rain rain liquid water form condensed atmospheric water precipitated heavy fall gravity rain major component water cycle responsible fresh water earth provides suitable conditions types ecosystems water hydroelectric power plants crop irrigation major cause rain production moisture moving dimensional zones temperature moisture contrasts known weather fronts moisture upward motion present precipitation falls convective clouds strong upward vertical motion thunder clouds organize narrow rainbands mountainous areas heavy precipitation possible flow sides terrain elevation forces moist air fall rainfall sides mountains mountains desert climates exist dry air caused flow causes heating drying air mass movement monsoon trough convergence zone brings rainy seasons savannah urban heat island effect leads increased rainfall amounts intensity cities global warming causing changes precipitation pattern globally including conditions eastern north_america drier conditions tropics antarctica continent globally averaged annual precipitation land earth higher climate classification systems climate classification system use average annual rainfall help differentiate differing climate regimes rainfall measured rain rainfall amounts estimated weather radar rain known suspected planets composed neon acid iron water formation water saturated air air contains water water given mass dry air known mixing ratio measured grams water kilogram dry air moisture air commonly reported relative humidity percentage total water air hold particular air temperature water parcel air contain saturated relative humidity forms cloud group visible tiny water ice particles suspended earth surface depends temperature warmer air contain water cooler air saturated way parcel air cool point temperature parcel cooled order saturated main mechanisms cooling air point cooling cooling cooling cooling cooling occurs air rises expands air rise convection large scale atmospheric motions physical barrier mountain lift cooling occurs air comes contact colder surface usually blown surface example liquid water surface colder land cooling occurs infrared radiation air surface underneath cooling occurs moisture added air forces air temperature cool wet temperature reaches main ways water added air wind convergence areas upward motion precipitation falling daytime heating water surface oceans water bodies wet land plants cool dry air moving warmer water lifting air mountains water normally begins dust ice salt order form clouds elevated portions weather fronts dimensional nature force broad areas upward motion earth atmosphere form clouds decks stable cloud deck tends form cool stable air mass trapped underneath warm air mass form lifting fog breezy conditions occurs water fuse create larger water air resistance typically causes water cloud remain stationary air occurs water producing larger larger water descend continues drops heavy overcome air resistance fall rain generally happens clouds freezing known warm rain process clouds freezing ice crystals gain mass begin fall generally requires mass occurring crystal neighboring water process temperature dependent water exist cloud freezing addition great temperature difference cloud ground level ice crystals melt fall rain sizes ranging mean diameter tend break smaller drops called cloud shape spherical increases size shape largest cross section facing oncoming large rain drops increasingly flattened like large ones shaped like contrary popular belief shape resemble biggest earth recorded brazil marshall islands large large size explained large smoke particles collisions drops small regions particularly high content liquid water rain drops associated melting hail tend larger rain drops intensity duration rainfall usually related high intensity storms likely short duration low intensity storms long duration size distribution final size distribution distribution number diameter formula formula unit volume space formula commonly referred marshall law researchers characterized parameters somewhat temperature dependent slope scales rate rainfall formula centimeters millimetres hour occur small different rainfall conditions distribution tends fit averaged rainfall size modeled gamma distribution upper limit impacts impact terminal velocity greater larger drops larger mass drag ratio sea level wind impacts mph large drops impact mph rain falling loosely packed material newly fallen ash produce air density dependence maximum diameter fossil density air billion years ago sound hitting water caused bubbles air underwater code rain rain showers certain conditions precipitation fall cloud reaching ground termed seen hot dry climates causes frontal activity broad shield precipitation relatively similar intensity dynamic precipitation convective precipitation nature large changes intensity short distances occur consequence slow ascent air systems order vicinity cold fronts near surface warm fronts similar ascent seen tropical cyclones outside eyewall head precipitation patterns mid latitude cyclones wide variety weather found thunderstorms possible usually passage associated drying air mass fronts usually form mature low pressure areas separates rainfall precipitation types ice snow presence thick layer air aloft melting point water frozen precipitation reaches ground shallow near surface layer freezing freezing rain rain contact surfaces environments result hail increasingly occurrence freezing level atmosphere exceeds ground level convection convective rain precipitation occurs convective clouds falls showers rapidly changing intensity convective precipitation falls certain area relatively short time convective clouds limited horizontal extent precipitation tropics appears convective suggested precipitation occurs hail indicate convection mid latitudes convective precipitation intermittent associated boundaries cold fronts lines warm fronts effects precipitation occurs mountains caused rising air motion large scale flow moist air mountain ridge resulting cooling mountainous parts world subjected relatively consistent winds example trade winds moist climate usually mountain moisture removed lift leaving drier air wind descending generally warming rain shadow observed hawaii mount island notable extreme rainfall second highest average annual rainfall earth systems known storms affect state heavy rains october april local climates vary considerably island topography regions based location relative higher mountains sides face east northeast trade winds receive rainfall sides drier rain cloud cover south_america mountain range blocks pacific moisture arrives continent resulting climate western argentina sierra nevada range creates effect north_america forming great basin tropics wet rainy season time year covering months average annual rainfall region falls term green season tourist authorities areas wet seasons dispersed portions tropics climates areas monsoon regimes wet summers dry winters tropical technically dry wet seasons rainfall equally distributed year areas pronounced rainy seasons break rainfall mid season convergence zone monsoon trough location middle warm season wet season occurs warm season summer rain falls mainly late afternoon early evening hours wet season time air quality improves freshwater quality improves vegetation grows significantly tropical cyclones source heavy rainfall consist large air masses miles low pressure centre winds blowing inward centre clockwise direction southern hemisphere counter clockwise northern hemisphere cyclones enormous toll lives personal property important factors precipitation regimes places impact bring needed precipitation dry regions areas path receive year worth rainfall tropical cyclone passage human influence fine matter produced car exhaust human sources pollution forms cloud leads production clouds increases likelihood rain commercial traffic cause pollution build course week likelihood rain increases peaks saturday days weekday pollution built heavily populated areas near coast united_states eastern effect dramatic higher chance rain saturdays urban heat island effect cities surrounding suburbs rural areas extra heat leads greater upward motion induce additional shower thunderstorm activity rainfall rates cities increased partly result warming monthly rainfall greater cities compared cities induce total precipitation increase increasing temperatures tend increase lead precipitation precipitation generally increased land north declined tropics 1970s globally significant overall trend precipitation past century trends varied widely region time eastern portions north south_america northern europe northern central asia mediterranean southern africa parts southern asia drier increase number heavy precipitation events areas past century increase 1970s prevalence especially tropics changes precipitation oceans suggested decreased mid- high latitude waters implying precipitation increased lower latitudes implying precipitation united_states total annual precipitation increased average rate percent greatest increases east north central climate region percent century south percent hawaii region decrease percent analysis years united_states_of_america rainfall records lower states increase heavy largest increases northeast midwest past decade seen percent heavy compared 1950s rhode_island state largest increase texas city largest increase heavy analysis days total precipitation exceeded percent rain snow days years successful attempts influencing weather involve cloud include techniques increase winter precipitation mountains suppress hail characteristics patterns rainbands cloud precipitation areas significantly elongated rainbands convective generated differences temperature noted weather radar imagery precipitation referred banded structure rainbands advance warm fronts warm fronts associated weak upward motion tend wide nature rainbands spawned near ahead cold fronts lines able produce tornadoes rainbands associated cold fronts mountain barriers perpendicular orientation formation low level barrier jet bands thunderstorms form sea breeze land breeze boundaries moisture present sea breeze rainbands active ahead cold mask location cold cyclone trough warm air aloft short caused strong southerly winds eastern periphery rotating aloft northeast ultimately northwestern periphery known warm belt forcing surface trough continue cold sector similar curve creates portion cyclone known head like shape mid accompanies feature focus locally heavy precipitation thunderstorms possible atmosphere unstable convection banding head precipitation pattern extratropical cyclone yield significant amounts rain extratropical cyclones fall winter rainbands form relative warm bodies water great lakes islands bands showers thunderstorms develop low level wind convergence island edges offshore california noted wake cold fronts rainbands tropical cyclones curved orientation tropical cyclone rainbands contain showers thunderstorms eyewall eye constitute hurricane tropical storm extent rainbands tropical cyclone help determine cyclone intensity phrase acid rain scottish chemist robert smith rain varies especially origin america east_coast rain derived atlantic_ocean typically rain comes continental west local thunderstorms low rain acidic primarily presence strong acid acid acid derived natural sources wetlands reducing bacteria sources fossil mining present acid produced natural sources lightning soil bacteria natural fires produced fossil power plants past years concentrations acid decreased presence significant increase likely livestock production acts acid rain raises climate classification classification depends average monthly values temperature precipitation commonly form classification primary types labeled specifically primary types tropical dry mild mid latitude cold mid latitude polar primary classifications divided secondary classifications rain forest monsoon tropical humid subtropical humid continental oceanic climate mediterranean climate climate polar ice cap desert rain forests characterized high rainfall definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall tropical grassland located semi arid semi humid climate regions subtropical tropical latitudes rainfall year widespread africa found india northern parts