brain brain organ serves center nervous system animals invertebrates adult sea brain nerve nets present instead brain located head usually close primary sensory organs senses vision hearing balance taste smell brain complex organ body typical human cerebral largest estimated contain billion connected thousand communicate means long fibers called carry trains signal called action distant parts brain body targeting specific recipient cells function brain exert centralized control organs body brain acts rest body generating patterns muscle activity driving chemicals called centralized control allows rapid coordinated responses changes environment basic types spinal cord peripheral sophisticated control behavior based complex sensory input requires information integrating capabilities centralized brain operations individual brain cells understood considerable detail way cooperate millions solved recent models modern treat brain biological computer different mechanism electronic computer similar sense information surrounding world stores processes variety ways analogous central processing unit computer article compares properties brains entire range animal species greatest attention deals human brain shares properties brains ways human brain differs brains covered human brain article topics covered instead covered said human context important brain disease effects brain damage covered human brain article common diseases human brain species manifest different ways anatomy shape size brain varies greatly different species identifying common features difficult number principles brain architecture apply wide range species aspects brain structure common entire range animal species distinguish advanced brains primitive ones distinguish invertebrates simplest way gain information brain anatomy visual inspection sophisticated techniques developed brain tissue natural state soft work hardened alcohol apart examination interior visually interior brain consists areas called grey matter dark color separated areas white matter lighter color information gained brain tissue variety chemicals bring areas specific types molecules present high concentrations possible examine brain tissue microscope trace pattern connections brain area cellular structure brains species composed primarily broad classes cells cells cells known come types perform number critical functions including structural support support guidance development usually considered important cells brain property makes unique ability send signals specific target cells long distances send signals means thin fiber extends cell body projects usually numerous branches areas nearby distant parts brain body length extraordinary example cell cerebral cell body size human body equally cable centimeters diameter extending kilometer transmit signals form called action second travel speeds meters second action constantly rates second usually irregular patterns quiet time occasionally burst action transmit signals means specialized junctions called single thousand connections cells action potential traveling arrives causes chemical called released molecules membrane target cell key functional elements brain essential function brain cell cell communication points communication occurs human brain estimated contain approximately brain fruit fly contains million functions diverse exciting target cell work second messenger systems change internal chemistry target cells complex ways large number capable changing strength way controlled patterns signals pass widely believed activity dependent modification brain primary mechanism learning memory space brain taken bundled called nerve fiber tracts wrapped serves greatly increase speed signal propagation white making parts brain filled exclusively nerve fibers appear light colored white matter contrast darker colored grey matter marks areas high cell bodies evolution generic nervous system primitive organisms nervous system nervous system consisting nerve net living animals meaning animals body shape left right sides approximate mirror images thought descended common ancestor appeared early period million years ago common ancestor shape simple body level basic worm shape continues reflected body nervous system architecture modern including fundamental body form tube hollow gut cavity running mouth nerve cord body segment especially large called brain brain small simple species worms species including complex organ body types worms enlarged end nerve cord known tail brain types existing lack recognizable brain including group primitive definitively established existence species indicates earliest lacked brain ancestors evolved way led disappearance previously existing brain structure invertebrates category includes numerous types worms diversity body plans matched equal diversity brain structures groups invertebrates notably complex brains insects crustaceans cephalopods similar brains cephalopods arise twin parallel nerve extend body animal central brain divisions large optical eye visual processing cephalopods octopus squid largest brains invertebrates species brains studied properties convenient experimental work fruit flies large array techniques available studying natural subject studying role genes brain development spite large evolutionary distance insects mammals aspects shown relevant humans biological clock genes example identified examining showed disrupted daily activity cycles search revealed set analogous genes found play similar roles mouse biological clock certainly human biological clock studies regions brain continuously reorganized life response specific living conditions worm like studied largely importance early 1970s sydney chose model organism studying way genes control development advantages working worm body plan nervous system contains exactly places making identical connections worm team worms thousands sections photographed electron microscope visually matched fibers section section map entire body complete achieved approaching level detail available organism information gained enabled multitude studies possible sea chosen nobel prize winning model studying cellular basis learning memory simplicity accessibility nervous system examined hundreds experiments appeared million years ago period resembled modern form sharks appeared amphibians reptiles mammals species equally long evolutionary history brains modern sharks amphibians reptiles mammals gradient size complexity roughly follows evolutionary sequence brains contain set basic components rudimentary mammals foremost greatly elaborated expanded brains simply compared terms size relationship brain size body size studied wide range species rule brain size increases body size simple linear proportion general smaller animals tend larger brains measured fraction body size mammals relationship brain volume body mass essentially follows power law formula describes central tendency family mammals departs degree way reflects complexity behavior example brains times larger formula predators tend larger brains prey relative body size brains share common underlying form appears clearly early stages development earliest form brain appears end tube eventually respectively earliest stages brain development areas roughly equal size classes fish amphibians parts remain similar size adult mammals larger parts small brains soft tissue living brain tissue pinkish outside white inside subtle variations color brains surrounded system tissue membranes called separate skull brain blood vessels enter central nervous system holes layers cells blood vessel walls joined tightly forming blood brain barrier blocks passage time blocking drugs presenting special challenges treatment diseases brain usually divide brain main regions cerebral areas complex internal structure parts cerebral consist layers folded convoluted fit available space parts consist clusters small thousands distinguishable areas identified brain based fine structure chemistry basic components present brains branches evolution led substantial brain geometry especially area brain shark shows basic components straightforward way fishes great majority existing fish species like turned inside birds major changes structure difficult match brain components species species list important brain components brief description functions currently understood spinal cord contains small involved wide variety sensory motor functions heart rate digestive processes lies directly things contains control voluntary simple acts sleep function eye movement facial expressions posture small region base complexity importance size composed numerous small distinct connections engaged additional partially voluntary acts sleep wake cycles eating drinking release collection diverse functions involved information cerebral involved motivation area contain action generating systems types behaviors eating drinking brain systems motor related thought related certain precise removal prevent animal particular makes actions hesitant clumsy precision built learned trial error muscle coordination learned riding bicycle example type place largely brain total volume consists held structure allows actions directed points space commonly response visual input mammals usually referred superior best studied function direct eye movements directs reaching movements object directed actions receives strong visual senses useful directing actions input input pit organs snakes primitive fishes region largest brain superior layer gray matter lies surface complex recent evolutionary development brain organ reptiles mammals called cerebral multiple functions involve including smell spatial memory mammals large dominate brain takes functions brain areas mammals cerebral consists folded called create deep furrows called increase surface area increase gray matter information stored processed strictly speaking found mammals area derives counterparts evidence brain involved complex events spatial memory navigation fishes birds reptiles mammals basal group structures primary function basal appears action selection send signals parts brain generate motor behaviors right circumstances release action generating systems able execute actions reward punishment exert important effects altering connections basal special structure processes sensory signals sends output major brain component greatly reduced humans senses dominated information acquired sight smell mammals obvious difference brains mammals terms size average brain roughly twice large bird body size times large body size size difference substantial differences shape mammals generally similar dramatic differences appear greatly enlarged altered structure cerebral brain strongly distinguishes mammals non surface lined comparatively simple layered structure called mammals complex layered structure called areas edge including extensively developed mammals cerebral carries changes brain areas superior plays major role visual control behavior small size mammals functions taken visual areas cerebral mammals contains large portion dedicated supporting cerebral counterpart brains humans contain structures brains mammals generally larger proportion body size widely accepted way comparing brain sizes species called takes account brain body relationship humans average range range values higher humans nearly mammals values substantially lower brain comes massive expansion cerebral especially parts involved vision visual processing network includes distinguishable brain areas complex web estimated visual processing areas occupy half total surface carries functions include planning working memory motivation attention executive control takes larger proportion brain species especially large fraction human brain development brain simply grow develops orchestrated sequence stages changes shape simple swelling nerve cord earliest stages complex array areas connections created