusually onwards norse northern isles owed allegiance norway scottish crown holdings line norse ended jon murder granted second son earl angus norway confirmed earl passed family barons near edinburgh remained norway century situation complex different kings ruled different areas seen kind close control far sea kingdom certainly powerful force late 9th early 11th century mac claiming isles norse sources list rulers stout mighty rulers kings norway denmark dates irish norse sources significantly overlap clear records competing reflect influence south direct norse rule north furthermore records annals suggest western isles organised kingdom time ruled assemblies regularly elected public affairs annals masters entries hint similar arrangement suggests influence south north usually predominant whilst admitting islands probably formed groups independent communities ruler dublin early years 12th century dynasty asserted ruled kings isles half century kingdom actions sons inherited southern whilst rulers held north isles century origins obscure married clear competing factions play islands clyde essentially control rulers scandinavian origin late tenth century emergence kingdom scotland 13th century expansion west relations early viking threats long term process kingdoms adopted language customs merger crowns historians continue debate takeover way culminated rise mac brought power house leaders combined kingdom centuries besieged kings returned dublin britain following year numerous captives capital kingdom clearly major assault brought mainland scotland temporary control years earlier seized forming kingdom york subsequently conquered england reduced kingdom leaving new combined kingdom encircled brother ravaged took hostages later occupied territory protracted period battle dollar major setback scots norse suffered reverse ireland losing control dublin intensified attacks emerging kingdom year later attacked grandson killed battle forces constantine mainland scotland late tenth century battle won forces events setbacks norse definitive moment significance defeats battle battle mac king scots killed according chronicle kings fighting norse near battle line house held firm threat posed scandinavian presence kingdom scotland counter growing irish influence western isles established direct norwegian took northern scottish mainland dyed sword red blood year scotland signed treaty settled boundary scots norwegian claims islands formally acknowledged existing situation giving claims following intervention death battle kings isles weakened relative scottish state years later norway intervened time unsuccessfully following ill fated invasion stalemate battle rights norwegian crown old yielded kingdom scotland result treaty perth pledged christian capacity king norway security payment daughter margaret james iii scotland money paid connection crown scotland perpetual religion culture economy evidence varying burial rites practised norse settlers scotland grave goods found little enables confirmation norse gods prior christianity stone evidence beliefs practices stone scandinavian poetic references suggest audiences understood elements norse hardly conclusive proof active beliefs nonetheless likely pagan practices existed early scandinavian scotland according northern isles stopped south walls way ireland norway king summoned stout said order subjects baptised refuse killed spot swear island fire steel agreed islands christian stroke receiving bishop henry known fat appointed prior greatest source scottish influence appointment scottish 13th century probably church clear scots influence culture fairly limited close 14th century later influx scottish helped create diverse independent community included farmers fishermen merchants called proved increasingly able defend rights feudal norwegian scots independence mind fostered influence norwegian government essentially communal federal contrast scotland mid 16th century norse institutions replaced scottish systems following large scale immigration south probably 17th century situation clear bishop late 10th century gap century possibly filled bishops appointment bishop conversion scandinavian scotland resultant end slavery integration viking society mainstream european culture significant event took place early date popular image norse enemies social progress remains despite considerable evidence phase norse speaking populations practitioners maritime commercial principles open air governmental assemblies met presence meetings open virtually free men sessions decisions laws passed complaints examples include law easter ross isle man women enjoyed relatively high status viking age possibly high degree mobility society little knowledge role scandinavian colonies scotland indirect evidence graves pagan christian periods suggests roles similar held best known figures deep minded daughter earl wife king norse legacy art architecture limited reduced early seat bishop cathedral example norse era construction scotland church retains round tower iconic lewis best known treasure numerous finds grave goods including weaponry boat burial documented growing evidence importance trade commerce data outer suggests pigs important aspect viking farming prior time red deer numbers controlled species simply subject hunting herring fishing important commercial consideration trade centres south dublin bristol important coins found produced norway england scotland ivory greenland found present day influence norse viking settlements impression peripheral scotland evidence found place names language aspects cultural heritage scandinavian influence scotland probably height mid 11th century time attempted create single political ecclesiastical