south_america malaysia australia humid subtropical climate zone winter rainfall associated large storms steer west east summer rainfall occurs thunderstorms occasional tropical cyclones humid subtropical climates lie east continents roughly latitudes degrees away equator oceanic maritime climate typically found west coasts middle latitudes world continents bordering cool oceans southeastern australia accompanied plentiful precipitation year round mediterranean climate regime resembles climate lands mediterranean basin parts western north_america parts western south_australia southwestern south_africa parts central chile climate characterized hot dry summers cool wet winters dry grassland climates cold continuous little precipitation measurement rain measured units length unit time typically millimeters hour countries imperial units common inches hour length accurately depth measured depth rain water accumulate flat horizontal surface given time typically hour millimeter rainfall equivalent water square meter standard way measuring rainfall snowfall standard rain gauge found plastic metal varieties inner cylinder filled rain overflow flowing outer cylinder plastic markings inner cylinder resolution metal require use stick designed appropriate markings inner cylinder filled inside discarded filled remaining rainfall outer cylinder fluid outer cylinder gone adding overall total outer cylinder types include popular wedge gauge rain gauge fragile bucket rain gauge weighing rain gauge looking measure rainfall cylindrical straight sides act rain gauge left open accuracy depend ruler measure rain rain home know precipitation measurement networks exist united_states rainfall measurements submitted internet globe network available area lives nearest local weather met office likely interested measurement remote sensing main uses weather radar able assess fallen large basins purposes instance river flood control sewer management dam construction areas planners use rainfall accumulation data radar derived rainfall estimates compliment surface station data produce radar rain rates point estimated value data individual grid points radar equation formula represents radar represents rainfall rate satellite derived rainfall estimates use passive microwave instruments aboard polar weather satellites indirectly measure rainfall rates wants accumulated rainfall time period add grid box images time intensity rainfall intensity classified according rate precipitation light rain precipitation rate hour moderate rain precipitation rate hour heavy rain precipitation rate hour hour violent rain precipitation rate hour heavy violent rain include trash intensity expressed rainfall factor return period likelihood probability event specified intensity duration called return period frequency intensity storm predicted return period storm duration charts based historic data location term year storm describes rainfall event rare likely occur years percent likelihood given year rainfall greater flooding worse worst storm expected single year term year storm describes rainfall event extremely rare occur likelihood century percent likelihood given year rainfall extreme flooding worse year event probability events possible multiple year storms single year precipitation forecast abbreviated expected liquid precipitation accumulated specified time period specified area specified precipitation type reaching minimum threshold forecast hour valid period precipitation forecasts tend bound hours terrain considered use topography based precipitation patterns observations fine detail starting mid late 1990s forecast models simulate impact rivers united_states forecast models significant sensitivity humidity levels boundary layer lowest levels atmosphere decreases height generated amounts probability specific basis radar imagery techniques higher skill model forecasts hours time radar image forecasts verified use rain gauge measurements weather radar estimates combination skill scores determined measure value rainfall forecast impact effect agriculture precipitation especially rain dramatic effect agriculture plants need water survive rain effective means important agriculture regular rain pattern usually vital healthy plants little rainfall harmful devastating crops drought kill crops increase erosion overly wet weather cause harmful fungus growth plants need varying amounts rainfall survive example certain require small amounts water tropical plants need hundreds inches rain year survive areas wet dry seasons soil nutrients diminish erosion increases wet season animals adaptation survival strategies regime previous dry season leads food shortages wet season crops mature developing countries noted populations seasonal weight fluctuations food shortages seen harvest occurs late wet season rain harvested use tanks treated use non use indoors irrigation excessive rain short periods time cause flash floods culture cultural attitudes rain differ world temperate climates people tend stressed weather unstable cloudy impact greater men women rain bring joy consider enjoy aesthetic appeal dry places india periods drought rain lifts people moods word rain national currency recognition economic importance rain desert country cultures developed means dealing rain developed numerous protection devices diversion devices storm drains lead rains people find scent immediately rain pleasant distinctive source scent oil produced plants absorbed rocks soil later released air rainfall global approximately water falls precipitation year globe oceans given earth surface area means globally averaged annual precipitation defined areas average annual precipitation year areas water lost falls precipitation northern half africa occupied world extensive hot dry region desert occupying southern africa asia large annual rainfall minimum composed primarily stretches desert west southwest western pakistan iran arabian desert saudi_arabia australia semi arid desert making world inhabited continent south_america mountain range blocks pacific moisture arrives continent resulting climate western argentina drier areas united_states regions desert desert southwest great basin central wyoming polar desert rain falls liquid frozen temperatures rain fall result cold climates little rainfall known polar common area short summer long frozen winter ice caps rain making antarctica world continent areas world high rainfall tropical temperate exist tropical occupy large band planet equator temperate located mountainous west coasts degrees latitude found areas life found responsible world oxygen turnover region near convergence zone monsoon trough portion world continents annually rain belt tropics marches northward august moves southward southern hemisphere february march asia rainfall favored southern portion india east northeast philippines southern china japan monsoon moisture primarily indian_ocean region monsoon trough reach far north 40th parallel east asia august moving southward progression accelerated onset summer monsoon characterized development lower air pressure thermal low asia similar weaker monsoon present north_america australia summer southwest monsoon combined gulf california gulf_of_mexico moisture moving subtropical ridge atlantic_ocean bring promise afternoon evening thunderstorms southern tier united_states great plains eastern half united_states east mountains pacific_northwest sierra nevada range portions nation average rainfall exceeding year tropical cyclones enhance precipitation southern sections united_states puerto_rico united_states virgin islands northern islands guam american impact westerly flow mild north_atlantic leads western_europe particular ireland united_kingdom western coasts receive sea level mountains rain year bergen norway famous european rain cities yearly precipitation average fall winter spring pacific storm systems bring hawaii western united_states precipitation ridge jet stream brings summer precipitation maximum great lakes large thunderstorm areas known convective complexes plains midwest great lakes warm season contributing annual precipitation region southern affects precipitation distribution altering rainfall patterns western united_states midwest southeast tropics evidence global warming leading increased precipitation eastern portions north_america frequent tropics known locations situated southern slopes eastern india confirmed place earth average annual rainfall highest recorded rainfall single year year average nearby india spot australia mount north east country records average year rain recorded mount island hawaiian islands averages rain year years record summit considered spots earth promoted tourist literature years spot world town situated colombia probably place largest rainfall world averaging year department humid small town situated department estimated places earth averaging year town received largest annual rainfall measured colombia unlike receives rainfall april september receives rain uniformly distributed year capital receives rain world cities inhabitants year storms drop rainfall day falls cities year time outside earth saturn largest natural satellite rain thought moon numerous surface channels venus acid surface likely rain compositions upper gas giants precipitation liquid neon deep planet iron rain


outflow boundary outflow boundary known gust storm scale boundary separating thunderstorm cooled air outflow surrounding air similar effect cold passage marked wind shift usually drop temperature related pressure jump outflow boundaries persist hours thunderstorms generated dissipate travel hundreds kilometres miles area origin new thunderstorms develop outflow boundaries especially near point intersection boundary cold dry line outflow boundary etc outflow boundaries seen fine lines weather radar imagery arcs low clouds weather satellite imagery ground outflow boundaries located appearance roll clouds shelf clouds outflow boundaries create low level wind shear hazardous aircraft landings thunderstorm runs outflow boundary low level wind shear boundary cause thunderstorms exhibit rotation base storm times causing activity strong versions features known generated environments vertical wind shear mid level dry air diameter influence kilometres occur diameter greater kilometres wet occur low levels saturated dry occur drier high based thunderstorms outflow boundary moves stable low level environment region cooler air regions cooler water temperatures sea lead development bore definition outflow boundary known gust arc cloud leading edge gusty cooler surface winds thunderstorm associated shelf cloud roll cloud pressure jump associated passage outflow boundaries persist hours travel hundreds kilometers miles area origin wrapping gust cutting warm moist air resulting case event collapsing storm wind literally apart origin localized column sinking air known producing damaging straight line winds surface similar distinguishable tornadoes generally damage term defined affecting area kilometres diameter distinguishing type apart common wind shear encompass greater areas normally associated individual thunderstorms presence mid level dry air cooling organized areas thunderstorm activity reinforce pre existing frontal zones cold fronts occurs pattern upper level jet splits streams resultant convective system forms point upper level split wind pattern area best low level convection moves east equator warm sector parallel low level thickness lines convection strong linear curved called line feature placed leading edge significant wind shift pressure rise normally ahead radar signature feature commonly depicted warm season united_states surface analyses lie sharp surface normally associated lines strong larger kilometres wet consists precipitation atmosphere saturated low levels dry high based thunderstorms falling base types formed precipitation cooled air rushing surface occur large areas extreme case cover huge area miles wide miles long lasting hours associated intense straight line winds process somewhat different appearance ground level shelf clouds roll clouds seen leading edge outflow boundaries satellite imagery arc cloud visible arc low clouds spreading thunderstorm skies cloudy arc arc moving quickly indicate high wind gusts likely gust gust seen weather radar showing thin arc line weak radar pushing collapsing storm thin line weak radar echoes known fine line occasionally winds caused gust high velocity radar cool storms hits assisting gust fronts storms create new storms usually rain accompanies shifting winds expansion rain shaft near ground level general shape human foot sign short lived vertical near ground level spawned outflow boundaries effects gust fronts create low level wind shear hazardous planes takeoff land flying insects swept prevailing winds fine line patterns weather radar imagery associated winds dominated insect returns surface clouds dust raised outflow boundaries lines form arid regions known result high winds picking dust wake desert floor outflow boundaries areas atmosphere stable low levels colder pockets ocean cold sector extratropical cyclones create phenomenon known bore shows satellite radar imagery series transverse waves cloud field oriented perpendicular low level winds


