action august action august major air battle involved elements vietnam people air_force united_states_air_force air battle took place skies north vietnam operation rolling thunder vietnam war january united_states_air_force launched operation aim north vietnamese fighters air battle destroyed ambush operation led colonel robin olds turned major success north vietnamese fighters fighter regiment shot devastating defeat north vietnamese air_force grounded fighter force times june august order work training tactics august north vietnamese air_force employed newly devised tactic strike formation conducting raids rail yard air battle concluded losing fighters background march united_states government launched operation rolling thunder major bombing campaign objectives firstly operation supposed north vietnam military activities inside south vietnam raising morale south vietnamese people especially army republic vietnam secondly aimed north vietnam ability wage war reducing stopping flow men material south vietnam overall objective persuade north vietnamese government find compromise negotiations originally joint chiefs staff submitted list targets hit period days president johnson decided include military targets order gradually apply pressure north vietnamese government list targets grew end campaign phase operation lasted spring summer american mainly targeted north vietnamese capital limited industrial base end year united_states failed achieve objectives rolling thunder north vietnam continued send troops military supplies trail demonstrated north vietnamese government ready quit war response domestic political pressure president johnson shifted priority campaign summer winter period campaign aimed north vietnam capability infiltrate send men south vietnam america shift failed johnson administration forced change priority bombing campaign phase rolling thunder occurred spring early bombing operations focused industrial transportation targets zone near chinese border phase campaign heavily favored commanders allowed destroy threaten nascent industrial furthermore new targets approved johnson administration enabled primary war making capabilities north vietnam striking military targets previously denied fighter bombers navy air_force united_states introduced aircraft operation equipped new technology gave american air units assets significant difference american bombers moved closer aggressively challenged north vietnamese fighters prelude year started badly vietnam people air_force early years war rules engagement prevented fighter bombers hitting north vietnamese air bases allowed north vietnamese fighter pilots attack american bomber formations approaching targets forcing pilots bomb loads reached target instead strike aircraft north vietnamese pilots normally retreat safety bases attacks bomber formations north vietnamese air_force united_states_air_force interested north vietnamese fighters target shoot air missile armed fighter aircraft north vietnamese air_force aggressive strike formations indicated commanders right time launch operation known operation 8th tactical fighter wing 8th command colonel robin olds based thailand entrusted task leading operation aimed lure north vietnamese air_force ambush accordingly 8th fly profile strike formation flying time altitudes speed routes time equipped pods appear north vietnamese radars bombers prepare operation spent days studying weapons pod operation aspects air air tactics january total phantom 8th tactical fighter wings flew formation resembled strike force air base flights fighters flying escort simulate fighter formations detected north vietnamese radar fighters fighter regiment based air base air base immediately placed category red alert highest state alert unknown pilots time high command forbade pilots taking fighters kilometers away apart late reaction high command weather conditions north vietnam favored north vietnamese bases covered 10th cloud started height meters cleared meters time wave north vietnamese fighters taken additional flights fighters 8th flown area lack radar equipment north vietnamese fighters restricted flying cloud base failed detect presence fighters flying higher altitude meters fighters greater energy level north vietnamese fighters pilots trouble seeing identifying north vietnamese fighters flying furthermore weather conditions day allowed radar missile systems fighters perform maximum level advantage pilots fully exploited north vietnamese fighters flew engage north vietnamese fighters appeared clouds began attacking fighters fighters picked missiles launched pilots suffered losses claimed shot seven fighters confirmed north vietnamese north vietnamese pilots hit ejected safely survivors managed return safety home bases engagement january high command convened meeting examine gone wrong actions january exposed flawed tactics employed pilots broke clouds quickly join attacked fighters waiting high command devised new tactic required deployment aircraft attack maximum aircraft mission perform guerrilla style attacks bomber formations furthermore examined air tactics north vietnamese commanders decided pilots attack formations pilots strike north vietnamese air_force implement new tactics fighter regiment withdrawn combat months recover bloody defeat suffered result operation april north vietnamese fighters air challenge navy air_force fighter bombers experienced mixed results heavy losses result late june early august north vietnamese air_force fighters grounded times pilots work training new tactics north vietnamese pilots undergoing training american concentrated striking line communications especially rail lines running north east north west china transportation network linked north vietnam capital minimize effects strikes north vietnamese authorities constructed alternate rail yards north eastern train line including rail yard located kilometers north ran thai linked main line close china response seventh air_force launched repeated strikes rail yard linked china zone august formation raided contained americans claimed damaged half trapped remainder rail yard returned days later destroy rest afternoon august flight sixteen 8th tactical fighter wing escorted formation thirty strike aircraft tactical fighter wings based thailand second attack tactical fighter squadron provided flights ford flight falcon flight mission led colonel nicholas olds spearheaded operation january leader escort formation august north vietnamese radars detected flight aircraft approaching sam neighboring high command immediately flights fighters fighter regiment followed fighters fighter regiment force led van participated disastrous mission operation second flights commanded van respectively airborne north vietnamese pilots aircraft positions deploy new tactic required fighters act bait fighters attacked rear departed air base flew low level stayed ground avoid detection airborne radars employed aircraft detected airborne early warning radar surveillance aircraft positions relayed fighters escorting strike formation respond initially flight fell strike formation formation climbed immediately played attack attacking formation cannons north vietnamese ground controllers saw fighter aircraft strike flight outside radar range formation ordered fighters climb meters overcast swept ford flight strike formation fired missile fired missile successfully destroyed ford 8th piloted major charles tyler shortly turned aircraft fired missile missed tried score kill line fire diving firing cannon result damaged controls working properly requested carry mission ground controllers ordered return base fly speed kilometers hour mph damage strike formation fallen ambush pilots control center requested continue air patrol skies ford piloted captain larry 8th shot fighter formation falcon 8th piloted major robert shot anti aircraft artillery losses pilot lieutenant david claimed destroyed air battle return trip ford piloted major ran fuel aircraft tried reach tanker pilot weapons systems officer forced aircraft thailand aftermath battle concluded worst day united_states_air_force vietnam december lost aircraft skies north vietnam single day consequently actions august known black wednesday pilots participated air operations particular day officially confirmed loss fighters raid rail yard resulted deaths weapon systems officers captain 8th lieutenant charles lane 8th major charles tyler captain larry major robert lieutenant ejected safely aircraft captured alive prisoners war major weapons system officer lieutenant rescued shortly ejected aircraft thai contrast misery suffered opponents action august gave north vietnamese air_force major victory operation confirmation loss ford aircraft gave van second air air victory eventually leading ace pilot war kills earlier engagement flight leader claimed destroyed missile confirmed claim nonetheless ranking ace pilot kills attributed claimed victory fighter attributed lieutenant david claim confirmed north vietnamese fighters returned base safely following defeat hands north vietnamese air_force colonel robin olds learned seventh air_force intelligence watched north vietnamese fighters practicing new tactics days prior battle august passed information 8th tactical fighter wing units soon clear commanders reason north vietnamese repeatedly stood fighter force working new tactic half north vietnamese realized directly confront fighters air air combat changed procedures deployment numerically inferior units advantage speed small size pilots flying type instructed intercept targets high speed strike formations approached target pilots diving pass trailing isolated flights position missile kill action august demonstrated north vietnamese air_force successfully executed new procedure helped ground controllers directed fighter targets new procedure gave north vietnamese pilots ingredient needed achieve kill opponents august february north vietnamese air_force achieved kill ratio loss aircraft victories period time operation rolling thunder cost united_states approximately million million prices loss aircraft bombing campaign continued october abandoned government