domain stretching man total land area approximately square kilometres combined area square kilometres permanent scandinavian holdings scotland time minimum fifth quarter land area modern scotland viking invasions inadvertently played role creation modern scotland destructive raids initially weakened harassed remnants eventually united norse aggression played significant role creation kingdom nucleus scottish kingdom expanded viking influence waned south expanded kingdom england scots pride scandinavian ancestry example clan lewis claims descent according tradition younger son black clan claim norse ancestry occasional references idea scotland joining circle nations modern political debate unlike england scandinavian occupation scotland single common reflection documented nature invasions involved hints relative lack popular understanding history comparison roman scotland norse kingdoms longer lived recent significantly dramatic influence spoken language extension culture lifestyles generally confined areas relatively remote main centres modern population furthermore regardless actual impact scandinavian culture hereditary leaders scots nation generally descended stock seen negative light foreign invasion key multi cultural nonetheless northern isles scandinavian connection celebrated best known events fire festival particular connection norway proven enduring norway independent authorities sent letter king vii stated today foreign flag familiar welcome norway continue look norway mother land recall pride affection time rule kings norway viking congress held scottish government announced plans strengthen scotland historic links scandinavia


holocaust lithuania holocaust nazi occupied lithuania resulted near total destruction lithuanian jews living nazi controlled lithuanian polish territories approximately jews estimated murdered end world war wider estimates published june december lithuania jewish population year german occupation complete destruction country affected holocaust historians attribute massive collaboration genocide christian locals reasons collaboration debated holocaust resulted largest loss life short period time history lithuania events took place western regions ussr occupied nazi_germany weeks german invasion including lithuania marked sharp intensification holocaust important component holocaust lithuania occupying nazi german administration blaming soviet regime recent annexation lithuania year earlier jewish community significant factor large extent nazis design drew physical organization preparation execution orders local lithuanian nazi occupation regime background soviet_union invaded occupied subsequently annexed lithuania german invasion soviet_union june came year soviet occupation culminated mass week invasion germans welcomed received support lithuania irregular militia retreating soviet forces believed germany allow establishment country independence order germans people expressed significant sentiments nazi_germany seized lithuanian territories week offensive situation advantage days permitted lithuanian provisional government lithuanian activist established brief period appeared germans grant lithuania significant autonomy comparable given republic month independently minded lithuanian organizations disbanded august september germans seized control destruction lithuanian estimated number victims prior german invasion population jews estimated according data lithuanian statistics department january jews estimate based officially accounted emigration ussr number number survivors concentration camps liberated red army puts number lithuanian jews murdered holocaust difficult estimate exact number casualties holocaust number final numbers given historians differ significantly ranging higher number probably including non lithuanian jews labeled jewish killed lithuania holocaust events genocide lithuania divided phases phase summer end phase december march phase april mid july lithuanian port city german historically member german league belonged germany east prussia prior city semi autonomous period lithuanian independence league nations supervision approximately jews lived absorbed march jewish residents expelled fled lithuania proper german killing squads followed advance german_army units immediately began organizing murder jews lithuanian jews perished phase months occupation end recorded action took place june border town called german oldest jewish settlements country miles german annexed approximately jews shot day known massacre approximately non jewish executed trying aid jewish neighbors jews killed october end year majority jews lithuania required live sent nazi concentration camps time preliminary stages operation instead shot pits near places residence infamous mass murders taking place ninth fort near forest near jews survived largely sent camps second phase holocaust slowed germans decided use jews forced labor fuel german war economy phase destruction jews given high priority phase remaining camps factors contributed rapid destruction lithuanian significant support lithuania coming lithuanian populace second german plan early colonization lithuania shared border german east prussia accordance high priority given relatively small lithuanian jewish community participation local collaborators nazi german administration directed supported organized killing lithuanian jews local lithuanian nazi occupation regime carried logistics preparation execution murders nazi direction nazi walter arrived june gave speeches city murder jews initially state security department building officials refused action later gave speeches city report october wrote succeeded covering vanguard unit actions look like initiative