event event natural phenomenon large break glaciers traverse north_atlantic described marine occurred past glacial periods ice ages particularly documented glacial period contained rock mass eroded glaciers melted matter dropped sea floor ice debris abbreviated melting caused amounts fresh water added north_atlantic cold fresh water altered density driven circulation patterns ocean coincide indications global climate fluctuations mechanisms proposed explain cause events implies instability massive ice sheet continental covering north_america glacial period northern hemisphere ice sheets potentially involved scandinavia iceland greenland initial cause instability debated description strict definition events climatic event causing layer observed marine sediment north_atlantic massive collapse northern hemisphere ice shelves consequent release volume extension events refer associated climatic registered places globe approximately time periods events rapid probably millennium duration varying event abrupt onset occur mere years events clearly observed north_atlantic marine sediment covering glacial period lower resolution record point makes difficult occurred glacial periods earth history bond identify younger event event events appear related cold periods preceding rapid warming events known events best recorded greenland ice core difficulties marine sediment greenland ice time scale cast accuracy statement potential climatic events original observations layers ocean sediment extremely high proportions rocks continental origin fragments size range larger size transported ocean currents interpreted having carried sea ice broke glaciers ice shelves dumped sea floor melted analyses provide information origin debris large ice sheet covering north_america events contrary european ice sheets minor events signature events sediment varies considerably distance source region events origin belt known belt expanding north american source europe order magnitude sea european end present route events huge volumes fresh water flow ocean event based model study oceanic oxygen fresh water estimated duration years equivalent fresh water volume million sea level rise geological approximately time events difficulties precise dating difficult tell events cases related events marked following changes increased northern seas east asian suggests falling global temperature rising ice volume bar decreased oceanic influx fresh water decreased sea surface temperature estimates west african coast known changes disturbance caused animals changes decreased indications cold loving replacing oaks north american mainland decreased abundance nature samples attributed bias related reduced bond increased runoff continents measured near mouth amazon river increased grain size wind blown china suggesting stronger winds porter changes relative abundance reflecting variations ocean current velocity increased deposition rates northern atlantic reflected increase derived sediments relative background global extent records illustrates dramatic impact events unusual events share convincing suite event symptoms events led researchers suggest true events bond suggestion events fitting year cycle suspect lines evidence suggest different events peaks far smaller proportion grains observed means role continents providing sediments oceans relatively lower dissolution tests appear eroded indicate influx nutrient rich water oceanic circulation patterns ice appear flowed hudson appear flowed ice debris distribution sediment transported ice extend far_east researchers moved suggest european origin america europe originally adjacent rocks continent difficult distinguish source open interpretation causes climate related issues system far complex assigned single cause possible drivers fall categories internal purge model model suggests factors internal ice sheets cause periodic major ice volumes responsible events gradual accumulation ice ice sheet led gradual increase mass phase sheet reached critical mass soft sub glacial sediment formed slippery ice sheet slid purge phase lasting years original model proposed heat caused sub glacial sediment ice volume large prevent escape heat atmosphere mathematics system consistent year similar observed events events purge model loses credibility predicted key assumptions appear suspect similar events observed ice ages lack high resolution sediments addition model reduced size ice sheets pleistocene reduce size impact frequency events reflected evidence external factors external ice sheets cause events factors large overcome huge volumes ice involved bond suggests changes solar energy year scale cycles turn events small magnitude change energy makes terrestrial factor unlikely required large effects huge positive feedback processes acting earth system warming melting ice possible sea level change associated warming ice shelves rise sea level begin ice sheet ice sheet failed ice released raise sea levels ice sheets favour theory non ice sheet break european breakup preceded european melting years atlantic heat piracy model suggests changes oceanic circulation cause hemisphere oceans warmer expense currently gulf stream warm waters northern seas addition fresh water northern oceans reduce strength gulf stream allow southwards current develop instead cause cooling northern hemisphere warming southern causing changes ice accumulation melting rates possibly triggering shelf destruction events model suggests sea level rise lifted ice shelves causing destruction floating ice shelf support continental ice sheets flow oceans sea ice freshwater addition implicated coupled ocean atmosphere climate modeling showing events behaviour means relatively minor changes freshwater loading seas increase decrease cause profound shifts global circulation results event cause cooling greenland south subtropical atlantic finding supported available data idea connected events suggested ice sheet conditions stability melting influx freshwater ocean currents causing melting specifically cold events associated influx reduce strength north_atlantic deep water current weakening northern hemisphere circulation resulting increased transfer heat southern hemisphere warmer water results melting ice reducing density strength water current allows return previous strength driving northern hemisphere melting cold event eventually accumulation melting reaches threshold raises sea level ice sheet causing event cycle hunt proposed events caused earthquakes triggered near ice margin rapid


history numerical weather prediction history numerical weather prediction considers current weather conditions input mathematical models atmosphere oceans predict weather future sea state process numerical weather prediction changed years attempted manually 1920s advent computer computer simulation time reduced forecast period create forecasts computer years powerful computers increase size initial include complicated versions motion development global models led climate models development limited area regional models facilitated advances tracks tropical cyclone air quality 1970s 1980s output forecast models based atmospheric dynamics requires near ground level model output statistics developed 1970s 1980s individual forecast points locations apply statistical techniques post process output models recent surface observations forecast point technique correct model resolution model increasing power forecast skill numerical weather models extends weeks future density quality observations chaotic nature partial differential forecast introduce errors double days use model ensemble forecasts 1990s helps define forecast uncertainty extend weather farther future possible background end 19th century weather prediction entirely based rules limited understanding physical mechanisms weather processes cleveland founder united_states weather_bureau proposed atmosphere governed principles studied previous century derived step procedure model based weather step process data generate initial conditions advanced time step initial value problem identified seven defined state atmosphere given point pressure temperature density humidity components flow velocity pointed based mass continuity conservation momentum second laws ideal gas law estimate state atmosphere future numerical methods exception second law form basis primitive present day weather models lewis richardson published attempt weather numerically variation primitive richardson produced hand hour forecast state atmosphere points central europe taking weeks forecast calculated change surface pressure inhg unrealistic value incorrect orders magnitude large error caused pressure wind velocity fields initial conditions analysis successful numerical prediction performed digital computer team composed american philip thompson larry gates norwegian applied mathematician john von simplified form atmospheric dynamics based solving equation single layer atmosphere computing height atmosphere inhg pressure surface greatly reduced demands computer time memory performed relatively primitive computers day news weather forecast received richardson remarked results enormous scientific advance calculations hour forecast took nearly hours produce group noted time spent manual operations expressed hope forecasts weather occurs soon realized early years september assembled international group stockholm produced operational forecast routine predictions practical use based equation operational numerical weather prediction united_states began joint numerical weather prediction unit joint project air_force navy weather_bureau model originally layer model developed modeled atmosphere northern hemisphere switched layer model developed thompson gates main assumption model magnitude thermal wind change direction change respect height atmosphere simulated inhg inhg height surfaces average thermal wind low skill showed model reverted single layer model japanese meteorological agency organization initiate operational numerical weather prediction real time forecasts australia bureau portions southern hemisphere based single layer model later models complete atmospheric dynamics produced reasonable primitive equation forecast years richardson failed attempt removing small numerical model west_germany united_states began producing operational forecasts based primitive equation models followed united_kingdom australia later additions primitive equation models allowed additional insight different weather phenomena united_states solar radiation effects added primitive equation model moisture effects heat added feedback effects rain convection incorporated years later global forecast model introduced sea ice began forecast models efforts involve sea surface temperature model began role weather higher latitudes pacific global forecast models global forecast model weather model forecasts weather earth computer program produces meteorological information future times given locations altitudes modern model set known primitive predict future state atmosphere ideal gas law evolve density pressure potential temperature fields flow velocity field atmosphere time additional transport included primitive equation high resolution models partial differential impossible solve exactly methods exception cases numerical methods obtain approximate solutions different models