scotland middle ages scotland middle ages concerns history region scotland departure romans early fifth century adoption major aspects renaissance early sixteenth century fifth century north britain divided series petty kingdoms important emerge scots kingdom arrival late eighth century scandinavian rulers colonies established parts coasts islands ninth century scots combined house form single kingdom base dominated culture reign king david twelfth century scottish monarchs best described norman preferring french culture native scottish culture alexander son alexander iii able remainder western treaty perth norway scotland established independence england figures including william wallace late thirteenth century robert bruce fourteenth century fifteenth century stewart dynasty despite turbulent political history crown gained greater political control expense independent lords regained lost territory approximately modern borders country alliance france led heavy defeat scottish army battle death king james followed long minority period political instability major form government growing late middle ages scale nature war changed larger armies naval forces development artillery fortifications christianity introduced identified celtic christianity church accepted papal authority eleventh century embraced monastic reform developing religious culture asserted independence english control scotland grew relatively small area eastern approximately modern borders varied dramatic geography land provided protection invasion limited central control defined largely pastoral economy created twelfth century population grown peak million arrival black death early middle ages society divided small aristocracy larger numbers slaves disappeared fourteenth century growth new social groups languages replaced old english later norse emerging major cultural language eleventh century french adopted court late middle ages scots derived old english dominant largely confined highlands christianity brought latin written culture monasteries centres learning twelfth century educational opportunities widened growth lay education education act fifteenth century scotland gained universities scots pursuing higher education travel england continent gained international reputation literature survives major languages present early middle ages scots emerging major literary language john developing culture poetry court later major works prose art early middle ages survives carving elaborate illuminated books contributed development wider style finest later work survived key examples particularly work commissioned netherlands scotland musical tradition secular music composed performed thirteenth century church music increasingly influenced continental english forms political history early middle ages minor kingdoms centuries departure romans britain major circles influence emerged borders scotland east kingdoms eventually stretched river forth identifiable king exerted superior wide ranging authority mac power based kingdom base fort near modern death leadership shifted lands centred raided eastern coast modern england christian missionaries appear begun conversion christianity west people royal fortress close links island ireland brought scots mission ireland founded monastery west_coast scotland probably began conversion region christianity kingdom reached height mac expansion checked battle south british kingdom descendants peoples roman influenced kingdoms old north named capital rock defeated men kingdom suffered number attacks later allies little recorded burnt probably destroyed circumstances known finally english angles invaders overrun southern britain held kingdom south east english king historical record said obtained throne kingdom grandson united kingdom south form year changes dynasty kingdom divided united son converted christianity exile looked missionaries help convert kingdom origins kingdom situation transformed ferocious viking raids began monasteries like creating fear confusion kingdoms north britain western isles eventually fell king mac king mac dead major defeat hands mixture viking irish settlement south west scotland produced norse irish region gets modern ninth century kingdom lost said founded kingdom isles threats long term process kingdoms adopted language customs merger crowns historians debate takeover way culminated rise mac kenneth brought power house seized forming kingdom york years later stormed fortress subsequently conquered england reduced kingdom leaving new combined kingdom encircled died king combined kingdom man called king term scotia increasingly describe kingdom north forth clyde eventually entire area controlled kings referred scotland high middle ages kings constantine alexander long reign constantine regarded key formation kingdom later credited bringing scottish christianity catholic_church fighting battles defeat followed retirement monk period accession successor mac marked good relations rulers england intense internal relatively successful policies annexed kings probably exercised authority later ninth century agreement king england event offset loss control reign king duncan marred failed military adventures defeated killed king ruled years overthrown son months later defeated step son successor king iii iii iii acquired nickname great chief passed successors create dynasty ruled scotland following centuries particularly important second marriage anglo hungarian princess margaret marriage raids northern england prompted william invade submitted authority opening scotland later claims sovereignty english kings died brother iii iii succeeded william england backed son marriage throne seized power murder months saw restored sons second marriage heir ruled scotland younger brothers returned exile england english military backing victorious oldest king shortly king norway bare legs concluded treaty recognising norwegian authority western isles practice norse control isles loose local chiefs enjoying high degree independence succeeded brother alexander reigned norman kings david alexander iii alexander died crown passed margaret fourth son david spent life english baron reign saw characterised revolution native institutions personnel replaced english french ones development later medieval scotland members anglo norman nobility took places scottish aristocracy introduced system feudal land tenure produced knight service castles available body heavily armed body cavalry created anglo norman style court introduced office oversee justice local offices administer established royal scotland granting rights particular settlements led development true scottish towns helped facilitate economic development introduction recorded scottish continued process begun mother brothers helping establish foundations brought reformed based played organisation diocese lines closer rest western_europe reforms pursued successors grandchildren scotland william crown passing main line descent leading series minorities benefits greater authority william son alexander son alexander iii pursued policy peace england expand authority highlands islands reign alexander iii scots position remainder western following ill fated invasion stalemate battle treaty perth late middle ages wars independence margaret david death king alexander iii granddaughter heir margaret maid norway left rivals succession prevent civil war scottish asked edward england extracted legal recognition realm scotland held feudal throne england choosing john man strongest claim king robert bruce 5th lord strongest accepted outcome reluctance years edward concessions gained systematically undermine authority king john independence scotland john chief entered alliance france known alliance edward invaded scotland king john following year william wallace andrew raised forces resist occupation joint leadership english army defeated battle bridge short time wallace ruled scotland john guardian realm edward came north person defeated wallace battle english barons refuted french inspired papal claim scottish barons letter claiming long possessed english kings wallace escaped probably resigned guardian scotland fell hands english executed treason despite fact believed owed allegiance england rivals john robert bruce grandson appointed joint guardians place february bruce participated murder seven weeks later march bruce crowned king edward forces overran country defeating bruce small army battle despite bruce followers pope support slowly strengthened help leading nobles sir james douglas thomas castles remained english control edward died heir edward moved army north break siege castle control robert defeated army battle securing facto independence declaration pope nobles scotland helped convince pope john earlier acts submission scottish kings english ones scotland sovereignty recognised major european declaration seen important documents development scottish national identity edward iii signed treaty acknowledging scottish independence rule robert bruce years robert death england invaded pretext restoring edward son john scottish throne starting second war independence despite victories hill face tough scottish resistance led sir andrew murray son wallace arms successive attempts secure throne failed edward iii lost interest fate outbreak years war france david king robert son heir able return temporary exile france finally resigned claim throne edward retiring yorkshire died robert james david death robert stewart kings came throne followed ailing son john took robert iii robert iii reign actual power rested largely hands brother robert stewart duke albany suspicious death possibly orders duke albany elder son david duke robert fearful safety younger son future james sent france english captured route spent years prisoner held ransom result death robert iii ruled scotland duke albany later son scotland finally paid ransom james aged returned english bride determined assert authority members albany family executed succeeded control hands crown cost increasingly assassinated son james came age continued father policy weakening great noble families notably taking powerful black douglas family come prominence time robert attempt english succeeded cost life killed exploding artillery piece young son came throne james iii resulting minority robert lord emerging important figure james married margaret denmark receiving islands payment king asserted control executing members family brothers alexander duke albany john earl resulting albany leading english backed invasion effective ruler english retreated having taken time james able regain power king managed barons supporters wife son james defeated battle killed successor james successfully ended quasi independent rule lord isles bringing western isles effective royal control time married margaret tudor daughter henry vii england laying foundation seventeenth century union crowns alliance renewed terms french attacked english henry_viii year james invaded england support invasion stopped decisively battle king nobles large number ordinary troops killed scotland government lay hands infant james government major form political organisation