civil war civil war conflict pitted forces communist_party known allies democratic republic vietnam north vietnam government forces kingdom october republic supported united_states republic vietnam south vietnam struggle complicated influence actions allies sides people army vietnam north vietnamese army involvement designed protect base areas eastern prosecution military effort south vietnam difficult coup march pro american anti vietnamese government power ended neutrality vietnam war north vietnamese army threatened newly government march june north vietnamese moved military installations inside protect incursions bombing capturing northeastern country engagements army north vietnamese turned conquests provided assistance empowering time small movement government expand army combat north vietnamese growing threat motivated desire buy time withdrawal southeast_asia protect ally south vietnam prevent spread communism american south north vietnamese forces directly participated time fighting assisted central government massive aerial bombing campaigns direct material financial aid years savage fighting republican government defeated april victorious proclaimed establishment democratic conflict second war consumed neighboring kingdom south vietnam north vietnam individually referred civil war vietnam war respectively civil war led genocide history setting stage background early mid-1960s prince policies protected nation turmoil south vietnam people republic china north vietnam disputed claim represent progressive political policies leadership prince domestic leftist opposition party integrated government broke diplomatic relations ended flow american aid turned soviet_union economic military assistance late 1960s delicate domestic foreign policy balancing act beginning agreement struck prince chinese allowing presence large scale people army vietnam troop deployments logistical bases eastern border regions agreed allow use port communist vessels delivering supplies material support military effort vietnam concessions questionable neutrality guaranteed geneva conference convinced eventually control peninsula interests best served dealing camp day dominate asia coming terms victory order obtain best terms possible year allowed pro american minister defense general crack leftist activities crushing accusing members simultaneously lost support conservatives result failure come deteriorating economic situation exacerbated loss rice exports went growing communist military presence september held open election manipulation harassment surprise conservatives won percent seats national assembly chosen right prime minister deputy named prince member branch royal clan long time enemy addition developments clash interests elite social tensions created favorable environment growth domestic communist rural areas revolt prince found political dilemma maintain balance rising tide conservatives named leaders group members counter government meant monitor criticize administration priorities fix ailing economy halting illegal sale rice communists soldiers dispatched rice growing areas forcibly collect gunpoint paid low government price widespread unrest especially rice rich province area long noted presence large landowners great wealth communists influence march country france rebellion broke area enraged villagers attacked tax collection brigade probable encouragement local communist insurrection quickly spread region acting prince absence approval responded declaring martial law hundreds peasants killed villages laid waste repression returning home march abandoned position personally ordered arrest leaders counter government escaped northeast simultaneously ordered arrest chinese involved illegal rice trade raising government revenues conservatives forced resign typical prince named new government balance conservatives immediate crisis passed tragic consequences drove thousands new recruits arms hard line communist_party labelled red second associated ruthless repression communist tried success organize revolt following year prince urban communists cleared field competition known pot son leadership led followers highlands northeast lands primitive people hostile lowland central government lacked assistance north vietnamese period organization training basically ignored chinese sponsored allies indifference comrades impression leadership january launched offensive aimed gathering weapons spreading propaganda seizing territory time adherents numbered month communists established revolutionary army military wing party early end revolt begun relationship communists earlier agreement chinese failed north vietnamese actually involved active country suggestion returned cabinet defense minister november conservative politicians prince welcomed restoration normal diplomatic relations created new government national salvation prime minister order play new card asian communists attacking end vietnam war convenient presence solve problems simultaneously americans took advantage opportunity solve problems southeast_asia operation menu operation freedom deal aware president johnson chosen attack possible international repercussions belief convinced alter policies johnson authorize reconnaissance teams highly classified military assistance command vietnam studies observations group enter gather intelligence base areas election richard nixon introduction policies gradual withdrawal south vietnam conflict changed march secret orders nixon air_force carried bombing base area region opposite south vietnam province bombers strike series attacks lasted operation menu air_force conducted sorties dropped tons ordnance eastern border areas high ranking congressional officials informed bombing later claimed nixon given approval raids according public military presence support evidence asked approve bombings gave approval privately sanctioned hot pursuit north vietnamese forces populated areas closely related strikes publicly condemned bombing remained quiet bombing wishing advertise presence forces neutral operation freedom deal followed operation menu freedom deal august bombing extended entire eastern half country especially intense heavily populated southeastern quarter country including wide ring surrounding largest city large areas according maps bombing sites appears nearly square mile land hit bombs effectiveness bombing death toll civilians disputed limited data range deaths caused bombing impact bombing civil war destroy homes people heavy contributor refugee crisis million people percent population displaced rural areas cities especially grew estimated population nearly million government estimated percent property country destroyed war argued intervention contributed eventual seizure power grew number view disputed documents uncovered soviet archives revealing north vietnamese offensive launched explicit request following negotiations argued bombing decisive delaying victory overthrow coup country trip france anti vietnamese rioting semi sponsored government took place north vietnamese sacked prince absence halt activities 12th prime minister closed port north vietnamese issued impossible ultimatum forces withdraw soil hours march face military action hearing turmoil headed moscow beijing order demand patrons exert control clients march requested national assembly vote future prince leadership nation ousted power vote president national assembly prime minister granted emergency powers retained post deputy prime minister new government emphasized transfer power totally legal constitutional received recognition foreign governments continue accusations government played role overthrow conclusive evidence found support majority middle class educated grown weary prince welcomed change government joined military prospect return american military financial aid cause celebration days deposition beijing broadcast appeal people resist demonstrations riots occurred mainly areas controlled areas nationwide threatened government incident march enraged crowd killed brother tore liver cooked ate estimated peasants began march capital demand dispersed casualties contingents armed forces massacre vietnamese population urban rural took anger nation vietnamese population volunteers boost manpower poorly equipped man army managed swamp military recruits rumours concerning possible offensive aimed paranoia flourished set violent reaction nation ethnic vietnamese hoped use vietnamese hostages activities military set rounding detention camps killing began towns villages soldiers civilians sought vietnamese neighbors order murder april bodies vietnamese floated river south vietnam south vietnamese north vietnamese harshly denounced actions significantly including buddhist community condemned killings apology government stated difficult distinguish vietnamese citizens normal reaction troops feel betrayed difficult control funk beijing proclaimed government dissolved intention create national funk national united later said chosen americans communists considered dangers american asian communism obliged choose north vietnamese reacted political changes sending premier meet china recruit alliance contacted vietnamese offered resources wanted government actually beijing time vietnamese chinese leaders informed presence allowed men meet shortly issued appeal radio people rise government support lent popularity rural areas movement little control finally returned pace greatly increased showed support visiting field ranks fighters prince allied north vietnamese throwing personal prestige communists actual establishment funk royal union royal government national union proclaimed assumed post head state appointing penn loyal supporters prime minister designated deputy prime minister minister defense commander chief armed forces actual military operations directed pot minister information assumed multiple responsibilities minister interior communal reforms claimed government exile insurgents remained inside loyalists remained china prince visit liberated areas including march visits mainly propaganda purposes real influence political affairs proved marriage convenience spurred revenge betrayed means greatly expand appeal movement peasants motivated loyalty monarchy gradually rallied cause personal appeal widespread aerial bombardment helped recruitment task easier communists october abolished loosely monarchy proclaimed establishment centralized republic soon caught competing communist powers north vietnam china soviet_union visits chinese premier paid north_korea april june respectively called establishment united revolutionary asian countries china north_korea north vietnam represented north korean leaders enthusiastically welcomed plan soon opposition having realized exclude soviet_union challenge role north vietnamese leaders declared communist states join forces american issue vietnamese versus chinese greatly influenced attitude adopted moscow early mid-1970s civil war soviet leaders ready dominance actually insisted sending aid shipments china firmly rebuffed proposal chinese aid sent north vietnam facing chinese competition soviet north vietnamese leaders found soviet option interests calculation played major role gradual pro soviet shift foreign policies widening war north vietnamese offensive wake coup immediately launch war appealed international community united_nations attempt gain support new government condemned violations neutrality foreign forces camp come hope continued march north vietnamese taken matters hands launched offensive army documents uncovered soviet archives revealing offensive launched explicit request following negotiations north vietnamese overran northeastern june april south vietnamese units limited multi campaign washington hoped solve problems provide shield american withdrawal vietnam destroying logistical system killing enemy troops second provide test policy serve signal nixon meant business despite nixon appreciation position leader informed advance decision send troops country learned begun head mission learned radio broadcast extensive logistical installations large amounts supplies found destroyed reporting american command disclosed larger amounts military material moved border shelter south vietnam day launched north vietnamese launched offensive campaign forces request order protect expand base areas logistical system june months removal swept