use different solution methods global models regional models use finite difference methods spatial dimensions global models regional models use methods horizontal dimensions finite difference methods vertical national meteorological center global model introduced august european centre medium range weather forecasts model debuted united_kingdom met office running global model late 1980s adding var data scheme canadian meteorological centre running global model united_states ran grid model features lasting late environmental modeling center ran aviation model shorter range forecasts medium range forecast model longer time ranges time model extended end forecast period eliminating need replacing late model renamed global forecast system german weather service running global model grid slated eventually supplanted flow following finite volume model like truncated global climate models norman phillips developed mathematical model depict monthly seasonal patterns successful climate model following phillips work groups began working create general circulation models general circulation climate model combined oceanic atmospheric processes developed late 1960s fluid dynamics laboratory early 1980s united_states national center atmospheric research developed community atmosphere model model continuously refined 2000s efforts began model soil vegetation types led realistic forecasts example center ocean land atmosphere studies model showed warm temperature bias low precipitation bias incorrect crop vegetation type central united_states coupled ocean atmosphere climate models centre climate prediction research model currently climate change studies importance gravity waves neglected models mid-1980s gravity waves required global climate models order properly simulate regional global scale broad spectrum makes incorporation complicated climate system model developed national center atmospheric research january limited area models horizontal domain model global covering entire earth regional covering earth regional models known limited area models allow use finer smaller grid global models available resources focused specific area instead spread globe allows regional models resolve explicitly smaller scale meteorological phenomena represented grid global model regional models use global model initial conditions edge domain order allow systems outside regional model domain area uncertainty errors regional models introduced global model boundary conditions edge regional model errors regional model united_states operational regional model limited area fine model introduced development halted frozen debuted create model output statistics united_states development frozen model implemented united_states turn upgraded offers rapid replaced short range high resolution applications rapid built framework france running action model france based global model july bureau implemented limited area prediction system laps canadian regional finite elements model went operational use april followed canadian global environmental model gem model february german weather service developed high resolution regional model widely run operational research meteorological communities run assumptions prediction system developed southernmost continent united_states program german non europe run increase domain operational september japanese meteorological agency run high resolution non model september air quality models technical literature air pollution extensive dates 1930s earlier early air derived pearson equation assume distribution include effect ground reflection sir graham derived air equation include assumption distribution vertical included effect ground reflection provided advent stringent environmental control regulations immense growth use air calculations late 1960s today great computer programs calculating air emissions developed period time called air models basis models complete equation modeling continuous air pollution air equation requires input centerline height ground level sum actual physical height source point plus rise determine air models developed late 1960s early 2000s known published rise observations comparisons sponsored conservation clean air water europe compared rise models available literature year wrote section publication edited dealing comparative analyses rise models followed classical critical review entire rise literature proposed set rise widely known subsequently modified rise urban model regional forecast model effects air pollution acid rain developed private company usa development model taken environmental protection agency improved mid late 1970s results regional air pollution study developed california model later areas north_america europe asia 1980s community air quality model open source air quality model run united_states conjunction model operational air quality model canada canadian regional system began run replaced global environmental model modelling air quality chemistry gem model november tropical cyclone models model forecast storm surge continental shelf developed known special program list hurricanes splash hurricane tracking model based atmospheric dynamics fine model began operating field tropical cyclone track despite improving model guidance occurred increased power decade 1980s numerical weather prediction showed skill 1990s consistently statistical simple models early 1980s satellite derived winds water infrared visible satellite imagery found improve tropical cyclones track fluid dynamics laboratory hurricane model research purposes mid-1980s determined skill hurricane prediction multi year transition transformed research model operational model national_weather_service hurricane weather research model specialized version weather research model forecast track intensity tropical cyclones model developed national oceanic atmospheric administration naval research laboratory university rhode_island florida state university operational despite improvements track predictions intensity tropical cyclone based numerical weather prediction continue challenge methods continue higher skill guidance ocean models ocean wave models developed 1960s 1970s models tendency role wind wave development wave interactions lack knowledge concerning waves interacted assumptions maximum wave height deficiencies computer power limited performance models experiments performed wind input earth atmosphere weighted accurately predictions second generation models developed 1980s model swell depict wind driven waves known wind waves caused rapidly changing wind fields tropical cyclones caused development generation wave models onward generation models wave transport equation describe change wave spectrum changing topography wave generation wave movement propagation fluid wave energy transfer waves wave dissipation surface winds primary forcing mechanism wave transport equation ocean wave models use information produced numerical weather prediction models determine energy transferred atmosphere layer surface ocean dissipation energy resonance waves surface winds numerical weather models allow accurate predictions state sea surface model output statistics forecast models based atmospheric dynamics perfectly determine weather conditions near ground statistical developed attempt resolve problem statistical models created based dimensional fields produced numerical weather models surface observations conditions specific locations statistical models collectively referred model output statistics developed national_weather_service suite weather models united_states_air_force developed set based weather model proposed edward impossible long range forecasts weeks advance predict state atmosphere degree skill owing chaotic nature fluid dynamics involved extremely small errors temperature winds initial given numerical models double days furthermore existing observation networks limited spatial temporal resolution example large bodies water pacific_ocean introduces uncertainty true initial state atmosphere set known exists determine initial uncertainty model complex run real time use limit forecast model accuracy days future edward recognized atmosphere completely described single forecast run inherent uncertainty proposed dynamic model produced means state atmosphere showed skill cecil revealed produced adequate forecasts ensemble probability distribution representative sample probability distribution atmosphere ensemble forecasts began prepared european centre medium range weather forecasts canadian meteorological centre national centers environmental prediction model ensemble prediction system uses singular simulate initial probability density ensemble global ensemble system uses technique known breeding


climate florida climate north central parts state florida humid subtropical south florida tropical climate defined rainy season october air mass build heat day drop heavy brief summer rainfall late summer early fall bring decaying tropical lows occasionally tropical cyclones contribute late summer early fall rains october dry season sets florida lasts late april years fronts regularly sweep northern central parts state bring winter rainfall winter dry sunny florida end dry season spring brush fires common statewide years dry season severe florida water restrictions imposed conserve water areas florida experience type frozen precipitation north florida snow times decade gulf stream running florida straits north florida east_coast keeps temperatures moderate miles inland stuart east_coast west state year round extremes temperature pressure low pressure measured extratropical cyclone inches hpa storm century tropical cyclone lowest pressure measured inches hpa florida keys labor day hurricane highest known pressure measured statewide inches hpa february january wind winter prevailing winds north panhandle south near orlando variable rest state summer season sees generally east southeast winds peninsula summer months average wind pattern implies surface ridge axis normally lies central florida easterly winds tampa southward southwest winds northern florida peak wind gust period mph knots miami international airport hurricane andrew african dust july trade winds south northward moving subtropical ridge expand northwestward florida occasion dust moving southern periphery ridge moves state suppressing rainfall changing sky blue white appearance leads increase red presence negatively impacts air quality southeastern united_states summer adding count airborne sharp contrast normally clean air florida southeastern usa average air usa african dust reaches united_states affects florida dust worsened periods drought africa large dust transport caribbean florida year year dust events possibly linked decline health coral reefs caribbean florida primarily 1970s winter average florida winters united_states average lows range key west near degrees daytime highs range miami predominant easterly winds southern florida temperatures moderate winter nearby gulf stream cooler air moving northeast gulf stream little effect strong cold fronts southward peninsula freezing temperatures unusual inland areas south florida miami experiencing occasional temperatures winters tend cooler increased cloud cover tend fewer zones exist zone coastal south florida annual extreme low temperatures range zone found central florida low temperatures range zone located northern florida roughly northwest including low temperatures range summer summer range near northern florida near keys high temperatures summer average lower 90s statewide relief heat summer comes form afternoon evening thunderstorm activity late morning afternoon sea relatively cooler ocean passage tropical cyclone passage cold state rare warm season record high temperature state fog like remainder southeastern united_states florida winter maximum dense fog conditions unlike remainder region maximum florida contains roughly half annual occurrences year average summer minimum remainder southeast annual number heavy fog days visibility miles ranged key west region state types fog common florida fog hazardous early morning january fog interstate combined smoke nearby fire visibility reduced nearly zero result individuals died car precipitation averages statewide highest rainfall amounts occur summer months northern florida weak