revolution revolution romanian liberal nationalist uprising revolutions closely connected unsuccessful revolt sought administration imposed imperial russian authorities organic regime leaders demanded abolition privilege led group young intellectuals officers militia movement succeeded ruling prince replaced provisional government regency passing series major progressive reforms announced proclamation despite rapid gains popular backing new administration marked conflicts radical wing conservative forces especially issue land reform successive abortive able weaken government international status contested russia managing rally degree sympathy ottoman political leaders revolution ultimately isolated intervention russian diplomats ultimately common intervention ottoman russian armies significant form armed resistance following decade completion goals possible international context revolutionaries original political class united romania origins came direct russian supervision close russo turkish war subsequently administered basis common documents known organic period russian military occupation returned ottoman russian oversight preserved throne awarded measure controversial onset given despite popular provisions convention appointed russia ottomans instead elected assembly consequence prince faced opposition sides political spectrum attempting quell discontent abuse estate liberal movement taking inspiration french revolution having stated purpose encouragement culture society established hostility russian policies erupted later russia called additional article attached document reviewed proposed article sought prevent assemblies modifying consent protecting powers met stiff opposition majority deputies radical project nonetheless passed explicitly endorsed sultan prince proposed constitution replace entirely forced exile remained influence younger generation activists group comprising young studied france took direct inspiration revolutionary minded societies socialism faction explicitly demands national independence unification included wider agenda political reforms european solidarity society romanian students founded having french poet honorary president pre revolutionary events outbreak october specifically revolutionary secret society period prince arrested taken confinement high ranking young radical older taken uprising new ruler released participants plot soon involved founding new inspired secret society known brotherhood serve central factor revolution early nucleus formed major christian tell spring leadership included especially successful reached middle class kept legal facade literary society meetings attended austrian subject daniel early months romanian students university paris including brothers witnessed cases took french republican uprising rebellion broke late june members came adopt single project promise land reform resolution initially caused passed revolutionary program pressures supporters document destined read proclamation likely drafted possibly responsible ideas called issues national independence civil rights equality universal taxation larger assembly responsible government year term office princes election assembly freedom press originally revolutionary grouping intended military bases planned simultaneously organize public gatherings county june tell present orthodox priest revealed revolutionary program cheering crowd proclamation new government formed spot comprising tell wrote prince appeal called recognize program embryo constitution listen voice place head great accomplishment revolutionary executive left head gathering soldiers passing entered meeting resistance local forces according account gathering comprised armed civilians events shot father french diplomat conspirators bullets managed tear prince following hours police forces arresting members failing capture provisional government creation early june attempted regain loyalty militia forces order renewed oath allegiance officers agreed added circumstances agree shed blood afternoon populace feeling encouraged development rallied streets clock church bells began sounding drum public readings proclamation took place romanian city clock evening gave pressures signed new constitution agreed support provisional government imposed effectively organic causing russian consul charles leave country austrian ruled left self exile june proposed reunited provisional government based executive commission second french republic headed conservative metropolitan consisted christian tell short merchant government doubled provisional ministry offices minister interior position held justice public education finance foreign affairs war later replaced tell public controller included president city_council later replaced commander national_guard police chief revolutionaries maintained ambiguous relations leaders hungarian revolution ethnic romanian adversaries early april maintained close contacts romanian politicians called august oppose unification revolutionary hungary parallel secretive negotiations carried connection project creating hungarian confederation drew support proposal ultimately rejected hungarian notably argued carried danger deteriorating relations russia progressively romanian distanced clarified goal preservation austrian rule coming open conflict hungarian revolutionary authorities early reforms following day new administrative bodies issued instituted horizontal inscription justice brotherhood romanian time proclaimed traditional civil ranks indicating acceptable basis virtues services creating national_guard government abolished censorship capital corporal punishment ordering political prisoners set free line earlier demands unification romanian inhabited lands nation officially voiced period view shared relatively small highly section official abolition slavery sanctioned decree issued june culmination process begun state owned slaves liberated continued february orthodox church followed suit set free labor force decree notably read romanian people lack humanity sin owning slaves declares freedom privately owned slaves far shame owning slaves romanian people good mother shall compensate treasury shall complain result christian deed member commission left decide matters legal implementation compensation slave owners comprised authorities publicized reforms making use new press institutions circulated magazine edited published parallel populace regularly hear public read fields known field liberty disputes intrigue support provisional government began tested issue land reform brought forefront aside important conservative forces opponents measure found inside leadership body included revolutionaries favored passing land property peasants divided ceded issue compensation paid compromise reached decision taken submit proposals vote assembly convened instead drafting decree proclamation estate holders issued june indicating reform eventually enforced exchange unspecified sums calling peasants fulfill autumn year appeal caused reaction opposition forces rallied cause conservatives july fellow officers solomon arrested entire government coup succeeded ultimately overturned reaction organized street resistance troops mounted eventually stormed executive headquarters assault led resulted arrest coup leaders despite disputes shape land reform continued inside government july obtained issuing decree create commission property comprising delegates county representing respectively peasants new institution presided landowner born vice president proceedings number switched supporting peasants liberal delegate commission fourth session celebrated speech addressed laborers brothers status landowner emotional audience applauded gesture peasants proclaimed god deeds landowners asked peasants planned use compensation largely responsible according answer slave arms working centuries provided landowners expenses freed arms work twice rest assured leave wanting country judgment decide pay reportedly caused inside commission peasants supporters advocated notion family supposed receive hectares land system note differences local traditional peasants living wetlands assigned hectares living plains seven hectares inhabitants hilly areas hectares people inhabiting southern areas supposed receive hectares program instantly rejected landowners negotiations ended decision taken decided ultimate resolution future assembly failure address significant problems faced contributed weakening support revolutionary cause diplomatic efforts regency faced clear hostility russian emperor nicholas revolutionaries sought instead ottoman leadership efforts clarify movement seek reject ottoman purpose sent istanbul early mission initially successful later events led sultan reconsider position especially faced russian protests brother law dispatched orders report situation appropriate measures warmly received city inhabitants authorities opted impose series formal moves intended russia replaced government regency asked changes operated text constitution promising ensure ottoman recognition new ruling body comprised christian tell explicit advice revolutionary delegation dispatched istanbul negotiate movement official recognition envoys moment russian diplomats persuaded adopt reserved attitude replace parallel russia ordered troops prepare intervention river prospect russo turkish war time french second republic united_kingdom failed clarify positions respect ottoman policies canning british ambassador advised ottoman officials intervene revolution serving prime minister policy preservation ottoman rule face outside pressures delegation denied reception prolonged stay return metropolitan coup july false rumor imperial russian army left moving southwards cause regency leave refuge occurred russia occupied april result unsuccessful revolt country moment seized conservatives headed metropolitan grouping took announced revolution ended revolutionary returned town news russian troops left quarters population capital prepared action events priest revolutionary hero hour earned nickname cannon priest lit fuse gun aimed crowds outcome caused proclamation transfer power provisional government july following months population september week revolution crushed crowds entered interior ministry taking official copies organic register ranks documents subsequently city mock funeral burned sheet time public square hill reluctantly agreed ceremony issue curse pieces legislation suppression september september ottoman troops headed assisted stormed partly attempt prevent extension russian presence river morning day met local public figures headquarters proclaiming appointing revolutionaries attended meeting placed arrest christian tell sought refuge british received robert exchange sum austrian radical faction planned resistance danube opinion failed rally significant appeal group thousands soldiers comprising volunteers land rallied command going action prepared lead troops garrison strong force led detachment met resistance provoking brief battle lasted half hours turks died turks wounded evening entire city september russian force alexander von joined occupation taking administration half city russia expedition independent military initiative foreign revolutions immediately events revolutionaries sentenced exile small group transported barges way austrian ruled near danube port revolutionary artist daniel maria allowed free subsequently followed barges shore pointed ottomans stepped jurisdiction able persuade mayor guards turn allowed prisoners flee way paris revolutionaries detained areas present day bulgaria spring passing taken city lived expense ottoman state allowed return period exile rivalry factions obvious conflict basis political later years meantime advice ordered troops october accompanied officers passed southern time city nominally austrian empire hungarian revolution aftermath activities starting december number revolutionaries escaped set free arrest began understanding hungary romanian activists peasants leadership mounting military resistance troops emerged refuge serbia began talks presented proposal fighters leave base help revolution leaving room hungary resist russian invention offer dismissed spot parallel reached hungarian authorities asking consider hungary proper plan rejected met despite personal disappointment hungarian discourse ideal political rights region agreed understanding resulted series political concessions came russian troops entering military operation culminating hungarian defeat battle late july political outcome ottoman russian occupation prolonged convention awarded crown contrast setbacks period inaugurated war russian domination organic regime space generation brought virtually revolutionary projects common actions pace presence activists helped ideal national unity ultimate goal reuniting majority romanian territories state early close turbulent period entered personal union later romanian united born revolutionary having allowed return exile treaty paris surviving revolutionaries played major political developments organized promoted simultaneous elections hoc role paris based promoting sympathy common romanian goals decisive succeeded major factor romanian political life forming basis liberal current rule pace increased 1860s moderate land reform carried monastery estates ranks outlawed following conflict increasingly authoritarian political class trends organized coup brought prince carol romanian throne echoing expressed activists foreign dynasty rule unified state consequence russo turkish war romania proclaimed independence