government forces entire northeastern country defeating forces north vietnamese turned newly won territories local insurgents established liberated areas south southwestern parts country operated independently north vietnamese opposing sides combat operations quickly revealed sides badly government troops renamed forces national armed forces thousands young urban join months following removal surge recruits expanded capacity absorb new men later given press tactical operations need replace combat casualties insufficient time needed skills individuals units lack training remained existence collapse period forces officially grew approximately men probably numbered payroll officers military aid ammunition supplies equipment military equipment delivery team authorized total officers men team arrived overall command admiral john attitude nixon administration summed advice given henry head liaison team colonel don think victory alive constantly petitioned pentagon arms equipment staff viewed war problems officer corps generally corrupt inclusion ghost soldiers allowed massive payroll kept officers men sale arms ammunition black market enemy commonplace worse tactical officers common greed frequently bypassed general staff directed operations battalion level forbidding real coordination army navy air_force common soldiers fought low pay purchase food medical care ammunition shortages mixed equipment pay system families forced follow husbands sons battle zones problems exacerbated continuously declining morale increased time beginning army inventory included rifles machine guns mortars grenade launchers rifles trucks navy vessels air_force aircraft including north american douglas helicopters american embassy military personnel supposed coordinate arms aid program found involved prohibited advisory combat tasks forces supplanted tough peasant army core seasoned leaders received support forces reorganized summit held china april grow called conflict took place combat operations republic handed completely insurgents development forces took place stages period organization recruitment units served insurgents formed units battalion regimental size period began break away supporters agriculture begun liberated areas division sized units fielded party began radical transformation country fall alarmed prospect pro western regime allow americans establish military presence western flank prevent happening began transferring military installations away border regions locations deeper territory new command center established city timing president nixon opinion need bold stand symbolic regime pro western pro american stand night january force attacked airfield main base republican air_force action raiders destroyed entire inventory government aircraft including fighter planes blessing disguise air_force composed old obsolete soviet aircraft americans soon replaced advanced models attack stall proposed offensive weeks later suffered stroke evacuated hawaii treatment mild stroke general recovered quickly returning months august launched operation offensive year objective campaign clear route enemy forces reopen communications republic second largest city isolated capital year operation initially successful city relieved november december government forces process accurate count losses estimate order battalions personnel equipment lost plus equipment additional battalions strategic result failure offensive initiative passed completely hands republic struggling survive war conducted lines communications north south capital limited launched maintain contact rice growing regions northwest river route republic overland connections south vietnam strategy gradually cut lines communication squeeze result forces fragmented isolated unable lend mutual support main contribution effort came form bombers tactical aircraft air_force president nixon launched american south vietnamese troops operated umbrella air cover designated operation freedom deal troops withdrawn air operation continued ostensibly troop movements logistics reality unknown american congress public utilized provide tactical air support military officer reported areas river bomb strikes looked like valleys moon march newly renamed constituent assembly approve revised constitution announced forced chief state deposition surrender authority second anniversary coup relinquished authority chief state retained position prime minister defense minister june elected president republic rigged election new constitution ratified april political parties formed new nation quickly source political general stated seeds thrown wind goodwill leaders returned republic poor harvest january hope renewed paris peace accord signed ending conflict time south vietnam january proclaimed cease fire nation bombing operations halted hopes securing chance peace simply ignored proclamation carried fighting march heavy casualties low recruitment forced introduce conscription april forces launched offensive pushed suburbs capital air_force responded launching intense bombing operation forced communists countryside air strikes seventh air_force argued bombing prevented fall killing fighters besieging city day operation freedom deal august tons bombs dropped republic tons released days operation inception operation menu air_force dropped tons ordnance republic shape things come late commonly held belief outside war essentially foreign conflict fundamentally altered nature people late growing awareness government population total lack concern casualties complete rejection offer peace talks began suggest capacity violence deeper suspected civil war data sparse demographic evidence suggests caused times civilian casualties entire bombing reports brutal policies organization soon way population violence consume nation tales forced entire villages summary execution asked questions forbidding religious practices monks murdered traditional sexual marital habits war thing manner dealt death contrary character reports atrocities began surface period north vietnamese troops withdrawing coincidence concentration effort south vietnam allowed apply doctrine policies restraint time leadership completely unknown public referred fellow prey forest army previously existence communist_party component hidden liberated zones simply referred organization communist_party fell control members pot son believed total social revolution preceded destroyed hidden scrutiny growing north vietnamese allies radical leadership party escape suspicion designs building federation north vietnamese master tied chinese north vietnam chief supporters soviet_union recognized government legitimate signing paris peace cut supply arms hoping force cease fire americans freed signing turn air power completely blamed year suspicions attitudes led party leadership carry ranks trained members executed orders pot time passed need support prince organization demonstrated people liberated areas uncertain terms open expressions support result prince enjoyed protection chinese public appearances overseas cause treated open contempt ministers june prince told italian journalist dry spit like cherry stone end loyalists prince supporters ranks eliminated shortly christmas insurgents final offensive spoke french diplomat said hopes moderate socialism akin yugoslavia totally dismissed albania said model fall time initiated dry season offensive capture capital january republic chaos economy transportation network reduced air water systems rice harvest reduced quarter supply freshwater fish chief source protein declined drastically cost food times greater pre war levels unemployment measured anymore pre war population overwhelmed refugees continued flood steadily collapsing defense perimeter growing size million helpless desperate civilians jobs little way food shelter medical care condition government worsened forces gradually gained control banks mines gunfire steadily reduced river convoys bringing relief supplies food fuel ammunition slowly city percent republic supplies moved means convoys south vietnam river effectively blocked early february began supplies increasingly risky communist rocket artillery fire constantly airfields city cut supplies city year fell april reports journalists stated tortured capital continuously inflicting random death millions trapped civilians desperate determined units republican soldiers run ammunition dug capital fought overrun advanced week march approximately communist troops surrounded capital began preparing deliver coup grace half republican forces resigned left country april hoping negotiated settlement possible absent political scene acting president government weeks live minute efforts arrange peace agreement involving ended failure vote congress resumption american air support failed panic sense doom capital situation best described general chief staff picture republic came mind time sick man survived outside means condition administration medication efficient probably value april concluding lost evacuated embassy personnel helicopter operation eagle pull included ambassador john dean american diplomatic personnel acting president senior republic government officials families members news media country nationals evacuated invited ambassador dean join evacuation americans surprise prince long non brother members cabinet declined offer chose share fate people names published death lists trusted government officials murdered welcome helping rebuild new later executed americans departed seven member supreme committee headed general assumed authority collapsing republic april solid defenses city overcome communists early morning hours april committee decided seat government province northwest voice general general staff broadcast radio ordering forces cease firing negotiations progress surrender war terrible dreams come fruition newly proclaimed democratic troops immediately began forcibly capital city driving population countryside killing tens thousands process year zero begun


battle battle croatian serbian battle war fought territorial defence force supported croatian army troops yugoslav people army augmented plateau april fighting april reorganised croatian defence council objective battle control strategic plateau controlling major supply route opposing sides began bringing reinforcements plateau march strengthen positions held individual settlements populated different ethnic groups communications positions roads leading away plateau north south different parts town controlled opposing forces adjacent territory surrounding town controlled turn territory surrounded held territory end month bulk civilians living area evacuated april negotiations situation failed reinforcements continued arrive battle commenced day achieved minor territorial gains april managed advance outskirts town day entered afternoon april days successfully drove croatian forces plateau breakthrough came infantry originally deployed battle reinforced armoured battalion deployed croatian forces hampered inadequate command structure poor coordination lack heavy weapons battle resulted killed sides established lines control remain unchanged plateau recaptured authorities charged seven war crimes committed plateau civilians prisoners war year croatian authorities charged members war crimes prisoners captured plateau background yugoslav people army withdrew croatia following implementation plan reorganised new army reorganisation followed declaration serbian republic bosnia january ahead february march referendum independence bosnia declaration later cited serbs pretext war serbs began capital areas march following day fatalities war recorded march forces bombarded artillery drawing border crossing croatian army brigade response control area contested serbs war represented majority population plateau comprising total percent inhabitants accounted percent deployed armoured unit based plateau bulk force moved months later tactical group 30th partisan division general area withdrew day war september established territorial defence force headquarters set armed volunteer units november units organised battalion battalion consisted companies independent platoon central intelligence agency report described unit barely organized collection local villagers townspeople forces hampered arms introduced september early 30th partisan division 5th corps assigned area responsibility division