winter secondary maximum statewide months year spring florida sees greater rainfall november march lack secondary maximum peninsula distinct dry season seen averages winter spring dry season brush fires annually temperatures rise late spring fade early june rainy season gets underway extremes heaviest rainfall occur hours measured hurricane easy inches highest known point storm total maximum related tropical cyclone impacted florida highest known rainfall total month location florida rainfall remained national hour rainfall record tropical storm heavy rainfall events fallen stalled fronts near state occur march october november month recorded florida climate station florida received inches year record florida climate station inches fell pensacola florida year climate station statewide inches fell key west worst years end cycle consumed acres km2 statewide national_weather_service issued fire florida nation statewide drought began november month hurricane passage state persisted previous significant drought occurred state year record snowfall earliest recorded occurrence snow occurred latest occurrence snow spring fell january cold brought scattered snow widespread freezing rain especially northern central portions state state record snowfall inches set northern florida january earliest season frozen precipitation fallen late november easter november central florida latest season snow fallen april trace snowfall recorded far south homestead mainly january event thunderstorms florida reports thunderstorms state places report excess thunderstorm days year making florida regions outside tropics florida receives highest density lightning strikes united_states deaths year blamed lightning making lightning deadliest weather related phenomenon state number lightning deaths slowly dropping despite rising population suggesting lightning awareness programs effective likely targets lightning strikes construction workers work outside percent cases occurred indoors people electronic devices severe thunderstorms produce hail strong straight line winds tornadoes heavy rainfall thunderstorms result flash flooding thunderstorms occur summer occur time year tornadoes tornadoes square mile florida state tornadoes tend weaker short lived states like midwest great plains strong tornadoes occasionally form florida usually cold frontal passage winter spring total people died february deadliest tornado outbreak central florida occurred nighttime hours tornadoes midwest severe higher rate deaths experienced florida county specifically higher population density quantity manufactured homes tropical cyclones earliest year tropical cyclone struck sunshine state day tropical storm latest impact hurricane struck near tampa december strongest hurricane strike florida labor day hurricane hurricane easy produced known point total tropical cyclone record number hurricane strikes state season hurricanes typically spawn tornadoes northeast quadrant tropical cyclones affected florida month year january march nearly cyclones affected state september nearly storms affected state august october peak hurricane season portions coastline lowest return period frequency certain intensity category hurricane expected given location country monroe county struck hurricanes greatest total county united_states effect climate cycles following effects florida climate average rainfall spring followed threat rain northern florida susceptible severe weather normal temperatures increased number low pressure systems gulf_of_mexico winter reduces frequency storms hurricanes following effects dry conditions prevail late fall winter early spring increased risk spring summer months temperatures average slightly normal chance hurricane activity increases substantially long term forecasts based effects easily winter arctic north_atlantic predicted weeks advance drop temperature noticeably seasonal norms climates selected florida cities climate regime state humid subtropical portions gold coast southeast florida florida keys qualify tropical wet dry narrow eastern state including orlando jacksonville receives hours sunshine annually rest state including miami receives hours annually


medal honor medal honor united_states_of_america highest military honor awarded personal acts duty medal awarded president united_states congress military personnel versions medal army navy air_force personnel marine_corps coast guard receive navy version medal honor created navy version named medal army version medal named medal honor established recognition men distinguished gallantry combat enemy united_states medal presented congress referred congressional medal honor official medal honor began army version united_states code medal referred medal honor frequently congressional medal honor medal honor usually presented president formal ceremony white_house intended represent gratitude american people posthumous presentations primary according medal honor historical society united_states medals honor awarded nation soldiers sailors airmen marines coast decoration creation half awarded actions years american_civil_war congress designated march annually national medal honor day prestige status medal honor afforded special protection law unauthorized sale manufacture includes associated ribbon badge history fidelity small medal worn chain neck similar religious medal awarded new_york state capture john british officer spy connected directly general arnold american british american revolutionary war capture saved fort west_point british_army badge military merit formal system rewarding acts individual gallantry american soldiers established george_washington issued field order august badge military merit recognize members continental_army performed singular action decoration america combat decoration preceded fidelity congressional medal henry lee awarded september recognition attack british hook congressional medal general gates awarded november recognition victory british congressional medal george_washington awarded march badge military merit fell american revolutionary war concept military award individual gallantry members armed forces established certificate merit outbreak mexican american war certificate merit service citation certificate established act congress march private soldier distinguished gallantry performed presence enemy certificates approved period certificate discontinued reintroduced effective june february awarded extraordinary gallantry private soldiers presence enemy february july certificate merit awarded members army distinguished service combat january july certificate granted medal status certificate merit medal awarded soldier awarded certificate merit combat action august medal later replaced army distinguished service medal established january navy distinguished service medal established army members held distinguished service medal place certificate merit apply army distinguished service cross established effective march medal military awards medals beginning civil war certificate merit awarded mexican american war fall proposal battlefield decoration submitted scott general chief army colonel edward assistant adjutant war department scott chief staff scott strictly medals awarded european tradition scott retired october secretary navy adopted idea decoration recognize honor distinguished naval service december senator iowa james chairman committee naval affairs proposed public resolution number bill 37th congress second session promote efficiency navy included provision navy medal signed law president abraham_lincoln december medal honor established navy bestowed petty officers seamen marines shall distinguish gallantry seamen like qualities present war secretary wells directed philadelphia mint design new military decoration united_states_navy department ordered medals words personal mint philadelphia medal honor senator henry wilson chairman senate committee military affairs introduced resolution february army medal honor resolution 37th congress second session approved congress signed law july medals honor established enlisted men army measure provided awarding medal honor non commissioned officers shall distinguish gallantry action soldier like qualities present insurrection war medals delivered recipients letter requesting medal honor letter written signed behalf secretary war stated resolution provide presentation medals honor enlisted men army volunteer forces distinguished distinguish battle present rebellion mid november war department contracted philadelphia william wilson son responsible navy design prepare army medals cast mint army version congress written medal versions copper coated bronze gave reddish congress medal honor permanent decoration march medals honor authorized officers army 37th congress session secretary war presented medal honor union_army volunteers march office april medal honor legion established washington ribbon army version medal honor redesigned stripes vertical army version medal honor redesigned general george lewis purpose redesign help distinguish medal honor medals including medal issued grand army republic march navy marine_corps coast guard officers eligible medal honor separate coast guard medal authorized designed awarded separate design version medal air_force created authorized officially adopted april previously members army air corps army air forces air_force received army version medal appearance versions medal honor military departments department defense army navy air_force members marine_corps coast guard eligible receive navy version constructed differently components metals red brass gold plating bronze pieces united_states congress considered bill require medal honor gold composition lesser known congressional gold medal measure dropped army medal honor army version described institute gold pointed star point tipped inches wide surrounded green laurel suspended gold bar inscribed eagle center star head surrounded words united_states_of_america ray star green oak leaf reverse bar engraved congress space recipient suspension bar metal eye jump rings suspension ring red brass finish suspension bar hard gold rose gold polished highlights navy marine coast guard medal honor navy version described pointed bronze star tipped containing crown laurel oak center united_states standing left hand resting right hand holding shield shield coat arms united_states represented snakes medal suspended anchor solid red brass air_force medal honor air_force version described green laurel gold pointed star point tipped point containing crown laurel oak green background centered star stars representation head statue liberty star suspended bar inscribed word adaptation air_force coat arms metal connecting bar pin bronze finish suspension bar hard gold rose gold relief neck ribbon service ribbon button device medal honor attached light blue colored silk neck ribbon width length center ribbon displays thirteen white stars form middle stars stars medal honor united_states military awards suspended neck ribbon commander degree legion merit usually awarded individuals serving foreign governments congress authorized ribbon worn medal knot worn lieu medal service ribbon light blue white stars form placed position order precedence worn situations dress military uniform button inch sided light blue thirteen white stars worn appropriate civilian clothing left department defense instructions amended read succeeding act justify award medal honor individual receiving subsequent award authorized wear additional medal honor ribbon device medal honor suspension ribbon device inch high bronze miniature letter denotes medal honor decoration authorized use device designate subsequent awards fashion nineteen individuals deceased double medal honor recipients discontinued july changed read separate presented individual succeeding act justified award devices authorized medal honor historical versions medal honor evolved appearance time upside star design navy version adopted early changed inception army version followed identical navy version eagle atop cannons instead anchor connect suspension ribbon army version changed ribbon design colors imitation organizations army version introduced smaller redesigned star ribbon changed light blue pattern white stars seen today navy