history silk production silk originates china culture 4th millennium bce silk remained confined china silk road opened point later half millennium bce china maintained virtual monopoly silk production thousand years confined clothing silk number applications including writing color silk worn important guide social class dynasty silk cultivation spread japan byzantines managed obtain eggs able begin cultivation arabs began manufacture silk time result spread chinese silk exports important maintained dominance luxury silk market brought silk production western_europe particular italian states saw economic boom silk rest europe changes manufacturing techniques began place middle ages devices spinning wheel appearing 16th century france joined italy developing successful silk trade efforts nations develop silk industry unsuccessful industrial revolution changed europe silk industry innovations spinning cotton cotton cheaper manufacture caused expensive silk production mainstream new weaving technologies increased efficiency production developed silk epidemic diseases caused production fall especially france industry recovered 20th century japan china regained earlier role silk production china world largest producer silk rise new reduced prevalence silk world silk rare luxury good important early history appearance silk earliest evidence silk found sites culture county silk found cut half sharp knife dating bce species identified fragments primitive seen sites culture dated bce earliest example silk fabric wrapping body child fabric comes site silk found culture site dating bce fragments recovered royal tombs dynasty bce later chinese lost secret japanese later indians cultures discovered silk allusions fabric old testament known western asia biblical times scholars believe starting 2nd century bce chinese established commercial network aimed silk west silk example persian court king iii alexander great conquered empire silk spread rapidly possible exception japan production remained exclusively chinese myths legends writings chinese tradition 27th century bce silk worm fell tea cup empress wishing extract drink year old girl began thread idea having observed life silk worm recommendation husband yellow emperor began entourage art raising silk worms point girl goddess silk chinese mythology silk eventually left china heir princess promised prince probably occurred early 1st century princess refusing fabric loved finally break imperial ban silk worm silk exported foreign countries great amounts remained secret chinese carefully guarded consequently peoples invented wildly varying accounts source incredible fabric classical antiquity romans great cloth convinced chinese took fabric tree leaves belief affirmed elder notably elder knew better speaking silk wrote natural history like spiders luxurious clothing material women called silk silk usage ancient medieval china china silk worm farming originally restricted women women employed silk making industry saw development luxury product useless silk provoked high society rules limit use members imperial family approximately millennium right wear silk reserved emperor highest dignitaries silk time sign great wealth appearance appearance silk like shape structure light angle time silk gradually extended classes chinese society silk began decorative means luxurious ways musical instruments fishing bow making peasants right wear silk dynasty paper greatest discoveries ancient china beginning 3rd century bce paper sizes materials silk exception silk workers making paper 2nd century bce silk bamboo wheat rice straw differently paper silk type luxury paper researchers found early example writing silk paper tomb died material certainly expensive practical bamboo slips subjects including medicine maps written silk discovered han dynasty silk progressively valuable right simply material pay government officials compensate citizens particularly worthy token estimate price products according certain weight gold length silk cloth monetary standard china addition bronze coins wealth silk brought china stirred neighboring peoples beginning 2nd century bce regularly provinces han chinese years silk common offering emperor tribes exchange peace silk described chapter planting western han surviving calendar silk production eastern han document known works silk han period lost military tell soldiers paid plain silk circulated currency han times soldiers traded silk came gates great wall sell horses millennium silk remained principal diplomatic gift emperor china neighbors use silk important silk soon constituted principal chinese script broadly speaking use silk regulated precise code china example dynasty song dynasty imposed use particular colors according different functions society silk began series accessories belts piece fabric displaying dozens animals real mythical fashion accessories remained associated particular position specific warriors judges nobles religious use women high chinese society codified practices silk added countless motifs 17th century work gives description motif golden lotus having pattern double folded adorned savage landscape flowers roses dress right figure floral border buttons form bees chinese silk making process chinese silk commerce numerous archaeological discoveries silk luxury material appreciated foreign countries opening silk road chinese example silk found valley kings tomb dating bce greeks romans began speak people silk term designate inhabitants far kingdom china according certain historians roman contact silk governor syria battle near said surprised brilliance banners fled silk road west opened chinese 2nd century main road left going north south desert arid world crossing mountains employed method exchange silk merchants generally large including people carrying merchandise linked coasts mediterranean year travel south second route went burma india rejoining northern route long conquest egypt bce regular commerce began romans asia marked roman appetite silk cloth coming far_east romans roman senate tried vain prohibit wearing silk economic reasons moral ones import chinese silk resulted vast amounts gold leaving rome extent silk clothing perceived sign late middle ages trade land routes silk road declined sea trade increased silk road significant factor development china india ancient egypt persia ancient rome silk certainly major trade item china goods traded technologies religions plague black death traveled silk routes goods traded included silk fine slaves china traded silk india traded ivory precious stones pepper roman empire exported gold silver fine wine term silk road implies continuous journey traveled route traversed end end goods transported series agents varying routes traded markets oasis towns main traders antiquity indian traders 5th 8th century traders afterward arab persian traders spread production silk known europe asia china able near monopoly silk production monopoly defended imperial decree condemning death attempting export eggs year japanese expedition succeed taking eggs young chinese girls forced teach captors art techniques subsequently introduced japan larger scale frequent diplomatic exchanges 8th century 9th centuries starting 4th century bce silk began reach world merchants exchange gold ivory horses precious stones roman empire silk monetary standard estimating value different products greece appreciated high quality chinese goods efforts plant trees breed mediterranean basin persia controlled trade silk destined europe byzantium greek word according people silk obtained greek word gave rise latin und ultimately old english middle english silk according story byzantine emperor obtained eggs sent monks central asia able eggs hidden rods bamboo monks care eggs hatched arrival byzantine church able emperor intention developing large silk industry eastern roman empire techniques learned legal monopoly fabric empire continued import silk major urban centres mediterranean byzantine techniques result manufacturing process instead meticulous attention paid execution decorations weaving techniques taken egypt appeared 5th century arabs widening conquests spread shores mediterranean leading development north_africa sicily interactions byzantine muslim silk weaving centers levels quality cities identification date rare surviving examples difficult chinese lost monopoly silk production able establish major silk supplier dynasty production large scale song dynasty china continued export high quality fabric europe near east silk road start techniques silk production began spread western_europe byzantine emperor focusing efforts second crusade norman king roger sicily attacked important centres byzantine silk production took crops silk production infrastructure deported workers causing norman silk industry flourish sack constantinople fourth crusade brought decline city silk industry left city early 13th century italy developed large domestic silk industry skilled came constantinople chose settle sudden boom silk industry italian state starting 11th 12th centuries jewish greek settlement alongside immigrants neighbouring cities southern italy loss italian trading posts orient import chinese styles drastically declined gaining momentum order satisfy rich powerful demands luxury cities genoa venice florence soon silk europe workshops florence influences silk breeds wild domestic wild produced countries doubt chinese begin production large scale having effective species silk production chinese sources claim existence machine placed large basin hot water silk leave tiny guiding rings wound large thanks backwards forward motion little information exists spinning techniques use china spinning wheel likelihood moved hand known beginning christian era accepted image spinning wheel appears image silk spinning machine powered water wheel dates information known sang agriculture compiled rich pictures descriptions pertaining silk repeatedly claims chinese far superior speaks types leave worker arms free draw origin pedal attributed east asian origins originate 12th 13th centuries examined closely similarities machines drawn dynasty existence silk recorded 2nd century bce innovations allowed creation silk silk medieval world abundant luxury high middle ages saw continued use established techniques silk manufacture changes speak materials tools 10th 12th centuries small changes began appear changes 13th century larger radical short time new began appear cotton particular techniques manufacture known roman times silk remained rare expensive material byzantine greece syria 6th 8th century arabs sicily spain 8th 10th century able supply luxury material greater abundance improved technology 13th century saw changing technology undergo dramatic changes possible england end 18th century advances textile industry driving force advances technology silk occupies privileged place history account start 13th century primitive form silk threads use jean dictionary des handbook types devices doubling machines instruments perfected start 14th century documents use devices complex reel originally developed silk industry multiple uses earliest surviving depiction european spinning wheel panel stained glass cathedral machines appear stained glass cologne possible toothed machine created silk industry allowed warp uniform allowed warp longer length starting end 14th century doubt account devastation caused mid century black death general shift expensive techniques things earlier completely forbidden commonplace low quality wool etc silk industry use water powered mills grew 15th century designed jean saw nearly universal use silk industry france italian silk cloth expensive result cost raw material production costs italy proved unable french fashion continuously demanded lighter expensive materials materials clothing production began locally italian silk long remained prized brilliant colours following example wealthy italian city states era venice florence center luxury textile industry obtained similar function french market king louis decided develop national silk industry face protests conceded moved silk tours industry tours stayed relatively marginal main objective reduce france trade deficit italy caused france lose golden year