special zones contain stem cells migrate tissue reach ultimate locations positioned navigate brain branching extending tips reach targets form connections number parts nervous system produced excessive numbers early stages ones away early stages development similar species embryo transforms round cells structure narrow strip running induced plate precursor nervous system plate inward form groove lips line groove merge tube hollow cord cells fluid filled center end cord swell form stage splits called contain cerebral basal related structures contain time splits contain contain areas contains zones cells generated resulting cells migrate long distances final positions place extends area commonly extend great distance cell body need reach specific targets grow particularly complex way tip growing consists called growth cone chemical sense local environment causing growth cone attracted repelled cellular elements pulled particular direction point path result process growth cone brain reaches destination area chemical cues cause begin generating considering entire brain thousands genes create products influence network finally emerges partly determined genes parts brain initially mechanisms depend activity projection eye example structure adult contains precise mapping connecting point surface corresponding point layer stages development guided right general vicinity chemical cues branches makes initial contact wide birth contains special mechanisms cause generate waves activity originate spontaneously random point slowly layer waves useful cause neighboring active time produce activity pattern contains information spatial arrangement information exploited mechanism causes weaken eventually activity followed activity target cell result sophisticated process gradual tuning map leaving finally precise adult form similar things happen brain areas initial matrix generated result genetically determined chemical guidance gradually refined activity dependent mechanisms partly driven internal dynamics partly external sensory cases system activity patterns depend mechanisms operate developing brain apparently exist solely guide development humans mammals new created mainly birth infant brain contains substantially adult brain areas new continue generated life areas adult established involved sense smell evidence new play role storing newly acquired memories exceptions set present early childhood set present life cells different types cells body generated lifespan long debate qualities mind personality intelligence attributed upbringing nature controversy details remain settled research clearly shown factors important genes determine general form brain genes determine brain experience experience required matrix connections developed form contains far information respects matters presence absence experience critical periods development respects quantity quality experience important example substantial evidence animals raised enriched environments thicker cerebral indicating higher density connections animals levels restricted physiology functions brain depend ability transmit signals cells ability respond appropriately signals received cells electrical properties controlled wide variety processes notably interactions place chemicals released action potential attach molecules membrane target cell alter electrical chemical properties molecules exceptions brain releases chemical combination connections makes rule known principle characterized releases great majority drugs exert effects altering specific systems applies drugs heroin cocaine alcohol widely brain effects target gamma acid found nearly brain drugs act tend broad powerful effects general act reducing effects exert effects enhancing effects dozens chemical limited areas brain areas dedicated particular function example primary target drugs aids comes exclusively small area called involved comes exclusively nearby small area called multiple sources brain distributed electrical activity effect processes signaling brain tissue generates electric fields active large numbers synchronized activity electric fields generate large detect outside skull recordings recordings inside brains animals rats brain living animal constantly active sleep brain shows mixture rhythmic activity vary according state mammals cerebral tends large slow delta waves sleep faster alpha waves animal awake chaotic looking irregular activity animal actively engaged task seizure brain control mechanisms fail function electrical activity rises levels producing traces large wave spike patterns seen healthy brain relating population level patterns functions individual major focus current research blood brain barrier allows inside brain operate differently parts body cells play major role brain controlling chemical composition fluid surrounds including levels nutrients brain tissue large energy proportion volume large brains place severe demands animals need limit body weight order example fly apparently led selection reduction brain size species bats brain energy consumption goes sustaining electric charge membrane potential species devote basal brain percentage higher humans rises energy consumption brain vary greatly time active regions cerebral consume somewhat energy inactive regions forms basis functional brain imaging methods pet brain typically gets energy oxygen dependent blood sugar provide major alternative source contributions medium chain possibly functions evolutionary biological perspective function brain provide coherent control actions animal centralized brain allows groups muscles activated complex patterns allows body evoke responses parts prevent different parts body acting cross purposes generate unified action brain brings information sense organs central location processes raw data extract information structure environment combines processed sensory information information current needs animal memory past circumstances finally basis results generates motor response patterns suited maximize welfare animal signal processing tasks require intricate variety functional information processing invention electronic computers 1940s development mathematical information theory led realization brains potentially understood information processing systems concept formed basis field eventually gave rise field known earliest attempts somewhat crude treated brain essentially digital computer disguise example john von book computer brain years accumulating information electrical responses brain cells recorded animals steadily moved theoretical concepts direction increasing realism essence information processing approach try understand brain function terms information flow implementation influential early contributions paper titled frog eye tells frog brain paper examined visual responses frogs came conclusion frog wired combine elementary responses way makes function bug years later david discovered cells primary visual active sharp edges specific points field view discovery won nobel prize follow studies higher order visual areas found cells detect color movement aspects shape areas located increasing distances primary visual showing increasingly complex responses investigations brain areas unrelated vision revealed cells wide variety response related memory abstract types space worked understand response patterns constructing mathematical models networks simulated computers useful models abstract focusing conceptual structure details implemented brain models attempt incorporate data properties real model level considered fully valid description brain function essential difficulty sophisticated networks requires distributed processing hundreds thousands work current methods brain activity recording capable action dozen time furthermore single appear complex capable performing brain models don reflect arguably representative brain operation models try capture expensive arguably present resources having said human brain project trying build realistic detailed model entire human brain remains seen level success achieve time frame project wisdom publicly contested high profile scientists sides argument perception primary functions brain extract relevant information sensory human brain provided information light sound chemical composition atmosphere temperature head orientation limb position chemical composition animals additional senses present infrared heat sense snakes magnetic field sense birds electric field sense types fish animals develop existing sensory systems new ways adaptation bats sense form way sensory initially detected specialized sensors project signals brain sensory system begins specialized cells light receptive eye vibration sensitive ear pressure sensitive skin sensory cells travel spinal cord brain transmit signals order sensory nucleus dedicated specific sensory primary sensory nucleus sends information higher order sensory areas dedicated eventually way station signals sent cerebral processed extract relevant features integrated signals coming sensory systems motor control motor systems areas brain directly indirectly involved producing body movements muscles muscles control eye driven voluntary muscles body directly motor spinal cord spinal motor controlled circuits spinal cord descend brain spinal circuits implement responses contain pattern generators rhythmic movements walking swimming descending connections brain allow sophisticated control brain contains motor areas project directly spinal cord lowest level motor areas control movements walking breathing higher level areas red nucleus responsible coordinating movements arms legs higher level primary motor strip tissue located posterior edge frontal lobe primary motor sends projections motor areas sends massive projection directly spinal cord tract direct projection allows precise voluntary control fine details movements motor related brain areas exert secondary effects projecting primary motor areas important secondary areas basal addition brain spinal cord contain extensive control nervous system works smooth muscles gut nervous system affects heart rate rate sexual processes functions direct voluntary control obvious aspect behavior animal daily cycle sleeping waking finer time scale extensive network brain areas key component system nucleus tiny located directly point nerves eyes cross contains body central biological clock activity levels rise fall period hours rhythms activity fluctuations driven rhythmic changes expression set clock genes continues time brain placed dish warm nutrient solution receives input nerves tract allows daily light dark cycles clock projects set areas involved implementing sleep wake cycles important component system formation group clusters scattered core lower brain send signals turn sends activity level controlling signals damage formation produce permanent state coma sleep involves great changes brain activity 1950s generally believed brain essentially sleep known far true activity continues patterns different types sleep sleep dreaming non usually dreaming sleep repeat slightly varying patterns sleep episode broad types distinct brain activity patterns measured light deep deep sleep called slow wave sleep activity takes form large synchronized waves waking state noisy levels drop slow wave sleep fall zero sleep levels reverse pattern animal survival requires maintaining variety parameters state limited range variation include temperature water content salt concentration blood levels blood oxygen level ability animal regulate internal environment body pioneering bernard called known greek standing maintaining crucial function brain basic principle negative feedback time set point sensors generate error signal evokes response causes shift value principle widely engineering example control temperature brain plays greatest role small region base size reflect complexity importance function collection small involved