operation sandstone operation sandstone series nuclear weapon tests series american tests following trinity crossroads preceding ranger like crossroads tests sandstone tests carried pacific proving grounds bikini differed crossroads conducted atomic energy commission armed forces having supporting role purpose sandstone tests different primarily tests new bomb designs effects nuclear weapons tests carried april joint task force work force personnel military successful testing new operation sandstone tests rendered component old weapons obsolete test carried production old halted effort concentrated new mark nuclear bomb mass produced nuclear weapon efficient use material result operation sandstone increase nuclear bombs june june origins nuclear weapons developed world war manhattan_project created network production facilities weapons research design laboratory los national laboratory types bombs developed mark little boy gun type weapon mark fat man type nuclear weapon weapons far removed laboratory origins great deal work remained improve ease assembly safety reliability storage ready production improvements performance suggested recommended war possible pressure wartime development replaced robert director los felt bombs produced nuclear site theory produce grams day kilograms month practice production approached level kilograms produced month fat man core required kilograms production fell swelling known effect manhattan_project scientist eugene required production critical component nuclear weapons kilograms days produce little half life days kept running oldest unit pile closed available future investigation problem fix found derived natural plant site oak ridge tennessee improvements processes procedures electromagnetic separation october june led increase production kilograms month little boys fat man times efficient little boy ton ore yield times basis cost times produce time cost weapon development objectives sandstone series tests test nuclear improve theory knowledge type weapons test test composite determine economic designs terms efficient use material meant instead immediately inside air gap core suspended inside wires allow gain momentum striking core principle similar swinging hammer nail order work outside laboratory wires strong withstand dropped aircraft thin spherical symmetry theoretical division los known division run computer calculations core early march use core proposed planning operation crossroads decided instead use existing solid core design named designer robert sandstone decided tests use motivation composite core better use available material use weapon instead inefficient gun type little boy obvious development expensive harder produce faster makes better use produces hand slower reaction permits assembly super critical masses making theoretically possible produce weapons high yields july considering materials composite core containing kilograms kilograms composite available los priority development core january national contained composite composite testing new composite require test efficient weapons require efficient meant required time sandstone national consisted class class sandstone test conducted class preparations organization tests authorized president harry june atomic energy commission director military applications brigadier general james deputy captain james russell met john los july arrangements tests readily agreed scientific nature los supplying technical direction armed forces providing supplies logistical support cost tests million divided department defense atomic energy commission lieutenant general john hull designated test commander rear admiral william parsons major general william reprised operation crossroads roles deputy commanders joint task force formally activated october commander hull joint chiefs staff atomic energy commission joint task force consisted personnel military headquarters consisted men board uss mount rest accommodated uss special division los national laboratory known division created specifically manage nuclear testing atomic energy commission group task group responsible preparing nuclear weapons conducting experiments consisted scientists technicians responsible nuclear tests division armed forces special weapons project naval research laboratory naval ordnance laboratory national laboratory proving ground atomic energy commission agencies dealt different aspect tests naval ordnance laboratory handled blast measurement tests naval research laboratory conducted radiation measurement experiments national laboratory gamma ray measurements contractors hired design install timing firing systems seven experimental weapon assemblies delivered san california loaded weapon assembly ship uss february atomic energy commission gave permission expenditure tests ships naval forces organized task group consisted civil affairs september hull russell designated test director october joint task force scientific director los laboratories set group scientists military officers examine proposed test sites pacific chosen test site october island remote good harbor ocean currents trade winds carry fallout sea important consideration view happened bikini operation crossroads trust territory pacific islands united_nations trust territory administered united_states united_nations security council notified upcoming tests december inhabited lived lived original homes moved war way military bases population number temporarily relocated island operation crossroads time nautical miles southwest selected relocation site naval construction battalion group arrived november build accommodation amenities military authorities met local chiefs december agreed relocation carried uss king county december douglas aircraft placed standby evacuate case affected fallout required unlike crossroads tests conducted media spotlight sandstone tests carried minimal publicity april discussion washington public announcement tests hull opposed making announcement series completed commissioners felt news leak united_states look secretive decided minute announcement announcement purpose tests press releases series hull held press conference hawaii permitted media quote written statements construction islands cleared vegetation graded level easier install required instrumentation causeway built instrument cables run test tower control station ordered later test areas suffer minimal fallout earlier shots army component task group responsible construction work consisted provisional engineer battalion composite service 18th engineer construction company signal service platoon companies 2nd engineer special brigade engineer boat shore regiment transportation amphibious truck company transportation port company detachment naval shore base detachment operations operation crossroads given code taken joint army navy alphabet modified mark iii assemblies detonated foot towers timing matter compromise gamma ray measurement experiments required darkness boeing flying fortress sample clouds needed daylight control compromise sandstone took place shortly dawn united_states sandstone series listed ray ray nuclear device composite core detonated sunrise april yield efficiency somewhat higher los prediction observers watching ships saw brilliant flash felt heat cloud nautical miles diameter quickly cloud took seconds explosion reach observers minutes later launched helicopter check cable collect samples lowered boats test levels aircraft flown clouds light tank recover soil samples crater unfortunately towed days later nuclear device core detonated sunrise day late unfavorable winds observers saw similar flash felt heat ray blast nautical mile wide cloud larger sound explosion forceful observer likened sound paper bag burst small room correct yield largest nuclear time considered inefficient material test sandstone series detonated sunrise test characterized chairman david hardest important test class demonstrated confidence observers perceived flash blast similar previous tests time base cloud feet gave observers view appeared brighter longer looks core produced yield procedures previous tests repeated time cable test samples retrieved exposing crew radiation los personnel assigned remove filters apparently carried procedure ray problems time suffered radiation burns hands hospitalized need skin men carried procedure found burns hands hospitalized discharged tank gave trouble crater soil samples retrieved backup tank tanks subsequently dumped ocean outcome successful testing new sandstone tests profound effect practically component old weapons rendered obsolete test carried halted production old ordered effort concentrated mark nuclear bomb mass produced nuclear weapon efficient use material increase nuclear bombs june june mark iii bombs withdrawn service time new production plants coming online effect problem solved production times production increased fold chief armed forces special weapons project major general kenneth saw clearly era recommended thinking terms thousands weapons hundreds


beach beach beaches allied invasion german occupied france normandy landings june second world war beach spanned village east british beach gold saint sur west british beach sword taking responsibility canadian army sea transport sweeping naval bombardment force provided royal canadian navy british_royal_navy elements free french norwegian allied navies objectives 3rd canadian infantry division day cut road seize airport west form link british beaches gold sword beach beach defended battalions german infantry division elements 21st division held reserve near invasion plan called brigades 3rd canadian division land beach sectors mike focusing saint hoped preliminary naval air beach defences destroy coastal strong points close support beaches provided amphibious tanks 2nd canadian armoured brigade landing zones secured plan called 9th canadian infantry brigade land reserve battalions deploy inland royal marine establish contact british 3rd infantry division sword beach 7th canadian infantry brigade link british 50th infantry division gold beach 3rd canadian division day objectives capture airfield reach railway line nightfall landings initially encountered heavy resistance german division preliminary bombardment proved effective hoped rough weather forced wave delayed assault companies notably royal rifles queen rifles canada took heavy casualties opening minutes wave strength numbers coordinated fire support artillery armoured squadrons cleared coastal defences hours landing reserves 7th 8th brigades began deploying royal marines 9th brigade began deployment subsequent push inland railway line achieved mixed results sheer numbers men vehicles beaches created lengthy delays landing 9th brigade beginning substantive attacks south 7th brigade encountered heavy initial opposition pushing south making contact british 50th division 8th brigade