likely comprising troops command colonel march 5th corps command lieutenant general april serbs able deploy troops hundreds tanks armoured personnel carriers artillery pieces field approximately soldiers handful heavy weapons largely unprepared combat nearly troops small arms half number virtually heavy weapons prelude march requested equipment companies villages motivated poor military intelligence provided 30th partisan division indicated presence thousands troops vicinity supported leopard tanks drawn contingent approximately believed delivered croatia response division tasked deploy elements mount command repel expected croatian attack order achieve division 1st 13th 19th partisan brigades assigning 19th brigade march brigade received troops sufficient set companies immediate task block mountain passes day divisional commander toured plateau informed forces control villages addition march battalion based 19th partisan brigade time sides relatively small portion force inside held area surrounding town completely controlled areas surrounding force based battalion set march battalion established response following day march attempt reach negotiated settlement failed commanding officer 19th partisan brigade announced armed combat start moment notice news prompted evacuation civilians march according daily report 30th partisan division march plateau deserted able bodied armed men report noted deploy fight convinced intervened threaten serbs high strategic value sat road linking towns central bosnia region western croatia reinforcements march 5th corps decided took initiative elements 1st battalion 13th partisan brigade plateau units drawn 9th corps engineer regiment company 3rd battalion 13th partisan brigade moved plateau following day rest brigade ordered ready battalion additional troops day march strengthened 1st battalion 11th infantry brigade drawn 9th corps arrived plateau battalion strengthened addition battery millimetre mortars millimetre millimetre guns platoon millimetre rifles afternoon april hour meeting local political leaders took place request purpose meeting attended members presidency bosnia situation agreement establish balanced police force remove opposing sides agree role serbs wanted deploy ensure protection wanted leave day 30th partisan division ordered forces command recent reinforcements capture hold ground anticipated croatian authorities ordered units nearby towns armoured force disposal consisting tanks tank destroyers infantry fighting vehicle troops battle included group drawn brigade led robert son late commander 3rd battalion brigade fighting elements battalion reached relatively small groups soldiers drawn battalion 4th guards brigade arrived battle nearly company drawn infantry brigade deployed unclear actively took battle croatian defence forces units raised involved fighting time overall command forces held brigadier timeline april according attacked morning april reached village blockaded tunnel village captured hours combat fighting shifted village end day force besieged instructed yugoslav air_force attack received reports tanks appeared battlefield 30th partisan division staff amended plans formulated previous day advanced elements 11th brigade positions held battalion change plans enabled elements 13th partisan brigade catch caused attack fail following news fighting 5th corps called troops deployed western reinforce 30th partisan division corps felt weaken positions western united_nations protection force expected deploy end month based plan troops consisted volunteer battalion 5th corps augmented 2nd battalion 5th mixed artillery regiment 1st battery 5th light anti aircraft defence regiment added battalion april april captured time received reinforcements company fighting intensified reinforcements arrived croatian reinforcements arrived fled coming attack near failed achieve breakthrough attack helicopters deployed support advance forces attacking day assist advance secured western town regardless significant territory changed hands 9th corps dispatched tanks 9th tank company commanded colonel reached broke way town reinforced arrival group drawn special forces battalion 30th partisan division lost contact troops 1st battalion 19th partisan brigade april dawn april launched fresh attack leaving bulk 13th partisan brigade reserve employing rest force plateau artillery intensely 30th partisan division request resupply depleted stocks effective advance 9th tank company quickly pushed defensive positions bypassed reached contrast command overwhelmed complexity situation track units disposal losing track units physically near command post reinforced position plateau ordering 9th armoured battalion 9th corps area established operational group operation april 9th corps extended region time armoured assets force organised tactical group commanded end day divisional reserve committed battle claimed captured reaching outskirts captured centre brought 1st battalion 19th partisan brigade difficult position begin withdrawing main force reached town night april likewise started pull april april bulk 9th armoured battalion arrived battlefield adding unit entered late afternoon followed battalions 13th partisan brigade battalion 11th brigade performed operations area force retreating disarray portion force trapped trying break evening area completed ordered attacks day received commander 9th corps major general final operations captured turned south direction attack spearheaded 9th armoured battalion reached april day robert killed fighting continued april troops formally reorganised croatian defence council april withdrew plateau small portion troops forced retreat mount aftermath sources disagree number casualties number variously reported killed serbs sustained losses killed taken prisoner war captured troops figures reported include civilian deaths serbian media initially reported villages razed ground information proved incorrect settlements sustained relatively minor damage conversely inhabited villages looted suffered extensive damage village school structure roof left place command coordination forces particularly poor battle general arrived april find company infantry brigade deployed left positions accord followed preparations evacuation expectation advance south managed turn brigade defend town overnight order defend entire region clear intended continue advance soon battle portion 9th armoured battalion transferred support attack lines control shift area years battle mid forces controlled approximately percent bosnia war crime charges authorities charged seven officials officers killings civilians members area charges abuse prisoners war captured battle croatian authorities charged members abuse prisoners war charges specify prisoners detained abused prison april abuse alleged caused deaths prisoners grave injuries


battle creek battle creek took place war great_britain united_states early hours november crown colony upper canada near river operation conceived raid prepare ground larger american invasion americans succeeded crossing landing points attack achieved objectives withdrawing invasion subsequently called rendering useless accomplished engagement named battle creek canadians location fighting contemporary americans known affair opposite black rock battle site designated national historic site canada background american defeat battle heights command army centre frontier passed major general stephen van new_york militia second command brigadier general alexander regular army deeply resented militia officer opportunity waiting immediately planned invade canada troops assembling forces buffalo directed attack advance main invasion captain william king men cross spike batteries red house fort order enable main invasion force land facing artillery fire time lieutenant colonel charles men land canada fort destroy bridge creek order hinder bringing british reinforcements oppose landing british commander chief north_america lieutenant general sir george forbidden offensive action frontier left local british forces alternative wait americans try counter attempt invasion regular troops distributed defensive outposts supplemented militia native american forces proclamation published november addressed men new_york wrote days troops command plant american standard canada urged new stand arms folded look interesting struggle advance aid wait days statement intent appears attracted attention opponents border opposing forces captain william king 13th regiment infantry detailed attack red house troops navy sailors lieutenant samuel angus king soldiers came captain morgan company 12th regiment infantry captains john john wool companies 13th regiment lieutenant colonel charles directed creek men 14th regiment infantry colonel william commander 14th regiment reserve regiment british local commander lieutenant colonel cecil stationed company 1st battalion 41st regiment foot infantry companies 5th lincoln militia small detachment lincoln militia artillery 5th lincoln militia major richard posted nearby area face attack december different detachments overall command fort 49th regiment foot major royal newfoundland regiment captain black rock ferry companies norfolk militia captain john red house half miles fort road 49th regiment lieutenant thomas men royal regiment artillery lieutenant king militia battery mounted guns pounder pounder king battery mounted pounder pounder road half miles fort lay post creek garrisoned men 49th regiment lieutenant far away light infantry company 41st regiment lieutenant angus battle king attack captain king force including lieutenant angus sailors succeeded making landing red house fire defenders invaders charged lieutenant detachment 49th regiment sailors armed swords closed hand hand fighting troops drove attackers times king fourth assault hit british left flank overwhelmed capturing killing taking men victorious americans set fire post guns set landing point expected boats landed order evacuate darkness king force dispersed split parties led king lieutenant angus angus returned landing point found party boats unaware missing boats fact landed angus assumed king departed crossed river remaining boats king party reached landing point found stranded search found british boats king sent half men prisoners captured waited remaining men boats come buffalo pick attack lieutenant colonel creek boats darkness night inexperienced rowers unable force current fell near bridge forced return seven remaining boats forced landing opposed lieutenant men 49th regiment led attack shooting pistol british soldier bayonet outnumbered force retired pursued creek bridge americans took prisoners men attacked captain companies norfolk militia advanced black rock ferry exchange fire force lost killed wounded captured canadians retreated encountered problem axes provided destruction creek bridge boats turned seven remaining boats left americans fought way ashore dispatched men lieutenant john break bridge means find torn bridge learned prisoner force fort coming quickly embarked command rowed buffalo leaving party bridge british response response attack major advanced fort creek men 49th regiment joined lieutenant light major lincoln militia british allied native americans major finding invaders gone unable determine enemy presence pitch dark men remained position lieutenant colonel arrived fort led force red house found captain king men waiting evacuated outnumbered king surrendered reinforcement news arrived buffalo king red house batteries general canada canada canada glorious day united_states dispatched colonel men river evacuate king rest force collected lieutenant party landed disembarked force men appeared ordered men boats cast buffalo command came severe fire rowed away costing casualties guns red house battery americans accomplished important objectives invading force land fort facing artillery fire subsequent events render service useless casualties british official casualty return gave killed wounded missing casualty returns officers enlisted men lieutenant king royal artillery lieutenant 49th included wounded category taken prisoner americans took prisoners including king indicate enlisted men thought killed fact captured gives revised british loss king counted prisoners wounded killed wounded captured compilation states captain king command killed wounded colonel detachment