basic biological functions functions relate social interactions sexuality aggression maternal behaviors relate receive input sensors located lining blood vessels conveying information temperature level level blood oxygen level parameters send output signals motor areas generate actions deficiencies tiny attached brain directly underneath body induce changes cellular activity motivation according evolutionary theory individuals genetically programmed behave ways ensure survival reproductive success overarching goal genetic fitness translates set specific survival promoting behaviors seeking food water shelter mate system brain monitors current state satisfaction goals behaviors meet needs arise system works largely reward punishment mechanism particular behavior followed favorable consequences reward mechanism brain activated structural changes inside brain cause behavior repeated later similar situation arises conversely behavior followed unfavorable consequences brain punishment mechanism activated inducing structural changes cause behavior suppressed similar situations arise future organisms studied date utilize reward punishment mechanism instance worms insects alter behavior seek food sources avoid dangers reward punishment system implemented specific set brain structures heart lie basal set areas base substantial evidence basal central site decisions basal exert sustained control motor systems brain released motor system permitted execute action programmed carry rewards function altering relationship basal receive decision signals emitted reward mechanism better understood punishment mechanism role drug abuse caused studied research shown plays central role addictive drugs cocaine cause levels rise cause effects inside brain enhanced learning memory animals capable modifying behavior result experience primitive types worms behavior driven brain activity changes behavior correspond changes inside brain dating argued plausible explanation learning memory expressed changes connections experimental evidence support hypothesis lacking tim bliss published paper phenomenon called long term paper showed clear evidence activity induced changes lasted days technical advances sorts experiments easier carry thousands studies clarified mechanism change uncovered types activity driven change variety brain areas including cerebral basal brain derived factor physical activity appear play beneficial role process currently distinguish types learning memory implemented brain distinct ways working memory ability brain maintain temporary representation information task animal currently engaged sort dynamic memory thought formation cell assemblies groups activated maintain activity constantly episodic memory ability remember details specific events sort memory lifetime evidence playing crucial role people severe damage amnesia inability form new long lasting episodic memories memory ability learn facts relationships sort memory probably stored largely cerebral changes connections cells represent specific types information instrumental learning ability rewards modify behavior implemented network brain areas centered basal motor learning ability patterns body movement practicing generally repetition number brain areas involved including basal especially functions large memory bank parameters movement research field encompasses approaches seek understand brain rest nervous system psychology seeks understand mind behavior medical discipline treats diseases nervous system brain important organ studied branch medicine works study prevent treat mental disorders science seeks unify psychology fields concern brain computer science artificial intelligence similar fields philosophy oldest method studying brain middle 20th century progress came development better cell better study large scale structure brain microscopic structure components especially tools employ reveal structure chemistry recent years development techniques allowed investigation express specific sets genes functional uses medical imaging techniques variations human brain structure differences behavior study chemical electrical properties brain primary tools drugs recording devices thousands developed drugs affect nervous system highly specific ways recordings brain activity studies inside brains animals recordings detect action generated individual brain contain pain possible techniques record brain activity animals awake causing distress techniques occasionally study brain activity human patients suffering cases medical necessity brain area responsible functional imaging techniques functional magnetic resonance imaging study brain activity techniques mainly human subjects require conscious subject remain long periods time great advantage approach brain function examine consequences damage specific brain areas protected skull surrounded fluid isolated blood brain barrier delicate nature brain makes vulnerable numerous diseases types damage humans effects strokes types brain damage key source information brain function ability control nature damage information difficult interpret animal studies commonly involving rats possible use locally injected chemicals produce precise patterns damage examine consequences behavior encompasses approaches use computers study brain second study brains perform hand possible write computer program simulate operation group making use systems describe activity known realistic networks hand possible study analyzing operations simplified units properties abstract biological complexity functions brain studied computer scientists recent years seen increasing applications genetic techniques study brain focus roles factors physical activity common subjects mice availability technical tools possible relative ease knock wide variety genes examine effects brain function sophisticated approaches example possible activate genes specific parts brain specific times history oldest brain discovered armenia cave complex brain estimated years old found skull year old girl brains preserved climate found inside cave early philosophers divided seat soul lies brain heart aristotle favored heart thought function brain merely cool blood inventor atomic theory matter argued soul intellect head emotion heart lust near liver father medicine came favor brain treatise wrote men ought know brain come laughter sports organ mad fears night day dreams cares suitable ignorance present circumstances things endure brain healthy sacred disease roman physician argued importance brain depth work traced relationships brain nerves muscles demonstrating muscles body connected brain branching network nerves nerves activate muscles carrying mysterious substance called usually translated animal spirits ideas widely known middle ages progress came renaissance detailed study resumed combined theoretical followed like thought nervous system hydraulic terms believed highest functions carried non physical majority behaviors humans behaviors animals explained real progress modern understanding nervous function came investigations discovered shock static electricity applied exposed nerve dead frog cause leg contract time major advance understanding followed directly development new technique investigation early years 20th century important advances derived new methods cells particularly critical invention stain correctly small fraction entirety including cell body stain brain tissue microscope appears fibers impossible determine structure hands especially spanish new stain revealed hundreds distinct types unique structure pattern half 20th century advances electronics enabled investigation electrical properties nerve cells culminating work andrew action potential work bernard studies complemented picture conception brain dynamic entity reflecting new understanding charles workings brain waking sleep great sheet mass hardly light moved sparkling field rhythmic flashing points trains traveling sparks brain waking mind returning way entered cosmic dance swiftly head mass enchanted millions flashing pattern meaningful pattern shifting harmony man nature second half 20th century developments chemistry electron computer science functional brain imaging fields progressively opened new windows brain structure function united_states 1990s officially designated decade brain commemorate advances brain research promote funding research 21st century trends continued new approaches come prominence including recording allows activity brain cells recorded time genetic engineering allows molecular components brain altered allows variations brain structure variations dna properties


love love known sharp land create love sexually mature animals sequence events courtship actual mating takes place large compared size animal case semi genus length fifth semi foot process love form sexual selection prior attempts shoot organ receive action analogous stabbing shot arrow fly air reach target instead fired contact shot love words organ sperm transfer exchange sperm land completely separate mating progression recent research shows use strongly favor reproductive outcome able lodge partner introduces like substance allows far sperm survive love known shooting shaped distinctive ways vary considerably species shapes love common like needle like ability pierce mating dance mating begins ritual example land genus including common garden known preceded elaborate courtship circle hours touching biting lips area shows preliminary signs approach mating hydraulic pressure builds blood surrounding organ housing manoeuvres best position close body body touches firing forceful ends buried internal organs happen pierce body head entirely fired exchange sperm fire time mates mating necessary trigger process formation fires subsequent mates having use takes time create replacement case garden takes week new form shot variation force considerable fired fail penetrate skin miss target altogether simple visual systems use vision help aim function existence use love known centuries recently actual function love properly understood long assumed sort function served likely suggested gift calcium theories proved incorrect recent research led new understanding function love love male component manipulate female component sperm collection increasing closer look behavior shows mechanical action increases sperm donors instead coats carries transferred recipient stabbed female component reproductive system receiving individual sperm organ closed canal leading sperm storage opened allows sperm access sperm storage area eggs ultimately increases shooter morphology love known calcium specialized organ reproductive system families air breathing mainly terrestrial clade range size millimetres long larger species millimetre smallest typically millimetres long substantial compared size animal considerable variety overall shape cross section love morphology shape form species specific example individual similar species distinguished examining shape love marked positioned structure marked context note taxonomic placement families mentioned article follows taxonomy complex reproductive system lung gill gills reproductive system completely internal active outer opening reproductive system called positioned right hand close head animal opening virtually invisible actively use love created stored use highly muscular internal structure known sac known exact positioning varies vicinity structures open common area right inside opening leads directly certain species families opening instead lead case species subfamily alternatively lead case species subfamily subfamily species families present species families reduction loss making ability species species sac species family sac species occurrence land complete elaborate set male female reproductive organs simplified majority land love sac composed calcium found limited number families families land previously considered calcium