encountered heavy resistance battalion 9th brigade deployed early evening resistance saint prevented royal marines establishing contact british 3rd division sword operations anglo canadian ordered halt time queen rifles canada reached day objective 3rd canadian infantry division succeeded pushing farther inland landing force day background invasion normandy western allies agreed open second western western_europe pressure red army soviet_union britain united_states possess resources mount invasion invasion plans came known operation drawn case german position western_europe weakened ussr situation dire august anglo canadian forces attempted abortive landing operation jubilee french port landing designed test feasibility cross channel invasion attack poorly planned ended disaster soldiers killed wounded captured following anglo american victory field marshal north_africa british american canadian troops invaded sicily july followed italy september december allies progress slowed facing german resistance difficult geography italian peninsula gaining valuable experience amphibious assaults inland fighting allied planners returned plans invade northern france postponed direction general dwight supreme commander allied expeditionary force frederick morgan plans invasion france operation overlord initial target date infantry attack conceived joint assault divisions transported landing craft largest amphibious operation military history attack later scheduled monday june normandy selected landing sites zone operations extending peninsula originally seventeen sectors normandy coastline taken spelling time able west east flank invasion area sectors added planned invasion extended include utah peninsula sectors subdivided beaches identified colours green red white operation overlord called british second army assault river port capture form line south east acquire airfields protect left flank united_states army captured possession surroundings second army suitable staging area push south capture city pivot swing left advance river river delays logistical difficulties poor weather day overlord largest amphibious operation postponed hours june montgomery commander 21st army group aimed capture day liberate paris days operation neptune landing phase overlord called division spread miles coastline airborne divisions american british included canadian battalion land pre dawn hours day general bernard montgomery hoped infantry divisions fourteen tank regiments normandy nightfall day landing zone divided landing areas americans attacking utah westernmost british attacking gold sword mile stretch shoreline west saint east assigned 3rd canadian infantry division 3rd commanded major general included villages arose winston_churchill considered original code sounded inappropriate code names beaches taken british commonwealth forces named types fish abbreviated gold sword churchill disapproved beach men die insisted change planning preparation german defences german_army seen strength morale heavily depleted campaigns russia north_africa italy remained powerful fighting force despite german divisions french coast late composed new recruits veteran units resting rebuilding eastern altogether soldiers stationed france predominantly coast additional voluntary ussr polish members german_army served french coast command field von defences atlantic wall line coastal gun machine gun nests minefields beach obstacles french coast increased months germans laid million tons steel million cubic yards concrete surrounded coast million mines beach obstacles defences atlantic wall greater landing sectors germans assumed allies land high tide minimize distance exposed beaches created devil garden beach obstacles deployed rows feet low tide mark machine gun positions artillery located yards manned mortars minefields deployed surrounding additional defences present harbour beaches normandy defended static infantry divisions canadian landing zone defended elements formed soldiers comprising combat troops battalions opposed battalions allied divisions considered rate division accounted better average static division divisions generally vehicles tanks rely infantry field regiments division regiment deployed infantry companies held mike sector 6th stationed 5th 9th held sector saint second line infantry companies company stationed mile inland 21st division deployed south east battalions polish russian stationed flanks adjacent sword gold canadian preparations canadian training day begun early july lieutenant general andrew canadian army informed harry commander canadian corps 3rd canadian infantry division play role invasion france initial training demanding complicated lack landing craft practice field exercises scotland commenced august september succeeded establishing unique techniques equipment use armoured artillery regiments beach significant amphibious drive tanks tanks mechanisms developed allow artillery bombard beach attached landing craft winter units jointly developed advanced assault tactics regiments landings supported largest invasion fleet history vessels total royal canadian navy contributed vessels including destroyers frigates landing ships torpedo boats canadian tribal class destroyers royal_navy 10th destroyer flotilla joined units keeping english channel near normandy clear german naval units naval force begun intense training invasion 3rd canadian infantry division february scale simulation invasion carried exercise day force commanded hms bombard german defensive positions landing zone heavy calibre cruiser guns self propelled artillery attached landing craft according canadian army historian light bombardment landing zone commence minutes hour continue minutes heavy bombing begin flanks divisional attack lasting hour additional cover provided royal royal canadian air_force squadrons day successful surprise invasion required total air superiority english channel normandy months preceding day raf second tactical air_force attacked airfields coastal garrisons radar railway lines transport routes order beach defences prevent german luftwaffe mounting challenge air superiority normandy dawn june raf tactical air forces fighter fighter bomber aircraft approximately light medium bombers support operational plan divided main sectors mike west east mike sector attacked 7th canadian infantry brigade royal rifles canadian scottish regiment 1st support 7th brigade drive inland sector assaulted regina rifle regiment 7th brigade north shore regiment queen rifles canada 8th canadian infantry brigade tanks fort horse provided armoured support squadron specialized engineering tanks british armoured division land beach sector 8th brigade capture western edge saint push south normandy operational plan called 9th canadian infantry brigade deployed reinforcements hours initial assault nightfall day 3rd canadian infantry division slated captured high ground west railway line seaside towns saint sur day landings early bombardment air attacks normandy coastal defences began earnest june raf bomber command units targeting primary coastal defences attack continued tons bombs dropped sorties marked largest attack bomber command terms point war initial attacks atlantic wall proved ineffective poor weather visibility making difficult accurately hit turrets bombing left defences gold virtually intact damage allied landing craft channel planners feared royal canadian air_force bombers specifically bombed targets raid direct damage limited americans began bombing runs utah west anglo canadian naval forces began counter battery fire seeking knock german shore batteries british attached cruisers hms belfast force serve heavy support belfast commenced bombardment atlantic wall june naval gunfire proved effective aerial bombardment battery return fire quickly destroyed light cruiser hms gun batteries incomplete day possess sufficient protection communication measures accurately return fire force sur battery shortly opened fire destroyers force moved begin bombardment hoping damage light gun prevent german moving beach supplemented additional raids medium bombers fighter bombers raf dropped additional tons ordnance landing zones medium bombers proved inaccurate typhoon fighter bombers proved effective attacking coastal defences bombing runs continued hit ordnance destroyers landing craft moved beach began close range bombardment addition destroyers force canadian british french bombardment provided converted fitted inch guns smaller light landing craft able closer beach use pounder guns german defensive positions additional firepower provided landing craft fitted high explosive rockets carrying priest self propelled guns field regiments fire heavy concentrations high explosive smoke shells main resistance nests mike sectors beginning half hour hour forward observation fire control officers leading assault waves necessary adjustments fire assault bombardment scheduled cease immediately assault companies deployed heavy seas landing delayed minutes mike sector sector slightly higher tide closer beach obstacles mines carrying field artillery forced adjust course avoid landing early carrying tanks forced break advance seas proved rough launch tanks ordered deploy yards beach landing 7th brigade mike green 7th canadian infantry brigade scheduled land mike sector rough seas poor craft coordination pushed time minutes assault companies royal rifles assault company canadian scottish regiment squadron 1st land mike red mike green regina rifle regiment supported second squadron 1st landed green sector touched remaining assault companies deploying seven minutes carrying company craft engaged yards shore direct fire consequence heavy casualties sustained company landing area consisted casemates machine gun left infantry grim prospect clearing direct assault company unable advance armoured support squadron launched yards beach fully deployed minutes ashore west company faced defensive fire clear company easily cleared beach went barbed wire light casualties platoon 6th field company royal canadian engineers clear minefields facing company given tanks land far right company canadian scottish regiment landed little opposition discovered objective gun destroyed naval gunfire east mike sector regina rifles came ashore green objective german forces company reported touchdown met heavy resistance immediately company reported touchdown tanks reported deploying minutes infantry squadron reporting landing faced task destroying heavy gun equipped guns foot thick concrete walls pre landing bombardment failed destroy heavy machine guns subsequently inflicted high casualty rates company reported men killed seconds lowering ramps platoon able breach barbed wire lining beach cover eliminated machine gun positions engaging company regina rifles tanks arrived regina rifles sector greater numbers sector gun destroyed fire squadron 1st similarly east company encountered limited resistance succeeded pushing soon cleared succession assigned blocks village according initial assault companies ashore fighting objectives reserve companies battalion canadian scottish regiment began deployment companies rifles landed began push villages sur company encountered heavy machine gun resistance request support 1st clear position green companies regina rifles prepared storm company touched moved village difficulty company delayed meaning struck mines attached beach obstacles company soldiers reached beach canadian scottish regiment arrived beach leading companies coming heavy mortar fire took regiment hour beaches push inland landing 8th brigade white red originally scheduled land east 7th 8th canadian infantry brigade assault battalions postponed minutes result heavy seas queen rifles canada landed white faced defences unit sector gun multiple machine gun nests outside touch saw soldiers killed wounded company came ashore directly main resistance nests yards east intended landing zone heavy mortar machine gun fire scheduled advance fire support heavy seas meant instead swimming tanks left craft close landed infantry assault companies soldiers company succeeded main killing gunners grenades small arms rudder company jammed platoon landed far left rest company enabling destroy