killed wounded losses lieutenant colonel detachment unknown stated records new_york gazette december reported lieutenant angus sailors assaulted red house killed wounded captured escaped unscathed captain king slightly wounded foot prisoners taken british british reported king angus detachment left killed red house presumably angus naval detachment american dead recovered altogether prisoners surrendered king detachment come fire embarked cast buffalo appear dead left battlefield prisoners belonged command known american casualties include killed captured wounded detachment appear killed wounded captured aftermath red house batteries action immediately pressed invasion plans attempts embark men ended chaos men managing board shortage boats artillery taking unexpected space board amid torrential rain freezing cold council war headed decided postpone invasion pending thorough preparations enable force november tried ordering men embark hours dawn order avoid enemy fire time slow hours daylight men board attempt amphibious landing broad daylight postponed invasion time morale command discipline dissolved camp widespread illness troops persuaded second council war called suspend offensive operations army reinforced army centre went winter quarters attempting offensive operations general requested leave visit family virginia months later resigning commission facing court martial dropped army rolls president james madison unaware american intentions british canadians thought king intended wave invasion preparatory raid canadian press praised achievement defenders apparently americans singled particular dispatch major general sir roger british commander upper canada wrote deserves high spirit activity displayed great credit officers men acted orders killed following summer leading raid black rock seven active infantry battalions regular army american infantry regiments old 13th 20th 23rd infantry regiments battle creek


operation operation given world war preparations manhattan_project european theater operations united_states_army counter danger germans disrupt june normandy landings radioactive response laboratory chicago instrument company cleveland developed portable radiation detection devices suitable use field major general director manhattan_project sent major arthur brief general dwight senior staff officers supreme headquarters allied expeditionary force response initiated operation special equipment prepared survey meters counter shipped england early film measure radiation exposure survey meters film held storage united_states readiness shipped air highest priority chemical warfare service teams trained use signal corps personnel maintenance equipment held readiness preparations needed germans developed weapons background manhattan_project assumed responsibility development nuclear weapons september assumed responsibility development suitable time threat posed german nuclear energy project taken seriously consideration given issuing public warning danger german nuclear attack united_states director manhattan_project brigadier general considered likelihood sufficiently remote rejected notion taking drastic step committee chaired james consisting arthur appointed look issue similarly assessed danger low sufficient warrant taking precautions program initiated laboratory chicago instrument company cleveland develop radiation detection devices suitable use field portable detection meters built half capable detecting day half detect day instruments sets stored manhattan district offices boston chicago new_york san_francisco washington area engineer officers instructed use special team scientists created laboratory respond reports use nuclear weapons radioactive considered likely germany employ weapons united_kingdom officers european theater operations united_states_army summoned chicago given secret briefing manhattan district chicago area engineer major arthur told possible forms attack effects symptoms given survey instruments shown use tell officers theater report unexplained film illnesses symptoms corresponding effects radiation sickness preparations date normandy landings operation overlord drew near early considered risk sufficient send officer brief supreme commander general dwight possible use radioactive particularly products created nuclear april reported supreme headquarters allied expeditionary force met chief staff lieutenant general walter smith assistant chief staff intelligence major general john assistant chief staff operations major general bull considered creating allied plan counter danger said consult british command approved colonel ordered prepare american plan operation given admiral stark lieutenant generals john lee wrote lieutenant general hastings chief staff prime minister united_kingdom winston_churchill inform british chiefs staff british american commanders actually participating operation overlord informed british subsequently adopted similar plan operation assumed responsibility coordinating british american efforts scientific assistance provided laboratory operation provided detection equipment knowledge operation establishment means detecting use radioactive substances channels reporting incidents immediate action operation orders went medical personnel report details photographic ray film medical officers ordered report diseases unknown involving fatigue survey meters counter shipped england early film measure radiation exposure survey meters film held storage united_states readiness shipped air highest priority instructed chemical warfare service personnel use equipment signal corps personnel maintenance weeks leading day scale rehearsals operation carried order test plan equipment ground aerial surveys carried detect presence radioactive substances troop concentration areas sites united_kingdom bombed detected outcome germans developed employ radioactive operation effect day equipment documents relating operation collected returned united_states handed manhattan_project effort developing portable radiation detection equipment wasted survey teams manhattan_project equipment assess fallout trinity nuclear test bombing hiroshima nagasaki operation crossroads film


battle battle turkish battle took place early winter french forces occupying city ottoman_empire turkish national forces linked major battle turkish war independence week long engagement city ultimately forced french abandon retreat resulted turkish massacre armenian refugees repatriated city following armenian genocide controversial retreat massacre took place french watch subsequently dubbed affair background surrender ottoman_empire allies october city come joint occupation british french armies largely composed french armenian legion february field marshal appointed number french officers oversee administration region tens thousands deported war course genocide months approximately repatriated including natives months following end war source dispute british french establish influence region british government strong domestic pressure withdraw forces middle_east september prime minister david lloyd george accepted proposal prime minister french formally assume control transfer command took place november field marshal ferdinand promise reinforce existing forces area infantry battalions cavalry squadrons artillery batteries went french units deprived armored cars air support lacked automatic weapons heavy artillery wireless carrier turkish nationalist movements anglo french rivalry led strengthening turkish national movement leadership denounced allied occupation november forces loyal preparing launch major insurrection spread french units garrisoned experienced officers including captain ali sent organize tribal units irregular fighters bands region turkish forces numbered armed old hunting rifles melee weapons battle obtained rifles machine guns cannons fighting building firearms arm rifles acquired killed french soldiers january french supply convoys communication lines regularly coming attack partisans repatriated harassed pressured leave homes french attempted minority muslim elements creating units turkish nationalists turkish flag abandoned citadel muslims french french troops included recently enlisted stated supposedly annoyed local population arrogant attitude streets french uniforms seeing captain jean daniel head detachment requested additional reinforcements superior colonel jean marie ordered division commander brigadier general situation agreed send extra men command general january reinforcements arrived french lost initiative supply convoys come attack relief column led battalion commander major ambushed january general summoned muslim headquarters located barracks north city presented evidence pointing attacks demanded end hostilities leaders departed turkish police chief drew pistol fired rounds air signaling beginning uprising active stage french units come attack officers accompanying local standing guard contingents french garrison numbering men separated city wide siege direct communications exist division headquarters general informed insurrection january french armenian legion managed disguise muslims cross battle lines immediately appointed lieutenant colonel robert lead relief expedition composed infantry battalions half squadron cavalry dispatched aerial flights giving hope besieged french american relief workers assisting local population february unit fought way city began bombard turkish positions heavy artillery following day relieved column held position weeks broke reach general headquarters told come orders general begin evacuation french garrison followed christian loyal muslim population reluctant carry command claimed reinforcements supplies sent mind agreed evacuation order evacuate ironically came precisely moment turkish nationalists seeking sooner general begun negotiations turkish representative told prepare evacuate morning february destroyed remaining ammunition preparing slip cover darkness order prevent terrified armenian population troops withdrawal unable managed flee french troops day mile long march subsequently called affair armenian refugees died exhaustion bitter cold number reached february french casualties battle included killed wounded missing severely massacre week siege accompanied wholesale massacre armenian turkish bands threw armenian homes laid constant barrage american relief hospital previous times trouble sought refuge churches schools women children found shelter armenian armenian evangelical churches city sole catholic cathedral armenian attempted defense ultimately overwhelmed churches eventually entire armenian districts flames plight exacerbated french decided pull february taken shelter catholic cathedral attempted follow retreat cut turkish rifle machine gun fire early reports number armenian dead later revised considered far likely figures aftermath news siege french army massacre reached allied american representatives europe french high command publicly indicate taken place internally launched turkish nationalists battle massacre discussed european american press british parliament colonel role ordering evacuation particular stirred controversy members general staff maintained evacuation order given told senior commander general army levant let matter drop french colonel chief administrator occupation zone reflected decision memoirs decision retreat remains mystery doubt order leave given wireless outfit available permitting communication years later stated frankly colonel bring order evacuation gave emphasis original analysis conflict american relief worker stanley attributes withdrawal inter position french military assumed failure provide adequate supplies men inability carry intelligence work constantinople allied military representatives pushed threaten ottoman government affair french simultaneously explored possibility reaching allied supreme council time working details peace treaty present ottoman government best respond delegates present including prime minister david lloyd george insisted strong pressure brought bear ottoman government prevent new atrocities diplomats skeptical idea officials agreed ottoman government dismiss office admitted impractical ottoman government held control leading counter turkish government decision finally reached march british french italian leaders agreed authorize formal occupation constantinople carried forces general george command morning march april cities turkey receive turkish medal independence city