found family family lightly occur semi family composed love occur land families family family ancient clade found sea family love occur family evolution love presence likely love appeared early evolution ancestors possessed evolution appear lost evolved functional ones exist rudimentary condition occur family surrounding organs degenerated non functional cuticle coated considered degenerated previously bearing organ species love shaped distinctive ways vary considerably species morphology species specific round cross section bladed cases blades sides divided parts shaped like needle tip like look like dagger shapes common ability pierce images note scanning electron drawings taken modified images love different species land upper images lateral view scale bar lower images cross section scale bar following tables charts numerous examples love morphology family family species species basis families species included drawings cross section lateral view particular species vary size according size species shown size purposes comparison family species family spiral minute pointing tip species family spiral connection writers commented parallel love love fired mythological known greek mythology possible connection behavior myth expert chase university said garden believe myth arrows basis species native greece added greeks probably knew behavior pretty good observers languages use mating known arrow example german language called love arrow czech language means arrow love like structures groups marine predatory known meaning poison tongue use poison single modified tooth created inside mouth primarily hunters predation close prey extends considerable distance fires prey species prey marine worms case larger cone prey small fish love nonetheless stab mating hardened structures example genus attempt stab partner


horses middle ages horses middle ages differed size build breed modern horse average smaller central society modern counterparts essential war agriculture transport consequently specific types horse developed modern equivalent understanding modern horse breeds vital analysis medieval horse researchers need consider documentary written archaeological evidence horses middle ages rarely differentiated breed use led described example war horses riding horses cart horses reference given place origin spanish horses referred breed unknown difficulty arising study medieval documents literature flexibility medieval languages words thing conversely objects referred word words document epic speak praises skill significant technological advances equestrian equipment introduced cultures allowed significant changes warfare agriculture particular improved designs solid saddle arrival horse collar significant advances medieval society consequently assumptions theories developed historians definitive debate issues breeding size horse number sources consulted order understand breadth subject breeding decline roman empire early middle ages quality breeding stock developed classical period lost breeding built following centuries west reliance british infantry based warfare horses riding pursuit exceptions 7th century kingdom retained active roman horse breeding centre spanish retained quality horses historic reputation region horse breeding land partially cultural influences related islamic conquest peninsula 8th 15th centuries origins medieval war horse obscure believed arabian blood spanish forerunner modern horse possible sources oriental came called breed possibly akin horse iran type oriental horse brought spanish horses breeding expensive fact germany word term quality war horses german literary sources refer fine horses scandinavia france produced good war horses scholars attribute strong feudal society equally probable explanation historic influence roman horse breeding traditions preserved combined addition valuable spanish oriental captured wake victory charles islamic invaders battle tours following battle began increase heavy cavalry resulted seizure land fodder production change tribute payment cattle horses importance horse breeding successful warfare realized planned breeding programs increased changes influence islamic culture invasions spain arabs kept extensive arabian horses oral tradition earliest written recorded european history kept monks bred spanish read write kept careful records given responsibility horse breeding certain members nobility particularly spain england common source wild rounded annually horse breeders including use campaign riding horses light cavalry breed fell pony similar ancestry horse hard trace happened type disappear record 17th century modern draft breeds claim link medieval great horse historians considering breeds belgian suffolk punch likely descendants historians theory historical record suggests medieval different type modern draught horse theory suggest war horses crossed cold work horses war horses particular renowned hot nature types horse period horses rarely considered breeds instead defined type describing purpose physical attributes definitions precise prior approximately 13th century written terms horses middle ages refer breeds know today described appearance purpose best known medieval horses renowned admired capabilities war trained required strong fast 14th century writer described tall majestic great strength contemporary sources frequently referred great horse size reputation term gives firm information actual height weight average horse time hands inches great horse medieval standards appear small modern eyes highly prized knights men arms actually common appears suited generally preferred hard battle light fast strong valuable costly frequently hunting general purpose horse kept riding horse trained war commonly men arms poorer knights wealthy knight expected nature warfare dictated choice horse summons war sent england requested swift pursuit pack horses cart horses bred equal price popular nobles highly ranked knights riding hunting ceremonial use desirable trait smooth allowed rider cover long distances quickly relative comfort horse types included small horse bred spain arabian quiet nature size popular riding horses ladies cavalry horses spanish hobby lightweight horse hands inches developed ireland spanish type quick horse popular ridden light cavalry known successfully sides wars scottish independence edward england trying gain advantage preventing irish exports horses scotland robert bruce employed hobby warfare mounted raids covering miles day horses warfare light cavalry warfare centuries medieval era saw rise heavy cavalry particularly european knight historians uncertain use heavy cavalry form mounted shock troops occurred technique widespread century heavy cavalry charge common occurrence warfare pitched battles avoided possible offensive warfare early middle ages taking form swift mounted raids called warriors lightly armed swift horses heavy war horses safely stable pitched battles rarely fought land suitable heavy cavalry mounted riders remained effective initial attacks 14th century common knights fight horses sent rear kept ready pursuit late middle ages large battles common probably success infantry tactics changes weaponry tactics left knight role war horse changed 17th century medieval thing past replaced lighter horses period light horse scouting reconnaissance provided defensive screen marching armies large teams draught horses pulling heavy early cannon horses pulled wagons carried supplies armies tournaments tournaments began 11th century sport provide training battle usually taking form melee participants horses armour weapons war sport grew tournament 15th century art sophisticated process war like knight changing role war horses specially bred heavier armour developed necessarily lead significantly larger horses royal leeds created specially bred horses replica armour horses accurately represented medieval mount built particularly tall types war horses known horse medieval era europe known carrying knights war knights mounted men arms rode smaller horses known common generic medieval war horses terms spain light cavalry horse war horses europe natural aggression hot tendencies 13th century work describes biting kicking battlefield heat battle war horses seen fighting use european warriors discounted literary references preferred war horse islamic invaders attacked european nations 15th century preferred war horses expensive normal riding horses prized figures vary greatly source source given values ranging seven times price ordinary horse times bohemian king rode horse valued thousand marks extreme french ordinance ruled spend marks knights expected war horse riding horses records later middle ages showing knights bringing horses campaign horses standard size war horses dispute circles size war horse notable historians claiming size hands inches large modern horse practical reasons dispute size analysis existing horse armour located royal indicates equipment originally worn horses hands inches size build modern field hunter ordinary riding horse research undertaken museum london literary archaeological sources supports military horses hands inches distinguished riding horse strength skill size average vary greatly medieval period horses appear bred increased size 9th 10th centuries 11th century average probably hands inches size verified studies norman depictions horses analysis horse transports suggests 13th century build hands inches centuries later significantly bigger royal hands inches lithuanian heavy draught mare model statues displaying 16th century horse body shape excellent fit reason belief medieval war horse draught horse type assumption held medieval armour heavy fact heaviest tournament armour knights weighed little pounds field war armour pounds horse armour common tournaments war rarely weighed pounds horses type hardened leather common probably effective allowing weight rider equipment horses carry approximately weight loads certainly carried heavy riding horse pounds range draught horse needed large horse required carry armoured knight held historians large horse desirable increase power lance strike practical experiments suggested rider weight strength relevance size mount little horse weight translated lance evidence hand inches war horse matter pride knight able vault horse armour touching arose necessity battle knight remain vulnerable unable mount reality course wounded weary knight find difficult rely assist incidentally knight armour served favour fall long hair twisted head form hood helm placed head protection modern bicycle equestrian helmet transportation middle ages customary people classes background travel widely households upper classes royal courts moved estates demands diplomacy war took men distant countries priests travelled churches monasteries formed rome people classes went pilgrimage travelled find work travelled people undertook small journeys foot hired horses longer journeys upper classes travel accompanied great deal display fine horses large magnificent order display wealth ensure personal comfort example english royal household contained horses king stable kept carriages middle ages system roads bridges parts europe remnants roman roads built collapse roman empire long fallen disrepair necessity ride long distances uncertain roads smooth horses preferred ordinary riding horses greater value smooth ground covering beat collectively known trains land travel barges river canal travel common form long distance wheeled horse drawn vehicles shorter journeys areas good roads regular carrier services established major towns medieval roads generally poor carriages human passengers rare roads permitted early carriages developed freight wagons carriage travel comfortable late 14th century introduction suspension speed travel varied greatly large slowed presence slow paced litters servants foot rarely cover miles day