version adopted ribbon pattern world war navy decided separate medal honor versions combat non combat original upside star designated non combat version new pattern medal cross form designed company presented sailor marine action involving actual conflict enemy distinguish gallantry risk life duty despite actual conflict guidelines cross awarded navy later richard floyd bennett arctic exploration cross popular navy returned original inverted point star design ceased issuing award non combat action suspension army navy version replaced familiar neck ribbon air_force version designed incorporated similar elements design army version larger star statue liberty image place medal changed connecting device eagle flanked wings found service seal flag october pub enacted modifying authorizing medal honor flag presented recipients decoration flag based concept retired army special forces sergeant bill jefferson iowa designed flag honor medal honor recipient captain pilot jefferson killed world war design light blue field white pointed stars nearly identical sarah institute design ultimately accepted official flag include words medal honor fringed gold color field white stars arranged form bar consisting stars stars emulate suspension ribbon medal honor flag set proportions medal honor recipient receive official medal honor flag sergeant class paul smith medal honor flag presented president george bush family ceremony white_house april special medal honor flag presentation ceremony held living medal honor recipients board uss constitution september presenting distinct awarding medal honor common nomination approval chain command service member second method nomination member congress generally request constituent cases proposal outside time limits recommendation approval time limit requires special act congress medal honor presented president behalf congress nearly medal honor recipients case posthumous awards personally decorated commander chief half medals honor awarded posthumously evolution criteria 1800s months president abraham_lincoln signed public resolution law december navy medal honor similar resolution passed july army version medal union_army soldiers confederate locomotive named general medal honor recipients james civilian led raid caught hanged union spy civilian eligible receive medal medals honor awarded 19th century associated saving flag country patriotic reasons flag primary means battlefield communication time military decoration authorized civil war seemingly exceptional notable actions recognized medal honor conflict 1900s early twentieth century navy awarded medals honor peacetime bravery instance john henry aboard uss chicago awarded medal saving ship cook drowning seven sailors aboard uss iowa awarded medal ship boiler exploded january richard floyd bennett awarded medal combat version despite existence non combat form navy medal flight claim reached north pole admiral thomas ryan awarded medal saving woman burning grand hotel japan following great earthquake navy issued separate versions medal honor acts related combat non combat bravery criteria award world war army version medal honor navy version retained non combat provision act congress july war department version medal required recipient distinguish gallantry risk life duty required act performed action involving actual conflict enemy reaction results army medal honor review board struck medals medal honor roll february lack basic included members 27th maine erroneously awarded medal guard capital civil war members abraham_lincoln funeral detail civilians including buffalo bill mary edwards walker restored posthumously world war starting medal awarded action combat navy version medal honor technically allowed non combat awards official accounts vary generally medal honor combat known cross company designed medal cross awarded unpopular partly design cross medal honor awarded times non combat special authorized act congress medal presented bennett united_states_navy reverted single medal honor statute contained allowing award action involving actual conflict enemy line profession arising criteria approximately percent medals earned world war awarded posthumously public law july requirements medal honor standardized services requiring recipient distinguished gallantry risk life duty act removed allowing non combat awards navy personnel act clarified act occur circumstances engaged action enemy united_states engaged military operations involving conflict opposing foreign force serving friendly foreign forces engaged armed conflict opposing armed force united_states party congress drew combat president kennedy executive order april previously added criteria purple heart august kennedy added similar criteria bronze star medal amendment necessary cold war armed conflicts qualify consideration previous statutes army medal honor statute required action involving actual conflict enemy united_states formally declared war world war result provisions united_nations charter according congressional testimony army deputy chief staff personnel services seeking authority award medal honor awards july areas berlin lebanon islands taiwan straits vietnam cuba authority privileges specific authorizing statutes amended july army navy marine_corps air_force coast guard version authorized awarded president award present congress medal honor appropriate design person member army naval service navy marine_corps air_force coast guard distinguished gallantry risk life duty privileges medal honor special privileges recipients law recipients benefits medal honor recipient entered medal honor roll person placed medal honor roll certified united_states department veterans affairs entitled receive monthly pension military benefits eligible pension subject cost living increases december month enlisted recipients medal honor entitled supplemental uniform recipients receive special air transportation provisions regulation benefit allows recipient travel fit geographical locations allows recipient travel overseas overseas overseas continental continental overseas accompanied recipient special identification cards exchange privileges provided medal honor recipients eligible recipients granted eligibility arlington national cemetery eligible fully qualified children recipients eligible admission united_states military regard nomination requirements recipients receive percent increase retired pay awarded medal october receive medal honor flag law specified living prior recipients date receive flag recipients receive invitation future presidential inaugural balls medals retired personnel wear medal honor appropriate civilian clothing regulations specify recipients medal honor allowed wear uniform pleasure standard restrictions political commercial purposes members armed forces certain ceremonial occasions states offer special license plate certain types vehicles recipients little cost recipient states offer medal honor specific license plate offer special license plates veterans recipients eligible required law military regulation members services encouraged render recipients medal honor matter respect courtesy regardless rank status uniform instances living member military receive members higher rank legal protection army redesigned medal honor prevent making copies medal brigadier general george medal honor recipient civil war applied obtained patent new design general received patent november transferred following month secretary war time william howard congress enacted statute year year term patent later codified prohibiting unauthorized wearing manufacturing sale military medals decorations congress amended statute permit enhanced penalty offense involved medal honor congress enacted stolen act section act provided law cited stolen act bill received final passage signed law law amended federal criminal offense person deliberately state falsely awarded military decoration service medal badge law permitted enhanced penalty falsely claimed awarded medal honor june case united_states supreme_court united_states held stolen act making false claims having awarded military medal decoration badge unconstitutional violation amendment guarantee free speech case involved elected official california falsely stated public meeting awarded medal honor served branch armed forces supreme_court decision specifically address older portion statute prohibits unauthorized wearing manufacturing sale military medals decorations law unauthorized wearing manufacturing sale medal honor fine imprisonment year june president barack_obama signs law revised version stolen act making federal offense pass medals order receive benefits privileges grants educational benefits housing etc set aside veterans service members number veteran support organizations private companies devote exposing falsely claim received medal honor enforcement industries inc medal honor contractor fined selling medals fort florida resident stern convicted wearing medal honor entitled federal judge sentenced serve year probation write letter apology living recipients medal letter published local newspaper edward charged violating unlawful sale medal honor selling medals awarded navy sailor robert action spanish american war army sergeant george_washington roosevelt action civil war fbi agent edward pleaded guilty sentenced prison duplicate medals medal honor recipients apply writing headquarters service branch medal awarded replacement display medal honor ribbon medal honor flag charge primary questions answered regard medal honor awarded recipients medal honor awarded different persons men awarded medal honor twice received separate medals separate actions received navy army medals honor action june beginning world war medals honor awarded posthumously awarded woman mary edwards walker medals honor army awarded presented raiders march secretary war office war department private jacob union_army volunteer ohio recipient medal awarded participation raid confederate train big georgia april american_civil_war decorated raiders met privately afterward president lincoln office white_house medal honor navy awarded secretary war sailors april action battle forts jackson philip marine awarded medal honor navy john july rifle action aboard uss coast awarded medal honor navy posthumous class douglas evacuating marines fire september battle canadian born citizen woman awarded medal honor army mary edwards walker civilian union_army surgeon american_civil_war received award battle bull run july series battles battle atlanta usual medal honor services medal honor board deleted awards names army medal honor roll including awards mary edwards walker william buffalo bill awards issued february george retained award issued october deleted recipients ordered return medals question recipients continue wear medals judge advocate general advised medal honor board army police matter walker continued wear medal death president jimmy carter formally restored medal posthumously canadians served united_states armed forces american_civil_war canadians received medal canadian born citizen receive medal heroism vietnam war peter lemon governing statute army medal honor beginning explicitly stated recipient officer enlisted man army distinguish gallantry risk life duty perform act action involving actual conflict enemy exceptions charles civilian pilot army air corps reserve officer medal authorized special act congress directly contradicted july act congress required army recipients action involving actual conflict enemy award based previous acts authorizing navy medal bennett objected award contradicted statute representative reportedly dissent explaining wasn congressional medal honor receive bill medal entirely distinct award war service major general retired awarded medal birthday life splendid public service result special act congress similar medal citation reference acts foreign unknown recipients include british unknown warrior french unknown soldier romanian unknown soldier italian unknown soldier belgian unknown soldier unknown recipients include world war world war korea vietnam vietnam unknown later identified air_force 1st michael use dna identification family asked medal honor department defense denied request according defense medal awarded symbolically vietnam specifically