action march action march naval engagement napoleonic wars fought british french squadron met unexpectedly mid-atlantic force aware presence prior encounter participating separate campaigns british squadron consisted seven ships line accompanied associated frigates led rear admiral sir john warren tasked hunting destroying french squadron admiral jean departed brest raiding operations south atlantic december start atlantic campaign french force consisted ship line frigate remained admiral charles squadron sailed indian_ocean march peace raided british shipping lanes region achieving limited success merchant ships repeatedly withdrawing face determined opposition notably battle february stores exhausted french ports east cape good hope offered eliminated decided return france january march inadvertently sailing cruising ground warren squadron twice failed capture seriously engage large valuable british merchant convoys cruise saw scattered sails distance march decided investigate ship line hope ships prove merchant convoy time realised approaching ships actually powerful naval squadron close lead ship warren flagship hms london london engaged french frigate attempted escape approaching squadron independently run brought battle british frigate hms amazon engagements lasted hours bloody french ships surrendering half hours losing nearly men battle marked end year campaign british trade second british victory atlantic campaign following battle san domingo previous month eventually returned france squadron destroyed british operations atlantic despite criticism failures indian_ocean considered fought hard encountered overwhelming force prisoner war exchanged napoleon criticised behaviour campaign refused employ sea background march french squadron admiral charles operating british trade indian_ocean start napoleonic wars india war declared left brest march sailing south china sea effort intercept china fleet huge merchant convoy britain madras carried goods worth excess million february encountered china fleet delays squadron india sailed royal_navy escort loss convoy devastated british economy highlight career instead french admiral ruse convoy commander commodore dance dance pretended east merchant ships disguised ships line engaged long range french commander pressing attack dance merchant ships pursued fleeing french squadron distance resuming original course affair known battle humiliation provoked napoleon fury emperor informed governor france charles months later operating indian port squadron encountered british warship hms merchant ships protection ensuing battle badly damaged merchant ships captured driven ashore ensure capture destruction refused combat fear damaging ships shallow coastal waters withdrew provoking napoleon august engaged convoy east central indian_ocean occasion confronted ship line hms rear admiral sir thomas withdrew unwilling risk taking fatal damage ships far safe port seized number small ships sailing individually year cruise failed significant impact british trade region ruined reputation successful naval commander deciding switch operations atlantic discovering squadron rear admiral sir edward searching visited cape good hope frigates wrecked subsequently cruised coast west_africa capturing small ships failing significant impact british trade region learning american ship british expeditionary force captured cape_town decided return france remaining ships gun ship line flagship frigate sailing northwards crossing equator february unknown sailing directly middle complex series manoeuvres british french squadrons known atlantic campaign december large french squadrons sailed brest orders operate british atlantic trade vice admiral consisting gun ships line smaller vessels sailed caribbean second admiral jean commanded ships line smaller vessels sailed south atlantic squadrons able escape reduction size british continental blockade relaxed aftermath campaign french spanish ships line captured destroyed losses significantly reduced ability french allies operate atlantic ships came mediterranean fleets brest fleet failed leave port support campaign survived unscathed blockade relaxed squadrons able break atlantic resistance following orders avoid combat significant british forces cruise british trade routes search lightly protected merchant convoys response british rapidly mustered squadrons pursuit rear admiral sir richard ordered south atlantic operate region saint second rear admiral sir john warren sent mid-atlantic based sir john thomas detached blockade pursued caribbean february annihilated force battle san domingo avoided encountering squadrons sent intercept anticipating return france remaining british squadrons took station mid-atlantic battle march warren squadron cruising eastern atlantic squadron grouped northwest hms london captain sir harry flagship hms captain john chambers white sailing distance rest british force company frigate hms amazon captain william parker sails spotted north east london pursuit wind south west captain signalled location strange ships warren blue lights admiral following amazon rest squadron trailing north east sighted sails distance turned south west pursuit anticipating encounter valuable merchant convoy captain marie insisted sails british warships ruled arguing warships convoy escort avoided night london appeared ahead realised mistake attempted escape ships sea extended period sluggish compared gun london rapidly came alongside french ship line opened heavy fire returned london fire best realised swung away issuing orders captain escape best frigate firing london battle continued engaging larger ship support attempted pull away sighted amazon bearing withdrew pulling ahead ship continued fire london suffered severe damage rigging able effectively manoeuvre result unable avoid continued fire shots amazon parker swept past pursuit parker frigate alongside ships exchanged fire hours amazon succeeding damaging rigging prevent escape battling frigates taken london came fire hms captain arthur hms captain francis rapidly coming range face overwhelming force french ship line option surrender time lowered nearly captain joseph marie taken wounds simultaneously surrender captain surrendered damage inflicted amazon presence warren squadron resistance hopeless french losses engagement severe suffering extensive damage hull rigging losing men killed wounded crew included son wounds captain arm losses included killed wounded complement british losses comparatively light london suffering dead wounded amazon killed wounded london british ship damaged mainly rigging hastily repaired aftermath battle aftermath april heavy storm swept eastern atlantic striking warren squadron prizes seriously damaged losing masts taking large quantity water pumped overboard crew working shifts men drowned suffered high winds losing masts rolling hours completely control storm jury masts raised scattered ships rejoin squadron journey britain arriving eventually returned north_atlantic early summer passing caribbean dispersed hurricane ships scattered western atlantic eventually reached france campaign disaster french_navy half ships sent returning brest loss formed campaign defeat widely celebrated britain ships commissioned royal_navy french names praised defence ship face overwhelming british force historian william james writing considered faced london advantage decades later battle actions recognised attached naval general service medal awarded application british participants london amazon living engagement end squadron survivor frigate originally ordered sail mexico march plan encounter british frigate hms philippines captain bernard returned indian_ocean operating years british shipping france eventually old frigate assessed worn sold service operating year captured napoleon refused exchange british prisoner emperor fury admiral failures indian_ocean prevented subsequent appointments napoleon new french regime governor martinique days began declared napoleon british invaded captured island career retired died years later


operation operation airborne forces operation undertaken allied invasion sicily july second world war operation carried brigadier 1st parachute brigade british 1st airborne division objective bridge river intention brigade borne forces support land sides river capture bridge secure surrounding area relieved advance british corps landed south eastern coast days previously bridge crossing river british eighth army access plain capture expected speed advance lead defeat axis forces sicily aircraft carrying north_africa shot damaged turned friendly fire enemy action action taken pilots scattered brigade large area equivalent companies troops landed correct locations despite defence german italian forces british captured bridge repulsed attacks held increasing odds nightfall relief force led 50th infantry division major general short transport mile away halted night time casualties mounting supplies running short parachute brigade commander relinquished control bridge germans following day british units joined forces 9th battalion durham light infantry tank support attempted recapture bridge bridge finally secured days start operation battalion durham light infantry led established north bank river capture bridge lead expected rapid advance time germans gathered forces established defensive line early following month eighth army captured time 1st parachute brigade withdrawn malta took conquest sicily lessons learned operation practice allied airborne operations background axis powers defeated north_africa allied armies logical objective cross mediterranean landing south france balkans sicily italy objective chosen sicily landing scheduled july allied 15th army group commanded general sir alexander consisted united_states seventh army commanded lieutenant general george land west veteran british eighth army commanded experienced general bernard montgomery land south east cape syracuse addition landings airborne landings invasion airborne division land support seventh army british 1st airborne division conducted brigade sized landings eastern coast support eighth army british airborne landing operation carried 1st brigade night july objective seize hold bridge outside syracuse second british airborne mission operation undertaken 2nd parachute brigade night july aiming capture bridge circumstances changed second operation cancelled british airborne mission planned operation carried 1st parachute brigade scheduled night july 1st parachute brigade objective bridge crossing river south bridge vital objective crossing point capture eighth army access plain enable continue advance northwards destruction seriously advance parachute brigade captured bridge defend relieved units eighth army advancing landing beaches british forces 1st parachute brigade commanded brigadier comprised 1st parachute battalion 2nd parachute battalion 3rd parachute battalion 16th parachute field ambulance 1st parachute squadron royal engineers 1st anti tank battery royal artillery anti tank battery equipped 1st brigade anti tank guns british pounder despite formation parachute brigade way transport anti tank guns required pull landed transporting artillery air new british army time artillery guns flown combat 1st parachute brigade experienced formation initially command 1st airborne division detached division fight north_africa brigade taken landings algeria november subsequent battle tunisia brigade parachute battalions taken battalion sized parachute landings campaign 1st parachute brigade given nickname red germans british parachute battalion establishment men rifle companies companies divided small headquarters sections section machine gun inch mortar men personal weapons heavy weapons parachute battalion inch mortar platoon vickers machine gun platoon battalion headquarters decided brigade land separate drop zones land landing zones 1st parachute battalion divided groups land drop zone north river second drop zone south landed groups head assembly points conducting assault bridge sides simultaneously 2nd parachute battalion landed south bridge drop zone area canal main highway 2nd battalion assault occupy small hills given johnny johnny johnny iii hills believed occupied italian force platoon strength