early middle ages competing minor kingdoms fluid relationships kingdoms primary function kings war leaders ritual elements evident ceremonies coronation unification scots tenth century produced kingdom retained ritual aspects coronation scottish monarchy remained largely institution remained important locations royal castles perth significant later middle ages edinburgh developed capital second half fifteenth century scottish crown grew prestige era adopted conventional offices western european courts later elements ritual early period kings scots depended great lords later later reign david introduced allowed direct control gradually limited power major knowledge early systems law limited justice seen developing twelfth century onwards local sheriff ecclesiastical courts offices oversee administration scots common law began develop period attempts law beginnings educated professional body lawyers late middle ages major institutions government including council parliament developed council emerged time body fifteenth century increasingly dominated critical administration justice parliament emerged major legal institution gaining oversight taxation policy end era sitting year partly frequent minorities period prevented sidelined monarchy warfare early middle ages war land characterised use small war bands household troops engaging raids low level warfare arrival brought new scale naval warfare rapid movement based viking developed form major factor warfare highlands islands high middle ages kings scotland command forces tens thousands men short periods common army mainly poorly armoured spear introduction scotland forces augmented small numbers mounted heavily armoured knights introduced castles country originally simple wooden bailey constructions replaced thirteenth century formidable stone castles high walls thirteenth century threat scandinavian naval power subsided kings scotland able use naval forces help subdue highlands islands scottish field armies rarely managed stand usually larger professional armies produced england good effect robert secure scottish independence use naval power support forces began develop royal scottish naval force stewart kings forces augmented specialist troops particularly men arms hired bonds similar english period new maintenance castles built house troops castles began adapted accommodate gunpowder weapons adopted major innovations continental warfare longer extensive use artillery built formidable navy early fifteenth century best armed largest scottish armies assembled met defeat hands english army battle saw destruction large number ordinary troops large section nobility king james religion christianity probably introduced lowland scotland roman soldiers stationed north province presumed survived south modern scotland retreated pagan anglo advanced scotland largely converted irish scots missions associated figures fifth seventh centuries missions tended found monastic institutions collegiate churches served large areas partly result factors scholars identified distinctive form celtic christianity significant bishops attitudes clerical relaxed significant differences practice roman christianity particularly form method calculating easter issues resolved mid seventh century scandinavian scotland tenth century christianity papal authority dominant religion kingdom norman period scottish church underwent series reforms royal lay patronage structure based local churches developed large numbers new foundations followed continental forms reformed began scottish church established independence england developed structure special daughter rome lacking leadership form late middle ages problems catholic_church allowed scottish crown gain greater influence senior appointments established end fifteenth century historians decline late middle ages orders grew particularly expanding meet spiritual needs population new saints devotion despite problems number quality clergy black death fourteenth century evidence period church scotland remained relatively stable reformation sixteenth century geography modern scotland half size england wales area islands inland roughly coastline miles fifth scotland metres sea level east atlantic position means heavy rainfall today year east west encouraged spread blanket combined high level wind salt spray islands existence hills mountains marshes internal communication conquest extremely difficult contributed fragmented nature political power defining factor geography scotland distinction highlands islands north west south east highlands divided northwest highlands mountains fault line great divided fertile belt central higher terrain southern included hills border england came run end period divided mountains major rivers marshes central lowland belt averages miles width contains good quality agricultural land easier communications support elements conventional medieval government southern particularly highlands economically productive difficult govern provided scotland form protection minor english incursions cross difficult southern major attempts conquest english edward edward iii unable penetrate highlands area potential resistance areas problematic govern scottish kings political history era wars independence circulated attempts resolve problems entrenched regions thirteenth century borders england fluid annexed scotland david lost grandson successor late thirteenth century treaty york treaty perth fixed boundaries kingdom scots england norway respectively borders close modern boundaries isle man fell english control fourteenth century despite attempts restore scottish authority english able large slice edward iii losses gradually regained particularly england preoccupied wars roses islands great land acquisition kingdom border fortress largest port medieval scotland fell english final change hands economy society economy having fifth sixth good pastoral land roughly coastline england wales marginal pastoral agriculture fishing important aspects medieval scottish economy poor communications early middle ages settlements needed achieve degree self agriculture farms based family unit infield outfield system farming grew high middle ages agriculture entered period relative boom thirteenth century late fifteenth century unlike england scotland towns dating roman occupation twelfth century records chartered towns major centres crafts trade evidence scottish coins english probably remained significant trade end period probably common form exchange craft industry remained relatively undeveloped end middle ages extensive trading networks based scotland scots exported largely raw materials imported increasing quantities luxury goods resulting shortage helping create financial crisis fifteenth century written sources construct early medieval scotland estimates population inhabitants likely 5th 6th centuries saw higher mortality rates appearance plague reduced net population examination burial sites period like indicate life known conditions taken suggest high fertility high mortality society similar developing countries modern world relatively young demographic profile early large numbers children women meant relatively small proportion available workers number mouths feed difficult produce surplus allow demographic growth complex societies develop formation kingdom tenth century black death reached country estimates based land suggest population grown half million million reliable documentation impact plague references abandoned land following decades pattern followed england population fallen low half million end fifteenth century compared situation population later industrial revolution numbers relatively evenly spread kingdom roughly half living north cent population lived grew later medieval period mainly east south suggested mean population smaller largest edinburgh probably population end era social structure organisation society obscure early period documentary sources probably provided primary unit organisation society divided small aristocracy rationale based warfare wider group right bear arms represented law codes relatively large body slaves lived clients owners thirteenth century sources allow greater society seen layers including king small elite lesser ranks probably large group particularly central scotland period introduced david meant began system english terms earl widespread noble ranks small farms growing numbers modest combination feudal obligations seen creating system clans highlands era scottish society adopted theories estates describe society english terminology differentiate ranks disappeared records fourteenth century new social groups labourers merchants important developing led increasing social tensions urban society contrast england france lack major unrest scottish rural society relatively little economic change culture language culture modern divide celtic languages major groups celtic languages welsh derive celtic come languages irish language remains enigmatic written script survives place names isolated inscriptions irish script modern accept nature unity language unclear belonged group historical sources place evidence indicate ways language north languages south replaced old english later norse period high middle ages majority people scotland spoke language simply called scottish latin kingdom overwhelmingly oral society dominated culture fuller sources ireland period suggest acted poets musicians historians attached court lord king passed knowledge culture generation northern isles norse language brought scandinavian settlers evolved local end eighteenth century norse survived spoken language sixteenth century outer french flemish particularly english main language scottish located south east area settlers brought form old english later twelfth century writer adam described lowland land english kingdom scots accession david ceased main language royal court probably replaced french evidenced reports contemporary chronicles literature translations administrative documents french language scottish court highly regarded order took functions continue act similar role highlands islands eighteenth century trained schools like run dynasty lord isles existed scotland larger number ireland suppressed seventeenth century members schools trained complex rules forms poetry work written survives recorded sixteenth century late middle ages middle scots simply called english dominant language country derived largely old english addition elements french resembling language spoken northern england distinct dialect late fourteenth century onwards began adopted ruling elite gradually abandoned french fifteenth century language government acts parliament council records treasurer accounts reign james onwards result dominant north began steady decline lowland writers began treat second class amusing language helping frame attitudes highlands create cultural gulf education establishment christianity brought latin scotland scholarly written language monasteries served major knowledge education running schools providing small educated elite essential create read documents largely society high middle ages new sources education arose song grammar