double recipients nineteen men awarded medal honor twice time medal honor recipient thomas brother george armstrong separate actions took place days apart american_civil_war double recipients awarded army navy medal honor action occurrences took place world war february single individual awarded medal honor action member branch armed forces receive medal honor branch actions awarded occurred authority second branch date maximum number medals honor earned service member individual awarded medals honor john kelly individual receive medals honor different actions butler rank refers rank held time medal honor action related recipients arthur douglas father son awarded medal honor pairing roosevelt awarded roosevelt pairs brothers received medal honor john william black american_civil_war blacks brothers honored charles henry american_civil_war saving drowning man fire unique distinction receiving medals actions separate conflicts philippine american war crossed border rescue americans mexican revolution skirmish harry miller naval action spanish american war allen james thompson american_civil_war action notable pair related recipients admiral frank friday rear admiral time award nephew admiral frank jack lieutenant time award awarded actions united_states occupation veracruz recognition medal honor decorations presented recognize actions civil war vietnam war addition recipients names included army medal honor roll awards restored study commissioned army investigated racial awarding medals time medals honor awarded american soldiers african descent served world war review study recommended distinguished service cross recipients awarded medal honor january president bill_clinton presented medal honor seven world war veterans posthumously second lieutenant baker similar study asian americans resulted president bill_clinton presenting medals honor medals went american soldiers japanese descent regimental combat team served european theater operations world war medal honor recipients senator daniel army officer president george bush presented medal honor hungarian born american jew holocaust survivor world war enlisted prisoner war korean war believed overlooked religion april president obama presented medal honor posthumously army chaplain captain actions prisoner war korean war follows awards army sergeant conspicuous gallantry action near san vietnam war army private class henry army private class anthony heroic actions korean war result mandated review ensure brave acts overlooked prejudice discrimination march president obama upgraded distinguished service crosses medals honor hispanic jewish african american individuals actions world war korean war vietnam war living time ceremony 27th maine revoked civil war secretary war promised medal honor man 27th maine volunteer infantry regiment extended agreed date battle imminent men regiment volunteered serve battle resolved remaining men returned maine union victory volunteers soon followed volunteers arrived maine time discharged men earlier returned official list volunteers war department exacerbated situation medals commanding officer regiment commanding officer issued medals volunteers stayed retained grounds returned remainder war department war department try reissue medals board army generals retired list convened act law review army medal honor awarded board report medals honor awarded issued cause distinguished service commission led nelson miles identified awards causes distinguished service included medals awarded members 27th maine regiment servicemen served abraham_lincoln funeral guard civilians including mary edwards walker buffalo bill walker medal restored president jimmy carter civilian scouts rendered distinguished service action considered board fully earned medals theirs restored report endorsed judge advocate general advised war department seek return revoked medals recipients identified board case recipients continued wear medal war department advised action enforce statute nomination current consideration david white nomination consideration capture confederate major general lee eldest son general robert lee battle sailors creek virginia april similar american decorations following decorations degree bear similar names medal honor entirely separate awards different criteria issuance medal honor decoration united_states revenue cutter service later merged united_states_coast_guard chaplain medal heroism awarded posthumously single action recipients congressional gold medal highest civilian honor bestowed united_states presidential medal freedom congressional space medal honor intended issuance despite equal medal honor presidential medal freedom highest civilian honor bestowed united_states congressional gold medal united_states law enforcement decorations bear medal honor public safety officer medal established congress stated highest national award public safety officer awarded president united_states


distinguished warfare medal distinguished warfare medal planned united_states military decoration announced secretary defense february american combat related award created bronze star medal blue red white medal awarded individuals extraordinary achievement related military operation occurring september intended recognize military achievement combat operations actions include combat reception medal mixed veterans criticizing placement medal order precedence production medal halted march pending review precedence ordered secretary defense subsequently cancelled secretary april decision instead create offer new distinguishing device existing medals january presented new award devices criteria intention distinguished warfare medal involved recognizing secretary defense extraordinary achievement members united_states armed forces achievement taken place september need involved acts criteria required qualifying achievement direct impact domain combat military operations operations occurred following circumstances engaged military operations enemies united_states engaged operations conflict opposing foreign force serving friendly foreign forces engaged operations opposing armed force united_states party achievement outstanding exceptional nature set individual apart peers serving similar duties situations medal awarded single acts awarded sustained operational service distinguished warfare medal awarded posthumously additional awards distinguished warfare medal shown oak leaf clusters army air_force inch stars navy marine_corps coast guard prior cancellation service completed developing criteria medal military services awarding criteria included manual military decorations awards appearance distinguished warfare medal consist inch bronze depicted grid lined globe surrounded laurel superimposed globe eagle seal united_states department defense pointed star reverse continues laurel design pointed star center blank space recipients space inscription distinguished warfare inscription department defense borne light blue ribbon dark blue edges center white stripes bordered red dark blue inside symbolism medal stated following honors recipient significant achievement battlefield operations globe operational support military engagement performed remotely diamond shape corners globe representing operational reach armed forces defense liberty justice eagle indicates medal presented secretary defense operational magnitude mission success denoted pointed star ordinance burst target designed united_states_army institute reviewed united_states commission fine arts reception medal order precedence criticized veterans foreign wars commander organization john hamilton explained important properly recognize serve new medal matter intended quickly deteriorate morale issue medals earned direct combat mean medals awarded rear military order purple heart joined condemnation stating rank basically award service higher award heroism insulting american combat soldier sailor marine risks life daily combat hostile environment military order purple heart strongly urges newly appointed secretary defense joint chiefs staff reconsider precedence distinguished warfare medal develop way recognize achievements indirect actions contribute greatly accomplishment mission diminishing sacrifice life limb confront enemy battlefield association united_states_navy expressed criticism medal placement stating supports medal achievements importance warfare community concern lies ranking medal military medals expert curator military times hall expressed confusion saying understand need recognize guys console pretty important things ranking bronze star nick member orders medals society america said alternative adding new medal adding new ribbon device existing medal said problem adding non personal decoration system crowded non personal decorations outgoing secretary defense defended award precedence saying military reserves highest decorations obviously display gallantry actions lives line continue ability honor extraordinary actions true difference combat operations contribution contribute success combat operations particularly remove enemy field battle actions physically removed fight pentagon spokesman lieutenant commander added extraordinary achievement directly combat operations level deserves recognized distinctive medal device existing medal visionary fills need non combat impact medal february military veteran duncan hunter tom tim murphy introduced legislation house_of_representatives reduce precedence medal banning rated equal purple heart time medal cancellation bill gained corresponding bill introduced senate march gained cancellation march reported secretary defense ordered review medal initial place order precedence april announced cancellation noting unnecessary medal initially speculated precedence order medal lowered current position purple heart bronze star medal instead announced medal replaced new distinguishing device attached existing medal service ribbon


hero russian federation hero russian federation russian highest honorary title russian federation person title receives gold star medal insignia honor identifies recipients title awarded persons service russian state nation usually connected heroic feat title bestowed decree president russian federation russian citizenship service russian state title established awarded times including times posthumously history title hero russia successor hero soviet_union russian established resolution central executive committee soviet_union corresponding gold star derived soviet design created architect approved decree supreme soviet august following dissolution soviet_union russian federation president retained modified award law russian federation march article constitution russia permits titles orders medals presented government article gives russian president power create state awards highest honour presented russian president citizen statute title hero russian federation awarded heroic deed service state awarded civilian military personnel title awarded posthumously heroic act costs recipient life president russian federation main authority award insignia hero russian federation worn left chest medals decorations medal worn size ribbon bar worn lieu soviet titles hero soviet_union hero socialist labour worn medal russian title precedence description insignia title hero russian federation called gold star medal russian design similar soviet variant gold star medal gold pointed star smooth rays plain reverse bears prominent relief inscription high letters hero russia russian center upper portion award serial number high numbers insignia secured standard russian square mount ring suspension loop mount covered silk ribbon white blue red recipients majority early recipients title fell categories participants conflicts occasions person awarded title killed course duty major killed early south war includes killed battle assassinated government officials example recipient governor pro moscow leader killed bomb attack victory day parade capital days killed president awarded title time incident awarded son title work russian awarded title hero russian federation following voyage space earned example long service test pilot awarded title pilot russian federation recipients title received soviet hero title order double heroes awarded hero soviet_union hero russia titles successful realization flight courage heroism shown outside groups athletes civilian military officials received title notable examples include submarine captain sank explosion heroism explosion attempts preserving lives crew posthumously awarded title members crew awarded order courage athlete presented title medals won winter olympics japan alexander awarded recognition greatest wrestler time antiquity present day roman wrestler olympics career won bouts lost times losses controversial commentators believe caused trivial rule changes athletic defeat expedition members january performed descent ocean north pole awarded title courage heroism showed conditions successful completion high latitude arctic deep water expedition weapons designer designer assault rifle machine gun received honor birthday november medal awarded posthumously approximately times primarily people involved second wars recent posthumous awards president chief moscow fire department march died march saving lives