battalion secured hills dig prepare defend hills attack south 3rd parachute battalion land drop zone yards north bridge objective secure ground area defending counterattack direction brigade force landing areas landing zone seven north river landing zone south river owing complexity landing plan short time inception execution belonging 21st independent parachute company army air corps deployed mark correct drop zones occasion british airborne operations company special marker lights transport aircraft able identify home senior officers 1st airborne division estimated casualties capture bridge cent killed missing cent wounded appreciated battalions medical officers staff unable cope expected numbers casualties section 16th parachute field ambulance consisting doctor ranks attached parachute battalions remainder field ambulance comprising headquarters surgical teams located brigade establish main dressing station farm buildings south bridge problems airborne operations sicily royal_air_force advisor assigned 1st airborne division suggested american pilots adopt royal_air_force bomber stream formation entailed aircraft flying pairs minute aircraft instead flying normal formation suggestion dismissed american pilots pre war airline pilots training included instruction night time navigation inexperienced crews relied heavily following aircraft unconnected operation conducted time commando carry separate operation miles south river commando unit carry amphibious landing sea assault capture bridge river relieving force british corps commanded lieutenant general miles corps consisted 5th infantry division 50th infantry division 4th armoured brigade armoured brigade tank regiments equipped american built tank early july commander 50th division major general called general montgomery eighth army headquarters informed missions british 1st parachute brigade requirement bridges captured intact montgomery intention 50th division lead eighth army advance relieve assist task montgomery placed 4th armoured brigade command montgomery wanted infantry division relieve parachute brigade early july require division advance miles hours 50th division landed july time fighting days non stop daily temperature time reaching men division physically exhausted suffering heat exhaustion division situation improved grave error judgement montgomery planning invasion strength german italian resistance allied landings british eighth army consisted mainly infantry tanks heavy weapons light form mechanical transport advance 50th division conducted foot axis forces italian army force area bridge came coastal division commanded general coastal divisions second line divisions usually formed men fifties intended perform labour second line duties recruited local population officers men retired called morale low second rate equipment weapons intended improve armaments equipment seized recently disbanded french army arms arrived sicily wrong type ammunition ammunition italians supported german 1st parachute division ordered sicily france necessary parachute july 1st machine gun battalion commanded major landed allied air raid early july aircraft anti tank guns destroyed raid battalion left foot bridge informed divisional commander intentions warned expect sea airborne landing night allies landed rear division battalion hold bridge division escape way machine gun battalion started dig prepare defence yards south bridge arrived located deal parachute landing area bridge bridge built steel span feet raised feet river land north bridge mainly olive tree lined fields immediately south bridge canal prominent hills road crossing bridge highway running miles south miles north assist italians defending bridge constructed north bank south bank july aircraft carrying men 1st parachute brigade took north_africa aircraft consisted douglas belonging 51st troop carrier wing 60th troop carrier groups troop carrier group supplied wing royal_air_force supplied armstrong following parachute force aircraft aircraft supplied wing comprised seven page carry men anti tank battery pounder anti tank guns aircraft flight path took south eastern corner malta eastern coast sicily route measured ensure planes arrived drop zones planes arrived sicily supposed stay miles offshore reaching river head inland drop zones aircraft course approached allied convoy naval gunners warned expect air raid opened fire american british aircraft planes trying avoid unexpected anti aircraft fire collided crashed sea shot badly shot wounded crew passengers forced turn airfields north_africa aircraft reach coast engaged axis anti aircraft guns shot damaged forced mission inexperienced pilots refused aircraft lieutenant colonel pearson commanding officer 1st parachute battalion realising plane flying round circles threaten shoot crew continue anti aircraft fire action taken pilots dispersed aircraft formations parachute drop scattered large area violent left aircraft floor unable jump ordered safely sea pilots refused try considering risk great surviving aircraft carried mission managed drop miles correct drop zone course groups 3rd parachute battalion royal engineers landed miles south bridge aircraft landed slopes mount miles north men 1st parachute brigade landed southern drop zone range 1st machine gun battalion darkness germans initially thought reinforcements landing soon realised mistake opened fire escaped machine gun fire rounded drop zone prisoners war soon touched ground confusion landing men 1st parachute battalion assembled assaulted managed capture bridge italian defenders destroy attached demolition charges italians taken prisoner second group led brigadier arrived bridge organised safe removal demolition charges set defensive perimeter continued gather bridge soon numbered men dug north south brigade headquarters field ambulance main dressing station established south bridge brigade casualties started arriving treatment away main dressing station 2nd battalion drop zone wounded result parachute drop wounded drop zone 1st battalion casualties occurred aircraft crashed route released early aircraft crashed sea arrive sicily element surprise gone shot coastal anti aircraft batteries time arrived landing zones hours parachute landings started pilot later commented need lights explosions brighter landing markers surviving force managed land relatively unscathed caught machine gun fire destroyed approach intact carrying anti tank guns included bridge defences including men 1st parachute brigade men bridge shortage manpower problem support weapons anti tank guns inch mortars vickers machine gun july 1st parachute battalion control bridge machine gun battalion dug south men 2nd parachute battalion occupied small hills taken italian prisoners numbers battalions little company strength 3rd parachute battalion suffered worst scattered parachute drop men arrived bridge command structure attached 1st parachute battalion help defend bridge north italian coastal battalion battalion informed parachute landings battalion disappeared mounted number attacks british positions support heavy weapons easily fought dawn attack machine gun battalion south began opened fire machine guns mortars assault 2nd parachute battalion positions unsuccessful assault later morning succeeded capturing johnny second small hills lieutenant colonel john frost command 2nd parachute battalion immediately men repulsed sustaining number casualties forward observation officer attached 2nd parachute battalion managed radio contact british cruiser hms newfoundland inch guns target positions naval gunfire desired effect causing germans casualties keeping cover german resistance south restricted machine gun fire grass fire started force 2nd parachute battalion abandon johnny remnants battalion concentrated johnny iii north bridge german battle group men including 1st company 1st signal battalion anti aircraft battery anti tank guns gathered command captain position launch assault bridge attack driven british second attempt brought anti aircraft guns support assault successful taking prisoners succeeded reaching bridge secured position engage north bank men 1st parachute battalion ammunition forced withdraw southern bridge german moved forward time demolished south running short supplies casualties mounting brigadier decision relinquish control bridge germans parachute brigade moved yards men bridge casualties 16th parachute field ambulance main dressing station moved evacuated remained man land italian officer entered station informed medical staff prisoners war treating casualties sides allowed remain continue operating treatment wounded continued day carried surgical operations looking british german italian patients darkness led remainder men join 2nd parachute battalion dawn 50th infantry division managed advance miles miles commando bridge miles bridge 5th battalion east yorkshire regiment infantry brigade eventually reached bridge forced withdraw bridge quickly captured dismantled demolition charges demolished objective secured british infantry continued advance foot parachute brigade tanks small motor transport belonging 4th armoured brigade held stopped destroyed bridge 4th armoured brigade start moving 50th division eventually reached half way start point bridge afternoon streets blocked debris covered machine gunners left rearguard retreating germans nightfall 50th division infantry battalions 6th battalion durham light infantry infantry brigade tanks support reached position mile johnny despite orders advance speed halted night recapture bridge parachute brigade withdrew axis forces gathered bridge comprised italian coastal battalion battalion german 1st machine gun battalion captain battle group german high command aware importance holding bridge overnight dispatched reinforcements arrived parachute came 1st division consisted 1st engineer battalion 1st battalion 4th regiment battalion 1st artillery regiment engineers started form defensive line north bridge smaller southern bank early july 1st parachute brigade heard tank fire south position brigadier sent patrol investigate located tanks infantry corps halted south previous night 1st parachute brigade 50th division moved forward main dressing station continued operate captured liberated 2nd parachute battalion attempt recapture bridge 9th battalion durham light infantry supported 44th royal tank regiment carried number assaults stage managed cross bridge tanks accompanying knocked german armoured support infantry forced withdraw error communication caused engineer battalion withdraw north bank river allowed establish position southern end bridge main dressing station operated wounded time arrived corps evacuate wounded main dressing station closed men moved johnny time main dressing station active completed operations treated wounded germans aware british dismantled explosive charges attached bridge attempted destroy driving trucks laden explosives unsuccessful night 9th battalion durham light infantry continued trying capture bridge attacks provided distraction germans lieutenant colonel pearson 1st parachute battalion led companies 8th battalion durham light infantry river small ford establish northern bank day battle british germans suffered heavy casualties bridge eventually british infantry leaving british eighth army continue advance july 1st parachute brigade transported trucks syracuse embarked remained overnight sitting hour air raid sailed july operation suffered dead missing wounded aftermath recapture bridge result rapid advance plain envisioned montgomery exhausted 50th infantry division holding position based bridge 5th infantry division took lead number attacks progress 13th infantry brigade establish germans brought troops prepared defensive positions hard fighting august eighth army entered city hard fighting followed entered united_states seventh army august problems airborne missions sicily british_army royal_air_force submitted recommendations trained parachute operations landing main force time set landing plan simplified complete brigades landing drop zone instead smaller battalion landing areas sicily longer released night water landing zones large accommodate aircraft room spare following friendly fire incident convoy training given ships crews aircraft recognition allied aircraft painted large white stripes wings training pilots belonging pilot regiment increased improvements implemented including better inter aircraft communication transporting avoid relying solely american aircraft pilots wing royal_air_force expanded group halifax squadrons supported squadrons squadrons provide method delivering artillery guns air air_force started experiments combat carrying guns aircraft large bomb bays second royal_air_force transport group group formed equipped solely instead mixture aircraft group changes royal_air_force groups supply total planes addition aircraft held reserves