operation southern operation southern croatian final croatian army croatian defence council offensive war took place western bosnia october goal help army republic bosnia positions town captured operation endangered army objectives operation southern included capture town positions mountain allow directly threaten largest city finally offensive aimed capturing hydroelectric power station significant source electricity control western bosnia combined forces overall command major general offensive achieved objectives significantly contributed operations forcing leadership peace negotiations country wide came effect october day offensive ended soon followed negotiations produced agreement ending war background yugoslav people army withdrew croatia following acceptance start implementation plan officers soldiers born bosnia transferred new army later renamed army organisation followed declaration serbian republic bosnia january ahead referendum independence bosnia took place february march declaration later cited serbs pretext war serbs began capital areas march following day fatalities war recorded final days march forces bombarded artillery resulting cross border operation croatian army brigade april artillery began examples directly supported capture early april provided artillery support serbia firing river time attempted situation arrange negotiations country bosnia faced army republic bosnia croatian defence council reporting dominated central government leadership respectively occasionally supported operations late april able deploy troops hundreds tanks armoured personnel carriers artillery pieces croatian defence forces field approximately soldiers handful heavy weapons largely unprepared nearly troops small arms half number virtually heavy weapons forces hampered united_nations arms introduced september mid units transferred withdrew bosnia newly declared federal republic yugoslavia controlled approximately percent bosnia extent control extended percent country end prelude developed better organised forces employing large numbers artillery pieces good defensive fortifications capable penetrating defences forces employed sound military tactics instance battle june recapture bulk republic croatian controlled areas croatia operation storm august shifted focus western bosnia shift motivated desire create security zone croatian border establish croatia regional power gain west forcing end war government bosnia welcomed contributed goal gaining control western bosnia city largest city held territory final days august nato launched operation deliberate force air campaign targeting campaign launched response second massacre august came heels massacre began august initially targeting air defences striking targets near campaign briefly suspended september scope expanded target artillery storage facilities city bombing resumed september scope extended air defences near september nato nearly exhausted list targets near september serbs accepted nato demand establishment exclusion zone campaign ceased following relative fighting western bosnia renewed joint offensive region component offensive operation launched september aim capturing towns 7th corps advanced right flank operation neared objectives 5th corps launched operation area aimed pushing river east achieved significant territorial gains advancing kilometres miles capture town approaching september halted significant reinforcements launched night september gradually pushed 5th corps despite gradual arrival reinforcements dispatched 7th corps approached metres feet october control town threat response requested assistance order battle forces offensive comprised troops organised groups overall command major general primary group consisted 4th guards 7th guards brigades 1st croatian guards brigade 1st second group spearheaded 1st 2nd 3rd guards brigades included home guard regiment units facing combined force elements operational 30th division command colonel deployed comprised 7th 3rd serbian 11th light infantry brigades brigades numbering approximately troops tasked cover rear force force timeline operation southern carried stages stage involved capture surrounding valley second phase operation force seize significant source electricity controlled western bosnia hydroelectric power station operation planned days immediately preceding country wide scheduled effect morning october according brigadier commander home guard regiment offensive approved united_states attacked positions near preparation offensive phase october offensive began october attack launched home guard regiment 1st guards brigade starting line kilometres miles west positions held 11th light infantry brigade effort intended diversion aimed misleading defences main axis offensive hampered poor weather prevented effective use artillery fire main force committed offensive comprising 4th guards 7th guards brigades 1st began advance october poor weather heavy fog forced postpone attack advance supported strong artillery fire support croatian air_force 7th guards brigade struggled advance positions southeast villages manned 7th brigade 4th guards brigade 1st faced defences southwest town manned 3rd serbian brigade end day advanced kilometres miles partially town hit artillery shells fired phase october october 4th guards brigade broke 7th brigade positions forcing withdraw placed valley junction control completing objectives stage operation 2nd guards brigade deployed right flank 7th guards brigade units advanced north time 4th guards brigade advanced mountain units replaced elements october 1st guards 2nd guards brigades took northward advance 4th guards 7th guards brigades 3rd guards brigade relieved 1st home guard regiment defence gradually pushed north maintaining effective artillery fire support retreating troops end day captured hydroelectric power station final objective achieved force reached line kilometres miles south advance reportedly came kilometres miles electrical power supply interrupted imposed response deteriorating situation operation southern ended night october aftermath offensive captured area kilometres miles wide kilometres miles deep defeat clear leadership commit ending war negotiations risk capture addition offensive proved decisive halting near allowing mount successful advance 1st corps defending finally outcome battle brought position forced choose defending route route vital resupply secured operation corridor years earlier according central intelligence agency analysis ground western bosnia including operation southern significant contributor bringing serbs negotiation table nato country wide went effect october followed negotiations produced agreement november ended war offensive displaced refugees adding growing humanitarian crisis serbs fled captured final days operation approximately non serbs forced flee homes forces sources claim serbs died went missing fighting area figure includes bodies recovered mass grave town serbian orthodox cemetery according police investigated scene interviewed witnesses dead prisoners war civilians killed soldiers 4th guards brigade retribution death brigade deputy commander colonel results investigation international criminal tribunal yugoslavia pursue matter december investigation bosnia authorities high ranking officers croatian officials ongoing trial officer soldiers 7th guards brigade charged killing civilians near ended pending appeal prosecution


operation shed light operation shed light crash development project aerial warfare initiated united_states_air_force increase ability accurately strike night adverse weather 1960s united_states military worked hard movement men trail north vietnamese experts use weather darkness conceal movement understanding superiority american air power skills immediately good use forces seeking steady flow supplies attempted locate largely static targets day poor results united_states_air_force focused nuclear weapons delivery munitions static strategic targets spent little effort expanding tactical capabilities end world war operation shed light sought bringing improved tactics technology programs subsequently centered improved communication navigation aids weather night flying equipment seeing clouds foliage darkness improved equipment methods target marking battlefield illumination aircraft tactics utilize developments end programs yield applicable results aircraft developed umbrella largely fall obscurity applicable developments work navigation communication equipment origins united_states_air_force largely efforts matter strategic period korean war deployment southeast_asia result capabilities conventional missions readily apparent expanding commitment southeast_asia dedicated attack aircraft virtually exception korean war era navy type time air_force long interested type reinforced result advisory role south vietnam supported vietnam air_force fact primary aircraft aircraft directly replaced aging decision transition type standard result orientation nuclear war tactical air strikes flown exclusively air_force variety fighter bombers intended initially delivery small strategic tactical nuclear weapons types included super sabre phantom fighter bomber variants service time capable carrying nuclear store primarily use strike aircraft fighter largely passed united_states air national_guard aircraft capable cluster bombs largely standard air air missile fighter bomber version fighter capable utilizing conventional air ground stores intended nuclear weapon delivery platform available true aircraft firstly fighter deployed theater major non fighter type use early conflict canberra strikes conducted time delta dagger modified infrared sensors internal rocket armament strikes proved largely fruitless quickly discontinued realizing need dedicated attack aircraft air_force inventory looked invest new types found odd selection obsolete new experimental aircraft immediate solutions try coordinate effort task force established general james deputy chief staff research development dubbed operation shed light began february means coordinating wide variety technological projects programs pursued order improve united_states_air_force night fighting capabilities outlined task force charter april following identify current equipment techniques procedures southeast_asia identify planned modifications new equipment developed southeast_asia survey advanced development operational support projects having potential application problem indicating current programs schedules identify capabilities efforts recommend courses action improve provide new attack capability longer term shed light task force identified new weapon systems seventy seven research development tasks months operation years hoped fully functional self contained night attack aircraft single type meet operational need useful similar situations initial programs shed light initial programs broken number categories important communication navigation systems sensors illumination target marking equipment detailed proposed aircraft modifications tactics communication navigation issues communication navigation identified shed light air strikes called effectively guided target reduced effectiveness air power overall variety communication system improvements navigational aids including improvements long range navigation system specifically incorporated shed light mission sensors sensors developed shed light broken categories low light level