coast guard city coast guard city united_states municipality designated commandant united_states_coast_guard application local civilian government honorary designation intended recognize communities special importance coast guard criteria designation coast guard city commandant united_states_coast_guard advise review board application municipal government according coast guard applications expected demonstrate jurisdiction ability meet multi criteria include erection monuments memorials coast guard organization civic celebrations anniversary founding coast guard offer special recognition merchandise coast guard personnel local business community providing support local coast guard morale welfare recreation initiatives designation coast guard city year period renewed indefinitely city continuing meet criteria history background coast guard city program established united_states congress recognize cities military assets united_states_coast_guard located demonstrate support coast guard personnel stationed city designated grand haven michigan cities designated coast guard cities legislation authorizing legislation coast guard city program provides commandant coast guard recognize community grand haven michigan coast guard city usa commandant desires recognize community manner community requests recognition coast guard commandant shall committee commerce science transportation senate committee transportation infrastructure house_of_representatives days prior approving recognition list coast guard cities


order star order star serbian serbia highest civilian military decoration originated kingdom serbia initially awarded exclusively serbian citizens return services rendered serbian monarchy people serbian state bestowed serbs non serbs alike balkan wars world war order awarded acts bravery battlefield post war kingdom yugoslavia retained order awarded yugoslav government exile end world war cases individuals collaborated axis powers following war monarchy outlawed communist government came power symbols order suppressed administration replaced communist decorations order people hero following breakup yugoslavia serbia ceased awards decorations established communist period serbian government officially reinstated order star serbia highest decoration cold war awarded family exile person receive following state order tennis player february history order star instituted royal decree king peter january commemorating recent accession serbian throne anniversary serbian uprising meant replace order cross order great decorations awarded rival dynasty ruled serbia prior coup état reinstated peter dynasty decades exile award supporters named village dynasty founder launched second serbian uprising order great replaced named initially order star categorized senior state award organized classes grand cross star highest class consisted badge order breast star grand officer star decorated badge slightly smaller breast star commander star awarded badge recipient order fourth class officer star receive small triangular chest ribbon order usually awarded services dynasty serbian state people princes received grand cross baptism recipients included soldiers civilians serbian citizens permitted receive award balkan wars serbian government introduced war merit order star reward acts conspicuous gallantry commissioned officers field battlefield victories royal serbian army senior officers non commissioned officers soldiers field ineligible june height world war serbia instituted sub division war merit order called military order awarded men bravery combat war merit order divided classes 1st division gold cross 2nd division silver cross recipients military order highly decorated female soldier flora british woman openly serve soldier war senior serbian military leaders recipients war merit order including prince regent alexander field foreign recipients included american general john british field marshal douglas french generals joseph louis romanian king ferdinand kingdom yugoslavia retained order world war awarded city belgrade world war peter bestowed order number recommendation leader decorated commanders included decorations proved controversial war commanders germany italy communist partisans years best seen case given order displaying gallantry face enemy subsequently celebrated receiving italian general headquarters case order given services population series news award suppressed visited rome plan anti communist offensive italians forces carried non serbs previous years war yugoslavia came rule communist dictator era medals orders replaced non royal decorations order people hero 1990s decoration called order star confused medal historically awarded serbia dynasty government serbia decided order official state award continued giving award exile previous years february tennis player person receive order reinstated recent recipient order military medical academy april design order comes gold silver depending class features white cross rays protruding arms rays pair recipient awarded order swords orders royal period contain blue centre depicting serbian cross fire steel corner words faith freedom small circle middle cross reverse orders contains red depicting white eagle words peter written bravery medals awarded june forward identical orders awarded date save crossed swords present regardless class orders lacked phrase older ones date reverse marked centenary serbian uprising instead merely king peter year order bestowed orders originally manufactured foreign makers decorations medals france switzerland interwar period produced domestically


alpine sit skiing sport class classification defined international paralympic committee people lower people cerebral affects lower half body outside skiing competitor class unable walk international competitions classification alpine skiing skiing sub international competitions classification national federation alpine canada alpine skiing uses ski use ski sit ski class use required wear special helmets alpine disciplines learning ski skills learned getting ski position body ski order maintain balance learns fall system sport allow different classes compete individual competitors class competition alpine skiing classification skiing season giant super downhill percentage season classification able compete different skiing competitions including paralympics alpine world championships skiing world championships class include austrian robert definition alpine sit skiing classification stands winter classification people lower includes people cerebral affects lower half body outside skiing competitor class unable walk loss sensibility winter paralympics classification described disability lower limbs fair sitting balance standing classes lower limbs functional trunk hip adapted physical education sport described class athletes disabilities lower limbs fair sitting balance classes lower standing classes lower limbs significant functional trunk function lower limbs outside equipment time race point score points classification comparable classes lower generally eligible sit skiing classification needs meet minimum conditions including single knee ankle exhibits similar knee legs different length centimetres difference combined muscle strength lower international paralympic committee defines alpine classification athletes disabilities lower limbs fair sitting balance disabilities lower australian paralympic committee defined classification alpine sit skiing classification athletes disabilities lower limbs fair sitting balance defines class skiing lower limbs trunk athlete retains use abdominal muscles trunk muscles especially muscle cross country canada described classification lower limbs trunk fair upper abdominal trunk muscle activity functional sitting balance athlete unable stand international alpine skiing competitions classification alpine skiing national federation alpine canada handles classification domestic competitions skiing events classification handled skiing technical committee international level national sports federation cross country canada country country level assessed classification number things considered including reviewing medical history medical information disability having physical person assessment training competing assessment process testing board classification different tests conducted look balance different planes test upper body strength levels mobility scores people assessed classification defines class skiing lower limb trunk athletes near normal trunk muscles activation cross country canada defined classification lower limbs trunk good upper abdominal trunk muscle activity good sitting balance athlete able stand class able stand walk aid grade hip extension equipment alpine skiing uses ski required breaks sides ski chair ski helmets required class alpine competition helmets required crash helmets required giant sit ski configuration classification use sit ski miniature ski rocker base athletes use rifle support shooting technique learning ski skills learned getting ski position body ski order maintain balance learns fall works instructor learning ski flat terrain purpose exercise learn use learns learns basic turns medium radius turns advance skiing techniques use balance leverage fall right turning upper body leaning direction want turn skiing ski poles propel forward falls require assistance fall line needs position ski facing relative fall line paralympic athletes shoot prone position sport system sport allow different classes compete individual competitors class competition system works having number class based functional mobility vision levels results calculated finish time number resulting number determine winner events factor system ski season percentage classification skiing season percentage percentage ski seasons alpine skiing classification skiing season giant super downhill percentage season alpine events classification grouped sitting classes seeded start visually impaired classes classes giant downhill super super combined group competes visually impaired classes standing classes allowed push starting position start alpine race allowed run pushing cross country events classification grouped sitting classes advises event organisers run men sit ski group women sit ski group section visually impaired standing following competitor course race assisted course left race official use legs break steer race class skiing german national alpine skiing team class injuries skiing occurred winter paralympics fell extended arm abduction resulted separation type paralympic fracture shoulder class higher rate higher rate shoulder injuries compared able bodied events classification able compete different skiing competitions winter paralympics alpine skiing classification grouped men downhill giant super events women grouped events exception giant grouped alpine world championships women competed competition results downhill event skiing world championships class grouped sit skiing classifications cross country class eligible compete men individual race women eligible compete individual races men women classification grouped sit ski classes race shooting stages race shooting stages alpine world championships women thirteen men class sitting downhill event competitors class include austrian robert