gun defences able advance having taken casualties beaches west company encountered resistance limited poorly coordinated run ins beach company able quickly reach breach barbed wire encountered heavy mortar sniper resistance sector armoured support proved ineffective squadron fort horse far beach provide heavy support units north shore regiment companies touched red chest deep water tasked securing saint clearing defences village company landed find saint strong point appeared touched preliminary naval bombardment assault companies faced yard sprint open beach face fire saint company suffered heaviest casualties fatalities beach mines company faced stronger opposition strong point managed breach barbed wire strong point gun active thick concrete casemates protected infantry fire tanks fort horse armoured vehicle royal engineers tanks assault squadron royal engineers landed red began assist company clearing gun gun knocked squadron tanks north shore machine gun platoon flanked position right section strong point eliminated guns combat engineers central gun shells british north shore captured strong point approximately half defenders killed german soldiers surrendered 8th brigade reserve battalion began deploying beaches reserve companies north shore half crippled mines buried beach company forced touch offshore damaged mines company linked squadron fort horse moved assist pinned exhausted company north shore companies landed outside saint company taking company advance saint company established firm presence inside village carrying company touch beach lost equipment swimming shore quickly formed outside saint linking north shores reserve included royal marine commando scheduled land minutes arrivals pass saint eastern edge occupy sur eastern end strong point facing cleared cent man unit casualties seconds landing deploying reinforcements largely secured prepared deploy reserves 9th canadian infantry brigade tanks reports coming battalions mixed canadian military historian terry says north shore proceeding according plan making progress slowly self propelled artillery regiments 14th field 19th army field regiments royal canadian artillery deployed dozen guns action opposition continued problems obstacles red meant entire 9th brigade land white sector 9th brigade touched congestion beach white heavy infantry companies landing craft 9th brigade reserves consisted cameron ottawa north nova_scotia highland light infantry canada reported coming mortar fire german positions inland little room manoeuvre dry land entire 9th brigade easy targets german artillery 9th brigade quickly beach joined queen rifles fort horse await advance inland having subdued german defences beach priority landed forces clear obstacles debris mines establish 3rd canadian infantry division headquarters movement control units came ashore noon military policemen beginning marshal vehicles independent field company moved begin clearing minefields surrounding beach free advance south established divisional headquarters shortly noon advance inland initial attacks met commanders 8th 9th infantry brigades newly 2nd armoured brigade fort horse 1st line objectives secured ordered 7th 8th brigades advance armoured support second line objectives 9th brigade 7th 8th reach objective line oak facing remains battalions regiment battalions regiment company facing heavy resistance machine guns eastern companies north shore regiment fighting saint companies royal moved beach cut walls barbed wire german pushed sur began advance company advanced headquarters battalion stopped machine gun short town company joined company canadian scottish regiment troop squadron 1st advanced unaware large german counter attack command battalion regiment company canadian scottish regiment deployed west able spot units 8th battalion halt counter attack fully company joined advance covering fire cameron 12th 13th field artillery regiments declared captured small pockets resistance survive nightfall retreat company canadian scottish moved capture bridges river inland companies company joined pushed gap joining company squadron 1st provided armoured support east regina rifles advanced south engaging troops 7th battalion regiment reported reaching town companies began consolidating position preparation advance sector 8th brigade advance started slower 7th brigade lost equipment advance beaches queen rifles company pinned edge sniper fire cross open fields town armoured support stopped heavy fire coming sur companies caught company lost entire platoon german scored direct hit priest self propelled gun progress slow told took nearly hours artillery heavy guns clear defences sur allowing advance town sur reported cleared point began mass town advance south broke left engage heavy artillery batteries west company assisted guns destroyed bunker guns east company north shores advanced headquarters battalion mortar fire north headquarters concentrated accurate slowing advance company supported drive south tanks fort horse caught close german defenders open fields north shores armour support entered point tanks squadron moved village destroying german gun defenders battalion created complex underground bunker system village enabled continuously canadian infantry seven hours clear defenders ensured north shores unable capture german radar sites south day company north shore regiment commando royal marines engaged protracted fight secure saint sur company generally hours landing allowed troops royal marines push west units important objective mile gap landing zones sword allow continuous anglo canadian end day royal marines began advance strong point east commando royal marines advanced sword defended reinforced platoon centred group fortified houses guns troop attempt capture failed assault renewed support tanks face heavy resistance commando forced assault nightfall reports counter attacks 21st division divide sword began filter strong points sur captured june drive division advance south halted preventing attack german radar stations queen rifles company opted continue advance sur objective line filled capacity troops point company deployed alongside company severely advance east company advance hindered proximity combat fighting occurred close range 14th field artillery provide fire support fear friendly fire casualties company reached north nova_scotia formed outside sur intention overtaking making highway north assembled target concentrated german mortar fire tanks companies north squadron advanced mortar positions taking heavy casualties infantry clearing positions entered objective line sent company probe german defences hills overlooking village reported cleared defenders allowing 9th brigade advance airfield north nova_scotia advancing encountering resistance hour later reports 21st division attacking flanks british 3rd infantry division sword lieutenant general miles commander british second army ordered forces sword gold establish defensive positions intermediate objectives western edge canadian sector advance 7th brigade stalled face resistance throwing right flank assault schedule german defenders gave ground slowly begin withdrawing towns gun began arrive cleared canadian scots pushed south reinforced captured bridge earlier day moved road canadian scots reported reaching road continued push south past objective line west royal stopped line began erect defensive positions gun carriers artillery regina rifles slow advance account heavy casualties taken securing village 1st squadron similar position half fighting strength having beach advancing scouted ahead infantry companies linked canadian scots order hold positions dig arrived headquarters battalions halted tanks 1st squadron troop continued advance southwards pushing roads airfield aside german staff car machine gun nest tanks encountered virtually resistance advancing way railway line unit day reach final objective commander unit lieutenant william attempted contact superiors bring reinforcements attack airfield tanks eventually withdrew canadian lines positions nightfall end day 3rd canadian infantry division situated firmly objective line short final day objectives west 7th brigade anchored 9th brigade positioned mere miles inland allied units day eastern edge canadian sector 8th brigade taken positions having begun late afternoon dig 3rd canadian infantry division succeeded advancing farther divisional element allied expeditionary force heavy fighting saint failed link british 3rd division sword german infantry division scattered heavily depleted division commander lieutenant general recorded battalion mustered defence german 21st division driven wedge british canadian 3rd divisions unable beaches south hitler released elite division 12th division hitler youth prepared head north corps aftermath normandy landings sectors managed establish normandy day objectives met american airborne divisions suffered heavy casualties landings scattered captured west utah peninsula american 4th division suffered lighter casualties securing utah established strong end day met success intact defences high calibre troops division caused heavier casualties beaches point attack going badly lieutenant general bradley considered withdrawing corps beaches second wave attacks breached coastal defences push yards inland nightfall west british 50th infantry division encountered light resistance succeeded advancing inland creating continuous casualties east british 3rd infantry division succeeded establishing sword counter attacks 21st division afternoon prevented 3rd infantry advancing making contact canadian 3rd counter attack succeed driving british beaches units british 6th airborne division landed previous night near river able 21st force withdraw spite heavy casualties inflicted infantry divisions german seventh army quickly established plans counter attacks early logistical responses invasion confused divisions necessary counter attacks fell different jurisdiction defending coast furthermore heavy divisions 12th 2nd mobilized coast explicit authorization hitler order 12th finally given mid afternoon june 9th canadian infantry brigade began advance june met entrenched forces infantry 21st divisions advancing force counter attacked 12th command kurt heavy fighting 9th brigade forced withdraw day positions having suffered heavier casualties single unit previous day 7th brigade succeeded reaching final day objectives line oak 8th brigade attempted destroy german radar stations east task completed june 3rd canadian infantry division contact british sword june forming continuous american sector june subsequent advance slow greater number german units concentrated near canadians captured airfield operation windsor july anglo canadian forces captured operation july operation atlantic july casualties initial predictions likely casualties high approaching including drowned end 3rd canadian infantry division suffered following casualties killed wounded taken prisoner queen rifles suffered heaviest casualties royal north shore regina rifles varied landing craft run lost damaged breakdown logistics day exact numbers casualties german infantry division unknown division german battalions numbering men invasion reported equivalent battalion cent strength remained battalions reported fled reported cent division artillery destroyed captured day gun batteries intact west river june division reduced officers men analysis preliminary bombardment military historians generally drawn conclusion preliminary aerial naval bombardment effective hoped differ opinions ineffective aerial bombardment defences night considered ineffective primarily weather john notes prevailing low thick cloud frustrated bomber command efforts colonel official historian canadian army second world war considers effects bombing runs noting coastal batteries hit battery hit accurately chester offers different view suggesting coastal guns accurately bombed survived heavily protected concrete casemates insisted historians assessment naval bombardment mixed generally agree failed fully german defences disagreement suggests beach fire concentrated substantial inaccurate insufficient firepower destroy coastal suggests effect fire moral material forced defenders ground