forward looking infrared forward looking radar systems development initially designed added aircraft inventory produced victor project provision laser range intended second produced project contained laser ranger intended canberra series second unit eventually fitted programs named projects moon moon respectively moon system essentially obsolete deployed tests quickly confirmed equipped results moon trucks detected sorties confirmed kills systems removed theatre end prototype unit tested project red_sea later south vietnam september technology developed tests project tiger initiated testing unit aircraft climate found effects units especially humidity fit widespread use improvised mounting scope bomb bay mentioned oral history reports fit found largely impractical illumination equipment target marking battlefield illumination key importance original shed light programs dominant aerial time developed navy reliability units question availability greater concern existing test data suggested pilot placement issues project night owl conducted testing dropped sabre aircraft led percent pilots reporting experiencing level ironically initial studies showed problem issues insufficient illumination experienced new designated referred development new burned million power minutes produced signal heard pilots indicating burn additionally navy rocket motor tested shed light projected delays led proposal test swedish interim measure tested found inferior issues surrounding led exploration methods battlefield illumination battlefield illumination airborne system bias employed banks arc lamps total fitted modified aircraft cooling system installed left aircraft help dissipate heat generated system deployed vietnam found lamps provided perfect target enemy gunners system discontinued initially proposed similar system installed capable experience operational trials brought program halt unorthodox methods explored international developed called chamber burned pure oxygen aircraft fuel converting chemical energy light system planned evaluated year installed similar arrangement conventional bias plan forward joint effort nasa determine feasibility satellite project light directly desired location ground target marking key tactic day time strikes investigated project investigate target marking munitions looked rocket motor variety materials loaded compounds developed navy target illumination recovery aid program initially modified high explosive found compound contained provided poor results shed light task force noted lighter case compounds development combination red investigated attempt provide system night day aircraft tactics key aircraft intended developed shed light self contained night attack aircraft necessary night sensors weapon delivery capability find strike targets night pass use visible artificial illumination provide interim capability idea hunter killer concept aircraft capable spotting targets night conventional strike aircraft proposed method identified including need specialized aircraft capability differences hunter killer affect combined operation need specialized aircraft exposed fact aircraft suitable hunter role available military southeast_asia included army phantom canberra aircraft aircraft country time special reconnaissance project aircraft essentially experimental featured units older technology developed shed light benefit similar capability strike aircraft time modified hunter version given designation developed replacing camera equipment looking radar units phase program outlined early development slower bomber cargo aircraft followed jet aircraft type originally slated key aircraft ultimately hoped incorporate final versions types sensors developed program initial study supposed available year time frame use hunter killer pairing time frame led initial study report propose aircraft interim measure decided inability carry desired equipment turned enter testing december easily existing configuration air_force looked alternatives revised program terminated funding shortage september program cut good march decision use desire immediate capability decided investigate aircraft proposed aircraft incorporate main sensors development revised aircraft provided operators major systems built search light crew protection provided armament system primarily munitions revised bomb bay wing hard points available additional conventional munitions including bombs rockets cluster munitions gun pods program package documentation suggests primary wing store designation army designation low drag pod modified use helicopter planned pre production aircraft designated production aircraft difficulties funding getting aircraft navy delays completing modifications led scrap based january initially mixed record southeast_asia detachment aircraft tactical fighter wing deployed thailand early operation combat remaining aircraft returned united_states november logging missions cost lost combat eventually aircraft squadrons deployed september order participate aerial offensive north vietnam operation linebacker deployment operated day night weather conditions electronic escort relied aerial support tactical aircraft eventually missions logged equipped units cost aircraft lost combat lost operational causes point time aircraft longer conversion role black spot radical shed light projects provider aircraft modified september project black spot black spot development prior establishment shed light task force subsequently incorporated wide reaching charter scrapping aircraft program black spot aircraft prime contenders shed light phase black spot aircraft fit self contained night attack capability description systems texas contracted complete modifications aircraft featured following sensors division north american aviation forward looking radar locate targets closer inspection low light level forward looking infrared featured moving target indicator automatic tracking capability automatic tracking laser rangefinder system described having highest resolution primary means target location engagement aircraft looked radically different visibly transport new equipment required nose inches included armament system carry cluster bombs listed combat mention combat drops addition offensive armament hand operated launchers initially provided automatic launchers supplied automated nature unit required operate aircraft serial numbers designated redesignated deployed operationally south_korea august october flying support operations north korean approaching boat operations korea met certain level success result transferred south vietnam november south vietnam aircraft engaged missions transport trail delta region aircraft operated january thailand missions night flown escorts referred simply flying cover providing additional firepower initial escort provided difference speed capabilities protecting lower slower flying difficult area responsibility months approximately east southeast area coverage river southern aircraft returned united_states field florida second round training occurred crews attended ground school texas returned flew aircraft time october crews flew aircraft second deployment crews arrived early november attending jungle survival training clark philippines missions commenced final phases program slightly unclear sources missions terminating early july aircraft flying bone yard davis returned standard returned south vietnam wearing camouflage black transport duty description designation official documentation supports saying similar partially modified attack configuration permit general cargo handling troop movement official history states combat operations ceased mention second deployment second deployment mentioned associated documentation aircraft scheduled arrive thailand departed official aircraft records aircraft transferred field alabama listed december purpose transfer unclear official history notes munitions accident march chronology details fate aircraft aircraft affected adds additional confusion suggested black spot aircraft intended combat production aircraft planned total cost million recommendation hercules added program instead projected aircraft referred black spot operation trial evaluation found aircraft suitably protected protracted use combat zones aircraft known converted black spot standard moon iii shed light second phase eventually turned based aircraft deployed southeast_asia subject initial moon moon iii envisioned gross shortcomings moon moon iii involved completely new set systems date infinitely capable previously installed entire new aircraft sub variant developed purpose nose house new package development aircraft experienced major delays equipped laser target designated new generation way laser guided bombs end moon iii proved capable system conventional ordnance laser guided weapons day night advent firing threatened system conducted combat missions october operation commando hunt kill rates sortie clear system dominant role truck hunter reference primary targets campaign course operation claimed trucks destroyed result precision guided weaponry period credited destroying times number trucks operations continued led attempt modify system incorporate elements modified house special bomb bay installation turret single cannon project system proved inferior capabilities addition laser guided ordnance moon iii variety conventional ordnance including cluster iron bombs systems light shortage precision guided munitions available removed theatre coinciding withdrawal bulk air elements plans remained continuation program proposals multiple wings aircraft operate concert similar aircraft post conflict spending cuts ended associated programs programs associated shed light coming wide reaching charter observed similar mission requirements meant services working developing equipment shed light task force orders start survey development original charter army managing piece equipment referred combined cameras display operator chains artificial illumination component described covert light provide illumination freeze display function project night life tested helicopter early project funded advanced research projects agency army working project dancing dolls attempting develop foliage penetration radar triple canopy jungle meant able night acquire target system tested aircraft use army envisioned radar component planned program continued investigations hunter killer combinations led aircraft deployed hunters teaming aircraft operation commando hunt summary report effectiveness operation shed light exists known discontent major participants general john ryan commander chief pacific air forces complained following poor moon program tired buying send requested staff draft message allow send thing moon continental united_states regards development moon iii aircraft systems division forced admit delays program caused reduced quality control crash nature program shed light crash development project largely tasked research development piece equipment help mission outlined charter result programs came fruition fewer left definitive mark conflict developments shed light quickly eclipsed new aircraft produced project notably iii fitted sensors developed shed light took life shed light visible programs black spot moon largely fallen obscurity