local population groups partisans civil units nationalist anti soviet affiliation initiated contact germans soon entered lithuanian territories rogue unit insurgents headed encouraged germans started anti jewish night june thousand jews perished days nazi occupied lithuania different sources different figures additional victims towns region june lithuanian security police subordinate nazi_germany security police nazi_germany criminal police created involved actions jews enemies nazi regime nazi commanders filed reports zeal lithuanian police battalions surpassed notorious lithuanian unit participating holocaust lithuanian squad area killed tens thousands jews poles massacre lithuanian organization involved holocaust lithuanian labor guard lithuanian supporters nazi policies came fascist iron wolf organization overall lithuanian administration interested jews perceived enemy potential rivals ethnic oppose nazi holocaust policy effect adopted combination factors serves explanation participation genocide jews factors include national traditions values including common contemporary central europe lithuanian specific desire pure lithuanian nation state jewish population believed incompatible number additional factors severe economic problems led killing jews personal property finally jews seen having supported soviet regime lithuania period leading german invasion jews blamed virtually lithuania involvement local population institutions relatively high numbers destruction lithuanian defining factor holocaust lithuania lithuanian populace supported killings population close ethnic thousands took active killings hundreds lives jews israel recognized nations lives save jews holocaust addition members polish minority lithuania helped shelter jews poles lives saving jews persecuted executed nazis remembrance genocide lithuania seen historians earliest large scale final solution leading scholars express opinion holocaust began lithuania summer scholars holocaust started september onset second world war earlier according jewish virtual library hitler chancellor germany soviet government political reasons tried minimize unique suffering jews lithuania soviet_union memorials mention jews particular instead built commemorate suffering local inhabitants people guilty nazi collaboration crimes jews punished severely lithuania regained independence soviet_union debate lithuanian participation holocaust difficulty modern lithuanian nationalists stress anti soviet resistance lithuanian partisans seen lithuania heroes struggle soviet occupation nazi collaborators murder lithuanian post soviet lithuanian government number occasions stated commitment commemorating holocaust bringing nazi era war criminals justice national coalition supporting soviet said lithuania slow significant progress prosecution suspected lithuanian collaborators nazi genocide lithuania newly independent post soviet states protection marking holocaust related sites president lithuania speaking israeli offered public apology jewish people lithuanian participation holocaust september mark 60th anniversary holocaust lithuania lithuanian parliament held session historian nominated republic ambassador israel delivered address accounting lithuania jews criticism lithuania dragging feet issue director simon center criticized lithuanian government prosecute involved holocaust simon center declared dissatisfaction lithuanian government efforts launched controversial operation chance offering monetary rewards evidence leads prosecution war criminals campaign encountered resistance lithuania soviet countries recently simon center initially ranked lithuania high going trials bring lithuanian war criminals justice noted annual report progress lack real punishment lithuanian justice organs holocaust perpetrators limited debate place holocaust lithuanian national memory historically denied national participation holocaust labeled lithuanian participants genocide fringe extreme elements memories time discussion events jewish lithuanian different lithuanian historiography past decades improved compared soviet historiography works scholars positively reviewed western jewish historians issue remains controversial day according lithuanian historians contentious issues involve role lithuanian activist lithuanian provisional government participation lithuanian civilians volunteers holocaust


agreement agreement declaration croatian serbian document signed representatives croatia socialist federal republic yugoslavia political sponsorship european community islands july agreement sought create environment negotiations future yugoslavia place ultimately isolated federal prime minister efforts preserve yugoslavia effectively stopped form federal influence meant yugoslav people army focus combat croatia creating precedent international borders interest resolving yugoslav crisis agreement end hostilities forces day war croatia agreed suspend activities stemming june independence period months document resolved border control customs inspection issues borders resolved air traffic control responsibility mandated exchange prisoners war agreement formed basis observer mission monitor implementation agreement days agreement federal government pulled conversely agreement impact fighting croatia background june croatia prepared declare independence breakup yugoslavia european community foreign ministers decided member states extend diplomatic recognition states viewed moves offered assistance negotiations future yugoslavia instead time decided suspend direct talks croatia welcomed yugoslav federal government croatia declared independence june yugoslav people army units began deploy bases day june armed conflict broke territorial