morale terry echoes analysis noting reasonable accuracy obtained pitching decks mounted artillery ships 13th field regiment fire fell average yards past targets british historian max hastings notes delay landing times minutes substantial gap existed cessation bombardment actual landing waves infantry meaning ample time return positions bombardment specific towns coast inconsistent north shore regiment reported near saint appeared touched bombardment facing canadian scottish regiment eliminated naval bombardment landing overall despite failure capture final day objectives assault generally considered alongside utah strategically successful day landings historians suggest variety reasons success mark notes canadians ended day ahead british divisions despite facts landed americans faced difficulty winning sand suggesting calibre training 3rd canadian infantry division received explains success chester claims canadian success clearing landing zones presence amphibious tanks beaches notes absence tanks largely responsible heavier casualties beach heavier resistance canadian historian terry attributes steady advance 7th brigade afternoon opposition north shore regiment encountered despite verdict successful day 3rd failure canadian units reach final objectives proven disputed reasons success terry places blame committed entirety 9th brigade reserve land narrower beaches 8th brigade fighting clear seaside towns receiving reports poor progress 7th brigade dutch historian dan van der notes planned breakout 9th brigade held huge jam vehicles places blame logistical difficulties landing saying opposition congestion beaches prevented canadians reaching final day objective offers different view suggesting impossible 3rd reach day objectives failure rests fact british canadian forces usually better enemy achieving initial success assault exploiting surprise success achieved easily satisfied assessment suggesting caution result poor planning fact british canadians fought way trained moving forward designated objectives controlled bounds digging sign counterattack disputes capture final objectives strategically intelligent observing 9th brigade reached dug artillery position offer support commander 26th followed orders waited coordinated counterattack divisions organized attack far damage allied hastily improvised operation actually carried june offers second line analysis canadians failure advance line oak suggesting difficulties encountered british 3rd infantry division sword caused halt advance entire british second army british encountered heavy 21st division prevented british 9th brigade establishing contact canadians offers agreement assessment writing withdrawal 21st division evident concluded armoured expected ordered assault divisions dig second line objectives decision relayed subordinate commanders 9th canadian brigade preparing advance south agrees analysis arguing british 3rd infantry division brigade commanders overly cautious advancing turn slowed momentum entire anglo canadian advance especially given reports received sword commemoration landing commemorated today museum memorial beach centre sur exhibits canadian war museum canadian military museums tanks landed beach bomb fought way germany today preserved quebec


australia american_civil_war despite world conflict australian colonies affected american_civil_war economically immigration australian cotton crop important england lost american sources served supply base confederate blockade runners immigrants europe seeking better life found australia war torn north_america australian public shocked revelation russian officer claimed direct engagement secretly planned russia case confederacy recognised britain russian navy paid australia visit preparation launching attacks fear possible military confrontation led massive buildup coastal defences acquisition ironclad warship australia directly involved confederate navy visited order repair warships led protests union representative melbourne nearby entertained australians joined crew accounts disagree australians generally favored union confederacy demonstrations held sydney news arrived abraham_lincoln assassination economics australians new veterans american_civil_war native born originally americans came australia victorian gold rush 1850s officers war included gave tasmania telegraph service officer mined gold confederate blockade runners occasionally obtained supplies despite historic fear possible naval attack americans fear rooted actions american war war caused lancashire cotton famine result queensland saw rise cotton industry national colonial emigration society britain founded little ongoing relevance came result individuals northern england affected inability southern united_states ship cotton war war ended little cotton southern australia imported england aftermath war australians interested acquiring fiji islands cotton fields impact competition canada australia new_zealand irish immigration increasing irish immigration seen economic countries reasons increase irish deciding nations north_america imperial_russian_navy civil war union russia allies saw potential enemy britain russian blue water navy stationed san_francisco new_york sealed orders attack british naval targets case war broke united_states britain threatened britain gave diplomatic recognition confederacy flagship russian pacific squadron rear admiral officially friendly visit melbourne early according information passed australian authorities june rear admiral half year received orders plan attack british naval ships positioned near australian shore plan included destruction melbourne sydney coastal batteries information attributed polish lieutenant deserted service shanghai soon left australia found way paris join polish january uprising information plans fellow pole certain similar attack orders known given atlantic squadron rear admiral sent new_york time arrived australian waters january coast south_australia crew spotted american sailing ship named boarded having english ship left january harbor victoria near melbourne order repair damage received capturing union ships seven clock evening sent lieutenant gain approval local authorities repair ship returning hours later saying granted permission united_states consul william insisted victorian government arrest pirates pleas ignored victoria governor sir charles henry satisfied pleading neutrality requesting allowed undertake repairs aside fist fights americans direct conflict sides eighteen ashore constant threats northern joining crew order capture ship sea local interested confederate ship port bay james captain men participated official functions local citizens arranged honour including gala ball cream society royal hotel melbourne club thousands tourists came ship day requiring special trains accommodate treated little lions officers later reflected best time lives given women melbourne leaving australia captured additional union ships finally surrendering liverpool england november surrendering included australians joined crew sources differ australians illegally recruited refuse australian authorities australians aboard ship prior sailing february australians arrested prevent joining confederate ships governor allowed sail away instead firing official report said february found board men sailors enlisted marines original confederate crewmen john mason stated happened find enlisted outside australian waters said captain english steamer melbourne time englishman captain clerk assassination abraham_lincoln news assassination abraham_lincoln april caused demonstrations sorrow sydney editorial melbourne age newspaper june reported sydney assassination lincoln caused great australian wanted end slavery central issue lincoln emancipation proclamation memorial service held sydney prince wales opera house sunday afternoon july strong feelings anger public meetings killer lincoln person dedicated country figured genius rose log cabin white_house public meeting held sydney express sympathy lincoln death meeting american citizens held june decided forward letter lincoln contribute monumental tablet wear mourning month letter sympathy sent lincoln wife mayor city sydney expressing city news lincoln assassination reported melbourne age june melbourne newspapers editorials prominent mention melbourne herald june american houses town carried national ensign half mast mark respect memory late president william consul melbourne time finding news lincoln death caused flag kept half mast july city_council melbourne passed resolution expressive horror murder late chief magistrate letters sympathy australia came polish hungarian refugees melbourne dated july citizens swiss republic residents new_south_wales sydney irish national_league branch dated july mayor sydney municipal council dated july letter sympathy came town victoria addressed lincoln washington america dated august aftermath residents melbourne realising vulnerable attack especially russians events war build coastal defence forts included government victoria requesting ironclad ship sent protect colony values ironclads demonstrated american_civil_war battle roads monitor constructed late 1860s duly arrived victoria british government paid united_states result assistance provided confederate ships victoria ports controlled great_britain international jury ruled case geneva switzerland american_civil_war round table australia founded secretary barry largest library dedicated american_civil_war outside united_states pieces self government colonies australian continent form self governing nation australia favoured british model government america powerful postwar presidency australians opposed coloured labour fears similar civil war breaking australia measure evident addition word federal constitution adelaide prevent political engaged confederacy


operation operation military deception employed allies second world war formed operation bodyguard broad strategic deception designed disguise imminent allied invasion normandy provided political support visual wireless deception operation north operations created fictional threat norway summer planning operation began february contrast aspects bodyguard planned executed british american involvement aim convince german intelligence allies actively building political ties sweden preparation upcoming invasion norway involved meetings british swedish officials purchase norwegian use double agents spread rumours war sweden maintained neutral stance hoped government convinced imminent allied invasion norway filter german intelligence impact minimal swedish government agreed concessions requested meetings high level officials convinced allies invade norway overall influence north german strategy scandinavia disputed background operation formed operation bodyguard broad strategic military deception intended confuse axis high command allied intentions lead normandy landings key elements bodyguard operation north promoted fictional threat norway wireless traffic visual deception north played german particularly adolf_hitler belief norway key objective allies earlier considered rejected option allies previously employed region example operation operation result john head london controlling section charged overall organisation bodyguard concerned visual wireless deception create believable threat suggested political deception aim convincing swedish government allies intended invade norway war sweden maintained neutral position relations axis allied nations assumed sweden believed imminent threat norway passed german intelligence envisioned extension existing pressure allies placing sweden end neutral stance example requests end export ball important component military hardware germany increasing pressure additional false requests hoped convince germans sweden preparing join allied nations planning february proposed plan induce enemy believe enlisting help sweden connection british russian contemplated operations northern norway spring year department received approval forward february entirely british operation american involvement contrast bodyguard components based recommendations chiefs staff outlined seven requests present swedish government access swedish passage