expedition caribbean expedition caribbean unsuccessful operation french naval squadron transport supplies guadeloupe december height napoleonic wars previous year british_royal_navy squadrons isolated defeated french caribbean colonies autumn guadeloupe colony remaining french hands cut rest world british blockade squadrons intercepted ships coming island guadeloupe desperate situation facing economic collapse food shortages social impending threat british invasion effort reinforce resupply colony french government sent frigates west_indies november commodore ships lightly armed cannon removed room supplies troops strength ordered protect journey british forces operating french guadeloupe coasts squadron reached caribbean encountering patrolling british warships sent watch french reinforcements spotted intercepted frigate hms december captain realise size french squadron late despite fierce resistance ship captured mortally wounded continuing mission successfully delivered disarmed frigates sight guadeloupe left frigates making way france ensuring safe arrival convoy december small british brig hms witnessed defeat brought news french arrival blockade squadron anchored ships surrounding region british commander captain amassed significant squadron forced french supply ships anchor protected bay barque southeastern coast guadeloupe efforts capture french ships arrival gun hms captain samuel james attack earnest small ships engaged batteries shore frigates entered bay attacked disarmed frigates causing surrender hour long engagement french ships badly damaged fire started engagement able rapidly spread destroying ships succession french crew escaped ashore picked british ships blockade guadeloupe successfully maintained island captured coordinated invasion month later remaining ships intercepted january patrolling british frigate successfully escaped pursuit eventually returned undamaged france background napoleonic wars royal_navy rapidly decisively seized control war sea driving french ships protected laying heavy ports held french empire allies communications overseas trade devastating effect french west indian colonies particularly islands martinique guadeloupe trade impossible economies social limited food supplies reduced ability resist invasion large british forces maintained region summer desperate messages sent france islands prompting succession french efforts supply food reinforcements trading opportunities months efforts entirely unsuccessful ships safely reach caribbean_sea successfully landed supplies intercepted captured return journey costing french frigates numerous smaller ships end february british blockade squadrons intercepted number messages sent islands large expeditionary force built barbados orders invade capture french colonies swiftly possible target martinique invaded captured february outlying islands captured months major french reinforcement squadron trapped defeated near des april french lost ship line frigates captured june july tried return france heavy losses french took time preparing effort british distracted santo domingo spanish campaign drives french island hispaniola eventually concluded july british naval assistance autumn british commander vice admiral sir alexander developing expeditionary force time aimed guadeloupe strengthened blockade squadron island principal port placed heavier forces martinique case required individual ships dispersed approaches french island ready intercept approaching reinforcement ships operated ships anchored guadeloupe squadron seized corvette december months failure french sent small supply ships guadeloupe carefully preparing major expedition old frigates largely disarmed process known half guns removed crew reduced order board large quantities food supplies military reinforcements command armed given joseph bernard vincent protect ships fully armed frigates detailed escort convoy guadeloupe commodore captain saint force departed november rapid progress atlantic avoiding contact british warships small ships time reached guadeloupe captured western atlantic caribbean warships sent patrol approaching french reinforcements destruction hms ships gun frigate hms captain john captured french year earlier action february following unsuccessful attempt return france guadeloupe hastily repaired commissioned royal_navy added fleet ordered patrol east antigua ships attempting evade british blockade december company gun brig hms captain frederick stopped american merchant ship boarded search engaged search sails appeared north immediately gave chase realised quarry squadron frigates firing warning shots effort force frigates identify strange ships raised spanish colours initially raised recognition signal spanish vessels received correct reply lead frigate closing ships afternoon short distance lead ship french colours replaced spanish ordered ships open fire learned correct signals spanish shipping captured spanish merchant ships having lured range opened destructive fire caused severe damage rigging unable away french damage suffered opening broadside returned fire best closing inflict maximum damage closed flagship attacked took stations fore aft repeatedly british ship distance action began directly engaged french ships initially fired extreme range soon recognised aid face overwhelming french numbers sailed westward find warn british ships approaching french squadron escaped sides ship coming close british frigate rigging collided inflicting damage french squadron close soldiers carried aboard garrison guadeloupe able fire muskets british deck killing sailors manning guns minutes shot deck completely cleared taken leg broken body pierced large wooden splinters lieutenant samuel assumed command successfully beat boarding attack pulling clear strength french frigates tried escape found ship minutes saint regained positions british frigate boarded simultaneously forcing surrender british suffered heavy losses killed wounded including prisoners dispersed french squadron spare men required repair crew battered frigate set fire abandoned french losses severe losing killed wounded killed wounded hms suffered loss operations guadeloupe destroyed escaped french squadron immediately sought blockade force guadeloupe place french squadron destined arriving december captain senior officer station captain frigate hms blonde impending arrival squadron swiftly gathered squadron frigate hms captain george miller hms hazard hms positioned channel guadeloupe des ships pass urgent messages sent nearby ships bases following day hms hms joined squadron placing hazard watch rest squadron patrolled south island day arrived frigate hms captain william roberts recaptured merchant brig near taken squadron weeks earlier roberts discovered ships distance north closed investigate discovering french convoy darkness fell soon separated french ships roberts sailed westwards fast possible sighting arriving december aftermath destruction encounter decided separate convoy return france turning north leaving supply ships journey guadeloupe independently result sailing unprotected straight squadron daylight december blonde sighted french armed approaching northwest advanced blocking reaching retreating northwest southern coastline guadeloupe disarmed frigates entered sheltered cove named barque gun batteries bay vincent anchored ships parallel shore maximum number cannon aimed entrance cove ships cruised coast light winds seeking way protected anchorage batteries opened fire striking captain william landed shore party ship stormed battery capturing minutes demolished position withdrew ship rejoining barque tested feasibility attack french ships ordering gun schooner hms elizabeth assess depth entrance bay blonde attacked batteries directly discovering entrance blonde elizabeth withdrew range operations suspended evening allow addition reinforcements come squadron joined night frigate hms captain john destruction morning december small boat sailed barque message offering british temporary truce simultaneously british ship line hms arrived fort royal martinique command captain samuel james immediately assumed command diverse squadron assembled entrance bay dismissed french ordered immediate attack anchored frigates plan simple frigates blonde enter harbour engage armed directly engage gun batteries prevent targeting small bringing rear boats sailors royal marines storm french ships gun positions engaged larger warships plan initially frustrated light winds blonde range gun batteries minutes later able open fire disarmed frigates distance bay blonde forced engage forts instead fire shore causing damage ship captain miller able close french ships identities engagement uncertain historical accounts clear action opponent surrendered moving second ship forced engage forts instead led remainder squadron bay fire seen spreading surrendered ship face overwhelming opposition second frigate surrendered blonde began withdraw bay fire took hold frigate rest british squadron despite heavy cannon fire fort shore successfully landed troops stormed captured defences heavy casualties parties including hugh cameron captain hazard killed fire reached magazines burning ship ensuing explosion burning wreckage bay british ships largely untouched second french frigate struck large piece timber ignited mainmast destroyed operations successfully completed british ships embarked landing parties demolished fortifications bay returned open water total lost killed wounded blonde wounded uncertain number lost amphibious operation casualty figures known french losses engagement uncertain crews able easily reach shore land section prisoners including wounded captain transported island wagon sun condition rapidly worsened died january regaining consciousness buried military honours decades later battle actions recognised barque attached naval general service medal awarded application british participants living aftermath remaining frigates turned north parting sighting british squadron distance grounding antigua escape throwing overboard guns stores ships regain open water returned european waters avoiding contact british shipping january position approximately nautical miles west portuguese coast encountered frigate hms captain edward french frigates days unable close attempt use superior strength british frigate eventually january reached brest safely year saint mission resupply french colony sailing frigate france december unknown french authorities british expeditionary force captured island squadron ambushed brought battle madagascar captured killed action escaped ships middle engagement fleeing north eventually reaching france west_indies failure main resupply effort resulted drop morale defenders guadeloupe smaller ships sent supplies captured operations squadron including brig captured december december january blockade captured brig inside harbour seized coastal vessels january preparations invasion guadeloupe complete men landed lieutenant general george french garrison largely deserted february resistance defeated governor general surrendered rest month remaining colonies belonging france netherlands seized opposition entire caribbean british spanish control exception independent state haiti