landing scarlet beach landing scarlet beach operation diminish september took place new_guinea peninsula campaign second world war involving forces australia united_states japan allied forces landed scarlet beach north cove south song river east kilometres north capture allowed construction air base naval facilities assist allied air naval forces conduct operations japanese bases new_guinea new britain fallen sooner allies anticipated exploited advantage result faulty intelligence size japanese force area assault force chosen consisted brigadier victor 20th infantry brigade landing scarlet beach took place september opposed amphibious landing australian forces landing cove gallipoli campaign navigational errors resulted troops landed wrong beach coming ashore cove taking heavy fire strong japanese defences organising australians pushed inland japanese stiff resistance high ground forced end day australians secured objectives japanese launched air raid ships vii amphibious force fighter aircraft defended convoy ships hit continued japanese air attacks inflicted numerous casualties course battle day australians commenced advance south village miles south landing beach 15th infantry battalion leading way river japanese established strong defences river southern bank australians attempted sending force west climbing steep terrain located suitable place cross river began fired group japanese naval infantry positioned high feature overlooking river despite taking casualties australians able establish south point 13th infantry battalion began advance west 15th attacked left flank japanese opposed crossing advancing steep slope fire hands knees 15th took position point bayonet killing japanese close combat australian fears japanese counter attack grew requested reinforcements general douglas request denied intelligence staff believed japanese vicinity actually japanese australians received reinforcements shape 43rd infantry battalion arrival unit meant entire 20th infantry brigade concentrate japanese naval troops holding began withdraw fell australians october 20th infantry brigade linked 22nd infantry battalion militia infantry battalion cleared coastal area south peninsula advancing mountains japanese withdrew mountains strategy allied pacific military conference washington march joint chiefs staff approved plans general douglas supreme commander south west pacific area advance japanese base june general headquarters brisbane instructed general sir thomas new_guinea force seize river valley area establish major elements air_force provide valley area general direct air support subsequent operations northern new_guinea western new britain control protect north western flank subsequent operations western new britain following successful landing airborne landing river valley allied hands september turned attention objective japanese bombing japanese aircraft lost august caused imperial general headquarters tokyo reconsider eastern new_guinea solomon islands held concluding authorised commander japanese eighth area army conduct fighting withdrawal new defensive position western new_guinea hoped ready lieutenant general commander japanese army new_guinea recognised importance area placed major general commander 1st shipping group charge defending strengthen defences ordered infantry regiment battalion field artillery 20th division august headquarters artillery heavy weapons departed august travelled sea remainder marched coast august assigned 2nd battalion infantry regiment 41st division area route join rest infantry regiment remain area command landing september australian advance appear imminent ordered rest 20th division detachment valley main body lieutenant general left bound september expected arrive october event allied attack arrived hold high ground prepare counter attack geography peninsula situated north east_coast new_guinea stretches south gulf north coast points numerous rivers streams cut terrain prominent song rivers waterways flow mountainous interior formed range south mountains east meet centre peninsula form range joins range west apart thin flat coastal strip time campaign area covered dense jungle tracks cut planning allies identified areas key decisive terrain area beach north later scarlet allies foot high peak called miles south west dominated area height possessing small airfield sitting coast bay offered protected harbour facilities war town population white native people good vessels tons harbour bay harbour flat coastal strip provided number potential airfield sites german names area territory new_guinea german colony occupied australia prelude intelligence allied estimates number japanese troops area varied brigadier general charles assistant chief staff head intelligence branch considered primarily point troops mainly line communication units fall ended utility reduced estimate number japanese troops area based appreciation believed reason believe man allied intelligence bureau patrol included australian officers american scout army engineer boat shore regiment special unit native soldiers landed night september rubber boats launched boats scouts unable obtain information sought japanese patrols area number machine gun nests identified reconnaissance enemy positions extracted september happened track campaign battle estimates australian intelligence differed greatly different methods intelligence staff allied land forces headquarters headed brigadier rogers come higher figure corps produced estimate passed estimate allies best source intelligence ultra light matter mentioned messages previous months insecure japanese water transport code capture japanese battle january allies able systematically break japanese army codes fact japanese strength area september planning plans prepared lieutenant general sir herring corps ship shore operation 6th division 16th infantry brigade 7th infantry brigade militia formation bay shore shore operation brigade major general george 9th division operation diminish fact plan produced corps august herring selected beaches immediately south song river landing indications suitable landing craft japanese defenders defences believed facing south anticipation australian overland advance avoided having cross river believed significant obstacle landing beach known scarlet beach post landing red screens lights guide landing craft left end beach marked solid red panel mounted tent poles right alternating red white night left red light right alternating red white scheme red beach landing avoid confusion having red beaches landing beach called scarlet beach instead september day fell ordered captured soon possible following day held conference port selected second landing brigade 9th division brigadier victor 20th infantry brigade chosen relatively fresh experience amphibious operations landing 6th division movement new_guinea postponed rear admiral daniel commander vii amphibious force originally counted weeks break fall operation september told herring require minimum days pressure cut days soon herring troops september selected target date herring operation september felt schedule tight postponed day september wave consisting companies 13th 7th infantry battalions land launched destroyer transports uss brooks sands remainder assault land vii amphibious force engineer boat shore regiment total force number 9th division limited taking days supplies lessons operation need naval beach party mark beaches channels handle communications ship shore navy doctrine held composed personnel drawn attack transports involved operations man royal australian navy ran beach party organised lieutenant commander band set oblique aerial photographs scarlet beach taken september 8th photo reconnaissance squadron unit equipment showed shallow sand bar southern half beach rendering unsuitable landing craft left space landing plan changed beach initial assault returning arriving beach night herring considered spreading arrivals unloading easier noted mean battery pounders light battery quarter engineer stores casualty clearing station arrive second group ironically taken ran beach party landing revealed sand bar actually white fact beach suited operations main point disagreement herring concerned timing landing commander allied naval forces vice admiral arthur want repeat happened lost badly damaged raaf attacked japanese air bases new britain stop japanese bombers fighters attacking september japanese warships sighted harbour reports japanese submarines area accordingly proposed landing quarter moon allow ships away soon dawn noting rainy season sky likely overcast herring doubted vii amphibious force able locate beach pressed dawn landing end compromise reached samuel naval historian noted australians proved right uncle dan outfit prepared neat night landing usual developed landing wave uss produced copies vii amphibious force operation order distributed boat departed beach miles east route night japanese raid sank damaged dock merchant ships people killed wounded uss developed engine trouble forced return left company 13th infantry battalion transport battalion commander lieutenant colonel arranged travel uss sunset bombers attacked escorting destroyers dropped bombs scored hits ships arrived scarlet beach time destroyers conducted short minute preliminary bombardment doubtful japanese positions hit casualties inflicted low cloud trapped smoke dust produced bombardment australians dark inside cow scarlet beach cove covered bunker type logs spaced yards apart connected shallow trenches held japanese defenders japanese fire started pouring shore point australian recalled realised unopposed landing opposed landing australian troops landing cove gallipoli campaign wave course left landing creek rocks cove point boats landed successfully carrying platoon 15th infantry battalion broken towed carrying platoon delaying appeared took platoon sixteen landed scarlet beach ways good meant landing craft subjected intense machine gun fire caused heavy casualties landing wrong beach right captain company 17th infantry battalion accompanied anti tank platoon platoon infantry battalion landed roughly supposed pushed objective north hill rest wave major pike found company 17th mixed captain paul company 13th travel japanese opposition pike agreed hold company moved objective pike moved men inland yards waited daylight company task seize point facing steep cliff platoon encounter opposition lieutenant platoon right landed scarlet beach near mouth song river came fire japanese machine gun posts help american scout lieutenant attacked posts grenades small arms scout lieutenant edward hammer encountered party japanese fired hammer conspicuous carrying foot red canvas signs mark beach lieutenant commander band fatally wounded making way scarlet beach posthumously awarded navy cross follow second wave came craft ramps infantry disembarked suitable assault landing overlooked available wave mission capture scarlet beach came fire japanese despite explicit orders replied cannon helped suppress japanese machine guns fired wildly caused casualties australian troops ashore like wave left adding chaos grounded sand bar able better landings wrong beach military landing officer major landed wave pike scout carrying red signal light mark centre beach later waves unable reach correct location time second wave able place switch time land scarlet beach wave landed seven minutes late second half hour schedule confusion collided killing soldiers injuring captains reluctant drive ships hard troops disembarked water heads sergeant royal landing platoon infantry battalion awarded george medal attempting save captain hit deep water wave found japanese manned assaulted japanese defenders withdrew fight finish lieutenant colonel boat battalion engineer boat shore regiment carrying guns supposed arrive second wave navigational difficulties