allied aircraft including permission emergency landings access repair facilities swedish airfields hours permission reconnaissance flights swedish collaboration british swedish transport experts organise transport equipment sweden following german withdrawal permission colonel military sweden meet swedish officials agreement purchase norwegian british government false wireless traffic countries option norwegian britain sweden discussion decided requests land swedish airfields related norwegian dropped devised plan present requests stages envoys build relations swedish government present proposals period time operation stage began march april sir victor british minister sweden recalled london briefing operation march double agent code transmitted message explaining country receive instructions returning sweden important negotiations traveled stockholm april met swedish state secretary foreign affairs meeting presented proposals british reconnaissance flights transport collaboration swedish government rejected accepted privately indicated sweden air_force pursue allied planes limitations transport collaboration meant little benefit british encouraging start operation despite decided continue deception colonel trip approved travelled stockholm end april spent weeks sweden meeting head royal swedish air_force general conferences treated high degree secrecy hope emphasise importance required effect conversations recorded pro german chief police germany despite siding allies communicated little sensitive information convinced allies intended invade norway kept conviction contrary allied hopes returned england april tandem approaches british government began purchasing norwegian operation replaced operation royal flush june expanded political deception targeting spain turkey impact overall operation appeared meet initial aims political approach lead increased discussion lower levels swedish possibility invasion norway failed convince higher levels government exception communicate beliefs purchase norwegian went unnoticed belief swedish government invasion norway european mainland main target allies envisioned way bolster aims north overall aspect plan successful german documents captured war showed believe norway main invasion target north units considered capable attack result german forces scandinavia higher alert transferred south reinforce france extent north influenced german strategy scandinavia disputed historians arguing little deception reached enemy argue existence fictional units scotland helped confirm german fears attack region


battle battle battle april battles eastern world war fought extreme southern flank offensive seeing days pitched street fighting forces polish second army elements soviet 52nd army 5th guards army elements german_army group center form remnants 4th 17th armies battle took place 1st ukrainian push berlin larger soviet berlin offensive battle fought town polish rural areas northeast situated primarily line major combat began april continued april isolated engagements continued place april polish second army suffered heavy losses aid soviet reinforcements prevented german forces breaking rear according historian battle polish army battles battle sides claimed victory modern views won battle remain contradictory war battle strategic impact ongoing battle berlin german historiography focused tactical aspects german operation successfully recaptured surroundings held end war polish historiography people republic poland portrayed battle difficult victorious fall communism polish historians critical command blaming near destruction polish force incompetence desire capture dresden battle outcome generally seen poland costly victory soviets polish allies background months world war polish second army general took soviet drive berlin marshal 1st ukrainian poles operated centre flanked right 5th guards army left 7th corps opposing forces 4th army general field marshal ferdinand army group center april polish second army breached german defenses rivers pursuit retreating german forces dresden threatened cut additional forces region april elements second army 8th infantry division 1st armored corps engaged germans south pushed remaining units 5th 7th 9th 10th infantry divisions drove dresden gaining river north destroying german forces following day soviet units 7th corps captured parts secured line south taking trapping german formations decided taking dresden securing southern flank plan given concentrating units group region planned launch southern flank polish army aim stop 1st advance break berlin relieve trapped 9th army germans pinning hopes idea soviets long city surrendered western allies concentration units went unnoticed soviet polish reconnaissance prelude opposing forces german forces composed elements 4th army commanded headquarters 57th armored corps battle germans armored divisions 20th divisions infantry division 17th infantry division battle group remnants division force counted soldiers tanks guns supply train 10th division present near polish second army consisted infantry divisions 5th 7th 8th 9th 10th 1st armored corps smaller units men tanks new recruits inexperienced combat incorporated recently polish territories quality officer corps questioned major problems facing people army lack qualified estimate showed army officer soldiers officers polish army soviet officers polish descent overall german units numerous polish forces equipment worn supplies inferior polish sources describe germans experienced german sources mixed structure experienced soldiers inexperienced recruits units battle drive dresden april gap formed polish infantry units 8th 9th infantry divisions 1st armored corps pushing dresden polish units securing region 7th 10th infantry divisions engaged near 5th infantry division 16th tank brigade transit groups polish units stretched line kilometers germans took opportunity presented pushed gap events april marked beginning battle west 20th division commenced drive east 17th infantry division advanced freeing number trapped german troops way germans drove polish second army soviet 52nd army kilometers north east dresden kilometers west sweeping soviet units 48th rifle corps driving major general commander 52nd army rifle division rifle corps mortally wounded polish general continued attempt dresden contributed growing chaos polish forces communication lines cut germans succeeded linking remnants forces throwing local polish soviet forces chaos polish second army lost split groups units polish second army found surrounded particular polish 5th infantry division 16th tank brigade struck rear suffering severe losses headquarters 5th division defended training battalions came attack command group managed break 16th tank brigade unit annihilated losing percent personnel soldiers survived commanding general polish 5th infantry division killed village today captured german members locked barn set fire retreating polish soviet troops april german breakthrough reached river east west main body german force located forested region germans continued push polish retreat eventually halted force advance dresden ordered pull secure breach april ordered 1st armored corps change direction retreat dresden support centre 8th infantry division recalled 9th remained near dresden communication superiors including marshal sent chief staff general chief operations general look situation managed establish communications left charge briefly relieved command incompetence stabilize situation ordered divisions ukrainian reinforce polish positions soviet 14th soviet guards rifle divisions soviet 4th guards tank corps ordered attack stop germans advancing north 2nd air army assigned theater german advance southeast successful soviet rifle division encircled division subsequent breakout april large parts division destroyed time 20th division able contact trapped units town south lost time immediately ordered attack coordinating trapped troops able break town hastily assembled polish counterattack successful recaptured days bloody house house combat remaining pockets resistance town cleared days outside town german advance stalled troops running low fuel supplies recapture successful german tactical victories eastern april polish units able stabilize defense line north day hitler congratulated victory polish 7th 10th infantry divisions ordered advance 7th 10th polish infantry divisions slowly advanced 10th reaching north soviet units right flank secured road 9th division found abandoned polish push dresden received orders retreat april attempting withdraw quickly form main forces intercepted germans sustained heavy losses units moving insufficient security assumption line retreat safe time germans captured polish orders details planned withdrawal routes coordination units lacking 26th infantry regiment 9th division took heavy casualties percent valley death polish military hospital convoy division ambushed near personnel wounded executed casualties survivor chaplain jan division commander colonel taken captive result losses 9th division ceased effective force remaining personnel merged soviet 19th guards rifle division according sources april marks end battle severe isolated clashes region continued april sources note heavy fighting took place april german advance completely halted april end month polish second army soviet forces repelled german attack forming line preparing launch offensive prague aftermath sides suffered heavy casualties polish casualties particularly severe relatively short time polish second army lost percent personnel percent tanks armored vehicles total official estimates claimed casualties including dead estimates polish casualties according polish historian bloody battle polish army involved battle german casualties significant polish soviet ones contemporary polish sources estimated german losses personnel seen inflated estimate german forces failed objective breaking 1st ukrainian coming aid berlin managed inflict casualties local polish soviet units stopped polish drive dresden german hands time german capitulation successful recapture surroundings called successful german armored war surroundings stayed german hands germany capitulation battle strategic impact battle raging berlin allowed participating german units numerous refugees east escape west surrendering western allies historiography despite heavy polish casualties according historian possibly battle largely neglected polish historiography period people republic poland portrayed merely difficult victorious battle fall communism modern polish historians critical command blaming drive dresden near destruction polish force lack according sources included commanding battle drunk briefly relieved command marshal backing soviet high command likely retained position controversies war hailed hero actions polish officers questioned 9th infantry division commander decision advance sufficient reconnaissance escort modern polish historiography battle outcome seen victory costly polish soviet troops noted historians despite heavy casualties polish soviet seriously breached german offensive failure