battle battle famous battle second world war fought dutch towns surrounding countryside september sweeping france belgium summer allies enter netherlands british field marshal sir bernard montgomery favoured single thrust north branches lower rhine river allowing british second army bypass line attack end allies launched operation market garden september airborne troops dropped netherlands secure key bridges towns allied axis advance north british 1st airborne division supported men pilot regiment 1st polish parachute brigade landed secure bridges initially expecting british corps planned reach british airborne forces days british forces landed distance objectives quickly hampered unexpected resistance especially elements 9th 10th divisions small force able reach road bridge main body division halted outskirts city corps unable advance north quickly anticipated destruction bridge son failed relieve airborne troops according schedule days small british force bridge overwhelmed rest division trapped small pocket north river sufficiently reinforced poles corps arrived southern bank raf resupply flights days fighting shattered remains airborne forces withdrawn operation berlin secure bridges allies unable advance line south 1st airborne division lost nearly quarters strength combat background september allied forces successfully broken normandy pursued shattered german forces northern france belgium allied commanders generally favoured broad policy continue advance germany netherlands field marshal bernard montgomery proposed bold plan head north dutch bypassing german line defences opening route german industrial initially proposed british polish operation operation plan soon expanded involve allied airborne army set piece ground advance netherlands market garden montgomery plan involved dropping airborne division capture key bridges airborne division secure key crossings british 1st airborne division polish 1st independent parachute brigade attached capture bridges rhine lieutenant general lewis commanded allied airborne army second command lieutenant general frederick took command airborne role british second army led corps advance airborne corridor securing airborne division positions crossing rhine days successful plan open door germany hopefully force end war europe end year british plan british 6th airborne division operation subsequent fighting normandy task securing rhine fell 1st airborne division command major general roy division brigades infantry parachute borne supporting artillery anti tank batteries substantial royal engineer units supporting elements royal army service corps royal army medical corps units division seen action north_africa sicily particularly 1st parachute brigade 1st brigade time division fought complete formation division substantially reinforced addition men pilot regiment providing equivalent battalions infantry operation smaller additions included dutch commando team american communications teams 1st independent polish parachute brigade command joining british operation seize bridges division required secure road rail bridges lower rhine hold days relieved corps beginning severely restricted prepare deploy troops upcoming battle troop carrier command limited availability major drops taking place time insufficient carrier aircraft available fly entire division netherlands lift additionally major general williams commander troop carrier command decided possible air lift day meaning days deliver entire division polish brigade area limited number areas suitable landings reluctance troop command fly near exposing airfield drop meant forced pick drop zones landing zones north river need secure bridges towns drop zones subsequent supply drops 1st airborne need defend perimeter whilst waiting corps decided land brigadier 1st parachute brigade brigadier 1st brigade day operation brigade plus 1st light regiment royal artillery royal engineer medical units divisional land secure drop zones landing zones following days drops whilst battalions parachute brigade arrive follow separate routes secure bridges 2nd battalion command col john frost follow riverside roads centre lion route secure main road railway bridges bridge 3rd battalion col head tiger route assist capture road bridge positions east town col 1st battalion follow leopard route north railway line occupy high ground north north west advance led troop reconnaissance 1st airborne reconnaissance squadron major frederick leopard attempt coup main road bridge second day brigadier 4th parachute brigade arrive accompanied extra artillery units remaining elements brigade battalions reinforce positions north north west day 1st independent polish parachute brigade dropped south river road bridge reinforce perimeter east linking artillery flown 1st brigade fall cover western perimeter 1st parachute brigade fall cover southern bridges corps arrived advanced 52nd lowland infantry division flown airfield support ground forces north rhine remaining units division follow corps land known sea tail operation supplied daily flights group raf drop day subsequent drops intelligence poor intelligence british told expect limited resistance german reserve forces challenge operation expected men believed work lead ending war anticipating period occupation germany packed leisure equipment kit sea tail optimistic mood prior operation tragic consequences frederick intelligence officer major brian obtained information 21st army group belgium dutch resistance german armour present backed aerial reconnaissance ordered flown dismissive ordered chief medical officer sent sick leave fact aware certainly divisions operation chose ignore information ultra allied airborne army act german forces allied liberation antwerp september caused rout german reserve troops netherlands nicknamed mad tuesday allied pause dutch border gave germans time subsequent attempts clarify exact german forces opposing allies extremely difficult walter model commander army group moved headquarters establishing defences area reorganisation scattered units time allies launched market garden units opposing west von force equivalent seven battalions manner german units including das luftwaffe kriegsmarine rear troops command general von included non commissioned officer school 16th training battalion command unit play crucial role opening phases battle town garrison command major general friedrich additionally corps comprising remains walter 9th 10th divisions moved area north refit badly escaping pocket seasoned veterans available significantly forces germans allies led expect divisions specially trained anti airborne operations formation divisions undergone month long anti airborne exercises whilst waiting heavy equipment spent months studying best reactions parachute attack classroom field exercises 9th brigade reconnaissance battalion artillery battalion batteries self propelled guns company tanks exactly men available withdrawal normandy unclear sources suggest 9th men suggest combined total 9th 10th men dutch units allied germans present formations recruited dutch nationals mainly criminals men wishing avoid national service men affiliated incorporated german_army partly dutch attached von 3rd battalion 34th volunteer division training nearby quickly attached 9th division arrived battle september battle progressed forces available germans adolf_hitler stunned attack agreed defence netherlands receive absolute priority course battle reinforcements stream area general friedrich armed forces command netherlands model arranged units sent straight units action order avoid long logistics rushed specialist street fighting machine gun battalions day battle german military strength increased whilst british supplies diminished september fifth day battle german forces outnumbered british continued increase battle day sunday september lift preceded intense bombing raids british second tactical air_force american 8th 9th air forces targeted known guns german garrisons barracks area lift suffered light losses aircraft flew british bases target area arrivals 21st independent parachute company marked landing zones advance main landings landings largely unopposed battalions formed good order ready carry tasks 1st brigade moved defensive positions landing zones 1st parachute brigade prepared head east bridges company following frost lion route reconnaissance squadron lost flight company formed good strength moved leopard route germans unprepared landings initially thrown confusion model erroneously assuming come capture fled headquarters hotel went headquarters east took personal control battle 10th division sent south respond american landings defend island lower rhine rivers 9th defend 9th point making preparations return germany berlin trying secure men supplies unit instantly ordered return whilst division began prepare forces battle commander 9th armoured artillery regiment quickly organised small initially men incorporate separate units course battle late afternoon ordered advance west establish blocking line prevent british reaching centre division reconnaissance battalion command ordered south crossing bridge dusk initially units ordered secure bridge garrison commander major general friedrich killed men 3rd parachute battalion sped headquarters death led breakdown command responsibilities late afternoon reconnaissance battalion 10th division ordered secure bridge time landings organised unit place oppose allied advance bridges training battalion camped commander acted quickly establish blocking screen west allied advance quickly ran trouble reconnaissance squadron ambushed northern flank blocking line withdrew 1st 3rd parachute battalions stalled defences spent rest day line 3rd parachute battalion went south halted night 1st parachute battalion went north hit forces unable reach road leopard route instead decided abandon plan help frost bridge battalion