hour late came fourth wave minutes late arriving fifth wave reached scarlet beach minutes later beach clear japanese destroyer transports way engineers set portable surgical hospital treat wounded brigade major major wilson arrived landing craft destroyer uss established brigade headquarters patch yards beach japanese soldier threw hand grenade killed man wounded brigade intelligence officer captain japanese soldier killed owen gun sixth final wave consisted uss instructions wait smaller craft cleared beach beached carried unloading party men drawn 23rd 48th infantry battalions 2nd machine gun battalion return unloading proceeded rapid pace cargo retracted headed escorted destroyers fleet uss 3rd field company 1st mechanical equipment company 3rd pioneer battalion shore battalion engineer boat shore regiment prepared beach exits stores quickly moved beach inland troops vehicles pounders guns measurement tons bulk stores fifth air_force fighters provided air cover japanese reconnaissance aircraft flew shot lone bomber showed minutes later attacked beach missed dive bombers attacked driven inflicting casualties guns 10th light anti aircraft battery attacked men wounded fatally weeks air raid day air raids proved effective way clearing beach large attack aircraft 4th air army ran bad weather return naval air forces attack fighters betty bombers found destroyers near islands way fighter cover changed fifth air_force fighter controller board destroyer uss deploy squadrons instead claimed shot fighters bombers gunners destroyers engaged bombers torpedo wakes seen hits suffered lockheed lightning fighters shot pilot rescued japanese pilots claimed sunk cruisers destroyers transports consolidation shortage ammunition owen guns discovered apparently ammunition completely emergency requested port 1st air maintenance company prepared attached boxes containing rounds ammunition total rounds loaded bombers airfield took arrived area dark drop zone patch marked men holding hand rounds dropped recovered pike company 17th infantry battalion reached village turned clearing dilapidated company came fire spur high ground west strongly held 9th company infantry regiment company infantry regiment japanese attempted company left ran company 15th infantry battalion japanese positions sited spur attack east track point captain commander company 13th infantry battalion came radio announced contact japanese west going attack direction furious fight ensured japanese held fire australians realising position stronger thought withdrew suffering dead wounded ordered 17th bypass position proceed objective high ground south song river 15th ordered attack spur attack delivered preliminary bombardment inch mortars japanese defenders withdrawn leaving dead nightfall brigade objectives seventh wave uss arrived scarlet beach midnight previous wave carried australian labour force direction shore battalion retracted order clear dawn day australian casualties killed wounded missing eventually found dead wounded vii amphibious force reported men wounded reinforcement relinquished command new_guinea force september handing lieutenant general sir final actions returning brisbane instructed herring arrange reinforcement extra brigade 9th division headquarters day returned brisbane september issued instruction operations conducted avoid commitment amphibious means allotted declined arrange reinforcement took matter likewise feared committing additional resources tie result losses delay upcoming operations initiative japanese ironically delay reinforcing cause sent signal september asking infantry battalion squadron tanks agreed ship additional battalion following day herring flew bay takeoff mitchell travelling crashed flying fragment killed chief staff brigadier instantly board escaped shaken unscathed meeting cancelled original estimate japanese area authorised extra battalion arranged departing night september stop beach collect 43rd infantry battalion platoon 13th field company total men taken transferred destroyer transports uss brooks night run scarlet beach troops landed wounded taken surf conditions prevented seriously wounded evacuated 20th infantry brigade engaged 22nd infantry battalion militia infantry battalion victoria advanced coast mission station advance minor epic new_guinea operations traversed increasing difficult terrain supply vehicles impossible 22nd infantry battalion supplied boats engineer boat shore regiment stores dropped advanced beaches carried native 22nd infantry battalion fought number skirmishes japanese 2nd battalion infantry regiment orders withdraw 22nd infantry battalion discovered series prepared strong positions soon abandoned way type mountain guns disabled found bodies natives hauled guns bound shot battalion reached harbour october contact 20th infantry brigade advance september ordered advance lieutenant colonel grace 15th infantry battalion reached river yards wide appeared banks contained barbed wire strongly fortified japanese positions withdrawing japanese marines garrison unit remained place authority marines commander captain saw reason conform actions intended hold long possible grace ordered major ron japanese position moving foothills range previously instructed high steep covered thick vegetation halted ridge night resumed advance morning reaching found north bank defended south occupied attempted find crossing yards upstream japanese sniper light machine gun killed company commander captain lieutenant ordered assault crossing company company crossing waist deep water man killed crossing afternoon 13th infantry battalion crossed river secured companies large japanese air raid fighters bombers struck australian positions launch bombs dropped heavy casualties 3rd field company lost killed wounded 12th field regiment lost killed wounded air liaison party headquarters hit knocking radio set killing captain commander men killed wounded air raids september night september japanese barges submarine spotted offshore bring company 17th infantry battalion protect brigade area company 17th infantry battalion moved track intent capturing position company reported fact captured mistake realised attempted found strongly defended company withdrew unfortunately news capture passed way line brisbane advance continued september plantation reported heavily defended attempted force defenders withdraw started attacks hills south west plantation companies 15th infantry battalion attacked came called hill captured hand hand combat australians captured heavy machine guns seven light machine guns buried bodies dead japanese defenders feature came called starvation hill taken company capture prompt japanese leave plantation realised needed capture ridge torrential rain falling making difficult resupply forward positions particularly starvation hill october douglas havoc bombers bombardment squadron attacked japanese positions plantation ridge area followed vengeance dive bombers squadron raaf followed pounders 12th field regiment firing rounds gun attack delivered assault companies soon pinned situation desperate historian david noted australian_army appeared producing leader necessary character sergeant led 13th infantry battalion bayonet charge japanese positions covering creek private firing gun hip japanese posts causing trouble went silence wounded trying furious assault swept post remained left attacked inch mortars attacked platoon japanese abandoned post withdrew plantation awarded distinguished conduct medal 13th infantry battalion lost killed japanese marines died arrival 43rd infantry battalion meant 17th infantry battalion advance enabling entire 20th infantry brigade concentrate objective october 17th infantry battalion crossed opposition found plantation area captured japanese killed evening australian hands september october 20th infantry brigade taken objectives lost dead wounded missing later accounted dead wounded engineer boat shore regiment dead wounded americans killed air liaison party aftermath decision swiftly coupled japanese defences landing scarlet beach avoid decisive engagement result loss force gave time space needed objective allied hands limited use allied intelligence failure subsequent meant japanese reinforced position faster able seize initiative japanese launched counter attack allied scarlet beach action counter attack saw attack north craft raiding unit attacked sea infantry regiments assaulted centre aiming beach plantation intended overwhelmed infantry regiments link clear bay areas assault poorly failed achieve sufficient weight overcome australians suffering lack artillery assault navy boats inflicted heavy casualties destroyed allied machine gunners beach centre japanese able break cove process isolated australian units including fighting western flank forcing australians resort air drops forces supplied japanese briefly managed force australians contract forces japanese aircraft able attack allied ground troops area successive nights october attack eventually ran momentum october point japanese commander ordered forces concentrate high ground planned attacks australians prepared assault japanese strong hold established abandoned lutheran mission atop heights advancing plateau cut key japanese lines communication


battle tripoli battle tripoli battle navies kingdom tripoli september war year order resist demands increased tribute king sent squadron force tripoli favorable peace treaty refused change demands result squadron assaulted city tripoli sinking vessels landing force attack city suffering heavy naval losses government quickly agreed favorable peace treaty ending war favorable terms background august ruler tripoli enraged new consul arrived bringing tribute previously custom learning king charles refused pay request sum expelled consul declared war government august began sending cruising merchant ships bring terms charles ordered naval squadron tripoli flagship frigate captain frigate corvette brig left delayed poor weather arrived tripoli september squadron arrived tripoli sent harbor flag truce order begin negotiations government assurances resident british consul safe went ashore 26th met envoy general negotiations going day sent note suggested terms essentially peace treaty british admiral edward negotiated behalf bombardment seeing intention offering acceptable terms decided best course action attack tripoli returning squadron managed british consul protection remained tripoli force significant advantage fleet gun brig pair gun defending harbor despite disadvantage naval power significant forces ashore forts shore batteries defending harbor returning vessel gave hour ultimatum bombard city better peace terms offered battle hours passed reply began plan attack tripoli commander initially wished use squadron frigates assault city seas rough ensure safety close shore instead plans attack tripoli boats squadron vessels placed men boats separated divisions command lieutenant division attack brig group boats assault city dockyard customs house ensure reinforcements enter harbor boats started port began firing shore batteries lasted delayed assault began escorting boats closer shore second attack unnoticed sighted approaching force despite resistance fleet forces ashore pushed force onward musket fire soon reached brig force board killing officers captain large portion crew second section boats assaulted taking boarding time section boats managed force way ashore despite heavy opposition capturing dockyard routing defenders fired rockets signal retreat burned ships force captured aftermath end action lost largest vessels suffered heavy casualties dead wounded later day making preparations attack city dutch brig sailed port signaling wished communicate contacting squadron brig captain sent remarks british consul tripoli commander sent dutch vessel port message commence negotiations military action taken city suffer continued action requests sent envoy squadron negotiating envoy able agreement restoring diplomatic situation prior events sparked hostilities order ensure terms treaty included provision treaty ratified hours signing hostilities tripoli promptly treaty receiving national colors raised forces day invitation arrived palace force greeted great respect honor monarch stipulation included peace treaty required pay tripoli gold canceled result long practice tributary payments finally ended