small mounted companies travel miles day exceptions stopping change horses midway richard england managed miles westminster night breeding war travel purposes necessary able transport horses purpose boats adapted built horse transports william normandy invasion england required transfer horses normandy similarly travelling france edward england ferried horses english channel provide royal party transport riding horses riding horses variety people middle ages varied greatly quality size breeding knights nobles kept riding horses war trains saving battle names horses referred type horse breed horses named region immediate ancestors example germany hungarian horses commonly riding individual horses described best riding horses known riding horses called modern term hack derived women rode small quiet horses known harness pack horses variety work horses middle ages pack horse horse carried equipment belongings common riding horses called pack horses cart horses pulled wagons trading freight farms military campaign draught horses smaller modern counterparts archaeological evidence suggests stout short approximately hands inches capable drawing load pounds horse wheeled wagons wheeled common towns london depending type vehicle weight load usually pulled teams horses tandem starting 12th century england use pull gradually superseded use horses process extended 13th century change came horse drawn transport moved goods quicker greater distances drawn methods transport agriculture romans field crop rotation agricultural system 8th century field system common field winter crop second spring crop left allowed greater spring crop grown provided fodder horses advance middle ages development heavy allowed dense heavy soils easily technology required use larger teams draught animals including horses adoption larger fields particularly 12th century increased use horse collar use iron horse shoes allowed horsepower directed efficiently horse teams usually horses compared lesser numbers compensated fact horses needed fed grain pasture unlike increased speed horses allowed land day team averaging half acre day horse team averaged acre day farm work draught horse utilized purpose called usually smaller cheaper cart horse traditionally work animals farms horses began greater numbers development horse collar horses transition horses farm work documented sources example 11th century depicts working horses clear change roman field crop rotation system new field system increased cultivation fodder crops predominantly beans horses process crops turn wheels mills corn mills transport crops market change horse drawn teams meant change horses suited wheeled unlike equestrian equipment technological innovations development equestrian technology proceeded similar pace development horse breeding changes warfare early middle ages heavy cavalry precipitated relied arrival solid saddle cultures development nailed enabled longer faster journeys horseback particularly lands northern europe useful campaigns varied providing protection support nailed horse shoes improved efficiency draught horse teams romans developed iron resembled boot debate actual origins nailed appear european origin little evidence nailed shoes prior speculation celtic nail metal earliest clear written record iron reference crescent figured nails list cavalry equipment additional archaeological evidence suggests siberia 9th 10th centuries spread byzantium soon afterward 11th century commonly europe time began widespread frequently mentioned written sources riding technology saddle solid tree provided bearing surface protect horse weight rider romans credited invention solid saddle possibly early 1st century widespread 2nd century early medieval resembled roman horn saddle development solid saddle tree significant raised rider horse distributed rider weight reducing pounds square inch carried horse greatly increasing comfort horse useful life horses carry weight distributed solid saddle tree allowed built seat rider greater security saddle 12th century high war saddle common providing protection added security built solid saddle enabled horsemen use lance effectively beneath saddle saddle worn decorated colours arms war horses equipped additional covers blankets armour collectively referred decorative protective purposes early forms horse armour usually restricted tournaments comprised leather pieces covered decorated cloth particularly heavy mail plate armour occasionally literary references horse armour iron blanket starting late 12th century solid tree allowed effective use developed china widespread use 7th century primarily invaders central asia arrived europe european riders adopted 8th century advantages provided greater balance support rider allowed knight use sword efficiently falling especially infantry increased use 8th century aided warrior stability security saddle fighting led greater use shock tactics lance effectively particular charles recognized military potential distributed seized lands condition serve fighting new manner theory known great controversy argues advantages warfare stemmed use led birth scholars dispute assertion suggesting provided little advantage shock warfare useful primarily allowing rider lean farther left right saddle fighting simply reduce risk falling argued reason switch infantry cavalry medieval reason emergence variety control horses predominantly designs bits bits middle ages resemble bit curb bit common use today decorated greater degree bit rings frequently covered large ornamental bosses designs extreme severe today curb bit known classical period generally middle ages century styles bit middle ages lower cheek extended manner modern half cheek cheek late 13th century generally single pair period common knights use sets similar modern double set decorated spurs commonly period especially knights regularly associated young man said won spurs achieved wealthy knights riders frequently wore decorated spurs attached rider heel spurs encourage horses quickly forward direct lateral movement early spurs short neck placing relatively close rider heel developments spur shape lengthened neck making easier touch horse leg movement rider harness technology significant development increased importance use horses harness particularly farm work horse collar horse collar invented china 5th century arrived europe 9th century widespread europe 12th century allowed horses pull greater weight vehicle means earlier times designed suited anatomy horses required horses pull shoulders power manner horse teams pull style harness flat neck chest animal useful pulling light vehicles little use heavy work pressed horse muscle restricted breathing reduced pulling power horse horses harness limited pulling combined total pounds contrast horse collar rested horses shoulders breathing allowed horse use strength pushing forward collar pull shoulders horse collar horse provide work effort foot pounds second greater speed having generally greater endurance ability work hours day single horse efficient collar harness draw weight pounds improvement managed altering arrangement teams horses weight distributed evenly pulling power increased increase horse power demonstrated building accounts hauling stone miles distant weighed average pounds pounds stone regularly loaded increasing pounds significant increase roman era loads horse trades elite middle ages knight generally raised middle upper classes knight trained childhood arts war management horse languages term knight reflects status french spanish german french word horse mastery gave highest concept large number trades positions arose ensure appropriate management care horses households marshal responsible aspects relating horses care management horses pack horses travel logistics position marshal literally horse servant high court circles king marshal earl marshal england responsible managing military matters present great households constable count stable responsible protection maintenance order household commanding military component organise events lower social marshal acted highly skilled marshal fitted cared provided general care horses middle ages distinction drawn marshal work limited number dealt provision horses horse dealers frequently called horse england bought sold horses frequently reputation figures responsible trade stolen horses offered horses hire formed large establishments busy roads branding horses deter theft women horses uncommon girl learn father trade woman share husband trade entire family helped run medieval shops farms accepted membership continue husband business system women trained horse related trades records women working saddle makers farms hand needed excessive emphasis division labour women worked alongside men farms hired help leading farm horses managing care despite difficulties travel customary people including women travel long distances upper class wives frequently accompanied husbands crusade tournaments women traveled social family engagements perform foot women usually travel horseback weakened carried wagon litter roads permitted women rode early carriages developed freight wagons pulled horses invention better suspension systems travel carriages comfortable women nobility rode horses sport accompanying men activities included hunting medieval women rode early chair like handles available 13th century allowed women nobility ride wearing elaborate universally adopted middle ages largely insecure seat offered necessitated smooth horse led practical everyday riding 16th century development horn allowed woman hook leg saddle use control horse riding remained activity invention second horn 19th century unknown women ride war horses warfare joan arc probably famous female warrior medieval period including empress armoured mounted led army cousin stephen stephen wife 12th century 15th century writer advised aristocratic ladies know laws arms things pertaining warfare prepared command men need


east east british east india company wrecked storm near cape south_africa loss lives board survived underway ceylon england journey wounded soldiers wars ship marine board comparatively new expensive navigational instrument enabled determine accurately instead forced navigate heavy storm strong currents older reliable navigational aids dead navigational difficulties lack led incorrect assumption cape cape point consequently ship wrecked captain headed north incorrect belief ship passed cape point overview east operated charter licence honourable east india company held monopoly granted queen elizabeth england english trade cape good hope cape horn built yard thames launched heavily armed guns making equivalent royal_navy fourth rate ship line classification ship line class ship later evolved battleship meant ship powerful stand line battle explained ships commerce mistaken men war armament necessary ship protect valuable cargo pirates commerce raiders nations long europe far_east like east slow able carry large quantity cargo sailed great_britain far_east times voyage journeys china struck rock near island modern day located south sumatra suffer ill effects result incident mentioned journals time navigation hazard shipping apart incident uneventful voyage madras china captain campbell april portsmouth april june august cape good hope september madras november december march april second bar june november march outward journey undertook transport troops join lord undertaking expedition capture cape colony dutch july george vancouver arrived hms discovery vancouver returning england half year long voyage exploration transferred field guns carrying ammunition left onward transmission discovery boats helped troops shore ferry field pieces company artillery infantry men voyage china voyage sailed letter captain william dated june portsmouth august cape good hope december february second bar march august