headed south overnight 2nd parachute battalion largely unopposed bypassing defences reach far river slowed cheering dutch civilians reach bridges late day railway bridge blown german engineers allies approached bridge missing central section dusk men company major observed force cross bridge battalion supporting units including squadron pounder anti tank guns brigade royal engineers total numbering men moved centre night fell owing oversight german orders able secure northern end road bridge brigade led brigade major tony lieutenant jack led attempt secure southern end bridge unsuccessful later attempt flame succeeded setting painted bridge british able good position quickly repulsed 10th reconnaissance battalion german units arrived secure bridge brigade moved quickly secure landing zones 2nd battalion south regiment moved 1st battalion border regiment secured deploying companies 7th battalion king scottish moved secure ambushed dutch battalion headed units artillery divisional headed medical officers set regimental aid post home kate allied advance severely hampered poor communications crucial initial phases radio sets range instantly limited wooded terrain battalions advanced lost contact divisional landing zones coming days radio communication division corps united_kingdom intermittent unreliable severely british units carrier contact britain partly consequence limitation decided follow 1st parachute brigade contact found brigade lion route informed major time route bridge visiting 3rd battalion followed subsequently able return divisional days day monday september second day 9th division continued reinforce german blocking line unit withdrew overnight joined line coming command force large men units arrived new forced split battle groups harder defensive line blocked entire western closed gap exploited frost alongside river previous evening overnight 1st 3rd parachute battalions far south 2nd parachute battalion original route city hoping follow centre approached german line light hours attempted fight german positions force continually reinforced strong penetrate british advance stopped coordinated attack followed afternoon repulsed attempted return divisional headquarters cut forced shelter dutch family fellow officers injured forced hiding road bridge german forces 9th quickly surrounded frost battalion cutting rest division 9th reconnaissance battalion headed south river having concluded needed aware british troops bridge attempted cross force resultant hour battle beaten heavy losses half armored vehicles destroyed knocked commanding officer killed action assault german attacks carried british perimeter bridge rest day british continued hold landing zones brigadier informed absence acting divisional commander told send units south complete awaiting complement men second lift help advance bridge south departed morning linked 1st parachute battalion late afternoon german forces began probe 1st brigade defences morning units von attacked border positions men school overran kriegsmarine troops engaged british day withdrew small amounts fighting broke seriously landing dutch battalion heavily engaged king scottish threatening arrival second lift communications breakdown meant impossible warn aircraft equally way division know 2nd lift delayed ground fog england arrival 4th parachute brigade brigadier troops artillery drop zones hours arrive dropped fire killed aircraft shot heath land landing caught fire arrival brigade overwhelmed dutch routed surrendered despite setbacks units assembled slight casualties changing circumstances meant roles quickly changed 11th parachute battalion rest south immediately assist attempt break bridge linked 1st 3rd parachute battalions dark decision send 11th parachute battalion weakening 4th parachute brigade dismayed avail given command king scottish moving secure tuesday landing 10th parachute battalions moved north railway line planned defensive positions north west leading elements parachute battalion contact main 9th blocking line dark withdrew night shortly second lift arrived supply drop supplies arrived small collected area british control poor radio communication meant possible alert raf drop zones major problem days come day tuesday september arrival south 11th parachute battalion 1st 3rd parachute battalion positions west british hoped sufficient troops break frost position bridge lieutenant colonel 1st parachute battalion planned attack light erroneous report suggesting bridge fallen led attack cancelled time report corrected light long away reinforcement bridge priority attack proceed advance began narrow 1st parachute battalion leading supported remnants 3rd parachute battalion 2nd south left flank 11th parachute battalion following soon light 1st parachute battalion spotted halted fire main german defensive line trapped open ground heavy fire sides 1st parachute battalion remained 3rd parachute battalion fell 2nd south similarly cut save men overcome midday 11th parachute battalion far heavily involved overwhelmed exposed positions attempting capture high ground north south similarly attempted secure high ground driven hope breaking remaining men battalions retreated westwards direction main force away approached met lieutenant colonel sheriff thompson 1st light artillery regiment formed men defensive screen major robert forward artillery positions battle gave opportunity escape position able return division hotel time able learn extent german forces facing britain ground fog frustrated reinforcement thirty 3rd lift carrying polish borne elements delayed taking parachute brigade failed consequences ground delayed arrived north railway line 10th parachute battalions engaged german defensive line attempted seize high ground woods north battalions advances defended german positions early afternoon advanced original positions realising need assume defensive stance prevent battalions cut north railway ordered fall making fighting withdrawal germans closely pursuing units fell defended king scottish awaiting arrival borne elements polish parachute brigade heavy fighting ensued arrived middle retreat polish losses heavy allied units streamed south west road crossings steep railway cutting gathered hoc units woods south spent night german units followed railway battalion reached air_force afternoon raf flew major resupply mission aircraft fly short tons supplies british germans expecting resupply efforts moved batteries area specifically attack flights raf came view succeeded shooting aircraft despite bravery pilots flight lieutenant david lord received victoria_cross posthumously airborne forces recovered short tons supplies supply german hands british reach battle message reached britain explain bridge frost forces continued hold supply reinforcement position weaker germans realising infantry attacks unlikely remove defenders began systematically destroy houses british tanks artillery mortars absence allied air cover luftwaffe able runs british occupied houses day wednesday september division weak attempt reach frost bridge infantry battalions 1st battalion border regiment existed unit rest badly scattered difficult decision form defensive perimeter abandoning 2nd parachute battalion securing ferry crossing hoped hold corps reach establish new rhine ferry crossing platforms eastern fairly retreat previous day numerous hoc units company commanders defending approaches town major richard taken command outlying units retreated previous day positions heavy german attacks falling main divisional perimeter sector later designated force remain main line defence south eastern perimeter border regiment held western edge town scattered units filling gaps north units fell new defensive area organised establish thumb shaped perimeter rhine southern base mixed units began fall morning surrounded captured including party men men parachute battalion led pinned took cover hollow west perimeter men broke late afternoon men making border regiment positions afternoon supply drop little better previous day message reached britain arrange new dropping zone near hotel aircraft flew supplies fell german hands germans british marker panels attract aircraft positions aircraft unable distinguish exact dropping zones aircraft involved shot supplies reaching british hands bridge frost finally able radio contact divisional commander given difficult news reinforcement doubtful shortly frost injured legs mortar bomb command passed major late afternoon position fire took hold buildings wounded treated hour truce organised late afternoon wounded including frost taken captivity overnight units managed hold little longer groups tried break perimeter major leading group captured thursday morning resistance bridge ceased final hours struggle radio message sent bridge picked british heard german forces recalled ended sentences ammunition god save king day thursday september morning germans british survivors hiding bridge took hours clear bridge debris allowing german armour cross reinforce british held bridge long allow bridge captured airborne guards armoured division working resistance bridge crushed germans troops available commit engagement changed suddenly afternoon days late parachute infantry battalions 1st polish parachute brigade able england took aircraft turned troop carrier command decided dangerous land aircraft long remainder pressed correct transmission codes understand messages messages warned poles secure land instead east secure ferry south bank rhine poles dropped fire sustained casualties assembled good order advancing river bank discovered ferry gone sunk deny use germans arrival poles relieved pressure british germans forced send forces south rhine fearing attack southern end road bridge road battalion 34th volunteer division machine gun battalion headed river overnight defensive positions consolidated organised zones command western northern sides perimeter rest eastern perimeter complete defensive line collection defensive pockets houses surrounding centre divisional headquarters hotel centre perimeter roughly defended approximately men despite germans best efforts line remain roughly unchanged days germans school attacked border positions west near rhine forcing abandon strategically important high ground overlooking biggest boost besieged british able contact forward artillery units corps radio contact medium regiment royal artillery able drop heavy accurate german positions perimeter radio link battery headquarters main line communication corps important provided medium regiment afterward lobbied regiment able wear airborne badge uniforms members battery royal artillery volunteers modern day descendants heavy regiment royal artillery supported medium regiment wear flash jersey day british witnessed polish drop unable contact