francis royal charter granted merchants develop silk trade king granted monopoly silk production city starting 16th century capital european silk trade notably producing gaining confidence produced city began abandon original oriental styles favor distinctive style emphasized landscapes thousand workers devoted industry middle 17th century silk industry fed city population 18th 19th centuries experienced boom world war silk shipped north des plantations disappeared working home domestic system silk spinning silk treatment employed people increased income working class spread countries england henry looking develop silk industry opportunity arose hundreds thousands french skilled experts began england escape religious persecution areas including saw high quality silk workshops spring products distinct continental silk largely colors nonetheless british climate prevented england domestic silk trade globally dominant envisioned starting silk industry british colonies america starting reign king james england silk industry colonies large likewise silk introduced numerous countries including mexico brought rarely new silk industries grow significant size silk industrial revolution start industrial revolution start industrial revolution marked massive boom textile industry remarkable technological innovations led cotton industry great_britain early years technological innovation different stages fabric manufacture encouraged innovations example spinning progressed rapidly weaving silk industry gain benefit innovations spinning silk naturally thread making silk silver gold delicate precise process colour needing dedicated shuttle 17th century 18th centuries progress began silk manufacture advances following falcon punched card appeared later improved later joseph marie improved designs falcon introducing revolutionary allowed string punched cards processed correct sequence punched cards direct precursor modern computer gave limited form punched cards carried computers 1970s highly effectiveness mechanism allowed complex designs mass produced immediately denounced workers accused causing unemployment soon vital industry declared public property rewarded pension royalty machine total revolt larger worker uprisings industrial revolution occupied city relinquish bloody repression army led marshal second revolt similar took place decline european silk industry diseases began appear creating epidemic caused caused virus caused eating infected leaves white disease caused fungus epidemic grew massive scale having attacked began trees chemist jean french minister agriculture charged stopping epidemic face help asked louis study disease starting years thought disease changed view measures enacted caused disease decline increase price reduction importance silk 19th century caused decline silk industry europe opening suez_canal silk shortage france reduced price asian silk particularly china japan starting long depression silk production totally hand rapidly disappearing 19th century saw textile industry progress caused advances chemistry synthesis purple synthesis count invented artificial silk opened factory dedicated production artificial silk cost replaced natural silk silk modern times following crisis europe modernization japan world foremost silk producer early 20th century rapidly japan producing percent world raw silk exports shipping port italy managed rebound crisis france unable europe saw french italian agricultural workers leave silk growing lucrative factory work raw silk imported japan fill void asian countries raw materials raw silk progressively began export finished second world war silk supplies japan cut western countries forced find synthetic products replacing silk war silk able regain markets lost remained expensive luxury product postwar japan improvements technology market policy world foremost raw silk position held 1970s continued rise importance synthetic economy contributed decline japan silk industry longer net silk recent economic reforms people republic china world largest silk producer produced tonnes world production followed india tonnes japanese production marginal tonnes chinese silk production went effort raise prices reminiscent earlier shortages december general_assembly united_nations proclaimed international year natural raise profile silk natural


madagascar plan madagascar plan proposal nazi german government relocate jewish population europe island madagascar head jewish department ministry foreign affairs german government proposed idea june shortly fall france proposal called handing control madagascar french colony germany french surrender terms idea polish jews madagascar investigated polish government task force sent evaluate island potential determined families accommodated families estimates efforts nazis encourage emigration jewish population germany world war partially successful idea jews madagascar revived nazi government recommended june madagascar available destination jews europe adolf_hitler approval adolf released memorandum august calling million jews year years island governed police state assumed jews harsh conditions plan implemented plan viable british naval blockade postponed axis lost battle britain september permanently shelved commencement final solution functioned important psychological step origins late 1800s early 1900s number plans european jews madagascar plan paul scholar suggested evacuating european jews madagascar work german writings members movement seriously debated british programme russian jews immediate danger ongoing settled today kenya plan later rejected congress adherents split main movement continued search location jews settle create state autonomous area idea jewish madagascar promoted british henry hamilton arnold cooperation french polish government commissioned task force examine possibility polish jews island head commission felt island accommodate families jewish members group estimated fewer families safely accommodated nazi_germany racism basic nazi party nazi government discrimination violent attacks jews began immediately seizure power violence economic pressure nazis encourage jews voluntarily leave country germany jews emigrated united_states argentina united_kingdom palestine countries nazi leadership seized idea remaining german jews overseas barren lands viewed appropriate destinations prevent new location memorandum hitler concerning treatment alien population east declared hoped term jew completely eliminated massive immigration jews africa colony planning begins initial discussions began place nazi alfred von cent jews german jurisdiction date polish nationals polish ambassador germany expressed country reluctance polish government decreed polish passport holders permitted return specific conditions raised matter french foreign minister december year expressed french reluctance receive german jews measures taken prevent arrival france contemplating jews considered madagascar appropriate destination planning german madagascar formally began recently appointed head jewish department ministry foreign affairs june superior diplomat martin memorandum fate jews desirable solution jews europe said briefly considered palestine destination deemed unsuitable considered undesirable strong jewish state created middle_east palestine time british control recommended french colony madagascar available destination jews europe terms surrender france germans invaded jews noted hostages ensure future good behaviour racial comrades america plan developed iii subject foreign minister simultaneously developing similar scheme june hitler spoke plan italian leader possibility pursued defeat france learned plan chief main security office insisted relinquish future responsibility plan office appointed january oversee jewish evacuation german occupied territory jewish question adolf head sub department dealt jewish affairs evacuation soon involved august released memorandum titled main security office madagascar project calling million jews year years abandoning idea retaining jews europe emphasized control aspects program called colony german control self governing jewish administration plain intended control oversee aspect life island govern police state nazi including foreign office security police pinned hopes plan chance solve jewish problem emigration particular frank governor general government occupied portion poland viewed forced madagascar efforts poland july poland cancelled construction warsaw halted appeared unnecessary planning continues envisioned founding european bank ultimately european jewish assets pay plan bank play role madagascar rest world jews allowed interact financially outsiders office year plan oversee administration plan economics additionally roles government agencies foreign affairs ministry negotiate terms french madagascar germany play crafting treaties deal europe jews information department joseph ministry public enlightenment propaganda control flow information home abroad division chief oversee transportation undertake expulsion jews europe govern island police state nazis expected invasion united_kingdom operation sea lion british merchant fleet transport jews madagascar expected harsh conditions die hands plan abandoned failure defeat royal_air_force battle britain proposed invasion postponed indefinitely september meant british merchant fleet germany disposal use evacuations planning madagascar proposal stalled late august hold meeting ministry begin drawing panel experts consolidate plan responded likewise memorandum approved establishment warsaw cities poland resumed august hitler continued mention plan february idea permanently shelved british_empire forces took island france battle madagascar november control transferred free french end hitler asked draft new plan elimination jews europe passed task draft proposed jews soviet_union poland later general plan east prepared professor called entire population occupied eastern_europe soviet_union siberia use slave labour murdered soviet defeat axis failure battle moscow entry united_states war december hitler resolved jews europe immediately war end sight transporting masses people combat zone impossible decided jews killed camps set occupied areas poland total number jews murdered resulting holocaust estimated million people explanatory notes


iran affair iran affair persian spanish referred iran scandal political scandal united_states occurred second term reagan administration senior administration officials secretly facilitated sale arms iran subject arms hoped secure release hostages fund nicaragua amendment funding government prohibited congress scandal began operation free seven american hostages held lebanon paramilitary group iranian ties connected army guardians islamic revolution planned israel ship weapons iran united_states resupply israel receive israeli payment iranian recipients promised power achieve release hostages large modifications plan devised lieutenant colonel oliver north national security council late portion proceeds weapon sales diverted fund anti anti communist rebels nicaragua president ronald_reagan supporter cause evidence disputed authorized diversion money raised iranian arms sales notes taken defense secretary december indicate reagan aware potential hostage transfers iran sale hawk tow missiles moderate elements country wrote reagan said answer charges couldn answer charge big strong president reagan passed chance free hostages weapon sales revealed november reagan appeared national television stated weapons transfers occurred united_states trade arms hostages investigation large volumes documents relating scandal destroyed withheld investigators reagan administration officials march reagan returned nationally televised address taking responsibility actions unaware admitting began strategic opening iran deteriorated implementation trading arms hostages investigations ensued including congress person reagan appointed tower commission found evidence president reagan knew extent multiple programs ultimately sale weapons iran deemed criminal offense charges brought individuals support charges later dropped administration refused certain documents indicted conspirators faced lesser charges instead end