october long reach voyage china voyage sailed letter captain campbell dated november january portsmouth april june july august september november second bar january april june long reach voyage anchored june gun french attacked cut anchor gave chase firing ship faster french ship able escape october east kent fortunate capture kent hour engagement voyage china captain campbell december downs march june july august october second bar february april long reach voyage china voyage sailed letter captain james dated march june portsmouth august rio_de_janeiro january february second bar march june september long reach journey included passage bass improve earlier nautical chart route voyage china voyage sailed letter captain peter dated march portsmouth august cape good hope october january island july july september cape good hope october january lower hope voyage bombay china captain samuel january portsmouth april cape good hope bombay september october december second bar august long reach voyage bombay china voyage sailed letter captain walter campbell january april bombay september january march june long reach british government chartered troop transport cape india voyage cape ceylon captain george simpson left england june ceylon embarked soldiers regiment wounded wars ceylon england wreck critically ship voyage comparatively new expensive navigational instrument time captain george simpson afford ship owners unwilling purchase threatening replace captain refused set sail sailed port april convoy east escort hms hms victor passengers invalid soldiers sailors plus women children passage ceylon clock day ships signalled calculated way ships able compare respective instruments master able learn long remained convoy rounding southern tip africa separated convoy bad weather sails damaged accurate daily longitudinal information ships rely instead older accurate navigation methods navigation dead proved particularly difficult strong ocean currents combined weather prevented fix obtained days navigation land sighted north given dead estimates presumed cape good hope ship sailed west turned north run land sighted fact cape known cape ship good current sighting navigational errors master taken depth confirmed location bank heading north consequently instead miles west cape good hope presumed ship closing reef near cape anchors unable hold heavy ship storm near lieutenant advised captain simpson ground ship save lives aboard minutes later ship struck rocks half mile offshore wind guns opposite cut away failed attempt level ship soon started break waves men people board survived reaching shore great difficulty high surf following morning vessel visible ship passengers lost price officer convoy later wrote valuable ship lives board actually sacrificed piece short sighted economy saved supplied worst sent sea obvious aftermath survivors buried bodies found beach travelled east beach expecting reach cape_town half days realised error returned site wreck trying effect repairs ship washed ashore discovered days later june farmer son hunting victims captain george simpson lieutenant lord lady survivors john carpenter charles stewart scott carpenter mate william second class class robinson fourth class memorial replica seen today erected beach wife colonel children lost tragedy journey having visited ceylon memorial bears following inscription erected parents memory thomas aged years william noble aged andrew aged alexander murray aged eldest sons colonel andrew regiment lord lady unfortunately perished transport wrecked shore 3rd time seaside village associated wreck known nearby town museum dedicated wreck wreck direct influence decision build lighthouse cape west thirty seven years later regiment suffered hundreds casualties coast hms wrecked miles away archaeological excavation wreck lies metres water surveyed archaeological team university cape_town national monuments council issued permit student jim conduct underwater survey site limited excavation number artefacts recovered donated museum


serbia united_states relations serbian american relations relations governments serbia united_states established united_states maintained relations kingdom yugoslavia yugoslavia serbia montenegro serbia considered legal successor state end 19th century united_states sought advantage ottoman_empire withdrawal eastern_europe establishing diplomatic relations newly emerged nations serbia serbia united_states allies world war world war serbia united kingdom montenegro territories previously held austria-hungary unified state known yugoslavia united_states diplomatic relations beginning world war yugoslavia world war ultimately supported serbian known leader yugoslav partisans war ended governing yugoslavia world war resulted period yugoslavia united_states late 1940s end world war resulted mass emigration refugees yugoslavia serbs ended moving united_states helped create major serbian united_states serbian refugees settled united_states world war anti communist attempted undermine cold war united_states venue anti communist aims breakup yugoslavia united_states engaged economic conflict particularly serbia known time federal republic yugoslavia successor yugoslavia united_states imposed sanctions spearheaded nato bombing campaign yugoslavia period conflict 1990s wave serbian emigration ensued serbian refugees moved united_states 2000s diplomatic relations united_states yugoslavia restored changed montenegro serbia successor state continue relations previously held yugoslavia assembly declared independence serbia history pre yugoslavia diplomatic relations kingdom serbia united_states established 19th century serbian general new_york opened february serbian parliament adopted contract convention diplomatic relations kingdom serbia united_states given king milan united_states senate adopted documents july debate amendments november eugene united_states ambassador serbia support serbian world war world war yugoslavia united_states initially supported royal government yugoslavia nazis invaded yugoslavia spring united_states decisively supported years war support took place form extensive clandestine relations office strategic services william administration cooperation highlighted complex operations operation american pilots rescued support compromised united_kingdom policy favoring yugoslav partisans government support yugoslav partisans president franklin roosevelt discussed winston_churchill private conversation imagined yugoslavia boundaries completely separate states peter monarch independent serbian kingdom end war british raf began bombing belgrade april thought nazi occupation removed home grown resistance united_states intelligence circles gradually conceded influence yugoslav guerrilla operations british end war president harry dedicated legion merit leader award wasn revealed publicly cold war relations end world war socialist federal republic yugoslavia formed diplomatic contacts new communist government department state request army testify trial request early relations united_states government strained american diplomats furious execution relations degraded month later cargo aircraft shot yugoslavia space weeks aircraft shot yugoslavia result senator thomas opposed american financial aid government saying hands early visits united_states protesters san drowned communist governments europe deferred rejected marshall plan aid united_states went rejected marshall plan broke decisively issues making yugoslavia independent communist state yugoslavia requested american aid american leaders internally divided finally agreed began sending money small scale larger scale american aid marshall plan yugoslavia began opening diplomatic dialogue western nations split assured yugoslavia member warsaw pact january yugoslavia communist country open borders foreign visitors abolish requirements regular commercial air travel united_states yugoslavia introduced pan yugoslav trade opportunities reopened united_states yugoslavia american businesses began yugoslavia likewise 1980s yugoslavia manufactured automobiles assembly line united_states president jimmy carter discussed issues palestine egypt referred great world leader subsequently reagan administration began targeting yugoslav economy secret sensitive national security decision directive policy yugoslavia censored version elaborated eastern_europe issued advocated expanded efforts promote quiet revolution overthrow communist governments parties countries eastern_europe market oriented economy serbian united_states existence yugoslavia socialist period united_states haven serbian anti communists living outside yugoslavia june serbian nationalist named american flight new_york_city intention crashing boeing league communists yugoslavia headquarters belgrade aircraft landed shannon ireland arrested group serbian nationalists placed home bomb home yugoslav chicago later leader gang new_york_city participated organized crime eventually feared new_york_city underworld developed extensive friendships john family turned john federal bureau investigation december highly suspected attempted fix trial john behalf result arrested december miami international airport tracked fbi arrested united_states january investigation trial release left united_states moved serbia lived death admirer long time friend went hiding 1980s taught political science university_of_michigan expelled league communists yugoslavia june traveled united_states meet san california named duke serbian went form serbian radical party accused tribunal leading bosnia war state republic serbian pursued post graduate medical studies columbia_university specific political agenda time later war time president war subsequently went hiding serbia capture charges war crimes genocide deteriorating relations war yugoslavia form sanctions initiated yugoslavia took place amendment sponsored senators don bob amendment passed concerns arrested amendment officially came legal effect applied million worth foreign aid reported instrumental denying yugoslavia application loans breakup episode breakup yugoslavia began territories consisting serbia montenegro composed federal republic yugoslavia midst yugoslav wars united_states overwhelming majority states united_nations severed economic ties imposed sanctions yugoslavia triangle united_states yugoslav government newly formed yugoslavia successor yugoslavia ended having opposed leaders occupying executive positions president federal republic serbia national theorist named president yugoslavia milan business magnate based newport beach california accepted invitation prime minister subsequently elected prime minister yugoslav parliamentary elections united_states citizenship occupation executive position yugoslav government clearly contradicted united_states_constitution person interest diplomatic circles given business residence backgrounds meeting july secretary state james baker abruptly dismissed appeal reduce sanctions yugoslavia agreement reached resign return relief ended severely damaging unique diplomatic position internationally standing yugoslavia los_angeles_times published article described doubtful potential american fact years later known actually invited baker place voluntarily coming ambassador yugoslavia john douglas deep level campaign challenge conservative politicians echoed baker disapproval giving yugoslavia sanctions relief return planned resignation advisors academic dispatched explain larry bush administration mistaken seeing puppet replied don worry going thing government lasted december decided challenge revised elections december year december election ended failure opposition pulled campaign moment health problems multiple politicians opposition parties criticized instigated fossil fuel sanctions midst cold winter saying actually helped sympathy post influence yugoslavia november serbian president