radio swimmer sent south rhine british planned supply river crossing night poles desperately needed northern bank poles waited southern bank evident withdrew defensive positions day friday september overnight germans south river formed blocking line railway linking 10th south screening road bridge poles polish dug german armour unable manoeuvre main roads attack hopes raised armoured cars corps household cavalry managed skirt german defences island link force followed dark tanks 4th 7th royal guards infantry 5th battalion duke cornwall light infantry rest 43rd division making way narrow corridor heavy fighting continued perimeter intense increased number casualties aid posts hotels houses town ordered attacks stepped british north rhine destroyed major attacks began 9th attacking east von units west small gains attacks followed simultaneous attacks afternoon germans determined moves northern eastern ends north succeeded briefly forcing king scottish retook positions realised holding tip ordered units north fall defend shorter line east remains 10th parachute battalion nearly annihilated small position main road germans failed gain significant ground staff officers swam rhine day contact arranged rubber boats supplied northern bank enable poles cross river come perimeter night plan operation cable designed run boats broke small weren fast flowing river poles light perimeter day saturday september ordered switch attacks south try force british away river british hope reinforcement allowing destroyed despite best efforts unsuccessful constant artillery assaults continued wear british defences break weather allowed raf finally fly combat missions german forces surrounding men republic german positions day occasionally luftwaffe battlefield raf attempted final resupply flight britain saturday afternoon lost planes little gain airborne troops small resupply efforts allied airfields europe days little effect south river poles prepared crossing night awaited arrival assault boats corps arrive midnight crossings started fire support 43rd division remaining hours darkness men able cross hoped reinforcement day sunday september morning visited polish positions later hosted conference attended major general thomas 43rd division controversial meeting politically decided crossing attempted night germans cut narrow supply road near later day realised situation plans drawn withdraw 1st division situation desperate wounded morning eastern command raf attempted close support perimeter held increased casualties hour aid stations home men british german dutch civilian casualties actually line homes taken earlier battle odd situation created casualties evacuated forward evacuation wounded injured posts changed hands british germans times perimeter fought fighting short aid posts allow wounded reach sunday situation needed arrangement colonel senior medical officer asked permission arrange truce request agreed taken similarly agreed offered supplies carry general went effect perimeter cases walking wounded evacuated perimeter germans cases straight queen elizabeth hospital british german dutch medical staff worked night allies south river attempted crossing plan called 4th battalion regiment 1st polish parachute battalion cross boats furious having control battalions thought plan dangerous boats failed arrive destroyed lost route minute change plan mean cross small boats skilled crews strong current poor choice landing site north bank meant men embarked handful reached british lines boats landed far downstream men captured day monday september overnight copy withdrawal plan sent river consideration despite obviously frustrating content knew little choice thomas agree plan condition went ahead night airborne forces need endure day perimeter men evacuated aid posts day official truce fire germans began successful assault perimeter attacking southeastern end infantry supported newly arrived tiger tanks assault pushed defenders outer lines threatened bulk division river strong mixed defenders concentrated south river eventually repelled germans formulated withdrawal plan successful method evacuation gallipoli world war northernmost units fall moving southerly groups follow pilots organise routes river operation covered intense artillery barrage corps south river evacuation organised staffed men royal engineers 43rd division royal canadian engineers storm boats order prevent germans learning operation plan announced afternoon men mainly wounded remain lay covering fire night men ordered boots weapons help bypass known german incursions perimeter men took opportunity withdrawing providing morale boost heavy rain falling helped disguise withdrawal heavy bombardment commenced units began fall river half engineers boats far west 43rd division mistakenly believing crossing points previous night british hands slowing evacuation process germans shelled withdrawal believing resupply attempt operation ceased coming light enable germans fire boats accurately airborne men poles dozen mixed men evacuated left northern bank operation ceased men killed overnight morning september germans pressed home attacks finally linked sides river noon realised british actually withdrawn later day rounded men men aid stations left north bank pockets resistance radio contact division headquarters know withdrawal aftermath victory germans albeit tempered losses south major defeat british_army allies withdrew southern bank rhine island rhine rivers germans october repulsed subsequently line netherlands winter served important base subsequent operations germans rhine strike germany military commentators historians believe failure secure fault airborne forces held far longer planned operation john frost noted far worst mistake lack priority given capture bridge unable understand ordered army brigadier general james airborne division secure heights bridge analysis battle martin believed failure airborne division greater priority capturing bridge weakness air plan importance likewise assessment german perspective robert concluded battle proved decisive event simple matter british retreated perimeter merely crisis enacted asserted allies stopped south north turned commented failure historically remains failure failure ground forces arrive time exploit initial gains 1st airborne division air plan major weakness events believes refusal consider night drops lifts day coup main assault bridge cardinal fundamental errors failure land nearer bridge threw away airborne force valuable asset surprise similarly frost believed distance drop zones bridge long approach foot highly critical air forces fly sortie day chief factors success allies failure secure bridge lower rhine spelled end market garden objectives achieved failure secure road bridge rhine meant operation failed ultimate objective field marshal montgomery claimed operation successful allies possess deep german occupied territory quickly reinforced observed operation driven wedge german positions 15th army north antwerp parachute army eastern complicated supply problem 15th army removed chance germans able assemble troops counterattack retake antwerp chester agreed claiming immense tactical value purpose driving germans area south removing threat immediate counterattack antwerp views situation differently observing north flank west wall turned 15th army able escape john warren american historical division united_states_air_force believed allies controlled leading john belief strategic tactical debate market garden resolved disaster british 1st airborne division fight north rhine considered example courage endurance greatest feats arms second world war allied units battle heavy toll 1st airborne division recover quarters formation missing returned england including brigade commanders battalion commanders infantry company commanders men hiding north rhine coming months able escape initially operation new recruits repatriated joined division coming months division weakened 4th parachute brigade merged 1st parachute brigade division barely produce brigades infantry august men sent denmark norway oversee german return division disbanded pilot regiment suffered highest proportion fatal casualties battle killed regiment badly depleted operation varsity raf pilots fly operations phased war regiment eventually disbanded polish brigade withdrawn helped defend airborne corridor returning england early october shortly afterward british began making polish brigade failure cover october montgomery informed chief imperial general staff felt polish forces fought badly want command author david bennett observes montgomery certainly fed gross supported month later wrote long highly critical letter deputy accused difficult play operation brigade possible wanted equally work officers 43rd division recommended replaced suggesting lieutenant colonel major december polish government exile duly dismissed certainly british pressure fair difficult work judged historical commentators brian warn superiors dangers described criticism brigade dismissal act allied losses axis losses german casualty figures complete allies official figures released signal possibly sent corps september listed casualties killed injured robert assessment incomplete records identified casualties roll honour battle september hey society friends airborne museum identified german dead area relating time battle figures significantly higher model conservative estimate casualties entire market garden area battle included dutch records suggest civilians died battle result allied bombing day subsequent fighting battle residents surrounding towns villages forcibly evicted homes allowing germans turn north bank rhine heavily defended line residents allowed return home permit return war dutch homes systematically looted sent bombing victims germany germans continued fight allied forces plains bridge 1st airborne fought hard eventually destroyed allies deny german forces use october bombed destroyed martin bomb group buildings heavily shelled allies months suffered city eventually liberated april honours memorials despite great failure british_army fighting spirit british people set standard parachute regiment montgomery claimed years come great thing man able fought prediction seemingly borne pride soldiers took occasional desire claim days operation berlin british returned heroes welcome england list decorations quickly published men returned ceremony division held buckingham palace december decorations returned published september numbered british participants battle awarded britain highest award gallantry victoria_cross members airborne forces raf lance sergeant john daniel 2nd battalion south regiment major robert henry 2nd battalion south regiment flight lieutenant david samuel anthony lord squadron royal_air_force captain 10th