fourteen administration officials indicted including secretary defense convictions resulted vacated appeal rest indicted convicted pardoned final days presidency george bush vice president time affair background based honduras waged guerrilla war national liberation revolutionary government nicaragua direct funding illegal amendment given legislative amendments aimed limiting government assistance funding ran july october total ban placed effect violation amendment senior officials reagan administration continued secretly arm train provide arms iran operation called enterprise ironically military aid reinstated congressional consent october month scandal broke arms sales iran michael consultant national security adviser robert requested assistance israeli prime minister help sale arms iran having designated state sponsor terrorism january iran midst iran iraq war find western nations willing supply weapons idea plan israel ship weapons identified islamic republic way aiding supposedly moderate politically influential faction regime believed seeking united_states transaction united_states israel weapons receiving monetary benefits israeli government required sale arms meet high level approval united_states government convinced government approved sale israel obliged agreeing sell arms president reagan entered naval hospital cancer surgery president recovering hospital met told representatives israel contacted national security agency pass confidential information reagan later described moderate iranian faction opposed anti american policies according reagan sought establish quiet relationship united_states establishing formal relationships death aging reagan account told reagan demonstrate seriousness offered persuade release seven hostages met israeli reagan claimed allowed believed establishing relations strategically located country preventing soviet_union beneficial reagan claims arms sales moderate faction iran report states arms sales iran control following israeli meeting israel requested permission united_states sell small number tow missiles iran claiming aid moderate iranian faction demonstrating group actually high level connections government reagan initially rejected plan israel sent information united_states showing moderate opposed terrorism fought having reason trust reagan approved transaction meant israel iran united_states israel autobiography american life reagan claimed deeply committed securing release hostages compassion supposedly motivated support arms initiatives president requested moderate capability free hostages held following arms supplied iran august tow anti tank missiles september november hawk anti aircraft missiles february february hawk spare parts august hawk october arms sale august israel sent american tow missiles iran arms dealer named subsequently september tow missiles delivered september following second delivery reverend benjamin released captors islamic organization modifications plans robert resigned december citing wanted spend time family replaced admiral john days later reagan met advisors white_house new plan introduced called slight change arms transactions instead weapons going moderate iranian group moderate iranian army leaders weapons delivered israel air hostages held released israel continue united_states weapons opposed secretary state george secretary defense plan authorized reagan stated trading arms hostages negotiating terrorists retired national security advisor flew london meet attempt persuade iranian use influence release hostages arms transactions occurred plan rejected day resignation oliver north military aide united_states national security council proposed new plan selling arms iran included major adjustments instead selling arms israel sale direct portion proceeds paramilitary fighters guerrilla warfare elected government north proposed million contracted arms broker added members favor north plan large support authorized president reagan went effect refused buy arms inflated price excessive imposed north eventually relented february tow missiles shipped country november additional shipments miscellaneous weapons parts sale weapons iran funding attempted stated administration policy amendment administration officials argued regardless congress restricting funds affair president case administration carry seeking alternative means funding private entities foreign governments funding foreign country north secretary hall numbers north swiss bank account number swiss businessman suddenly million richer alerted authorities mistake money eventually returned sultan interest january john proposed president modification approved plan instead negotiating moderate iranian political group united_states negotiate moderate members iranian government told reagan important connections iranian government hope release hostages reagan approved plan february weapons shipped directly iran united_states oliver north plan knowledge president reagan hostages released retired national security advisor conducted international voyage bringing gift bible having inscription ronald_reagan according george cave cake baked shape key howard described cake joke north met directly moderate iranian political group sought establish relations attempt free remaining hostages meeting failed members requested concessions israel withdrawal heights united_states rejected subsequent dealings late july released hostage father lawrence head catholic relief services lebanon following william head cia requested united_states authorize sending shipment small missile parts iranian military forces way expressing gratitude justified request stating contact iranian government lose face executed hostages killed reagan authorized shipment ensure potential events occur september october americans frank reed joseph edward tracy abducted lebanon separate terrorist group referred simply joe popular american toy reasons abduction unknown speculated kidnapped replace freed americans original hostage david later released captors promised release remaining release happened discovery scandal leak senior official army guardians islamic revolution magazine ash exposed arrangement november public reporting weapons hostages deal operation discovered guns corporate air services downed nicaragua eugene captured authorities surviving plane crash initially alleged press conference soil max worked central intelligence agency later said know iranian government confirmed ash story days story published president reagan appeared national television oval office november stating purpose send signal united_states prepared replace animosity iran new relationship time undertook initiative clear iran oppose forms international terrorism condition progress relationship significant step iran indicated use influence lebanon secure release hostages held scandal compounded oliver north destroyed hid documents november november north trial secretary hall testified extensively helping north alter remove official united_states national security council documents white_house according new_york_times documents government jam north explanation destroying documents protect lives individuals involved iran operations years trial north public national security archive public citizen sued office independent counsel freedom information act trial north testified november witnessed destroy signed copy presidential covert action finding sought authorize cia participation november hawk missile shipment iran attorney general admitted november profits weapons sales iran available assist rebels nicaragua day john resigned president reagan fired oliver north replaced frank december veil secret wars cia journalist bob chronicles role cia transfer funds iran arms sales spearheaded oliver north according director cia william admitted february aware diversion funds controversial admission occurred hospitalized stroke according wife unable communicate william died day congress began public hearings iran independent counsel lawrence later wrote independent counsel obtained documentary evidence showing knew approved diversion direct testimony linking early knowledge diversion came oliver north tower commission november president reagan announced creation special review board look matter following day appointed senator john tower secretary state national security adviser serve members presidential commission took effect december known tower commission main objectives commission circumstances surrounding iran matter case studies reveal strengths weaknesses operation national security council system stress manner system served different presidents inception tower commission presidential commission review evaluate national security council president reagan appeared tower commission december answer questions involvement affair asked role authorizing arms deals stated later appeared stating autobiography american life reagan acknowledges authorizing shipments israel report published tower commission delivered president february commission interviewed witnesses scheme including reagan arms trade page report comprehensive released criticizing actions oliver north john determined president reagan knowledge extent program especially diversion funds argued president ought better control national security council staff report heavily criticized reagan properly supervising subordinates aware actions major result tower commission consensus reagan listened national security advisor placing power hands chair congressional committees investigating iran affair democratic controlled united_states congress issued report november stating president know national security advisers congressional report wrote president bore ultimate responsibility wrongdoing aides administration exhibited secrecy deception disdain law read central remaining question role president iran affair critical point documents north death leave record incomplete aftermath reagan expressed regret situation nationally televised address oval office march speeches reagan spoken american people directly months amidst scandal president reagan told american people reason update scandal reason haven spoken deserve truth frustrating waiting felt improper come reports possibly erroneous statements corrected creating doubt confusion took responsibility acts committed let responsibility actions administration angry activities undertaken knowledge activities disappointed served answer american people behavior finally president stated previous trade arms hostages incorrect months ago told american people trade arms hostages heart best intentions tell true facts evidence tell tower board reported began strategic opening iran deteriorated implementation trading arms hostages runs counter beliefs administration policy original strategy mind day reagan role transactions definitively known unclear exactly reagan knew arms sales motivated desire save hostages oliver north wrote ronald_reagan knew approved great deal went iranian initiative private efforts behalf received regular detailed doubt told use approved enthusiastically notes defense secretary indicate president aware potential hostages transfers iran sale hawk tow missiles told moderate elements iran notes taken december record reagan said answer charges couldn answer charge sic big strong president reagan passed chance free hostages republican written report congressional committees investigating iran affair concluded question dispute precisely level chose follow operation details doubt president set policy nicaragua left subordinates free implement domestically scandal precipitated drop president reagan popularity approval ratings saw largest single drop president history november according new_york_times cbs news poll president reagan nicknamed critics survived scandal january poll recording approval rating highest recorded departing president time internationally damage severe wrote willingness engage concessions iran signaled adversaries hostage taking extremely useful instrument political financial concessions west undermined credibility criticism states principles negotiation concession terrorists demands iran scandal executed allegedly activities unrelated scandal video confession numerous charges observers find coincidence leak subsequent