operation southeast croatia operation southeast croatia german large scale german led counter operation conducted southeastern parts independent state croatia croatian modern day bosnia world war german led operations targeting mainly yugoslav partisans eastern bosnia january february days conclusion operation southeast croatia follow operation known operation carried rivers operations involved croatian home guard italian troops associated known second enemy offensive croatian yugoslav historiography insurgents area operations included groups led communist partisans led partisans split territory military commander serbia following operation happened eastern bosnia areas result rank file groups difficult communist led groups consisted mainly peasants little understanding political aims leaders led insurgents located area operations offered resistance german forces withdrew east river avoid engaged contributed complete partisan cooperation eastern bosnia partisan main force able evade germans infiltrate italian south establish failure axis forces decisively engage partisans operations necessitated major offensive operation trio area immediately south operations southeast croatia taken place background april axis powers invaded yugoslavia multiple directions rapidly overwhelming prepared royal yugoslav army days later aftermath invasion yugoslavia axis powers combination occupation zones outside areas axis puppet state known independent state croatia established territory modern day croatia bosnia divided german italian line known vienna line germans occupying north northeastern parts italians south southwestern sections immediately implemented policies jewish population armed resistance occupation initially formed loosely factions partisans led communists led officers defeated yugoslav army november december partisan forces territory military commander serbia forced withdraw eastern bosnia combined local partisan forces forces eastern bosnia local peasants eastern bosnia meant authorities unable retain control region end partisan detachments eastern bosnia fighters operating areas according early january controlled large portion eastern bosnia including towns continuing cooperation groups shared control towns han partisans planning orders general der lieutenant general paul german military commander serbia directed operation southeast croatia operation persons encountered area operations treated enemy population area targeted operation orthodox serbs muslims small catholic minority believed partisans area winter quarters presence threat major transport routes eastern bosnia operation led german infantry division relieved occupation duties territory military commander serbia bulgarian troops commander infantry division brigadier paul infantry division command duration operation german force assisted croatian home guard units including seven infantry battalions artillery batteries axis allied forces available operation troops total luftwaffe support included reconnaissance aircraft combat squadron offensive targeted areas held partisan detachments south vienna line separating german occupied zone italian occupied zone italians placed total area targeted operation estimated germans contain partisans january infantry division issued orders regiments defined following groups hostile non residents residents absent recently identifiable communists weapons ammunition supplying providing information groups captured partisans briefly interrogated shot insurgents attacked germans caught carrying ammunition messages resisted fled houses shots fired german troops burned january operation southeast croatia commenced january infantry division approached area operations valley east infantry division striking east assembly areas days operation regiment infantry division supported units thrust cleared high ground southwest south town south valley road hindered destroyed bridges followed retreating insurgents valley pushing southwest mountains reaching january parts regiment infantry division fought southwest upper valley elements pushed west followed italian battalion regiment infantry division advanced valley past confluence area west clearing went area captured insurgents loyal tank machine guns rifles large ammunition regiment area west battalion cleared route regiment infantry division reinforced pioneers battalions artillery batteries half german mountain gun batteries pushed east valley mountains fighting difficult terrain captured insurgents significant amounts weapons ammunition freed italian soldiers regiment infantry division regiment reinforced german artillery battery infantry battalion mountain battery moved south assembly area southwest reached january spent following days clearing sides road west planned italian 3rd mountain infantry division provide south blocking southerly withdrawal insurgents occur italians claimed railroad near damaged resulting weeks delay leaders appointed majors aware commencement operation southeast croatia advised commanders operation targeted partisans need involved following units withdrew positions line let germans pass areas went home withdrew territory military commander serbia avoid engaged severely weakened partisan defences result suffered significant casualties lost great deal territory actions severed remaining cooperative links remained partisans eastern bosnia insurgents area operations destroyed villages deny supplies shelter germans operating mountainous terrain snow metre deep facing extreme temperatures approaching partisans proved difficult pin aided excellent communication supported local populace operation decisive engagements partisans mainly region detachment percent partisans eastern bosnia bore fighting operation january initial advances infantry division spent days areas entered regiment advanced south mountains meeting little resistance capturing han january elements regiment pushed west day regiment cleared area killing capturing insurgents captured croatian home guard soldiers regiment patrolled area far operations achieved little insurgents escaped completed infantry division assisted subsequent operations air support bombed january january regiment captured village south following day elements regiment drove closed han day regiment reached insurgents withdrawn area january dramatically altered previous orders treatment encountered area operations directing resist surrendered merely weapons houses treated prisoners war likely change intended assist area operations avoid destruction end january chief staff attempting negotiate cooperation agreement turn ordered command avoid germans surrender weapons immediately unable temporarily improving partisan defences german forces partisan supreme headquarters 1st brigade unable salvage situation retreated south 1st brigade battalions accompanying supreme headquarters crossed mountain plateau near temperatures reaching according commander 1st brigade partisans suffered severe injury died approached german italian line south partisans able infiltrate weak italian partisans crossed attack capturing january january german forces successful han smaller settlements inflicted significant losses partisans failed assist partisans battle yugoslav central committee ceased attempts cooperate issued declaration january serbs muslims leaders proclaimed partisans fought bosnia ended long live united people liberation struggle peoples bosnia detachment commander killed combat germans member supreme headquarters partisans tempo reported detachment completely collapsed faced overly ambitious objectives weather combined operation failed destroy partisan forces called january germans having suffered casualties dead wounded missing cases forces lost soldiers killed seriously wounded germans captured rifles machine guns artillery pieces livestock draft animals partisans lost killed captured addition casualties suffered 1st brigade crossing total italian troops captured partisans freed operation supreme headquarters entered january stayed half months operation operation german aimed clearing estimated partisans area rivers effectively extension operation southeast croatia employing elements force operation main force infantry division reinforced regiment infantry division supported number units including battalion black legion force supported tank armoured train axis troops committed operation commenced days operation southeast croatia ended january germans advanced north west established croatian home guard battalions supported artillery germans believed thoroughly sealed area checked croatian night majority partisans able evade escape breaking small groups seemingly impassable terrain germans believed partisans merely withdrew mountains numbers walking order return valleys axis forces left operation concluded february aftermath operations hampered german need rely croatian allies fact forces ill equipped operations mountainous terrain extreme winter conditions croatian units proven useful addition operation possessed little way fighting power little unit suffered supply problems operations southeast croatia early opportunities germans learn lessons challenges poorly equipped occupation troops faced fighting difficult terrain weather conditions bosnia lessons repeated times following years german commanders persisted tactics expectations achieved given time space following conclusion operations southeast croatia german forces conducted operation northwest bosnia germans inflicted considerable losses partisans captured extensive territory population centres failed eliminate military factor shortly undertake operation trio region immediately south area operations operations southeast croatia


action august action august highly unusual naval engagement took place brazilian coast french revolutionary wars french frigate force raiding british commerce west_africa approached attempted attack convoy valuable east large heavily armed merchant vessels sailing britain british india china ships sailing bay sailing south seas whale fishery small british ship line hms escorted convoy rely ships individual armament protect attack large size east mistaken ships line distance french commander commodore jean convoy formed line battle assuming target fleet powerful warships turned escape british commander captain immediately ordered pursuit preserve impression warships ordered powerful east join chase rapidly ran flagship leaving option surrender resistance rest french squadron continued flee separately night pursued east hour half pursuit darkness falling east exeter came alongside french giving impression use lights large ship line believing captain jean daniel surrendered discovering true identity came aboard action occasion war british merchant vessel captured large french warship background british french war seven years british dominated sea following number significant victories french dutch spanish fleets french port large squadrons british ships line frigates awaited french movements possible intercepted destroyed french merchant vessels warships british trading ships travelled large armed convoys french ships forced slip avoid british blockade counter british control seas french periodically squadrons ships raid british trade lanes particularly west_africa south atlantic stretched royal_navy maintained minimal forces large convoys east principal targets french huge ships sailed britain general cargo military stores troops india ports indian_ocean south east asia china sell tea silk luxury goods making return journey britain round trip took year east sailing britain routinely carry hundreds thousands pounds worth trade goods large convoy sailed january worth million east protected armed guns generally travelled large convoys ships provide mutual protection convoys royal_navy escort usually including ship line march french squadron sailed consisting frigates commodore jean captain jean daniel franchise captain powerful force capable inflicting significant damage lightly defended merchant shipping blockade force squadron sailed southwards reached coast west_africa ships began extended commerce raiding operation inflicting severe damage west african trade rest year eventually strain serving tropical waters told ships forced undergo extensive refit nearest available allied shipyards located spanish held river plate south_america repairs continued months considered squadron ready sail early summer squadron immediately captured american schooner fitted tender time france united_states engaged years quasi war battle british convoy consisted east bombay castle exeter neptune bay ships royal admiral ann sole british warship august near island brazilian coast east catch westerly trade winds carry saint cape good hope destinations august french squadron cruising brazilian coast sighted sails horizon uncertain identity strange ships french gradually closed distance morning seven large vessels smaller ships british unable tell naval ships line east initially thought merchant ships noon sighted double rows ship called attack turning away signalling squadron split assuming enemy large warships easily capable destroying small force captain protested order insisting convoy composed merchant ships warships ruled protests fact correct french flight determined continue ruse convoy consisted warships pursued signalled largest