battalion parachute regiment lieutenant john 2nd battalion parachute regiment british commonwealth system battle honours recognised participation fighting award battle honour units liberation netherlands grave registration units 2nd army began task identifying british dead buried field permanent loan commonwealth war graves commission north nearly graves known airborne cemetery killed battle men human remains equipment weaponry continue dug farmland city germany battle treated great victory afterward fewer men awarded knight cross iron cross german dead gathered buried heroes cemetery near war shattered road bridge briefly replaced succession bailey bridges rebuilt style original renamed john literally john frost bridge december queen netherlands conferred honours polish forces fought battle polish 1st independent airborne brigade awarded dutch military william order gallantry posthumously awarded bronze lion february year appeal launched raise funds memorial general brigade erected memorial unveiled september ceremony sought injustice hotel headquarters home airborne museum memorials built annual parade held area memorial near museum reads people years ago british polish airborne soldiers fought overwhelming odds open way germany bring war early end instead brought death destruction blamed stone marks admiration great courage remembering especially women tended wounded long winter followed families death hiding allied soldiers airmen members resistance led safety popular culture progress battle widely reported british press thanks largely efforts bbc reporters stanley guy journalists newspaper reporters wood daily express jack accompanied british forces journalists reports sent daily ironically making communication london time divisional signals division accompanied man team army film photographic unit recorded battle including images page louis jewish refugee germany british_army pilot present battle wrote lift believed book published events year filming began war movie theirs glory featured original footage veterans extras scenes theirs glory released followed publication ryan book bridge far bring battle worldwide audience richard film frost general military english author richard adams officer airborne light company royal army service corps stated struggle rabbits depicted award winning novel adapted animated film inspired adventures officers company 1st airborne division


battle post battle post fought gallipoli campaign world war forces new_zealand mounted rifles brigade turkish 19th division new_zealand mounted rifles brigade responsible defence northern perimeter beach head holding sector position known walker ridge line sea defence line formed posts isolated positions far north approached safety hours darkness near end turks started constructing new position inland post left completed cause problems new decided assault capture post position captured named post new settled attempted improve defences night turks counter attacked surrounded cut rest brigade running short ammunition supplies defending 9th wellington east_coast squadron held hours relieved beat attempts break lines squadron eventually relieved decided post abandoned night new_zealand mounted brigade casualties battle dead wounded exact number turkish casualties known men new_zealand brigade went fight battle battle hill evacuated peninsula campaign ended december background landings april start gallipoli campaign australian new_zealand army corps landed later known cove included landings new_zealand australian division division forced leave strength including new_zealand mounted rifles brigade egypt commanders believed requirement opportunities mounted troops peninsula heavy casualties lack reinforcements forced reconsider decision mounted troops later dispatched gallipoli serve role new_zealand mounted rifles brigade command brigadier general andrew russell new_zealand mounted rifles brigade raised august consisted regiments mounted infantry brigade establishment men rifle strength equivalent infantry battalion brigade regiments formed squadrons men organised headquarters troops brigade arrived egypt came command newly formed new_zealand australian division april division infantry units left egypt undisclosed destination new_zealand mounted rifles brigade learned gallipoli landings days later brigade received news deploy reinforcements gallipoli role horses arrived gallipoli peninsula disembarked cove day brigade moved line northern left flank relieving royal naval brigade trenches stretched sea walker ridge included outposts post post position beach head northern position situated miles chatham post southernmost point outlying position posts meant movement main lines undertaken safely night brigade deployed canterbury mounted rifles left mounted rifles centre wellington mounted rifles right turkish forces world war ottoman turkish army badly allies war defeat forces british french russian armies landings gallipoli defended divisions based infantry battalion strong points overlooking potential landing beaches april turks fixed mobile artillery pieces peninsula turkish force confront new provided 19th division comprising 57th infantry regiments command colonel noted imaginative successful officer fight gallipoli campaign turks viewed invasion judged orders troops following initial landings men ordering attack ordering die time takes die forces commanders come place virtually turkish army commanders company commander level experienced veterans balkan wars command structure weaker non commissioned officer level company advantage turkish army new time hand grenades british forces post capture abortive turkish attack early middle month new observed opponents improving defensive positions position particular started overnight foot ridge led post yards gave new cause concern decided position captured denied turks plans assault formed task given 1st canterbury cavalry squadron canterbury mounted rifles commanded major adams squadron concentrated post left post capture turkish position advancing ridge arrived slight opposition drove turkish defenders cost dead wounded followed 6th squadron wellington mounted rifles carried tools improve defences garrison position named post 6th squadron orders hold post relieved started constructing defences turkish counter attack easy post surrounded sides turks sunrise squadron view turks engaged small arms artillery fire forced cover stop building defences night 6th squadron relieved troops officers ninety ranks 9th wellington east_coast squadron wellington mounted rifles commanded major chambers defence chambers second command captain charles immediately set constructing defensive trench post strengthening defences turks infantry regiment strong managed use terrain darkness close position chambers reported position attack surrounded telephone line headquarters cut turks area post sight defenders climb trench engage turks tactic worked broke turkish assault causing attackers casualties turks withdraw far edge new trench night threw hand grenades new position time small arms fire surrounding turkish positions pinned new midnight new sent 2nd wellington west_coast squadron commanded major james forward reinforce 9th squadron 2nd squadron strong break turkish lines reach post times engage close quarter fighting thick eventually 2nd squadron form defensive position ground posts dawn took command trench southern sector post opposite turks appeared gathering forces assault post successfully deployed men attack began met broken new small arms fire post sustained turkish rifle grenade attack relieving 2nd squadron held ridge south post post strong turkish force dug communication turkish attackers north post 2nd squadron bring small arms fire turks attacking post making heads daylight led troop attack captured turkish trench left post communications established post signal flags allied artillery able bring fire turkish communications trenches defenders running short supplies especially ammunition spared look wounded 6th squadron commanded major charles dick sent forward support 2nd squadron attempt break post advancing ridge post reached position open plateau north post relieving squadrons break turkish lines confronted heavy turkish fire surrounding higher ground blocked sheer number turkish troops noon turks undermined blew trench post occupied turkish attacks continued day brought action mountain artillery gun nearby position estimated turkish troops involved assault post unable break post day new decided wait nightfall attempt time canterbury mounted rifles warned provide squadrons defence 9th squadron relieved time turks given attempts recapture post chambers signalled repeated bombing trenches northern post resulted portion trenches damaged extent longer prevent enemy getting followed minutes later message turks occupied trenches north post time 6th squadron advancing south managed yards post pinned fire support mountain artillery battery british destroyer hms unable advance darkness approached turkish attacks covered 2nd 6th squadrons 10th nelson squadron troops 8th south canterbury squadron canterbury mounted rifles managed break post 9th squadron survivors evacuated canterbury regiment taken defence post hour later 2nd 6th squadrons withdrawn brigade lines shortly relief decided post abandoned withdrawing south post attacked turks new turned opened fire counter attacked bayonet charge forcing turks withdraw occupying post 9th squadron held hours brigade lost men killed wounded vast majority 9th squadron turkish casualties men aftermath battle post major event involved general hamilton dispatches fight received brief mention raid turkish post overlooking beach yards north operating party rifles rushed post killing capturing occupants similar raid enemy trench left line cost turks casualties battle post cost new dead wounded brigade fought battles gallipoli battle battle hill involvement battles proved costly september strength men left peninsula rest camp island campaign men served brigade killed wounded casualty rate cent dead chambers commander 9th squadron 6th squadron survived battle post campaign killed action august battle like new known grave commemorated memorial adjacent commonwealth war graves commission cemetery graves men identified days gallipoli campaign total new_zealand soldiers killed wounded total new took exact number turkish casualties gallipoli known estimated dead total casualties war british ottoman turkish ended october following signing armistice november canterbury mounted rifles selected allied force occupation dardanelles peninsula time took opportunity look bury brigade war dead commander turkish 19th division survived war following turkish war independence known father turks president new republic turkey acknowledged nation founding father