prosecution highly suspicious secretary defense indicted counts count justice june received pardon george bush december tried robert national security adviser convicted evidence plea bargain given years probation later pardoned president george bush assistant secretary state convicted evidence plea bargain given years probation later pardoned president george bush chief cia central american task force convicted evidence sentenced year probation later pardoned president george bush george chief covert cia convicted charges pardoned president george bush sentencing oliver north member national security council convicted accepting illegal congressional inquiry destruction documents ruling overturned granted immunity hall oliver north secretary given immunity prosecution charges conspiracy destroying documents exchange testimony scott liaison oliver north given immunity prosecution charges conspiracy destroying documents exchange testimony national security advisor john convicted counts conspiracy justice government alteration destruction evidence panel circuit overturned convictions november vote supreme_court refused hear case cia senior official indicted november seven counts false statements relating november shipment iran pardoned trial president george bush richard air_force major general involved arms transfers iran diversion funds pleaded guilty november making false statements congress sentenced years probation plea bargain agreed provide testimony exchange dismissal remaining criminal charges albert businessman pleaded guilty november salary north buying fence north money enterprise set foreign companies iran addition swiss company lake resources inc storing money arms sales iran guilty stealing government property given years probation fine lake resources ordered dissolve oliver north john indicted multiple charges march north indicted counts found guilty jury counts convictions vacated appeal grounds north fifth amendment rights violated indirect use testimony congress given grant immunity convicted counts conspiracy lying congress justice altering destroying documents investigation convictions overturned appeal similar grounds arthur served chief counsel senate iran scandal independent counsel lawrence chose try north total dozen people investigated office election campaign vice president bush denied knowledge iran affair saying loop diaries included people know fully details repeatedly refused discuss incident won election book published israeli journalist terrorism expert asserts bush personally secretly affair adviser israeli prime minister bush visit israel incoming president fact killed mysterious chartered airplane crash mexico december given rise numerous conspiracy theories writes december nearing end term office defeated bill_clinton previous month bush pardoned administration officials george robert hometown indiana street renamed john street bill minister stole street sign protest iran affair claimed holding ransom million reference money given iran transfer later arrested confined prison making noted howard person imprisoned result iran scandal reports documents 100th congress formed joint committee congressional committees investigating iran affair held hearings published iran investigation joint hearings senate select committee secret military assistance iran opposition house select committee investigate covert arms transactions iran closed executive session heard classified testimony north published format joint committee final report report congressional committees investigating iran affair supplemental minority additional views november records committee national archives non public testimony heard house foreign affairs committee house permanent select committee intelligence senate select committee intelligence found congressional record bodies senate intelligence committee produced reports preliminary inquiry sale arms iran possible diversion funds resistance february relevant documents withheld congressional committees investigating iran affair june tower commission report published report president special review board february published tower commission report books isbn office independent counsel investigation produced interim reports congress final report published final report independent counsel iran matters records available national archives


early modern period history roughly spanning years following period archaic introduced historians christopher term describes phase increasing trade links cultural exchange characterized period immediately preceding advent called modern 19th century distinguished modern basis method managing global trade level information exchange period marked trade arrangements east india company shift western_europe rise larger scale conflicts powerful nations thirty year war rise new particularly slave trade triangular trade possible europe advantage resources western hemisphere transfer plant animal crops epidemic diseases associated alfred concept exchange played central role process trade communications involved vast group including european muslim indian southeast asian chinese merchants particularly indian_ocean region transition modern marked complex global network based technological exchange led significant collapse cultural exchange description 17th 18th centuries saw rise western world system period involved increased interaction western_europe systems formed nations east asia middle_east period governments traditional systems individual nations world regions religions new world order global trade political alliances historian called product contemporary world product distant past according remains incomplete process promotes advance geographical scope exhibit strong regional bias future direction speed predicted confidence certainly inner logic networks product great kings warriors searching wealth honor fabulous lands religious merchant princes held matured aspects archaic importance cities migrants labor marked main political economic developments state systems growth finance services pre industrial manufacturing number states time began strengthen connections territory taxation sovereignty despite continuing monopoly citizens process time heavily focused material world labor needed production period time improved efficiency transactions sector generation goods sugar tobacco tea coffee unlike archaic possessed improvement economic management spread expansion transportation created complex set connection west east expansion trade routes led green revolution based plantation system slave africa pre modern era early forms beginning affect world system marking period historian called archaic world system leading powers neighboring cultures political system war nations dominating world trade major archaic roman empire united greater mediterranean area western_europe long running series military political campaigns expanding roman system government roman values areas conquered areas provinces empire roman military outposts provinces cities structures designed best roman architects spread rome modern way life absorbing traditions beliefs native cultures nationalist ideology propaganda supporting roman army military success bravery strengthened roman empire spread western_europe mediterranean area roman empire built cities effective naval fleets ships organized system paved roads facilitated fast easy travel better networking trade neighboring nations provinces han dynasty han bce chinese government united powerful china began successfully endeavors neighboring nations east asia han china peaceful tributary system focused mainly diplomatic trade relations growth han empire facilitated trade cultural exchange virtually known world reached asia chinese spread asia inner asia rome early dynasty saw china responsive foreign influence dynasty great empire overseas trade india middle_east grew rapidly china east southern coasts distant regions gradually chief areas foreign trade song dynasty china navy powerful thanks technological improvements navigation china maritime commerce increased china power began decline 16th century rulers subsequent importance china trade sea power rulers let china naval dominance grip trade european powers stepped portugal technological advances naval architecture weaponry navigation took trade subdued china navy european age european beginning china retained power areas trade changes trade systems significant differences archaic switch inter nation trading trading 12th 13th centuries common trade items foreign rare different cultures popular trade archaic involved european merchants sailing areas india china order purchase luxury items silk traders pre modern period traded drugs certain foods sugar cane crops items drugs food traded valued health function human body common trade cotton rice tobacco shift trade emergence modern international order development early capitalist expansion began atlantic 17th century spread world atlantic slave trade main reasons rise rise slave trade specifically atlantic slave trade use slaves prior 15th century minor practice labor force crucial development products goods labor shortage use slaves rose settlement island plantation centers began trade relations kingdom brought west central africa atlantic slave trade portuguese maintained export slaves atlantic port maintained early 16th century portuguese settlement brazilian allowed opening american slave market slaves shipped directly america europeans took use atlantic slave trade half century european slave ships took slaves peninsula slave owners europe seen wealthy families high costs slaves cheap peasant labor available agricultural uses implies use african american slaves plantation work arose atlantic islands continental europe approximately million survived atlantic crossing large slave population demand production europeans found cheaper import crops goods produce wars fought 17th century slave trading companies areas economically dependent slaves west india company gained slaves wars specifically portugal captains captured enemy ships captured sold new world west india company selling slaves new world opened trading posts north_america dutch opened manhattan island west india company opened trading post caribbean company carrying slaves colony new use slaves benefits economies productions areas trade rise coffee tea chocolate europe led demand production sugar percent slaves solely labor intensive production crop slave trade beneficial trade constant sailing allowed investors buy small shares ships time states scholars argue slave trade essential wealth nations trade production investment ships nautical technology catalyst complex trade networks developed modern plantation economy consequently rise slavery increasing rise crops produced traded specifically rise plantation economy rise plantations main reason trade plantations countries mainly america grow raw materials needed manufacture goods traded plantation economy grew trade plantation economy mainly tobacco cotton sugar cane rubber tobacco second half 16th century europeans interest new world revolved gold silver tobacco european lack interest tobacco fact controlled tobacco industry long controlled supply need incorporation european commercial capitalism trading tobacco new high popular demand 17th century rise plantations tobacco began monetary standard term cash crop originated export tobacco colonies united_states specifically virginia london showed fortunes english enterprise virginia tobacco shipped london pounds shipment tobacco colony currency maryland pounds tobacco london english success production tobacco caught attention europeans specifically martinique guadeloupe french islands islands soon wealthy tobacco production roughly devoted cash crops grown islands tobacco cultivation tobacco production saw severe depressions later years profits sugar according account exports percent island export value sugar percent accounted tobacco sugar cane prominent source trade production sugar crop sugar cane original habitat sugar india taken planted islands reaching people peninsula migrated atlantic_ocean 16th century plantations sugar started new world marking great stage migration cane west conflict transporting sugar raw form sugar associated commerce