defence force began fighting control border posts day war strong delegation visits region late june early july negotiate political agreement facilitate negotiations delegation consisted foreign ministers incumbent holder presidency italy netherlands previous future holders office delegation members italy van den netherlands prior delegation arrival belgrade told reporters charge crisis delegation met serbian president dismissed prospect croatia leaving yugoslav federation population contained serbs june croatia agreed suspend independence allow time negotiated settlement delegation appeared progress serbia responded opposition appointment croatian member federal presidency body chairman june appearance success reinforced ordered troops posted return barracks july replaced portuguese foreign minister maintain formula current future comprising delegation netherlands took presidency portugal scheduled assume presidency dutch conference result delegation mission talks attended representatives croatia serbia yugoslav government talks held islands july delegation headed van den members federal presidency attended talks yugoslav federal prime minister present yugoslav federal foreign minister interior minister deputy defence minister vice admiral croatia represented president president milan attended behalf serbia represented serbian member federal presidency resigned position june instead refused attend starting delegation held separate talks assistants assistants finally afternoon meeting held federal croatian attendance reportedly left dissatisfied talks agreement prepared council ministers july consisted joint declaration detailing creation environment suitable political negotiations guidelines observer mission yugoslavia agreement known declaration agreement required return bases stipulated officials control borders croatia suspend activities stemming independence months observer mission set agreement european community monitor mission tasked monitoring ultimately withdrawal aftermath little agreed agreement later interpreted differently signatories agreement established interest region ministerial conference yugoslavia held july helped calm military barracks facilitated negotiations authorities withdrawal croatia armed combat continued shelled city evening agreement signed federal presidency ordered complete withdrawal july response actions breach agreement scope work expanded include croatia september mid september war escalated croatian national_guard police blockaded barracks embarked campaign croatian forces agreement isolated tried preserve federation ignored van den appeared issues presented delegation encouraged dissolution yugoslavia agreement diminished authority leadership fought preservation yugoslav federation agreement unfavourable croatia left defend forces effectively removing influence federal authorities especially agreement fulfilled serbian nationalists goals allowing international borders noted reached agreement january gave assurances independence bid opposed serbia return expressed understanding interest create greater serbia time viewed agreement method crisis failed attribute coincided agreement shift serbian strategy instead delegation failure respond departure meeting foreign ministers declaration july indicating withdraw agreement implemented encouraged serbia unlike croatia yugoslav federation lose pulled end took credit rapid resolution armed conflict realising diplomatic efforts little situation ground


history history details development earliest human settlements plans new city people south central england subsequent urban design development present day large town south east england founded overview january formal new town designation order acres area developed largely farmland undeveloped villages construction began area subject detailed archaeological investigation exposed rich history human settlement times provided unique insight history large sample landscape north establishment abolition development corporation created far largest ambitious british new towns objective build new city people britain acclaimed building landscape architects contributed piece british design unlike previous new towns privately funded development developments subject design brief line design principles laid plan pre history early human settlement long england existed area sea notable fossils uncovered display central library human settlement began area bce mainly valleys rivers tributaries brook brook archaeological excavations revealed burial sites dating bce bce evidence earliest found blue bridge production flint tools middle stone age area unusually large metre foot diameter round house excavated dated late bronze age early iron age bce excavations blue bridge hill uncovered seven substantial settlement sites dating bce area relatively rich possibly largest weight kilograms pounds bronze age jewellery found britain discovered september near village consists bronze age gold gold clay pot roman britain roman conquest britain british iron age tribe controlled area hill fort near sands map roman occupation area obvious reason major roman road later known street runs area gave rise associated roman town possibly oldest known gold coin britain found gold century bce foundations large british villa excavated park complete floor heating mosaic floor excavations revealed area map overlooking fertile valley brook continuous occupation years late bronze age early saxon period grave goods iron age found site included jewellery fine pottery british settlements found industrial activity period included bronze working pottery making pottery gate iron working sites anglo saxon period british sites abandoned 5th century land reverted woodland