travelled united_states sign peace croatian president president near ohio months later sanctions yugoslavia finally lifted october group wrote letter titled program advocating liberal policy creating predictions yugoslav economy coincidence letter published arguably west friendly media outlet yugoslavia time base highly controversial political party serbia plus began funded national democracy original writers letter subsequently divided criticized end occupying positions post government nato bombing yugoslavia united_states reinstated sanctions yugoslavia march war started shortly controversies american diplomat richard traveled belgrade march deliver final ultimatum requesting entry forces rejected ultimatum united_states completely severed ties yugoslavia march bill_clinton president declare war bypassing congressional majority establishment bombing campaign contested entire history house_of_representatives united_states declared war yugoslavia march operation allied force led general clark territories yugoslavia time serbia bombed concentration military targets result granting entry war yugoslavia ceased june post war relations revolution group named originally formed students financial assistance international republican institute multiple significant participants revolution overthrown donated million purchase cell phones computers dos leadership recruit train army election monitors supplement sophisticated marketing campaign posters shirts revolution october united_states diplomatic presence belgrade associated_press published article reported cia operative francis participated organization october coup overthrow regarded inside cia blueprint running successful peaceful covert action transition dos party remnants sanctions yugoslavia lifted january united_states bush administration denied giving aid yugoslavia months sanctions lifted promised cooperate demands trial march american economist joseph traveled belgrade talk prominent democratic opposition leader potential consequences sponsored june published paper serbia advantages coming late necessity serbia rush pursue shock therapy established advise woods institutions live long analyze advice woods institutions anti plan assassinated march accumulated plus got intense serbian government composed dos fact plus continuously lobbied dissolution state union serbia montenegro later montenegro declared independence state union united_states immediately respected results urged new government close ties serbia united_states recognized serbia official successor state serbia montenegro preceding yugoslav state outside fiscal policy american influence evident executive positions september announced military court belgrade press charges vice president federal republic yugoslavia time espionage favour cia trial took place release february announced lawyer client ready judged accusations espionage investigation taken place era february announced pro western won serbian presidential election elections particularly important serbia relations united_states main challenging party lost election split integration european_union split began pursuing pro european profile reversal position advised american lobbying firm quinn associates days election result declaring independence february spurred widespread unrest serbia embassy united_states evacuated mob man serbian killed inside embassy unrest serbia temporarily withdrew ambassador washington embassy belgrade closed days ambassador cameron said relations expected regardless unrest era april shortly serbian parliamentary election new_york_city mayor traveled belgrade attend news conference belgrade mayor candidate embassy serbia gave statement support specific candidate upcoming election belgrade mayor slammed conference attended telling press speak belgrade future man supported bombing serbia presidential elections serbia large number local news outlets intellectuals interpreted philip visit belgrade july attempt create parliamentary coalition serbian progressive party opposed progressive composed election results election ultimately gave partners victory removed opposition newly elected government ultimately continued largely euro atlantic integration programs pursued administration according global leadership report serbs approved leadership uncertain fifth lowest rating surveyed european country year immigration brain drain professionals serbia sizable serbian american united_states total people serbian descent recorded inhabiting documented wave serbian immigrants united_states recorded 1970s serbian factory workers emigrated detroit manufacture automobiles ford serbia ranked second world guinea human capital flight according brain drain united_states canada cited chronic phenomenon serbia especially decade sanctions war trade investment serbia strongest exports united_states include automobiles manufactured purchased subsequently managed factory produce new automobiles opposed models produced units shipped serbia baltimore sale united_states automobile exported serbia united_states proving popular model large advertising united_states serbia largest world consumed united_states grown states discussed find ways increase investments serbia


trade route trade route logistical network identified series pathways commercial transport cargo term refer trade bodies water allowing goods reach distant markets single trade route contains long distance connected smaller networks commercial transportation routes notable trade routes amber road served network long distance trade maritime trade route prominent middle ages nations resorted military means control influential route middle ages organizations league aimed protecting interests merchants trade increasingly prominent modern times commercial activity shifted major trade routes old world newer routes modern nation states activity carried traditional protection trade international free trade agreements allowed commercial goods cross borders relaxed restrictions innovative transportation modern times includes pipeline transport relatively known trade involving rail routes automobiles cargo development early routes early development period middle 2nd millennium bce beginning common era saw societies western asia mediterranean china indian develop major transportation networks trade vital instruments facilitated long distance trade burden organized visible 2nd millennium bce carry goods large distance fodder available way allowed arabian control long distance trade silk far_east arabian peninsula useful long distance trade largely carrying luxury goods transportation cheaper goods large distances profitable operators productive developments iron bronze technologies newer trade routes innovations began rise maritime trade evidence maritime trade dates navigation known 4th 3rd millennium bce probably known indians chinese people trade routes red_sea land punt east africa maritime trade began safer coastal trade evolved manipulation monsoon winds soon resulting trade crossing boundaries arabian sea bay south asia multiple maritime trade routes connected southeast_asia making control route resulting maritime monopoly difficult indian connections southeast asian states routes making use maritime trade routes bulk trade possible romans 2nd century bce roman trading vessel span mediterranean month cost land routes visible trade routes peninsula lay commercial land routes europe asia sea route mediterranean black_sea records 19th century bce existence merchant colony modern turkey trading networks old world included grand trunk road india road transportation network consisting hard surfaced highways concrete volcanic ash lime built romans early bce times censor parts mediterranean world roman britain river system north_africa fell reach network point history according robert allen spread urban trading networks extension persian gulf eastern mediterranean created complex molecular structure regional core periphery originally created series interacting egypt valley syria central margin included temperate areas europe dry corridor central asia truly world system occupied restricted portion western old world whilst civilization emphasized ideological autonomy common world interacting components routes spreading religion trade technology historically vital growth urban civilization extent development cities level integration larger world system attributed position active transport networks historic trade routes combined land routes route route served channel trading indian arabian east asian goods trade flourished south mediterranean roughly 3rd century bce 2nd century trade crucial economy trees seen source wealth rulers emperor egypt forged alliance order secure route trade coast red_sea egypt edwards connects war desire control northern end route ran southern tapped commanding inhabited controlled trade routes mediterranean exercised control trading 1st century bce exercised control routes route hold challenged success emperor syria control trade increased spread directions replacement greece roman empire administrator mediterranean basin led resumption direct trade east elimination taxes extracted previously south according south arabs protest took pirate attacks roman ships gulf response romans destroyed favored western coast red_sea indian ships sailed egypt maritime routes southern asia control single power pre trade similarities cultures suggest regions wider world system result trade 1st millennium bce current academic view flow goods slopes controlled institutions distributing locations local groups free access trading trade slopes described vertical trade overshadowed long distance trade people neighboring forests traded tropical plants 6th 10th centuries copper dealt specialized merchants valley long distance trade seen local struggle order manipulation control prior dominance specialized long distance merchants provided goods gold copper salt etc locals key players politics region shaped copper currency produced people order obtain pre ecuador maritime exchange system stretched west_coast mexico southernmost peru trading represented rain fertility considered principal food gods people empire elite rituals effective political effect pre hispanic times predominantly overland routes silk road silk road trade routes join eastern western worlds according silk roads technology traveled ideas exchanged friendship understanding east west experienced time large scale exposed western ideas life styles learned eastern culture spirituality oriented buddhism eastern religion received international attention silk roads cultural interactions powerful emperors led development art introduction rich variety influences buddhist missions silk roads partly trade cultural values created series safe pilgrims traders frequented routes silk route route extending served path polo visit indian buddhist missions order establish buddhist monasteries route presence hostile tribes finds mention works din grand trunk road grand trunk road connecting bangladesh pakistan existed half important trade routes world road strategic fortresses halting posts wells post offices facilities road pakistan coincided silk road highway associated emperors synonymous route role ensuring safety travelers road emperor widened realigned road routes provided approximately empire provided free food travelers regardless status british occupation road special significance british india bridges pathways newer constructed british thirty seven years reign occupation british followed roughly alignment old routes places newer routes ran parallel older routes comments grand trunk road road marched mighty armies traders scholars artists common folk people moved ideas languages customs cultures directions different meeting places permanent temporary people different origins different cultural backgrounds different eating different foods wearing different clothes