act came play act center industry venice center middle ages making chief traders sugar spanish portuguese held sugar cane fields america supplied venice 17th century england dominated venice center sugar leadership maintained rise french industry sugar 17th century considered luxury half 17th century sugar produced mass quantities making available mass english people turn events sugar crop special occasion daily meals hostilities war differed modern practices methods managing global trade finances commercial innovation shift large nations western_europe nations began competing effort achieve world domination rise larger scale conflicts powerful nations expanding wealth led nations taking control territory moving products accumulated wealth conquered regions sovereign country conflicts occurred world european powers found far equipped handle pressures war quote christopher gives better interpretation advantages stating europeans better killing people savage european ideological wars 17th century created links war finance commercial innovation extended gains gave continent advantage world conflicts broke 18th century western european warfare complicated expensive partly amphibious battle tested nations fought needs reality success increased european advancement global market following sections shed light history key engagements war religious commercial impact greatly felt world british victories anglo dutch wars led dominance commercial shipping naval power stage set future conflicts britain foreign nations domestic frustration north american continent french indian war fought european powers france england led british victory resulted continued dominance maritime enterprise american revolutionary war marked beginning power shift control foreign markets english civil war english civil war battle religious political beliefs economic social war took place broken separate engagements charles supporters experienced periods war resulted king charles parliament called session years reasons dismissal supporters long parliament tried install resolutions english law called consequences individuals consent parliament labeled enemies england stated innovations religion result tag policies aimed charles inferior leader supporter catholicism prompted revolt eventually led trial execution charles treason final stage english civil war came lasted time king charles_ii son charles led supporters parliament battle worcester took place marked end english civil war charles_ii royalist forces defeated leader oliver war began england different directions religious political beliefs economic social war established british monarch permitted rule having approved parliament anglo dutch war anglo dutch war naval conflict england dutch republic competition commercial maritime focused mainly east indies navigation act forbade import goods transported english vessels vessels country origin policy aimed dutch fighting broke small skirmish dutch english fleets war officially began july fighting continued years battle referred end fighting war took place july treaty westminster signed april ending war dutch republic respect navigation act compensate england war french indian war french indian war nations great_britain france numerous native american nations allied french indian war north american theater seven years war fought europe time growing population british territory north_america forced expansion west met resistance french native american allies french forces began entering british territory building numerous forts preparation defend newly acquired land beginning war favored french native american allies able defeat british forces time british able hold opposition pittsburgh center fighting french indian war geographical location center rivers unite ohio location present day pittsburgh provided advantage naval control ownership point provided naval dominance expanded economic ventures enabling shipments sent received relative ease french british forces claimed ownership region french installing fort british fort fort established french forces abandoned destroyed fort french indian war came end british forces able secure quebec montreal french february treaty paris signed french forced surrender territory north_america giving england control way mississippi_river effects war heavily felt north american british colonies england imposed taxes colonists order control newly acquired territory tensions soon war independence shift power dominance economic world american revolutionary war american revolutionary war war nation england colonies north american continent war lasted began battle bunker hill british soldiers killed wounded half entire british_army present engagement american casualties far severe totaling estimated killed wounded british able ground push newly formed continental_army city boston soon fell british forces battle bunker hill battles lexington concord april saw british troops begin assault american colonies british troops searching supply depots met heavy resistance british forces turned concord forces july declaration independence signed second continental congress officially declared colonies north_america sovereign nation free england rule congress permitted funding continental_army instance american political body handling military affairs british dominating beginning war holding continental regulars militia gaining vast amounts territory north_america tide began turn colonists major victory british forces battle victory rest war pushed forth british colonists alliance france american colonists leveled playing field aided final push defeat british_army navy american french forces able trap escaping southern british_army ending major fighting revolution treaty paris signed recognized american colonies independent nation newly formed united_states undergo numerous transitions economic military powers world treaties agreements trading time period regulated europe economic standpoint relied east india company east india company number enterprises formed western_europe 17th 18th centuries initially created trade east indies company controlled trading india east southeast_asia key contributors triangular trade connected world triangular trade triangle trade system connect areas world trade traded items goods shipped parts world making triangle trade key global trade triangle trade system run europeans increasing global power europeans sail west african coast trade african kings manufactured goods rifles ammunition slave slaves sent west_indies east_coast north_america labor goods cotton sugar tobacco sent places europe europe use goods trade asian countries tea cloth triangle trade sense agreement established trade routes led greater global integration ultimately contributed control europe gained far global trade came treaties laws regulating act passed regulating affairs company india london treaty ended war austrian succession failed settle commercial struggle england france west_indies africa india treaty attempt regulating trade market expansion regions ultimately unsuccessful time hindered war diseases population growth certain areas corn laws established regulate imports exports grains england restricting trade expansion corn crop laws hindered market economy based import restrictions eventually theory economics prominent allowed improved trade regulations specifically portugal transition modern according marked rise national racism social thinking came relations establishment world economy beginning 1870s global trade cycle started cement nations economies depended previous era effects new world trade cycle lead worldwide world economic describes late period thick range global networks extending world high speed covering components society europe africa asia america contact grown stable echoed modern period shift capital north_atlantic world dominated global system global economy started taking form early 19th century capital highly mobile end 19th century british capital wealth overseas level capital invested overseas nearly doubled germany invested fifth total domestic savings like britain increased wealth early 20th century net foreign investment total domestic savings abroad years prior great war global investments taking steady rise societies able invest thrust domestic savings international investments ability capital development industrial revolution beginnings mechanical production prominent great_britain merchant societies quickly aware potential markets new producers began link new patterns world trade expansion slave production exploitation americas europeans economic network modern period mass production allowed development stronger complex global network trade element european success limitation relative failure asian industrial revolution movement modern marked economic drain capital europe shift culture like capital end filled mobility individuals time filled mutual influence cross cultural historians blame web national agreements cause intensity vast involvement world war expansion worldwide integration influenced new capacities production transportation communication end marked final phase great process regular intensive exploitation complete human population began increase end great end modern population began recover central south_america beginning european imported illnesses decreased indigenous populations varieties central south_america created fertile population forge ahead modern greater population pushed individuals high populated areas spill populous forested grazing lands bring cultivation development lead influx produce production exported trade development lead shift modern development system period marked steady expansion larger states indonesian islands northern settlement individuals easier governments tax develop army labor force create sustainable economy development cultural aspects lead increase peripheral players game stable legal institutions developed late early modern period established economic advances intellectual property rights predominantly england general geographical stability societal improvement shift exchange technological reason modern early 19th century european traveled world accumulate impressive knowledge languages religions customs political orders countries end 19th century europe longer receiving significant technological innovations asia shift global networks developed global networks lead creation new networks leading new production renewed thrust european colonial expansion shift modern slow overlapping interacting mid-19th century goods exchanged continents markets widely developed labor globally integrated modern came movement general expansion socio economic networks elaborate example development establishment free masonry existing trading networks grew capital flows intensified long term unchanged beginning modern period european colonial expansion national societies began regret economic integration attempted limit effects stress transformation modern complex process took place different times different regions involved hold older notions value rarity origins pre modern period leading age economic world wars ended