schools usually attached collegiate church common developing end middle ages grammar schools found main small towns early examples including high school glasgow high school petty schools common rural areas providing elementary education monasteries like abbey opened doors wider range students number size schools expanded rapidly exclusively aimed boys end fifteenth century edinburgh schools girls described schools probably taught lay women development private tuition families lords wealthy growing emphasis education passing education act decreed sons barons substance attend grammar schools learn resulted increase literacy largely concentrated male wealthy elite cent nobility end period fifteenth century wished attend university travel england continent identified twelfth century important intellectual figure john studied oxford cambridge paris probably died cologne major influence late medieval religious thought outbreak wars independence occasional exceptions safe conduct english universities closed scots continental universities significant scottish scholars teachers continental universities paris included john rate walter william early situation transformed founding university university glasgow university initially institutions designed training increasingly begin challenge clerical monopoly administrative post government law wanting study second degrees needed scottish scholars continued visit continent english universities reopened scots late fifteenth century continued movement universities produced school scottish paris early sixteenth century john probably important figure probably studied scottish grammar school cambridge moving paris historian born studied paris returned principal new university international contacts helped integrate scotland wider european scholarly world important ways new ideas brought scottish intellectual life literature earliest welsh literature actually composed near country called scotland speech welsh derived include battle gwen religious works including praise mac latin include prayer protection attributed mid sixth century high creator attributed old english dream lines found cross making surviving fragment old english early medieval scotland reign david scots possessed literary elite produced texts latin tradition survived highlands thirteenth century possible middle irish literature written medieval scotland thought survived literary establishment eastern scotland died fourteenth century thirteenth century french flourished literary language produced roman earliest piece non celtic vernacular literature survive scotland surviving major text early scots literature john composed patronage robert telling story epic poetry robert actions english invasion till end war independence middle scots literature produced poets links royal court included james wrote university education connected lament provides evidence wider tradition secular writing outside court largely lost advent printing scotland writers robert william walter kennedy douglas seen leading golden age scottish poetry late fifteenth century scots prose began develop genre earlier fragments original scots prose chronicle complete surviving work includes john ireland prose translations french books survive including book law order treatise arabic work believed aristotle advice alexander great landmark work reign james douglas version complete translation major classical text language finished overshadowed disaster art early ages distinct material cultures evident different linguistic groups kingdoms scotland art seen extensive survival carved stones particularly north east country hold variety recurring images patterns stones angus seen elaborate metal work largely survives buried like isle treasure irish scots art kingdom difficult identify include items like items like suggest places crossroads cultures style developed art given common style developed britain ireland conversion cultural culture scots angles highly influential continental europe contributing development gothic styles seen elaborate jewellery making extensive use semi precious stones heavily carved high crosses found frequently highlands islands distributed country particularly highly decorated illustrated manuscripts book begun wholly created finest era style brought end disruption monastic centres aristocratic life viking raids late eighth century scotland adopted late twelfth century retaining reviving elements style gothic dominant thirteenth century best scottish artwork high late middle ages religious nature realised metal survived impact time reformation examples sculpture extant church architecture including evidence elaborate church interiors like houses carvings seven deadly sins chapel thirteenth century relatively large numbers monumental like elaborate douglas tombs town douglas native seen items like horn widely large number high quality seals survive mid thirteenth century onwards visual illustration seen illumination charters occasional like fifteenth century doom painting surviving copies individual portraits relatively crude impressive works artists commissioned continent particularly netherlands including hugo van der goes trinity college church edinburgh hours james scotland architecture medieval vernacular architecture utilised local building materials including constructed houses turf walls clay heavy reliance stone developed sophisticated houses nobles inhabitants end period stone built slate roofs tiles medieval parish church architecture typically simpler england churches remaining simple towers eleventh century influences english continental european designs ecclesiastical buildings built style seen abbey cathedral later gothic style glasgow cathedral rebuilding abbey early fifteenth century introduction renaissance styles included selective return forms nave cathedral chapel bishop kings college bailey castles introduced scotland twelfth century castles high curtain wall replaced occupation wars independence late middle ages new castles built scale maintenance castles house retained troops gunpowder weaponry fundamentally altered nature castle architecture existing castles adapted allow use gunpowder weapons incorporation gun ports platforms mount guns walls adapted resist bombardment begun probably castle british isles built artillery fort incorporating shape better resist cannon fire artillery mounted largest number late medieval fortifications scotland built nobles tower house design primarily aimed provide protection smaller raiding parties major siege extensive building rebuilding royal palaces renaissance style probably began james iii accelerated james constructed james direction master work john referred palace apparently use term country extended james iii began correspond fashionable corner italian palace combining classical symmetry neo imagery music late twelfth century noted opinion scotland equals teacher ireland greatly musical skill identified scots chorus exactly instruments unclear probably accompanied poetry seen records scottish courts medieval period scottish church music thirteenth century increasingly influenced continental developments figures like musical theorist simon studying paris returned scotland introduced reforms church music scottish collections music like thirteenth century associated contain french compositions distinctive local styles captivity james england earned reputation poet composer led english continental styles musicians scottish court release late fifteenth century series scottish musicians trained netherlands returning home including john thomas john master song school edinburgh introducing new organ playing technique james chapel royal castle new enlarged choir focus scottish music english influences probably reinforced henry vii daughter margaret tudor married james national identity high middle ages word scots describe foreigners common word called simply ethnic terms connected majority inhabitants ireland beginning thirteenth century author noted means margin scots irish scots irish generally called scotland came possess unity french ethnic differences end period latin french english word subject scottish king scotland norman monarchs mixed norman aristocracy community realm ethnic differences divisive ireland wales identity defined opposition english attempts country result social cultural changes resulting england dominated scottish foreign policy fifteenth century making extremely difficult scottish kings like james iii james pursue policies peace southern neighbour particular declaration asserted ancient scotland face english aggression arguing role king defend independence community scotland document seen nationalist theory sovereignty adoption middle scots aristocracy seen building shared sense national solidarity culture rulers ruled fact north dominated helped widen cultural divide highlands national literature scotland created late medieval period employed legend history service crown nationalism helping foster sense national identity elite audience epic poetic history wallace helped outline narrative united struggle english enemy literature differed conventional versions legend treating arthur villain son king hero origin myth scots john traced beginnings greek prince egyptian wife allowing argue superiority english claimed descent defeated greeks image andrew bound shaped cross appeared scotland reign william depicted seals late thirteenth century including particular example guardians scotland dated use simplified symbol associated saint andrew origins late fourteenth century parliament scotland decreed scottish soldiers wear white saint andrew cross person purpose identification use blue background saint andrew cross said date fifteenth century earliest reference saint andrew cross flag found vienna book hours circa