east follow french ships ensure return counterattack convoy engaged exeter captain henry bombay castle captain john hamilton follow captain robert neptune captain follow franchise vessels tons carried cannon crew aboard compete accuracy rate fire men aboard french ships afternoon chase continued steadily gaining french flagship franchise accompanied american schooner gained long range ship returned fire possible exchange gunfire suffered damage casualties ship line clearly gaining frigate minutes surrendered ship destroyed men killed unequal combat franchise dumped large quantity guns supplies overboard ship far pursuit night fell french frigate escape british force escaped bombay castle miles visible horizon exeter able follow frigate closely aware french warship merchant vessel believed frigate effort fight commander believe exeter ship line reinforce image rapidly approaching darkness arranged lights contained cannon creating effect described jack ship drew level french frigate hailed enemy deck calling surrender intimidated large seemingly powerful enemy decided option strike flag come aboard british ship surrender formally arriving board far fewer smaller guns warship normally carried asked surrendered said replied appalled demanded allowed return ship conduct formal naval battle refused aftermath engagement august single man killed wounded action inflicted severe naval defeat powerful french frigate force ending cruise franchise spent weeks brazilian coast returning france august encountered way cape engagement hour british ship succeeded driving attacker followed days gave chase sail left area convoy continued rio_de_janeiro august resupply east went saint way asia bay ships sailed australia sailed south seas captured frigates valuable prizes royal_navy acquired took service hms commissioned instead prison ship years selling frigates come port shortly peace deemed surplus navy requirements ships stores equipment sold privately proceeds sale paid february addition head money financial award french sailor captured engagement commended fight naval battles french serving successful defence china fleet battle february eventually badly wounded captured french frigate squadron fierce defence action july


operation operation code british landing sea italian port taranto second world war operation landings allied invasion italy september undertaken airborne troops british 1st airborne division commanded major general george planned short notice mission followed offer italian government open ports taranto heel italy allies airborne division selected undertake mission time located north_africa shortage transport aircraft meant division land traditional way parachute landing craft area allocated landings operation western coast operation instead division transported mediterranean ships royal_navy landing unopposed airborne division successfully captured ports taranto later adriatic coast working order german forces area elements 1st parachute division division engaged advancing british fighting withdrawal north eventually end september british 1st airborne division advanced miles reinforcements infantry divisions landed allowed airborne troops withdrawn taranto soon division minus 2nd parachute brigade sailed england preparation operation overlord invasion normandy background axis powers nazi_germany fascist italy defeated north african campaign months later allied powers great_britain united_states successfully launched invasion sicily operation island completely occupied end august allies turned attention invasion italy september british eighth army command general bernard montgomery crossed straits sicily landed operation seize ports san main invasion planned september fifth army commanded lieutenant general mark clark landing western coast operation naples immediate objective allies hoped invasion persuade italian forces surrender italian divisions france balkans replaced german formations germans decided continue fight italy divisions engaged eastern occupation duties france secret surrender negotiations allies early september italian government offered open ports taranto eastern coast german forces area weak expected withdraw fight allies landed general dwight supreme allied commander mediterranean quickly planned landing advantage offer operation deception divert german forces away main allied landings day attempting capture taranto intact main value taranto large port seizure expected capture naples west americans allies supply points italian coasts military operation played major political role king iii italy queen crown prince future king prime minister high ranking italian officers hastily escaped rome embarked aboard corvette early morning september later day arrived port town time controlled italian army soon protected british forces supporting diplomatic political military contacts italian government allied forces leading declaration war italy germany taranto founded years taranto fought numerous times combatants ranged arab byzantine middle ages later kingdom sicily kingdom naples unification italy taranto home italian navy taranto capital city province taranto region large dock area includes peter paul protect bay called big sea commercial port located military port located bay base italian navy november taranto attacked british_royal_navy known battle taranto attack carrier borne aircraft night italian fleet lost half strength day undamaged ships transferred taranto naples try protect similar attacks prelude german forces german high command fully expected italy surrender preparation secretly established new army group headquarters commanded munich divisions transferred eastern divisions france reformed parachute divisions based germany new command russian offensive east prevented release units promised adolf_hitler came conclusion backing italian army impossible germans defend italy italy german albert unaware happening germany building strength forces aided escape sicily divisions managed cross straits loss men equipment august infantry divisions moved northern italy loss sicily hitler amended german plans deciding hold naples area infantry divisions 1st parachute division ordered region commanded richard 1st parachute division consisted 1st 3rd 4th parachute regiments artillery regiment tank destroyer anti aircraft engineer battalions support units division successor original german airborne force 7th air division highly experienced spearheaded german invasion west fought battles greece crete soviet_union withdrawn soviet_union division fought british operations sicily september combat battalions headquarters british forces plans formulated september transport british 1st airborne division taranto base north_africa advantage italian surrender capture port establish anti aircraft defences left italian fleet harbour expected left allies believed division face minimal opposition able overcome resistance limited naval support available taranto outside range allied fighter aircraft based sicily formed october british 1st airborne division commanded major general george fought complete division units combat experience 1st parachute brigade fought distinction independent brigade north_africa operation allied invasion sicily 1st brigade battalions fought sicily operation brigades suffered heavy casualties sicily condition undertake assault landings division brigades 2nd 4th brigades battle 2nd parachute brigade strength unit 4th parachute brigade battalions battalion forming palestine sufficient troop transport aircraft support division sized operation allocated airborne division major general matthew landings result 1st airborne division carried italy sea landing craft available short notice division carried mediterranean cruisers hms aurora hms hms hms royal_navy 12th cruiser squadron accompanied hms american cruiser uss commanded commodore landing successful british infantry division sicily 8th indian infantry division middle_east sent reinforce airborne division command corps landing leaving tunisia 1st airborne division divided halves half consisting divisional headquarters 1st 4th parachute brigade groups 9th field company royal engineers boarded royal_navy ships ships departed september decks loaded division vehicles stores admiral fleet sir andrew concerned italian battle fleet based taranto sortie attack cruisers unable defend adequately troops equipment ordered battleships hms howe hms king george escorting destroyers commanded vice admiral arthur power leave base malta join flotilla september convoy sea general broadcast details italian surrender support british landings early september attacked american 17th bombardment groups allied flotilla approached taranto italian battleships cruisers observed leaving harbour flotilla went action stations italian ships sailed past route malta surrender accordance agreement allies italian government flotilla reached minefield guarding entrance taranto destroyer hms negotiated minefield entered harbour hours later returned italian harbour pilot board hms uss guided safely harbour alongside disembarked troops carrying ships flotilla remained outside port small ship boats soldiers ashore port facilities working order soon unloading ships units ashore headquarters 4th parachute brigade 10th parachute battalion directed inland guard german attack airborne division troops entered city welcomed italian defenders informed german forces departed brigades passed city set defensive positions north time major general george established divisional headquarters hotel accepted italian surrender military governor safely landing half division 12th cruiser squadron returned collect remaining troops consisting 2nd parachute brigade 1st brigade pilot regiment casualties landing occurred september hms alongside dock struck sank casualties totaled killed wounded 6th royal parachute battalion dead crew carrying pounder anti tank guns 2nd anti tank battery division reserve ammunition supply overnight 4th parachute brigade led advance inland september reached welcomed population town reached occupied germans germans resistance parachute battalion assault withdrew soon division combat casualties resulted action wounded evacuated taranto parachute field ambulance established bed main dressing station hospital german rearguard tried delay british advance town major general hit burst german machine gun fire observing 10th parachute battalion attack died wounds following day replaced divisional commander brigadier previously commander 2nd parachute brigade hours landing taranto airborne division reached occupied port adriatic coast opposition italian defenders september division left contact 1st canadian infantry division leading unit british eighth army arrived area evening september 1st airborne division advanced miles inland foot airborne division objective airfield del royal_air_force needed airfield bring fighter aircraft sicily support landings gone expected germans continued withdrawal reached night september 10th parachute battalions royal_air_force took airfield hours later squadrons flying base support allied operations september 1st airborne division ordered halt construct defences approaches taranto concerns germans launch counterattack unit corps headquarters landed taranto september prepared arrival divisions british infantry division started arriving september followed 8th indian infantry division taranto day september 1st parachute 1st brigades took advance airborne division september division reached miles taranto airborne division withdrawn taranto november 1st airborne division left england aftermath operation provide diversion general hoped decision oppose landings reference headquarters expected confronted overwhelming allied force withdrawn units north delay allied advance possible german division went allied attempt advance rome battle british 1st airborne division fought battle war year day september took operation market garden airborne assault crossing river rhine netherlands trapped german lines backs river surrounded parts divisions division virtually destroyed battle men started mission evacuated south rhine 1st airborne division flown norway end war accept surrender german forces occupy german held positions operation