arriving 6th century anglo began clear land clearing bright clearing date period large settlements excavated near village found newport norman conquest medieval period excavations modern villages failed find evidence occupation 10th 11th centuries bury traced 9th century book provides documentary evidence settlements listing great newport newton simpson administration area later borough hundreds initially amalgamated hundreds newport middle 13th century great newport newton simpson hammond water great little green cold little bow great little north village newton modern borough covers exactly area newport plus little ancient hundreds amalgamated administrative control mound found excavated reconstructed highest point central area library modern central medieval manor house survives 15th century manor farmhouse sites manor houses great village green oldest surviving domestic building number village house manor newport established early 10th century principal market town area founded market towns street late 12th early 13th centuries early 13th century north religious houses abbey modern outside medieval sites survive network britain earliest excavated great large oak beams forming base supports survived mill mound shown radio carbon dating originate half 13th century present stone tower mill built site convenient new grand junction canal early modern britain eighteen medieval villages extant heart respective districts old remain field patterns marking deserted village old enclosure large strip cultivation fields small closes local family turned land pasture family completely enclosed parish end feudal system peasants lost land grazing rights forced find work old reduced thirty peasant families mid 16th century space century deserted village sites wood roads important roads cross site new city important street london chester originally london road joined street simpson oxford cambridge route came newport unfortunately heavy clay soils poor drainage streams routes frequently impassable winter stretch street paved approved parliament simpson remained new london diverted away higher route sands join street near east west route newport extended provided major boost economy particularly stage coach era major resting place exchange point east west route early 19th century coaches day stopped traffic came abrupt end london birmingham railway west_coast main line opened nearby grand junction canal grand junction canal came area canal great route bypassed newport arm dug great trade canal stimulated local economy large established near canal great bottle clay pits seen site pottery begins appear excavations dwellings period london birmingham railway new new towns london birmingham railway brought profound changes area coach trade collapsed taking businesses fortunately half way point rail route engines changed passengers railway works established creating work thousands people surrounding area period new towns built new east original deserted village house narrow gauge railway newport line built newport closing newport arm canal ran extended junction london birmingham railway branch important railway town branch oxford built later cambridge oxford varsity line originally small village parish grew reach absorb parent expertise learned works applied construction traction engines agricultural use site present close engaged manufacture park park private estate located old modern museum located junction varsity line west_coast main line park code named station location allied main code breaking establishment world war codes axis powers famously german world electronic digital computer work effort high level intelligence produced park ultra frequently credited aiding allied war effort shortening war ultra effect actual outcome world war debated bigger better brighter 20th century years construction railway station ordnance survey shows small village church park hamlet near methodist chapel shoulder public house junction road newton road buckingham road districts known today old far major settlement time population combined parishes balance changed year local council urban district changed ordnance survey shows settlements beginning merge large private houses road newly founded gazette began campaign bigger better brighter nation emerged world war council renewed desire expand population council able agree terms london accept people businesses bombed sites london trend continued 1950s 1960s culminating funded lakes estate water parish founded industrial development kept pace london businesses relocating new industrial estates mount farm marshall notable compulsory purchase road renamed royal visit new high street wide gardens lay houses near railway end replaced shops nearer banks professional premises census population urban district fought centre proposed new city plan placed central completely new hill site miles north half way relegated status suburb 1960s plans new city north designation 1960s government decided generation new towns south east england needed projected population increase london initial 1940s 1950s wave considered new town wave subsequently 1950s london county council constructed housing london county council architect fred spent considerable time early developing ideas new town area developed futuristic proposal based linking series individual major town centre county council published proposals late influence government ministry housing local government study recommended new city near study proposed proposed new city encompass existing towns biggest new town target population draft order april housing minister anthony formal announcement january designated area acres somewhat smaller acres draft order exclusion unveiled time taken existing