great great lithuanian known great assembly grand diet great diet major assembly held december november lithuania russian_empire largely inspired russian revolution modern national congress lithuania dealt primarily social issues sparked revolution national concerns participants took assembly decision demand wide political autonomy russian_empire achieve peaceful means considered important step act independence lithuania adopted february council lithuania laid establishment independent lithuanian state historical background lithuania russian_empire polish lithuanian commonwealth late 18th century unsuccessful uprising lithuania subjected policies lithuanian press ban initiated schools required teach russian language roman catholics hold positions government institutions limited amounts land political rights restricted measures limited effects lithuanian national revival sense lithuanian national identity continued grow lithuanian political parties social democratic_party lithuania lithuanian democratic_party included goals political autonomy lithuania russian_empire basic program events bloody sunday january sparked revolution russia nicholas forced concessions april decree guaranteed complete freedom religion allowed religious studies conducted native languages important decree october manifesto announced october october guaranteed political rights including right form political parties organize decree formed legal basis assembly october manifesto announced intent hold elections russian parliament lithuanian organizers official pretext claimed needed prepare election preparations historians disagree initiated idea organizing national assembly credit argue organizational activities largely taken lithuanian christian democrats moderate newspaper owned legal lithuanian language daily newspaper appear lithuanian press ban lifted popular circulation soon reached copies october october member organizational committee chairman secretary given task assembly published appeal manifest lithuanian people november october appeal signed chairman secretary aroused interest public extended persons elected representatives communities educated people interested future lithuanian state end appeal point agenda discussed include question lithuanian autonomy november november controversial memorandum adopted organizational committee sent prime minister russian_empire signed people primary author consisted introduction briefly summarized history lithuania points demands point controversial declared parts historically lithuanian poles jews russians groups areas merely invaders arrived recent past called point memorandum asking title grand duke lithuania disregarded documents drew criticism points demanded lithuanian autonomy equal rights social classes political religious freedom free universal education lithuanian language introduction lithuanian language government institutions attachment poland autonomous lithuania demands echoed parts memorandum demanded lithuanian autonomy protested possible attachment autonomous poland reprinted russian publication november november russian government sought demonstrate granting autonomy poland lithuania complicated probably national conflicts november november memorandum reprinted heavily criticized non position minorities making demands behalf lithuanian nation waiting resolutions december november people arrived half officially elected delegates local communities standard elections procedures offered process selecting representatives varied greatly despite irregularities election history lithuania people active participation somewhat lacked delegates came areas poland areas lands german empire lithuania minor result wide variety communities political groups government layers social classes organizations represented parliament europe include women seven female delegates took hours intense discussion elect officially elected chairman leader social democrats chosen vice chairman members priest organizational committee proposed academic agenda geared cultural issues assembly initial agenda vetoed delegates adopted new schedule political highlighted main goals holding hearings current situation lithuania deciding political demands submitted authorities major portion day proceedings devoted reports presented delegates rural areas content reports carry weight important question lithuanian autonomy rumors russian politicians seriously considering granting autonomy poland polish activists wished incorporate lithuanian lands autonomous region calling historic tradition polish lithuanian commonwealth light rumors demands delegates radical expected demanded autonomy lithuanian lands border areas decide join region governed elected bound federal ties neighboring lands lithuanian lands issue clearly defined resistance authorities organized special attention given resolution adopted second day explicitly stated decided join fight autonomous lithuania largely attempt prevent potential polish autonomous region claiming congress poland election universal equal direct secret persons granted suffrage regard sex religion election taken place europe women granted equal right vote demand far reaching required transformation empire federal state placing lithuania par grand finland russian constitutional system heated discussions continued means achieve transformation argued armed resistance reminded previous uprisings november january failed suggested peaceful passive resistance refusing pay taxes products companies selling alcoholic allowing children attend russian schools drafts russian army organizing factory worker strikes delegates small farmers discussed land reform demanding land confiscated large distributed actually cultivated conclusions area reached perception resolution land reform encourage peasants rise happening parts russian_empire end second day adopted resolution declared government lithuania dangerous enemy second demanded autonomy outlined means goal deemed acceptable resistance peaceful passive fourth final demanded children taught native language teachers chosen people unlike conference attempt elect institution carry resolutions act lithuanian government rural areas left central guidance resolution adopted near midnight read aloud proposal include attachment condemning polish ecclesiastical authorities suppressing use lithuanian language churches diocese church matters discussed sessions majority agreed proposal hands attachment fully discussed social democrats consider officially adopted aftermath night december december printed copies resolution distribution assembly notorious loud lengthy intense debates delegates returned communities started carry resolutions old russian replaced communities elected representatives organized schools classes taught lithuanian language stopped paying taxes russian responses disorganized confused authorities soon armed forces returned situation normal process relatively peaceful clashes armed groups peasants military forces unlike neighboring estonia peasants rise number prominent activists movement arrested sent siberia lithuanian democratic_party opportunity organize peasant union largely represented interests large mid size farmers union helped spread influence countryside days founded lithuanian national democratic_party lithuanian party lithuania plan autonomy accomplished time important development lithuanian bid independence consolidated efforts spearheaded organization political parties strengthened national conscience rural populace assembly rejected ideas restore old grand lithuania time voiced demands autonomy political religious rights granted october manifesto retained number agricultural educational scientific literary artistic societies emerged


annexation russian_empire territory previously controlled annexed russian_empire april april period annexation marked russian interference affairs series revolts ottoman annexation began years russian rule ended transfer territory ukrainian soviet socialist republic russia annexed second time march prelude independent russia defeated ottoman_empire russo turkish war populated largely ottoman_empire treaty result war ottoman_empire forced sovereignty allow independent state russian influence desire independence held strong emotional attachment ottoman_empire months signing treaty government sent envoys ottomans asking destroy conditions independence envoys said russian troops remained stationed considered independent ottomans ignored request wishing violate agreement russia disorder followed turkish defeat leader refused accept treaty time signing having fighting russians war crossed seized city modern subsequently seized throne despite actions russians russian empress catherine great recognised khan time favourite resided court role time went rule increasingly july sent group envoys constantinople negotiate ottoman_empire action direct defiance treaty asked ottomans scrap famed diplomat helped draft treaty refused provide assistance wanting start disastrous war russia empress catherine gave order invade november forces quickly gained control entrance peninsula january russian supported crossed aware impending defeat fled constantinople installed puppet khan muslim population peninsula heard news ottoman sultan noted tool aim russians member ruling house attempted series reforms included attempts power hands khan establishing rule russia previously power distributed leaders different clans called attempted institute state taxation army replace traditional religion based ottoman legal system civil law reforms aimed disrupting old ottoman order despised populace revolts behest empress catherine allowed russians settle peninsula group settlers sent remained russian control following installation khan local residents banded prevent russian settlement sent new army created rebellion forces defect rebels revolt spread peninsula rebel forces advanced palace amidst rebellion exiled constantinople pressed ottoman government act pressure government sent fleet ostensibly preserve treaty russia quicker act russian forces arrived february crushing revolt ottoman fleet arrived fleet arrived march found rebels left support fought brief skirmish russian navy modern forced flee reinstated khan minor skirmishes ottoman russian navies continued october ottoman fleet returned defeated constantinople following years continued try reform support reform programme remained low seriously undermined decision empress catherine greeks northern shores sea outside community christian essential merchant class readily supported reforms caused significant damage economy weakened position khan recognising defeat ottoman_empire signed convention early agreement ottomans recognised khan promised intervention conceded russian influence longer expect support ottomans reforms proceeded gradually removing positions political influence brief period remained peaceful new rebellion sparked continuing government started clan leaders forces came april large portion army defected rebels joined communication rebel leaders including brothers administrative elite ongoing religious legal officials important parts old ottoman order openly declared rebel forces attacked forces swiftly defeated forced escape russian controlled rebel leaders elected brother khan sent message ottoman government seeking recognition long empress catherine dispatched prince restore power significant opposition fielded invading russians rebels fled khan restored position october time lost favour empress catherine letter russian advisor catherine wrote stop shocking cruel treatment cause new revolt russian troops entered peninsula work establishment black_sea port use empire began city chosen site port house newly created black_sea fleet uncertainty restoration led increase support spearheaded prince annexation march prince push encourage empress catherine annex having returned told happily submit russian rule encouraged news empress catherine issued formal proclamation annexation april april resist annexation years turmoil lacked resources continue fighting fled peninsula leaving count alexander close advisor empress wrote diary russia forced annex kept good faith beginning primary goal independence banished legal khan replaced thief consistently refused evacuate numerous attempts introduce rebellion legitimate khan efforts bring declare war ceased drink drop revolt wish bring peace finally forced turks annex area view far reality independence puppet regime ottomans played little role revolts incorporated empire later year ottoman_empire signed agreement russia recognised loss territories held agreement signed december negotiated russian diplomat

Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire


british alpine expedition british alpine expedition experimental event took place british engineer john led expedition tried aspects legendary crossing alps second war bce group successfully took female asian elephant provided zoo france col italy background defeat war bce secured extensive territory peninsula beginning second war bce son took army men war elephants modern day spain italy led year campaign rome avoided coastal route took army alps march described ancient historians exact route subject long inconclusive scholarly discourse book alps elephants march beer lists possible candidates different books expedition times published debate route taken alps debate came attention john engineering student cambridge_university interest history mountain climbing spent summer friends hiking alps comparing possible routes ancient descriptions group came conclusion col likely pass opinion supported modern historians years later friend suggested test theory actual elephant wrote letters british france geneva switzerland possibility obtaining elephant experiment expectation success zoo acquired female asian elephant trained circus animal owner zoo volunteered sponsor expedition team people including richard expedition secretary colonel john lecturer later reader surgery university_of_cambridge school gained experience elephants world war burma group obtained insurance lloyd london sponsorship life magazine later published page photo report expedition started late july france followed valley arc river ascended col route pass narrowed dangerous group retracted valley crossed col pass suggested route french emperor napoleon days travel expedition successfully invaded italy members expedition originally planned pound elephant animal respond new remained years old equipped leather boots knee pads passages specially coat provided warm despite diet consisting pounds hay pounds pounds bread pounds supplement day lost estimated pounds days trip nearly pounds total arrival italy consumed cake bottle published report expedition trunk road elephant alps expedition member published book elephant alps telling story expedition


walls walls croatian series defensive stone walls surrounded protected citizens afterward proclaimed maritime city state situated southern croatia city founding prior 7th century byzantium rocky island named numerous additions modifications history considered great fortification systems middle ages breached hostile army time period old city includes substantial portion old walls joined list world heritage sites oldest systems fortifications town likely wooden today intact city walls constructed mainly 12th 17th centuries double line long source pride walls run course approximately metres length old city reach maximum height metres bulk existing walls fortifications constructed 14th 15th centuries continually extended strengthened 17th century complex structure largest complete europe protected freedom safety sophisticated republic flourished peace prosperity centuries walls reinforced circular towers angular fortifications large john fortress land walls additionally reinforced larger smaller ones like fort oldest preserved fort kind europe moat ran outside section city walls armed cannons provided superb city defense capabilities city walls construction limestone forts city began early middle ages end 8th century old chronicles sort castle reliably existed peninsula long time prior certain early town island surrounded defensive walls probably mainly wooden fact managed survive month long invasion 9th century proves city fortified city spread eastern explains current southeast city near john fortress called comes latin statement post means outside town 9th 10th centuries defensive wall enclosed eastern portion city sea channel separating city mainland filled earth 11th century city merged settlement land soon single wall built area present day city core time period surrounding area described croatian entity works famous arab muhammad book english joy wish sail world mentioned southernmost city country croatia basic city plan dates port rebuilt following fire city entirely enclosed 13th century dominican monastery came protection later 14th century modern day city walls city walls preserved present day knowledge skilled construction workers constant care provided city maintained rebuilt structures needed brilliantly reputed diplomacy managed occasions avoid dangerous measures taken enemies republic present shape walls defined 14th century city gained independence venetian peak construction lasted beginning 15th century half 16th century constructed walls generally unaffected strong earthquake occurring largest continued development emergency repairs works fortresses came result danger unexpected attack turkish military forces especially conquered constantinople city danger attack centuries people able preserve city republic maneuvering east west strategic treaty turkey protracted liberty maintained opportunity major trading role ottoman_empire europe irregular surrounding consists strong fortresses significant points north strong circular tower east city port fortress western city entrance protected strong nicely shaped fort strong lawrence fortress known protects western city possible land sea assaults large complex john fortress located southeast city land walls main wall metres metres thick certain locations walls reach meters feet height land walls stretch fort west detached fortress east wall protected additional range supporting walls defense artillery fire especially possible ottoman attacks gates town city gates lead harbor lead mainland time period austrian empire controlled city gates opened wall communication outside world land maintained city main protected city gates placed western city placed eastern entrances constructed communications city carried directly messenger enter multiple doors walk winding evidence security measures taken defense possibility surprise breach entrance unexpected visitors gate pile pile gates fortified complex multiple doors defended fort moat ran outside section city walls entrance gate old town western land walls stone bridge gothic arches designed architect bridge connects bridge wooden pulled republican era wooden pile gate hoisted night considerable ceremony delivered city keys rector today spans dry moat garden offers respite crowds bridges arch town principal gateway statue city patron saint croatian model renaissance city passing pile gate original gothic inner gateway possible reach access points city walls gate eastern land walls stands second major entrance city gate gate protected fortress connected wooden twin spanned stone bridge spanning protective ditch outer gate designed constructed architect bridges fortress built 15th century designed pile gate bridges explains similarities bridges bridge like gate pile statue saint patron saint gate gate meaning hole located northern land walls gate relatively new compared gates constructed early 1900s sea walls main wall sea facing stretches fort west john fortress south fortress land walls meters feet thick depending location strategic importance purpose walls help defend city sea based attacks particularly republic venice considered threat safety city harbour oldest sectors constructed late antique castle sea stretched bit today constructed site pre cathedral rector palace city harbour harbour designed constructed engineer late 15th century notably harbour noticeably painted palm painted artist prominent portion harbour enormous arches fourth original arch walled large arsenal built late 12th century enlarged 15th century harbour oldest shipyard city use today built john fortress built according design order defend harbour protect south eastern winds waves shortened harbour chain stretched night john fortress luke tower constructed huge stone blocks laid wooden foundations today arsenal hosts city café movie theatre harbour pleasant tourist attractions gates city port area significant areas maritime trade city entrances gate port gate entire layout streets range expansions intended fast effective communication forts city walls gate constructed gate situated westwards great arsenal city wall built period leads gate john fortress present day street formed 15th century sewage system completed building houses western city wall longer allowed gate gate built stands eastward great arsenal arches 15th century small arsenal small boats repaired situated bit old tower luke protects harbour east harbour entrance encircled guarded fortress forts forts walls fall constantinople ottomans clear sign cautious citizens ample defensive measures quickly needed strengthening defensive structures foremost issues fall bosnia followed soon works result republic invited architect florence direct improvement city defenses work resulted construction expansion numerous buildings key importance defense tower tower built local builder named italian engineers sent pope height turkish threat originally strong sided fort prominent point defensive system land tower derives family owned ground tower built height impressive volume tower dominates northwestern high city walls middle 15th century earlier fort built new round tower new warfare technique joined new system low walls meter feet thick walls new tower series protected gun ports architect sculptor continued work tower designed built high narrow round tower later addition tower completed symbol city long excavation 16th century cannon discovered tower upper tower museum tower highest point wall considered offer seemingly unforgettable view city fort fort called considered beautiful instances functional fortification architecture built story fortress city walls reconstructed stands medieval wall face protruding space cylindrical volume conceived key point defense gate western fortified entrance city tower second key point defense western land approach city said oldest fortress europe contains small collection numerous cannons john fortress john fortress croatian called tower complex monumental building southeastern old city port controlling protecting entrance fort built mid 14th century modified occasions course 15th 16th centuries seen painter dominican monastery painting shows saint patron saint dominant port john fortress prevented access pirates enemy ships cautious sign danger inhabitants close entry port heavy chains stretched john fortress wall port entries great arsenal today fortress houses ground floor stocked fishes parts adriatic_sea upper floors maritime museum devoted republic maritime period age steam second world war section techniques sailing navigation detached forts fortress period turkish danger fall bosnia turkish rule detached fortress providing additional protection land approach eastern gate built east city derives term military architecture refers work built opposite city gate order afford better protection enemy attack danger venetian assault suddenly increased times holy league necessary strengthen