flight flight act terrorism committed palestinian group occurred october aimed liberation surviving perpetrators munich massacre west german prison airplane seized black september multi flight damascus frankfurt west german authorities complied demand having prisoners released handed airport aircraft flown tripoli hostages released liberated munich attackers granted asylum leader actions west german government criticised israel parties cases combined allegations staged tolerated background olympic hostage crisis aftermath september munich summer olympics fighters palestinian group black september took hostage members israeli olympic team eventually hostages killed initial assault shoot following failed police rescue attempt air base perpetrators survived subsequently arrested held pre trial custody immediate aftermath munich massacre west german authorities concerned drawn arab israeli conflict foreign minister walter october defend actions sides conflict israel ensuing german politics led comparisons munich agreement chancellor change west german attitude arab israeli conflict earlier conservative governments considered pro israel especially mid-1960s day war resulted number arab states breaking diplomatic relations west_germany egypt tunisia restored shortly olympics west german authorities aware high profile prisoners fact group numerous terrorist acts aiming liberation munich attackers feared aircraft national airline israeli counterpart identified likely targets september anonymous letter received claiming imminent prompted federal ministry interior led consider citizens arab states denied boarding flights munich hostage crisis evident attackers aware possible liberation attempts case arrest asked afraid caught german prison leader later killed shoot responded fear death penalty germany brothers liberate note consistency reasons times converted central european time october sunday boeing flight damascus munich frankfurt route aircraft registered originated damascus international airport early morning seven crew members initially passengers international airport people boarded flight citizens unknown arab countries americans german departure delayed hour originally scheduled depart took place minutes later arab passengers threatened blow aircraft explosives hidden class cabin likely smuggled damascus members black september released german prison following fuel stop international airport pilots forced fly munich airport initially intended exchange place aircraft arrived austrian noon evident demands fulfilled time plan changed crew divert instead socialist federal republic yugoslavia airport black september members brought germans pressure time aircraft eventually run fuel word received headquarters cologne chairman boarded corporate owned subsidiary registered flew munich joined mayor police chief interior minister local crisis committee west german governmental response coordinated crisis council comprised vice chancellor foreign minister walter ministers interior transportation recalling failed rescue attempt olympic hostage crisis lack special operations police unit west german authorities quickly decided comply demands black september members transported airport held minister justice ordered arrest warrant issued official emigration papers brought board airplane munich joined plain clothes police officers decided head order directly assist negotiations airplane released prisoners left munich pilot ordered stay inside west german notice german hoped concession jet allowed land turned futile situation aircraft came dangerously close point fuel starvation later called state emergency alleged loss communications munich chairman personally ordered pilot aircraft carrying released munich attackers head land airport acting orders higher authorities consequence legal investigation initiated abandoned shortly minutes black september members arrived airport jet landed time later handing took place happened measures hostages released critical situation yugoslav authorities charge airport complied demands counterparts prevented jet taking realizing plane threatened kill board broken kurt west german consul signed order having authorized allowing jet depart time heading tripoli arrived tripoli international airport hostages finally set free libya countries region mass celebrations erupted liberated munich perpetrators treated heroes right arrival airport press conference held broadcast live world government led allowed munich attackers refuge hiding ignoring demands west german foreign minister trial large scale covert operation dubbed wrath god israel subsequently aim tracked killed reactions german politicians government parties social democrats liberals opposition conservative union parties generally acclaimed non violent outcome reflected public opinion munich attackers having left country risk terrorist acts german targets diminished criticism evolved lack sufficient airport security prevent explosives smuggled passenger employing sky time common certain flights pan israel sharply condemned release munich perpetrators accused west_germany having terrorism prime minister stated following day depressed yesterday insulted human spirit weak helpless surrendered brutal force foreign minister filed official protest note west german government israeli ambassador temporarily called officially allegations west german government involvement immediate aftermath flight number later occasions concerns voiced event staged tolerated west german government order rid murderers security burden wrote israeli newspaper headline disgrace shortly prisoner release arguments frequently brought forth allegations low passenger number male passengers board boeing aircraft type seating capacity surprisingly quick decision having prisoners released purported contacts west german federal intelligence service palestine liberation organization west german trade interests arab countries desire spared future acts terror alleged motives government involvement shortly events surrounding flight accused west_germany speech having opportunity improve relations arab world autobiography munich massacre claims offered million germans prisoner release later years refused repeat elaborate allegation interview head states certain kind agreement west_germany black september oscar winning documentary film day september released deals munich massacre supports thesis flight set organized german government terrorists corresponds remarks aftermath liberation film features interview german counter terrorism expert founding commander calls allegations probably true quoted opinion considerations west german authorities deal hostage situation likely mainly driven desire prevent country focus acts terror investigative journalists german television programme report cited letter munich police chief sent interior ministry days prior flight describes measures taken order accelerate munich attackers preparing trial counter argument accusations pre arranged prisoner release planning communications german encountered hostage crisis cited situation chaotic confusing times lets unlikely scripted operation documentary feature produced attributes non violent outcome chairman consul acted terms orders governmental officials


history poison history poison stretches present day purposes span human existence commonly weapons anti poison allowed progress branches technology sciences poison discovered ancient times ancient tribes hunting tool ensure death prey enemies use poison grew advanced ancient peoples began weapons designed specifically poison later history particularly time roman empire prevalent uses assassination early executed dinner table drinks reported practice common occurrence use fatal substances seen social class nobility use dispose unwanted political economic opponents medieval europe poison popular form killing surfaced widely known stimulated increased availability shops known selling medicinal open public substances traditionally purposes employed sinister ends approximately time middle_east arabs developed form transparent making poison difficult detect poison epidemic prevalent parts asia time centuries variety harmful uses continued increase means advanced parallel modern world intentional poisoning common middle ages common concern risk accidental poisoning everyday substances products uses increased considerably modern world cleaning solutions nonetheless poison continues hunting tool remote parts developing countries including africa south_america asia origins poison archaeological findings prove ancient mankind conventional weapons axes clubs later swords sought subtle destructive means causing death achieved poison grooves storing holding found hunting weapons tools showing early humans discovered varying applied weapons speculate use existence strange substances kept secret important higher ranked members tribe clan seen greater power given birth concept stereotypical medicine man witch doctor use danger poison realized apparent king ancient state northern lived constant fear assassinated poison hard working pioneer search cure position power able test criminals facing execution possible paranoid point administered daily amounts attempt immune eventually discovered formula combined small portions dozens best known time named kept secret kingdom invaded great took rome defeated notes medicinal plants taken romans translated latin elder describes different describes blood duck found certain district supposed live poisonous food blood duck preparation fed poisonous plants suffered harm india indian surgeon defined stages slow poisoning slow poisoning mentions use traditional substances counter effects poisoning poisoned weapons ancient india war tactics ancient india references poison verse sanskrit reads translates waters wells mixed poison known adviser prime minister emperor suggested employing means secret use weapons poison political gain urged detailed precautions assassination food elaborate ways detect poison addition death penalty violations royal frequently administered use poison egypt unlike records egyptian knowledge use dated approximately believed earliest known egyptian studied properties poisonous plants according early records thought come knowledge elements copper crude lead mentioned thought master manipulate poison retrieved said poisoned hearing demise prior death said sent act guinea pigs test different including tree seed spoke mineral mixed produced fiery poison described poison disappearing water giving clear solution speculates fiery poison unidentified mineral having relation unidentified mineral writings rome roman times poisoning carried dinner table common eating drinking area uncommon happening early self reasons class social order writer describes poisoning members upper class nobles rome roman emperor known favored use relatives hiring personal preferred poison said predecessor allegedly poisoned mushrooms alternatively poison herbs accounts way died vary greatly doctor infamous accused possibly administrator fatal substance final wife considered likely arranged murder administered poison report died prolonged suffering following single dose evening meal recovered somewhat poisoned feather poison pushed throat helping poisoned considered murderer ambitious son suspicious later imperial asia despite negative effects poison evident times found poison time hated general public example found works iranian born persian physician philosopher scholar writer secret secrets long list chemical compounds minerals man alcohol use anti person suggested mercury discoveries relating mercury called derived cure described referred proved effective treatment mercury poisonous nature ability penetrate skin allowing eliminate disease india troubled 14th 15th centuries saw invasions women practiced custom literally taking life sons brothers husbands faced certain death battle practiced warrior class avoid fate slavery rape slaughter hands invading forces nazi poison nazi war leader kill night supposed hanged trials adolf_hitler taken bit capsule shot right temple shortly fall berlin wife present day late 20th century increasing number products everyday life proved poisonous risk poisoned lies accidental factor poison induced taken accident poisoning 4th common cause death young people accidental common children years old hospital emergency facilities enhanced compared half 20th century available found commonly known shown table poison exists entity today popular form conducting murder past times probably wider range ways kill people factors taken consideration recent deaths poisoning russian alexander lethal radiation poisoning uses today poison wider variety purposes example poison rid unwanted kill chemicals known known form use increased presently approximately million tons industrial year preserve foods building material culture today developing peoples countries certain parts africa south_america asia use poison actual weapon hunting attack africa certain arrow floral ingredients taken plant plant contains cardiac poisoned arrows jungle areas burma malaysia ingredients creation mainly extracted plants genera tree family example java island indonesia surrounding islands juice liquid extracts head arrow target cardiac arrest virtually strike speed extracts affect victim plant based based animals example beetle genus northern desert create slow acting poison useful hunting beetle applied arrow head contents beetle right head plant mixed serves instead plant powder dead