speaking different languages meet peacefully understand food dress manner borrow words phrases times languages amber road amber road european trade route associated trade transport amber amber satisfied criteria long distance trade light weight high demand ornamental purposes mediterranean establishment roman control areas amber road virtually route available long distance trade towns amber road began rise steadily 1st century despite troop movements son reign amber road straightened paved according prevailing urban standards roman towns began appear road initially founded near site celtic 3rd century saw danube river principal trade amber road commercial routes investment forts saw towns amber road growing slowly retaining prosperity prolonged struggle romans left mark towns amber road literally latin way sea ancient highway romans states controlling position grant access trade citizens collect tolls outsiders maintain trade route latin translation hebrew phrase related biblical significance ancient route attempts find present day location christian pilgrims 13th century traveler mount refers route way leading shore sea trans trade early muslim writings confirm people west_africa operated sophisticated network trade usually authority monarch levied taxes provided bureaucratic military support kingdom sophisticated mechanisms economic political development involved african areas place islam strengthened trade towns government western africa capital court trade region find mention works scholar trans trade gold salt powerful tribes origin later adapting muslim arab cultures controlled channels western africa making efficient use horse drawn vehicles pack animals engaged struggle dynasty morocco control trans trade resulting damage sides weak victory strengthening tribes struggles disturbances continued till 14th century merchants trading lake newer trade routes developed following extension trade predominantly maritime routes roman india routes dynasty initiated roman maritime trade contact india red_sea ports roman historian mentions vast increase trade following roman annexation egypt indicating monsoon known manipulated trade time time ships setting sail year india trading diverse variety goods principal roman ports involved maritime trading network indian ports included indians present alexandria christian jewish settlers rome continued live india long fall roman empire resulted rome loss red_sea ports previously secure trade india roman world time dynasty trade shortly 12th century germans played relatively modest role north european trade change development trade result german traders prominent baltic north_sea regions following death denmark german forces attacked sacked denmark bringing merchants new administration controlled regions quarter 14th century trade faced major difficulties economic conflict flanders hostilities denmark events led formation organized association towns replaced earlier union german merchants new towns aimed protecting interests merchants trade prominent years associates downfall new alliance hamburg bremen older institution sets date dissolution concludes entirely forgotten end 18th century scholar friedrich published monograph community early years 19th century greek trade route greeks russian swedish till greek trade route connected scandinavia byzantine_empire route allowed traders route establish direct prosperous trade byzantium prompted settle territories present day russia ukraine route began scandinavian trading centres crossed baltic_sea entered gulf finland followed river lake followed river upstream past towns crossed lake river ships river near second route baltic western region river route crossed major passed entering black_sea followed west_coast constantinople maritime mediterranean trade economic growth europe year lack safety mainland trading routes eased development major commercial routes coast mediterranean growing independence coastal cities gave leading role commerce maritime italian venice genoa republic developed mediterranean shores 8th 15th century held monopoly european trade middle_east silk trade involving herbs drugs mediterranean city states rich expensive demanded products middle ages imported asia africa muslim traders mainly descendants arab sailors dominated maritime routes indian_ocean tapping source regions far_east shipping trading india westward persian gulf red_sea overland routes led mediterranean coasts venetian merchants distributed goods europe rise ottoman_empire eventually led fall constantinople barring europeans important combined land sea routes route trade india roman world increased main import india western world bypassing silk indian commercial connection south east asia proved vital merchants persia 7th 8th centuries alexandria entry ports india china merchants arriving india port city paid tribute form ibn sultan products shipped ports near east passed ports india sri_lanka indian exports find mention works ibn 14th century reaching indian ports shipped east africa purposes including burial rites orders portugal vessels command navigator rounded cape good hope continuing eastern coast africa sail indian_ocean wealth indies open europeans explore portuguese empire early european grow trade modern routes modern times saw development newer means transport controversial free trade agreements altered political logistical approach prevalent middle ages newer means transport led establishment new routes countries opened borders allow trade mutually agreed goods prevailing free trade agreement old trading route reopened modern times different political logistical scenarios entry harmful foreign way trade routes cause alarm modern times conservative estimate stresses future damages harmful animal plant diseases high billion dollars absence effective measures prevent introduction unwanted trade routes routes networks like santa trail oregon trail prominent united_states wagon trains gaining popularity mode long distance overland transportation people goods oregon california routes highly organized planned rendezvous locations essential supplies settlers united_states wagon trains wagons westward emigration 18th 19th centuries challenges faced wagon route operators crossing rivers mountains hostile native americans preparations according weather protection trade travelers ensured guards horseback wagon essential american growth replaced railroad truck railway routes railway act england compelled train station day class priced penny mile trade benefited workers lower classes ability travel towns frequently suburban communities began develop towns began spread british constructed vast railway network india considered serve strategic purpose addition commercial purpose efficient use rail routes helped unification united_states_of_america modern times saw nations struggle control rail routes trans railway intended russian government control later china german forces wanted establish berlin baghdad railway order influence near east austrian government planned route vienna control balkans according railroads reached maturity early 20th century trains carried bulk land freight passenger traffic countries world mid-20th century lost position private automobile replaced railroad short passenger trips airplane long distance travel especially united_states railroads remained effective transporting people high volume situations centres large cities suburbs medium distance travel miles urban centres railroads lost general freight carrying business semi trailer trucks remain best means transporting large volumes bulk coal grain chemicals ore long distances development railroads effective handling finished merchandise relatively high speeds addition introduction truck trailers transported long distances specially designed cars allowed railroads regain business lost modern road networks advent motor vehicles created demand better use highways roads evolved way roads freeways modern times existing roads developed highways designed according intended use trucks came widespread use western world world war quickly gained reputation means long distance transportation goods modern highways trans canada highway highway australia pan american highway allowed transport goods services great distances automobiles continue play crucial role economies countries resulting rise businesses motor freight operation truck transportation rate cars highways decline regulations introduction petrol trend especially notable growth vehicles vehicle miles traveled automobiles highways modern maritime routes consistent shift land based trade sea based trade recorded strategic advantages port cities trading centers dependent vital connections vulnerable oceanic ports help forge trading relationships parts world easily modern maritime trade routes form artificial canals like suez_canal visible impact economic political standing nations opening suez_canal altered british interactions colonies british_empire dynamics transportation trade communication changed drastically waterways like panama canal played important role histories nations inland water transportation remained significantly important advent railroads automobiles resulted steady decline canals inland water transport transportation bulk grains coal ore commerce historically important europe particularly russia according russia significant inland waterways opened vast areas interior development moscow linked white baltic black seas canals rivers major inland port oil recorded case maritime routes pipeline routes main oil amounting billion oil entering oceans year occur damaged equipment human error free trade areas historically governments followed policy protection trade international free trade visible anglo french commercial treaty trend gained momentum period world war according columbia encyclopedia sixth edition world war strong sentiment developed world protection high favor trade results new organizations agreements international trade general agreement trade economic union european economic community common market european free trade association southern cone common market world trade organization north american free trade agreement approved governments canada mexico united_states early 1990s nations european_union successor organization common market undertook remove barriers free movement trade employment mutual borders united_states_of_america signed american free trade agreement central american nations air routes air transport modern society people come use air transport long middle distances average route length long distances kilometers europe kilometers industry annually carries million passengers worldwide covers million kilometer network annual turnover billion dollars mode transportation links national international global economies making vital industries newer trends trade fostered routes nations bound agreements example american open skies policy led greater international markets international restrictions survived present times express delivery international cargo touched billion according world trade organization expected triple pure cargo service companies operated internationally air transport particularly favors light expensive small products electronic media books example refined drugs bulk food pipeline networks economic importance pipeline transport responsible high percentage oil natural gas transportation undermined general public lack visibility mode generally held safer economical reliable modes transport mode advantages rival modes trucks railways examples modern pipeline transport include crude oil pipeline iran armenia natural gas pipeline international pipeline transport projects like pipeline presently connect modern nation states case georgia turkey pipeline networks select cases transport coal minerals long distances short distance transportation goods grain cement concrete solid pulp etc feasible