village site site deliberately located roughly london birmingham leicester oxford cambridge large target population eventually intended city subsequent planning documents popular local usage use term city new city formal city status awarded boundary defined people lived designated area acres area split existing local authorities newport urban districts newport rural district rural district planning control taken elected local authorities delegated development corporation existing settlements oral history designated area outside main towns newport largely rural farmland included picturesque north villages village abbey great village new brook end church end simpson water great little green rich oral history recorded development corporation designing city people following publication draft master plan government appointed lord campbell campbell lead development corporation chief executive walter appointed davies principal planning team included richard davies walter john execution plan led fred goals declared master plan opportunity freedom choice easy movement access good communications balance variety attractive city public awareness participation efficient imaginative use resources corporation determined learn mistakes earlier new towns garden city ideals set place characteristic grid roads run districts system independent cycle pedestrian paths intensive planting lakes appreciated today central intended traditional town centre business shopping district supplemented local centres grid squares non city plan departure english new towns tradition envisaged wide range industry diversity housing styles city radical grid plan inspired work urban theorist described founding architect walker city father thought telecommunications meant old idea city concentric cluster date cities enabled people travel readily thing future achieving community residents urban design radical plan form large scale new city attracted international attention early phases city include work celebrated architects including sir richard lord norman foster john winter martin richardson corporation attracted talented young architects led young charismatic walker strongly modernist designs featured regularly magazines architectural design architects journal strongly committed inspired german american architect van der developed strand advance wider adoption commercial post architectural style 1980s tradition sewage works walker regarded finest achievement shopping building designed stuart christopher tradition ran alongside exemplified scheme close designed historic stretch high street modern retail facility offices car park city forest original development corporation design concept aimed forest city planted millions trees nursery following years urban area million trees following winding development corporation lavish landscapes grid roads major parks transferred parks trust independent non profit charity separate municipal authority intended resist pressures build parks time parks trust endowed portfolio commercial properties income pays green spaces city wide maintenance model attracted international attention public art development corporation ambitious public art programme works commissioned extant programme strands populist involved local community works famous liz concrete cows group concrete cows unofficial logo city tradition abstract art circle light hanging arcade central shopping centre demographics unusually new town arrived bias favour private sector investment owner occupied homes political climate determined previous new towns mainly controlled labour governments mainly built conservative years development plans january deputy prime minister john announced united_kingdom government expansion plans proposed population double years appointed english partnerships taking planning controls away borough council making statutory planning authority turn established subsidiary partnership manage programme locally proposal phase expansion moves away grid squares large scale mixed use higher density developments based assumptions public transport private car usage 1960s census population districts borough designation open university moves new headquarters hall 1970s section new city grid road system street stables presents concert major housing scheme hill census population future borough population designated area campus opens major grid road street connects new work begins shopping building centre balancing lake lake finished borough created district office building central court opens concert bowl washington margaret opens shopping building 1980s opens bypassing street peace dedicated central library census population borough population designated area central railway station officially open balancing lake ready road connects motorway junction general hospital opens renamed university hospital britain cinema point opens energy world new county court crest hotel holiday inn school closes marina opens balancing lake grand union years 1990s census population borough population designated area church christ cornerstone completed university opens campus closes development corporation wound replaced commission new towns kingston district centre prison district centre national hockey stadium opens borough authority theatre art gallery new visitor centre 2000s opens census population borough population designated area moves england national hockey stadium renamed stadium opens hub developments completed western end town centre university centre opens 2010s england national hockey stadium demolished construction begins network rail national centre shopping centre grade listed international festival launched census population borough network rail national centre quadrant officially opens