year common year starting sunday link display calendar julian calendar year 14th century midst period known european history late middle ages asia year black plague came troops golden disease affected europeans attacking spreading rest europe central east asia series revolts khan killed uprising began splinter fall revolts china began eventually lead overthrow dynasty indian kingdom won victories muslim north year eastern_europe proclaimed serbia april easter sunday nearby byzantine_empire ottoman married byzantine princess alliance father john ottomans ongoing civil wars bulgaria byzantium continued denmark sold portion northern estonia order knights finally george night uprising central europe charles elected holy roman emperor july number banking families italy including family faced bankruptcy year italy suffered famine years war kingdom france kingdom england continued western_europe edward iii england led invasion continent won number victories events january december spring severe black death epidemic begins march french prepare defend channel coasts april french april serbian empire proclaimed occupying south eastern_europe june english invasion fleet portsmouth june battle english army defeats charles brittany june english win small victory brittany june leaders agree support edward iii july edward iii orders closing english ports stop information reaching france july english fleet attempts sail portsmouth normandy forced contrary winds july charles count king elected king romans july edward iii english army cross english channel begin invasion france july july english raid burn neighbouring towns villages peninsula august battle english defeat french september english begin siege october battle cross english army defeats scots october november towns cleared inhabitants black death date unknown repairs asia western asia golden siege continued despite number obstacles struck black plague forced retreat following year russian historian records year god punishment struck people eastern lands town towns lands mortality great jews european foreigners lived bury areas peoples listed represent western asia european foreigners fighting led siege europeans return europe following year carrying plague travellers returning carried plague byzantium according greek arab scholars time account events reads besieged christians arrows shot sky strike humble pride rapidly died marks bodies joints followed fever advice help doctors avail worn disease falling sides seeing ordered corpses placed engines thrown city accordingly bodies dead walls christians able hide protect danger carried away dead possible threw sea soon air infected water poisoned grew scarcely thousand able escape modern scholars consider earliest deadly biological attacks world history end forced retreat early sources state plague began spread spring river don near black_sea spread russia provinces year south georgia king george brilliant died succeeded king david king george managed increase georgian realm kingdom began decline caused george death devastating spread plague area soon central east asia central asia marked continued domains muslim expansion khan emperor killed forces year putting end status unified empire leader group turkish nobles opposed rule wounded forces earlier year taking advantage opponent weakness retreated troops abandoned east conquered muslim rule area conquered year muslim expansion suffer defeats southern india hindu kingdom india conquered celebrated festival victory strengthening status legitimate hindu empire opposition muslim rule north leader delhi northern india particular disdain culture south telugu gathered opposition sultan year celebrated victory east ibn traveled southeast_asia beijing china muslim leaders extended warm welcome advised leave city soon civil war caused khan flee city riots widespread korean buddhist monk traveled china receive training guidance buddhist leader later founded sect korean buddhism europe scandinavia denmark sold northern danish estonia knights following end uprising conflict pro danish party bishop pro german party captain called george night uprising danish sold marks order ignoring promise christopher abandon sell territories king denmark public statement broken promise asked forgiveness pope balkans asia minor balkans april easter sunday crowned new serbian empire occupied southeastern europe bulgaria byzantium time covered greece middle series civil wars time christian held islands possessions sea subject turkish raids ottoman turkish prince married daughter emperor john greek clergy believed marriage christian princess prominent muslim increase region power wives permitted religion required spend rest life islamic hoped ally future wars like fellow turks enemy war alliance ottoman prince permitted sell christians captured constantinople slaves public market central july charles elected emperor holy roman empire consequence alliance father pope relentless enemy emperor louis charles chosen roman king opposition louis princes previously promised confirmed possession wide territories promised acts louis italian affairs defend protect church charles time weak position germany owing terms election referred priest king bishops nearly imperial cities remained loyal louis charles endangered high position backed losing years war lost father best knights battle august wounded field italy number banks florence collapsed internal problems florence contributed king edward iii england loans notably family went bankrupt year italy suffered famine making difficult recruit troops attack organized alliance uniting european parties composed notably knights carried consecutive attacks western coastline controlled turkish states realm technology reached holland firearms way northern germany year earliest records area place city western_europe july king edward iii crossed english channel normandy ships took ports overwhelming force continued inland taking towns way french mounted defence ultimately defeated french planning cross channel invade england force led jean edward attack forced defensive french king destroyed bridges prevent edward advance english took town august repaired bridge order advance french king mounted defence near forest ended english victory edward proceeded laying siege city september jean france king son besieged city success king urge scots continue fight england north scots believing english preoccupied marched england durham october met defeated english force knights battle cross king david scotland captured irish mounted brief resistance similarly defeated end year edward captured towns surrounding role battle edward black prince honoured bravery john count king known john blind adopting arms motto serve john decades fighting widely known europe death legendary subject writings including passage john blind understood order battle said men companions friends journey require bring far forward strike stroke sword tied set king accomplish desire went enemies king far forward stroke sword fought company forward slain day found place king horses tied july margaret daughter king edward iii england date unknown french poet deaths february blessed march dominican preacher august muhammad leader alternative date september august killed battle charles_ii count louis count flanders louis count john duke october killed battle cross john 3rd earl earl november lord assassinated november gregory date unknown english outlaw grand master knights john


history prison history prison australian prison western_australia extends construction prison convict labour 1850s modern day usage tourist attraction design prison based prison britain longest tallest prison cell block southern hemisphere construction began completed end prison transferred colonial government use locally sentenced prisoners following royal commission held changes prison including knocking inner wall cells introducing prisoner classification system constructing internal walls main block create separate divisions new cell block new division completed occupied following royal commission investigation rapid changes prison policy new superintendent outside experience hugh appointed supported newly elected labor government interested reform prison partially military world wars world war takeover necessitated commissioning mill prison remained opened war prison farm prison established reduce facilities reforms prison system significant changes operation prison begin 1960s general campbell introduced prisoner assessments officer training work release programs social workers welfare officers government department charge prison underwent 1970s 1980s culture prison resistant change growing prisoner discontent culminated riot guards taken hostage fire caused million worth damage prison closed replaced new maximum security prison prison recognised heritage site state national world heritage lists restoration works undertaken 1990s new uses found sections prison including new business enterprise centre new division cell block wedding ceremonies prison significant tourist attraction guided tours 19th century background months founding swan river colony june free settlers need prison criminals little infrastructure settlers let criminals coast south beach makeshift prison arrangement sheriff spent time rowing small boat transfer prisoners bring meals september work started new prison west end high street sided round house arthur head swan river colony established free settlement 1840s early reluctance accept britain overcome cheap convict labour overcome significant shortage manpower colony arrival convict ship june unexpected sailing ship sent ahead inform pending arrival seventy blown course round house capacity left ship prepared accommodation guards captain edward henderson general clerk james manning accommodation quickly rose sudden increase demand leaving henderson paying basic house london eventually henderson leased properties essex street year site modern day hotel convert buildings temporary prison henderson looking site build permanent convict establishment whilst favoured mount height gave pleasing supposedly air governor charles rejected proposal henderson ultimately settled current site hill overlooking construction henderson initial design prison based prison britain designed separate system kept prisoners nearly complete isolation encourage reflection crimes reviewed henderson plans reduce cost changed diagonal cell blocks storey linear structure longest tallest prison cell block southern hemisphere construction began soon supervised henderson manning royal engineer lieutenant henry arrived convict ship eighteen months arrival convict population grown began moved establishment prison known project completed works rapidly progressed following arrival royal engineers known trained work limestone site soft stone fill swamps better quality stone ran opened nearby sites arthur head constructed ramp connecting town prison site graded limestone capped slope later street completed priority construction accommodation henderson prison relieve expense paying private lodging cottages built henderson street henderson residence sizable building known completed distance away buildings modern day grounds hospital houses senior staff constructed 1850s situated prison site road known modern day terrace workshops later known east workshops built prisoners aid site construction shop constructed shop added prison designed services including kitchen boilers cool room stores separate stores flour bread laundry drying room building holding services completed separate building hospital providing medical services planned constructed foundations laid plans changed year provide additional space dangerous patients hospital finished prison walls constructed beginning site main cell block excavated walls completed opening western gap gatehouse associated entry complex built main gate place london clock structure installed year later mini tornado toppled northern boundary wall extensive work undertaken rebuild widen walls main cell block built stages construction southern half block began masonry