vulnerable point city fortifications senate hired experienced builder fortresses service spanish admiral trusted friend republic senate approved drawings new stronger fortress took years build time construction work city stopped order finish fortress soon possible new strongest city fortresses eastern land approach city shaped form irregular sides descending sea protected deep ditch bridge crosses protective ditch connects gate bridge connects eastern suburb construction work executed perfectly devastating earthquake damage divided large vaulted rooms interior administrative center republic lawrence fortress lawrence fortress croatian called gibraltar located outside western city walls metres sea level fortress court mighty arches height uneven powerful looking south sea defended large cannons largest famous called croatian walls exposed enemy fire meters feet thick large wall surface facing city exceed centimetres feet lead fort inscription non pro freedom sold treasures world gate ensure loyalty troops lawrence fortress rotated days ensure complete loyalty given days rations went fort according old scripts built months today interior stages europe known place william_shakespeare hamlet performances fortifications walls walls originally series defensive stone walls kilometres long despite small size protected republic decided use build line defense point joining mainland wall built today kilometre long wall links small communities shape pentagon completed 15th century towers fortresses wall meant protection precious salt greatly contributed wealth worked today second longest wall europe surpassed wall scotland england falcon fortress falcon fortress croatian largest important fortresses territory republic position mountainous region near inland built location earlier later roman fortifications evident remains roman bricks walls brothers time rulers gave republic authority falcon fortress came republic final possession strategic importance republic constantly invested maintenance fortress contained powder storage wine food boxes military barracks sanctuary buildings accommodate refugees nearby villages event war imperial fortress fortress placed mountain city built marshal called imperial honor emperor napoleon fortress strategically important defend northern city fortress fortress placed end peninsula built mid-19th century fortification system bay time austrian empire unique structure presents exceptional example military architecture time today fortress use badly damaged history city walls siege major arab raid struck laid siege city appealed byzantine emperor responded sending ships finally siege lasted months raised intervention sent fleet command relief city successful intervention byzantine navy sailed coast collecting promises loyalty empire cities damage known fact managed survive month long siege proves city fortified venetian siege weakening byzantium venice began rival needed brought control attempt conquer city failed citizens city attributed saint adopted patron saint city siege territorial disputes war broke grand prince city time norman attacked city laid siege counter attack drove forces according chronicles accepted historians siege ultimately failed help received siege known exactly venetian fourth siege republic venice invaded forces fourth crusade forced pay tribute eventually source supplies venice saving sacked like siege venice naval base southern adriatic_sea 14th century liberation venetian supremacy extensive work walls ensure republic liberty siege powerful regional lord attacked laid siege city earlier nobleman consequently government proclaimed traitor reward palace worth annual income offered kill promise hereditary nobility helped hold promise deed scared threat finally raised siege russian siege republic highly organized network offices eighty cities ports world republic surrendered forces french empire end months long siege russian fleet fell city french lifted siege saved french army led napoleon entered marshal abolished republic amalgamated territory french provinces duke anglo austrian siege austria declared war france august autumn royal_navy enjoyed unopposed domination adriatic_sea working conjunction austrian armies invading provinces northern italy rear admiral thomas ships able rapidly transport british austrian troops point forcing surrender strategic ports december captain william ship hms guns hms gun brig arrived blockaded pro austrian forces led british austrians able imperial fortress positions island hauling cannon hill bombarded city french general joseph decided best surrender british troops entered city pile gates shutting rebels yugoslav army siege siege croatian term marking battle siege city surrounding area croatia croatian war independence besieged attacked forces dominated yugoslav people army late major fighting ending early croatian counterattack finally lifting siege area international criminal tribunal yugoslavia prosecution alleged objective forces area croatia annex montenegro american institute architects condemned bombardment city buildings institute protection cultural monuments conjunction found buildings old town percent hit projectiles siege buildings completely destroyed major fires occurred siege institute rehabilitation estimated total cost restoring public private religious buildings streets squares gates bridges end spent restoration testament ancient walls buildings old town destroyed bombardment ancient walls fact effective resisting modern weaponry contemporary structures city periphery main sources


family early modern scotland family early modern scotland includes aspects family life renaissance reformation sixteenth century beginnings end mid eighteenth century scotland scottish period descent judged common ancestor helping create surname system borders clans highlands systems beginning break seventeenth eighteenth centuries respectively considerable concern safety children abolition reformation meant baptism mechanism role responsibilities fathers wet nurses young children families mothers took primary role bringing children emphasised role father older children reformation increasing emphasis education resulting growth parish school system effects limited children poor girls children left home period life cycle service domestic agricultural servants marriage marriages subject careful negotiations particularly higher society marriage lost status reformation irregular marriage continued accepted valid period women managed household work husbands obedience husbands stressed limited practice divorce developed reformation available wider range causes accessed larger section society england high mortality rates relatively common state women acquired independence status forced marginal existence common elaborate complex system prayers dead dominated late medieval scotland removed reformation simpler services adopted burial inside church discouraged result separate rich stone markers majority common unlike england derived males females early modern scotland members group sharing fictional common ancestor male line women retained original surname family origin marriage marriages intended create alliances groups new bond joined families borders english scottish sides extensive bonds reflected common surname shared surname seen test proving large bodies support beginning period help intensify idea feud feuds semi disputes motivated revenge past actions member surname system large bodies counted support rival sides resulting long term local warfare conflict members groups occurred reign james systems judicial law enforced aided union crowns dissolved political significance border leadership heads great largely replaced authority seventeenth century early eighteenth century feud completely suppressed combination feudal system mutual obligations service protection organised jurisdictions seen creating highland clan system head clan usually eldest son chief powerful branch leading families clan formed fine seen equivalent lowland providing council peace leadership war scots managed clan lands collected followers clan tenants supplied labour clan heads called act soldiers needed early modern era usually took clan surname turning massive group economic change royal justice begun undermine clan system eighteenth century process accelerated rising highland dress banned disarmed compulsory purchase jurisdictions chiefs exiled ordinary sent colonies labourers generation factors reduced clan leaders status simple independent military power childhood considerable concern safety mother child birth predominantly female event neighbours support father present near chamber assert cases birth outside marriage admit reformation baptism means creating wider spiritual reformed abolished ceremony primarily means strengthening natural relationship child parents define roles particularly focused father primary responsibility moral spiritual education child elite highland society existed system created similar links children sent households major families facilitate creation mutual bonds endured later life following birth common particularly richer families employ wet nurse care child living family sources insight experiences young children period parents played children parents demonstrated grief loss primary responsibility bringing young children fell mother older children major duty parents according ensure spiritual development child fathers leading daily family prayers clear widely practices adopted youth education historians debate early modern individuals experienced period youth modern sense early teens marked moving away home undertake life cycle service necessary build skills capital enable marry create separate household lower society boys trade agricultural servants girls domestic agricultural service higher society increasingly lower period schooling university concern widening education significant renaissance shared protestant boys old schools maintained song schools number new foundations reformed grammar schools ordinary parish schools large number adventure schools fulfilled local needs took pupils away official schools best curriculum included latin french classical literature sports series acts attempted establish schools parish late seventeenth century largely complete network parish schools highlands basic education lacking areas widespread belief limited intellectual moral capacity women desire intensified reformation women personal moral responsibility particularly wives mothers necessitated ability learn understand able independently read bible commentators tended encourage education girls thought receive academic education boys lower ranks society benefited expansion parish schools system took place reformation usually outnumbered boys taught separately shorter time lower level frequently taught reading writing female rates based signatures female servants percent late seventeenth early eighteenth centuries percent women ranks compared cent men nobility educated women mary queen scots obvious example marriage lowland scotland pattern late marriage men women mid late relatively large proportion population remaining unmarried highland islands marriage ages lower closely resembled ireland period women legally marry age boys girls social elite married teens married period life cycle service twenties normally marriage followed period highlands effectively period trial marriage sexual activity accepted legitimate marriages particularly higher society political nature subject complex negotiations mothers took leading role negotiating marriages lady children act finding suitable compatible partners middle ages marriage key element validity consent status removed reformation consent remained weddings elaborate occasions public celebration poor tradition penny wedding developed guests contributed costs occasion usually meal ceremony followed music dancing events strongly discouraged reformed particularly greatest control opposition began ease unlike england reformation irregular marriage church ceremony residence qualifications remained valid promises couple witnesses border settlements bridge toll famously green developed local industries private rapid marriages english couples wishing advantage flexible scottish marriage laws undertaken individuals declared marriage priests business expand rapidly passage lord marriage act completely ended irregular marriages england scotland wealthy married women focused running household lower society worked husbands rural scotland included taking major agricultural tasks farm particular role harvest forming team highlands significant workers evidence men considered agricultural work beneath status places formed majority rural workforce stress wife duties husband virtues obedience exactly worked practice difficult scottish women period reputation foreign observers individuals spanish ambassador court james noting absolute houses husbands reformation extensive prohibited degrees fourth degree meant noble marriages necessitated papal later grounds marriage proved politically personally divorce mid sixteenth century prohibited degrees reduced limited relationships second degree separation bed board continued allowed exceptional circumstances usually adultery reformed divorce allowed grounds adultery scotland countries allow legal grounds divorce unlike england divorce necessitated act parliament divorce cases initiated relatively far social scale given high mortality rates women inherit important responsibilities fathers husbands evidence towns indicates households headed women continued run existing business interest noble society created wealthy powerful women included catherine campbell richest widow kingdom husband ninth earl died twice widowed margaret lady described having greatest lady scotland proved funds lady edinburgh evidence engaging independent economic activity found keeping schools trading highly successful like edinburgh left widow seven children husband suicide managed business affairs successfully amassed estate death late sixteenth century deaths husbands mary left resources highly successful business woman philanthropist founding mary school trades maiden hospital edinburgh lower social scale rolls poor relief indicate large numbers children endured marginal existence particularly vulnerable times economic explain relatively high rates suggested available sources needed financial security needed heirs mother children contemporary writers generally step parent relationships created evidence diaries period suggest highly successful children remembering step parents genuine affection death late middle ages scottish people like catholic europe increasingly concerned prayers dead necessary speed passage heaven upper nobility began turn patronage monasteries establishing collegiate churches pray lord foundation lord establishment lower society paid priests masses leading clergy services existing churches primary function craft pay masses members early sixteenth century mary edinburgh reformation mass rejected good works prayers dead place elaborate masses funeral simple service body taken resting place singing readings interred ceremony unlike reformed churches rejected burial inside church seen house prayer caused friction traditional rights particularly local buried ancestors use burial extension projecting main body church exclusively burial commemoration represented uniquely scottish solution problem ranks society remained desired place burial seventeenth century increasingly marked including inscriptions indicated affection virtues deceased


hotel fire hotel fire occurred amsterdam netherlands destroyed hotel hotel poland story hotel centre city built furniture store ground level nearby tourists stayed hotel majority jumped deaths trying escape flames arrival fire department life net help people escape saved incident resulted deaths severe injuries cause fire unknown hotel located near present day madame place occupied plaza originally office building today houses fashion shops polish born artist created photographic installation based fire compared holocaust background beginning 16th century inn site hotel later located end 18th century polish coffee house established began offering guest accommodation hotel established van polish coffee house society adjacent space bought building constructed possibly designed architect designed amsterdam central station source lists architect hotel stories high ground level building café restaurant opened hotel known fashionable place stay café restaurant closed end location subsequently rented furniture store hotel remained open concern building including load bearing elements constructed wood fire fire hotel escape routes proper emergency lighting directions emergency exits hotel emergency centre fire department building inspected fire department february later beginning hotel management notified writing severe fire safety defects issued list proposed improvements implemented hotel building regulations regulations residence facilities fire night sunday monday people staying hotel including large group swedish tourists hotel staff preparing breakfast service noticed smoke coming freight elevator café restaurant ground floor closed previous evening night porter alerted contrary instructions fire department immediately instead poured water shaft attempt subdue fire time decided fire department hotel filling smoke night porter unable reach phone desk fire reached porter ran outside stopped driver laundry truck serving hotel instructed drive hotel warn fire department fire spreading quickly building outside visible wooden construction building soon flames guests level escape stood panicked windows fire reached rooms guests windows escape large fire engine arrived street lay dead injured people jumped hotel room windows lower floor furniture store fire fire fighters tried fold life net runs alley narrow rescue operations fire department hampered people standing window screaming fire fighters know save time lost people threw life net jumped causing injuries people fell net severely injured hotel faced collapsed burning debris landed fire engine fire fighters barely escaped safety nearby book store burned fires broke buildings quickly brought control wooden construction main building burned collapsed despite fact people building people lying building severely injured fire fighters decided withdraw fire department proceeded smoking debris fire declared control building collapse left hole hotel furniture store book store remained disaster caused deaths people tourists apartment book store eighteen bodies recovered debris thirteen people jumped windows died severely injured dead celebrated german concert musician composer walter longtime mary church people injured severe injuries guests united_states escaped injury possible cause cause fire determined certainty possibility fire furniture store hotel opening elevator shaft morning provided oxygen causing fire spread theory fire set tried cover tracks evidence high number casualties consequence wooden construction building poorly marked escape routes shortage safety equipment cultural impact polish born artist produced photographic art installation called hotel fabricated hotel menu stands display photographs holocaust david wrote art piece work absence happens images important work displayed san_francisco museum modern art museum


laws laws german laws nazi_germany introduced september special meeting convened annual rally nazi party laws law protection german blood german honour forbade marriages intercourse jews germans employment german females jewish households citizenship law declared german related blood eligible citizens remainder classed state subjects citizenship rights decree outlining definition jewish passed november citizenship law officially came force date laws expanded november include people germans foreign policy concerns laws commence summer olympics held berlin seized power nazis began implement policies included formation people community based race chancellor leader adolf_hitler declared national boycott jewish businesses april law restoration professional civil service passed april excluded jews legal profession civil service books considered german including jewish authors destroyed nationwide book burning jewish citizens harassed subjected violent attacks actively suppressed stripped citizenship civil rights eventually completely removed german society laws economic social impact jewish community persons convicted violating marriage laws imprisoned subsequent march completing sentences arrested sent nazi concentration camps non jews gradually stopped jews shopping jewish owned stores closed lack customers jews longer permitted work civil service government regulated medicine education middle class business owners professionals forced employment emigration problematic jews required cent wealth tax leaving country impossible potential jewish find country willing mass schemes madagascar plan proved impossible nazis carry starting german government started mass jews europe total number jews murdered resulting holocaust estimated million people estimates number killed range million background prior formation german empire legal status jews varied place place german confederation kingdom prussia jews equal citizens creation new constitution soon followed faced discrimination nationalist sentiments idea germans separate race took hold beginning 20th century jews different culture ancestry viewed particularly proponents movement members separate inferior race groups hundreds thousands people formed world war groups committed acts violence jews lobbied removal german society national socialist german workers party nazi party far right political parties active germany time party platform included removal republic rejection terms treaty versailles radical anti promised strong central government increased living space peoples formation people community based race racial active suppression jews stripped citizenship civil rights nazis proposed national cultural renewal based movement nazi racial belief nazi racial beliefs arose earlier proponents conception race arthur published volume work titled essay inequality human races translated german proposed race superior urged preservation cultural racial purity houston stewart