works finished year section finished including association circular solitary confinement cells block iron fittings ordered england years previously arrived anxious new cell block start henderson ordered doors rails locally iron salvaged convict transport ships obvious transition local imported marks boundary southern northern wings prisoners transferred temporary south beach prison june construction northern wing followed start foundations laid masonry works war saw royal engineers recalled leaving acting general henderson leave england oversee prisoners construction building work completed year including remaining masonry basement roof paving corridor henderson wanted single cells conceded governor lobbying additional capacity adjusted design include double width cells housing prisoners triple width cells holding prisoners allowing additional prisoners accommodated measure increased capacity northern wing feet justification mirror southern wing constructed feet longer planned inaccurate surveying caused project run budget stairs guard doors installed prison completed end henderson leave charge transition local control western_australia convict era prison known convict establishment transported britain longer term local prisoners held cost colonial government newly constructed perth handed british imperial government use convict station short term prisoners local prisoners kept round house island perth transferred local control transportation ceased western_australia numbers colony gradually declined great expense sending britain authorities negotiated colonial government transfer control prison complex demolition considered expensive early negotiations broken restarted august governor set conditions february conditions controversial half years compromise reached buildings actually use repaired paid officers actually retired british authorities authorised minimal repairs possible transfer intended completed end finalised march prison came control colonial government renamed prison prisoners perth transferred female prisoners imprisoned women initially held hospital building walled section prison cells kitchen wash house buildings women tasked washing prisoners clothing considered hard work royal commission western australian gold rushes 1890s resulted strong economic growth massive increase population doubling expanding influx included desperate people australia overseas prison soon 1890s saw growing public treatment prisoners newspaper articles prisoners persisted late 1890s reform notably queensland prisoner frederick called royal commission september established governor western_australia investigate colony system commission heard evidence witnesses including range prisoners reports december june dealt prominent issues classification sentencing prison offences diet special problems youthful prisoners second report examined cases exercise royal mercy appropriate final detailed report covered remaining evidence presented commission particular considered philosophy prison system causes crime types light reform proposals royal commission report dealt prison administration found prison operating outdated legislation little regulation written guidance administration positions sheriff inspector prisons held man james lived perth prison superintendent william george taking management responsibility 20th century implementation royal commission recommendations year cells enlarged knocking inner wall cells classification system introduced internal walls constructed main block creating separate divisions division trials juveniles years old division short sentenced offenders petty thieves division long sentenced prisoners division prisoners following superintendent george official new workshops built provide increased useful employment prisoners western workshops located entry complex female division built squared limestone rubble openings dressed brick open saw tooth roof southern covered spaces designed traditional workshops mat makers painters northern shops later amalgamated removing dividing wall action taken new regulations prison officers published government gazette new prison act passed replacing sixteen previous acts provided classification prisoners provision adequate work prisoners creation position general prisons assume functions sheriff undertaken inspector prisons theory passing act landmark moment prison reform legislation left changes executive regulation discretion governor described media document problems included prison classification design sheriff allowed hold office general prisons effectively making change new division completed occupied resulted commissioners report recommending modified version separate system new division built contractors stone island similar design henderson 1850s structure constructed shape stories tall electric lighting cables laid underground safety aesthetics differed use main cell block unlike earlier building prisoners remained continuously somewhat enlarged cells exercised separate yards watched central tower unit radial style exercise yard known cage concept separate system years old introduced second royal commission calls royal commission western_australia system truth newspaper repeatedly criticised prison blame placed general superintendent allegations included new offenders separated older ones regulations broken prisoners paid work royal commission investigation prison recommended closing facility report ignored state government concerned building infrastructure roads schools plight prisoners rapid change prison policy appointment superintendent hugh recent english colonial experience election labor government members interested reform immediate result separate system prison demolition separate exercise yards shares special security unit new_south_wales record use permanent australian structure military prison partially military world wars world war australian_army took prison military prison detention military personnel centre australia holding combined total enemy aliens prisoners war accommodated military prisoners civilian prisoners october takeover necessitated commissioning mill prison war prison returned civilian use variety hoc structures erected reform prison established reforms 20th century reduce prison farm opened near mount mill planned temporary measure remained open prison world war operated working farm large scale dairy cattle pig raising crops mill prisoners cut timber supply hospitals houses water supply scheme pumping station cases aspects resembling prison presence guards remain enforced facilities integrity prisoners chosen transferred generally punished extended sentences prison little change decades significant reform western_australia prison system new prisons legislation administration begin 1960s occurred europe north_america australia world war seven new prisons opened including maximum security facility albany following abrupt increase prisoner population mid- female prisoners staff moved new women prison built outskirts perth female division women prison western_australia subsequently male prisoners new legislation probation parole convicted introduced provided alternatives imprisonment new arrangements variety prisons prison types classification board set assess prisoners appointment campbell general fostered substantial changes prison university graduate major psychology senior appointment outside western australian prison system half century viewed prison place rehabilitation education people retain identity necessary create new identity changes chairman classification committee clear prisoners awaiting assessment frequent committee meetings campbell established officer training school assessment centre new prisoners worked supervised specially trained officers gave reports classification committee following international trends campbell introduced work release community service programs training programs prisoners officers social workers welfare officers assist prisoners families imprisonment 1970s 1980s saw numerous changes level adjustments roles responsibilities state prison system midst campbell reforms prisons department renamed department divisions treatment training branch psychiatric branch establishments branch position general replaced director department william succeeded campbell following death amidst growing prisoner numbers oversaw shift policy rehabilitation prisoners merely providing opportunities rehabilitation department reorganised treatment training branch support services branch branches administration institutions prison industries new prisons act passed updated act amendments modern practices orders instructions policy documents act prisoner management safety government opposition public opinion perception security result legislation criticised criminal lawyers association academics newspapers including minimal welfare provisions little ensure prisoner welfare department time renamed prisons department emphasise imprisonment primary responsibility hill director prisons department reorganised department times greater economy efficiency effectiveness included merge office probation parole resulting department services department welfare division disbanded prison officers responsible prisoner welfare whilst changes 1980s effective western_australia prison system culture prison resistant change growing prisoner discontent eventually culminated prison riot later royal commission appointed investigate discrimination prisoners report found discrimination racial stereotypes present report testimony prisoners considered unreliable conclusion predictable actions policies government officials report recommendations aspects prison life including additional independent trained welfare officers investigated prison riot occurred start year report suggested little evidence supported escape plan theory reported media riot largely result incident morning involving prisoner subsequent release division yard closure state government decision prison remained operation november prisoners moved new metropolitan maximum security prison prison transferred building management authority views community site future wanted demolished redeveloped turned gardens small monument wanted historic site preserved opposed turning misery prisoners entertainment tourists ultimate decision conservation prison allowing buildings adapted reuse community prison trust established advise minister works management site new uses found different parts prison including wedding services coastal business centre new division children literature centre hospital prison tourist attraction private company organised tourist operation years contract end subsequently state government took control providing short stay accommodation women prison opened conservation heritage listing prison listed western australian register historic places interim entry january permanent entry june described best preserved convict built prison country building western_australia listed australian national heritage list australian federal heritage minister senator campbell stated included nomination convict areas world heritage sites years later prison convict sites australia inscribed world heritage list australian convict sites process obtaining world heritage listing focused historical interpretation conservation efforts prison convict era expense recent history included use centre world war imprisonment prisoners convict heritage evident conservation plans prison closed aspect important later plans james authored reviewed subsequently state government released december convict era focus reflected branding tourist experience prison convict establishment necessary prevent damage deterioration strip away site recent history restoration parts prison restoration works undertaken 1990s halt deterioration buildings preserve future total spent works included restoring facade anglican chapel work undertaken restoration prison gatehouse area non original rendering removed original stonework revealed work completed tunnels main cell block restored eighteen month million project room restored conditions time execution article incorporates text source australian heritage database prison terrace australia licensed creative australia licence required commonwealth australia