chamberlain work foundations nineteenth century combine social describes history struggle survival peoples jews characterized inferior dangerous group volume book foundations human hereditary teaching racial fischer studies conclude germans superior jews physically recommended solution madison grant work passing great race advocated proposed program preserve race reading book hitler called bible nazis embraced concept wished race dominate germany physical characteristics imprisoned failed beer hall hitler dictated deputy book autobiography exposition hitler ideology laid plans transforming german society based race outlined belief jewish conspiracy theory existence international jewish conspiracy world domination jews mortal enemy german people life hitler world view advocated concept people community aim uniting germans national comrades whilst excluding deemed community aliens foreign race nazi_germany discrimination jews intensified seized power following month long series attacks members paramilitary wing jewish businesses members legal profession april hitler declared national boycott jewish businesses people members advocated jews rest german society law restoration professional civil service passed april forced non retire legal profession civil service similar legislation soon deprived jewish members right published pamphlet titled law summarized perceived need law drive remove jewish influence cultural life members national socialist student league removed libraries books considered german nationwide book burning held violence economic pressure regime encourage jews voluntarily leave country legislation passed july stripped german jews citizenship creating legal basis recent immigrants particularly eastern european jews deported towns posted signs forbidding entry jews jewish businesses denied access markets forbidden advertise newspapers deprived access government contracts citizens harassed subjected violent attacks laws period aimed directly jews included law prevention offspring passed july called compulsory people range hereditary physical mental illnesses law dangerous criminals passed november criminals forced undergo law force prison nazi concentration camps social unemployed prostitutes homeless people jewish problem promise eliminate jews german society members eager jewish minority way expressing report early stated rank file set motion solution jewish problem government follow assaults vandalism jews nazi government temporarily increased amidst propaganda campaign authorised highest levels government non party members ignored objected violence concern safety israeli historian argues views longtime party members general public germans politically active favoured bringing tougher new laws matter raised forefront state agenda result interior minister announced july law forbidding marriages jews non jews shortly recommended avoid issuing licenses marriages time draft law called ban marriage persons hereditary illnesses economics minister president criticised violent behaviour negative impact economy violence negative impact germany reputation international community reasons hitler ordered stop individual actions german jews august interior minister threatened legal action party members ignored order hitler perspective quickly bring new laws radical elements persisted attempting remove jews german society violent means conference ministers held august discuss question hitler argued violent methods damage economy insisted matter settled legislation focus new laws marriage laws prevent racial stripping jews german citizenship laws prevent jews participating freely economy events seventh annual nazi party rally held september featured session held outside berlin nazi regime hitler decided rally good opportunity introduce long awaited anti jewish laws speech september leading nazi physician wagner announced government soon introduce law protection german blood day hitler summoned meet session september day rally interior ministry summoned directed start preparing draft law forbidding sexual relations marriages jews non jews men arrived september evening hitler ordered ready morning draft citizenship law hitler found initial drafts blood law midnight brought new drafts differed mainly severity penalties imposed hitler chose version left vague definition jew hitler stated rally laws attempt legal settlement problem proved failure entrusted law national socialist party definitive solution propaganda minister joseph radio broadcast passing laws cut short ordered german media mention decision implemented text laws laws unanimously passed september law protection german blood german honour prohibited marriages intercourse jews germans forbade employment german females jewish households citizenship law declared german related blood eligible citizens remainder classed state subjects citizenship rights wording citizenship law person prove conduct willing fit serve german people meant political opponents stripped german citizenship coming years additional laws jewish community germany law protection german blood german honour moved understanding purity german blood essential condition continued existence german people inspired determination ensure existence german nation time unanimously adopted following law article marriages jews subjects state german related blood forbidden marriages concluded invalid concluded abroad law proceedings initiated state prosecutor article relations jews subjects state german related blood forbidden article jews employ households female subjects state german related blood years old article jews forbidden fly national flag display colours hand permitted display jewish colours exercise right protected state article person prohibition article punished prison hard labour male prohibition article punished prison prison hard labour person violating provisions articles punished prison hard labour year fine penalties article minister interior deputy minister justice issue legal administrative regulations required implement complete law article law takes effect day following article goes force january citizenship law unanimously enacted following law article subject state person enjoys protection german consequence specific obligations status subject state acquired accordance provisions citizenship law article citizen subject state german related blood proves conduct willing fit serve german people citizenship acquired granting citizenship certificate citizen sole bearer political rights accordance law article minister interior deputy issue legal administrative orders required implement complete law classifications laws impact interior ministry agreed persons jewish grandparents classed jewish second degree debate arose status persons jewish grandparents degree especially radical elements wanted laws apply second degree reason hitler continued stall decision early november final ruling persons jewish grandparents classed jewish jewish grandparents considered jewish practised faith jewish decree outlining definition jewish passed november citizenship law came force date jews longer german citizens right vote civil servants granted exemption law restoration professional civil service status war veterans forced jobs date decree issued december ordered dismissal jewish veterans state regulated medicine education suggestion citizenship tribunal german prove acted proving racial heritage necessary daily life non government employers authorised include statutes excluding jews employment proof descent achieved obtaining certificate form acquire obtained providing birth certificates grandparents descent acquired citizens countries long german related blood law protection german blood german honour september marriages forbidden jews germans degree germans jews second degree second degree degree permitted marry jews henceforth classed jewish marriages undertaken half jews germans required approval committee protection german blood granted decree issued november extended law estimates death toll people range persons suspected having sexual relations non charged racial tried regular courts evidence provided cases largely provided ordinary citizens neighbours workers persons accused race publicly streets detailing crime convicted typically sentenced prison terms subsequent march completing sentences arrested sent nazi concentration camps law permit capital punishment racial special courts convened allow death penalty cases end people convicted time law extended include non sexual forms physical contact kiss embrace germans accepted laws partly nazi propaganda successfully public opinion general belief jews separate race oppose regime meant leaving oneself open harassment arrest citizens relieved violence ceased laws passed non jews gradually stopped jews shopping jewish owned stores continued serve jewish merchants marched streets proclaiming communist_party elements catholic_church critical laws concerned international opinion adversely new laws interior ministry actively enforce summer olympics held berlin august interior ministry estimated april studies war number jews excluded german society organised social events schools activities economic problems easily solved jewish firms went business lack customers ongoing process transfer jewish firms non jewish owners usually prices far market value regime initiated intensified laws passed middle class wealthy business owners forced employment jobs support families unable find work stated goal nazis jews leave country emigration problematic jews required cent wealth tax leaving country caught transferring money overseas sentenced lengthy terms prison economic exception money sent palestine terms agreement jews transfer wealth country jews emigrated palestine terms agreement start second world war germany jews emigrated united_states palestine great_britain countries impossible potential jewish find country arab revolt british accept jews palestine fear region people countries pressured governments accept waves jewish immigrants especially poverty stricken ones madagascar plan proposed mass european jews madagascar proved impossible carry starting german government started mass jews europe total number jews murdered resulting holocaust estimated million people legislation countries allies nazis passed versions laws fascist italy passed italian racial laws stripped jews citizenship forbade marriages jewish non jewish italians hungary passed laws banning jews law added august defined jews jewish grandparents forbade sexual relations marriages jews non jews ruling iron guard romania passed law defining legal status romanian jews enacted slovakia bulgaria passed law protection nation croatia passed legislation defining jew restricting contact imperial japan draft pass legislation existing copies original laws signed hitler found army counter intelligence corps ended possession general george kept violation orders finds turned government visit los_angeles handed library stored bomb proof vault library revealed existence document sent permanent loan cultural center placed public display document transferred national archives records administration washington august