normandy landings normandy landings operation neptune landing operations tuesday june termed day allied invasion normandy operation overlord world war largest invasion history operation began liberation german occupied northwestern europe nazi control contributed allied victory western planning operation began months leading invasion allies conducted substantial military deception operation bodyguard germans date location main allied landings weather day far ideal meant delay weeks invasion planners requirements phase moon tides time day meant days month deemed suitable adolf_hitler placed german field marshal command german forces developing fortifications atlantic wall anticipation allied invasion amphibious landings preceded extensive aerial naval bombardment airborne assault landing american british canadian airborne troops shortly midnight allied infantry armoured divisions began landing coast france target mile stretch normandy coast divided sectors utah gold sword beach strong winds blew landing craft east intended positions particularly utah men landed heavy fire gun overlooking beaches shore mined covered obstacles wooden stakes metal barbed wire making work beach clearing teams difficult dangerous casualties heaviest high cliffs gold sword fortified towns cleared house house fighting major gun gold disabled specialised tanks allies failed achieve goals day remained german hands major objective captured july beaches gold linked day connected june operation gained allies gradually expanded coming months german casualties day men allied casualties confirmed dead museums memorials war area host visitors year background june troops british expeditionary force french army trapped northern coast france evacuated evacuation german_army invaded soviet_union june soviet leader joseph began pressing creation second western_europe late soviet_union united_states joint announcement understanding reached regard urgent tasks creating second europe churchill persuaded roosevelt postpone promised invasion american help allies adequate forces strike instead immediate return france western allies staged mediterranean theater operations british troops stationed campaign north_africa won allies launched invasion sicily july later invaded italy september soviet forces offensive won major victory battle decision undertake cross channel invasion year taken conference washington initial planning constrained number available landing craft committed mediterranean pacific conference november roosevelt churchill promised open long delayed second sites considered landings brittany peninsula normandy brittany possible germans cut allied advance relatively narrow sites rejected closest point continental europe britain germans considered likely initial landing zone heavily fortified region offered opportunities expansion area bounded numerous rivers canals landings broad normandy permit simultaneous threats port coastal ports west brittany overland attack paris eventually germany normandy chosen landing site normandy coast lack port facilities overcome development artificial series specialised tanks nicknamed created deal conditions expected normandy campaign scaling sea walls providing close support beach allies planned launch invasion initial draft plan accepted quebec conference august general dwight appointed commander supreme headquarters allied expeditionary force general bernard montgomery named commander 21st army group comprised land forces involved invasion december montgomery saw plan proposed amphibious landings divisions divisions support generals immediately insisted scale initial invasion expanded divisions airborne additional divisions allow operations wider speed capture port need acquire produce extra landing craft expanded operation meant invasion delayed june eventually thirty allied divisions committed battle normandy american british canadian polish french totalling million troops overall british command operations operation overlord assigned establishment large scale continent phase amphibious invasion establishment secure operation neptune gain air superiority needed ensure successful invasion allies undertook bombing campaign operation targeted german aircraft production fuel supplies airfields elaborate operation bodyguard undertaken months leading invasion prevent germans learning timing location invasion landings preceded airborne landings near eastern flank secure river bridges north western flank americans assigned land utah beach beach attempt capture day cut peninsula eventually capture port facilities british sword beach gold beach canadians beach protect american flank attempt establish airfields near secure established attempt hold territory north line weeks montgomery envisaged ninety day battle lasting allied forces reached deception plans overall umbrella operation bodyguard allies conducted subsidiary operations designed germans date location allied landings operation included north campaign fake radio traffic lead germans expecting attack norway south major deception involving creation fictitious united_states_army group lieutenant general george supposedly located kent sussex south intended germans believing main attack place genuine radio messages 21st army group routed kent broadcast germans impression allied troops stationed stationed england july continuing germans believing second attack place german radar stations french coast destroyed preparation landings addition night invasion small group special air service operators deployed dummy led germans believe additional airborne landing occurred night operation squadron raf dropped strips window metal foil caused radar return mistakenly interpreted german radar operators naval convoy near illusion bolstered group small craft barrage balloons similar deception undertaken near sur area squadron raf operation weather invasion planners determined set conditions involving phase moon tides time day satisfied days month moon desirable provide illumination aircraft pilots highest tides allies wanted schedule landings shortly dawn midway low high tide tide coming improve visibility obstacles beach time men exposed open tentatively selected june date assault june conditions unsuitable landing high winds heavy seas impossible launch landing craft low clouds prevent aircraft finding targets group captain james royal_air_force raf met evening june meteorological team predicted weather improve invasion proceed june available dates required tidal conditions desirable moon weeks later june invasion required recalling men ships position cross channel increased chance invasion plans detected discussion senior commanders decided invasion ahead 6th major storm battered normandy coast june beach landings impossible allied control atlantic meant german information allies incoming weather patterns luftwaffe meteorological centre paris predicting weeks stormy weather commanders left posts attend war games men units given leave field marshal returned germany wife birthday meet hitler try obtain german order battle nazi_germany disposal divisions france low countries eighteen stationed denmark norway divisions process formation germany combat losses war particularly eastern meant germans longer pool able young men draw german soldiers average years older allied counterparts normandy area eastern volunteers russia provided mainly unreliable captured equipment lacked transport german units strength german supreme commander adolf_hitler west supreme commander west west field marshal von group west general leo von army group field marshal 7th army friedrich corps general der peninsula allied forces attacking utah beach faced following german units stationed peninsula static infantry division von numbered men non german recruited soviet prisoners war poles regiment regiment regiment sector americans assaulting beach faced following troops infantry division strength unit brought march reinforced additional regiment regiment reserves regiment infantry regiment infantry division artillery regiment allied forces gold faced following elements infantry division regiment regiment regiment artillery regiment forces allied forces attacking gold sword beaches faced following german units static infantry division troops division significantly infantry regiment artillery regiment 21st division south included tanks assault guns plus supporting infantry regiment regiment regiment artillery regiment atlantic wall alarmed raids hitler ordered construction fortifications atlantic coast spain norway protect expected allied invasion envisioned manned troops shortages particularly concrete manpower meant built expected site invasion heavily defended normandy area best fortifications concentrated port facilities saint assigned oversee construction fortifications expected invasion stretched netherlands given command newly formed army group included 7th army 15th army forces guarding netherlands reserves group included 2nd 21st divisions believed normandy coast possible landing point invasion ordered construction extensive defensive works shore addition concrete gun strategic points coast ordered wooden stakes metal mines large anti tank obstacles placed beaches delay approach landing craft movement tanks expecting allies land high tide infantry spend time exposed beach ordered obstacles placed high water mark barbed wire traps removal ground cover approach hazardous infantry order number mines coast allied air offensive germany crippled luftwaffe established air supremacy western_europe knew expect effective air support luftwaffe muster aircraft normandy comparison allies arranged trapped stakes known installed meadows fields deter airborne landings armoured reserves believed germany best chance stop invasion shore requested mobile reserves especially tanks stationed close coast possible senior commanders objected believed invasion stopped beaches argued conventional doctrine keeping formations concentrated central position paris deploying main allied identified noted italian campaign armoured units stationed near coast damaged naval bombardment opinion allied air supremacy large scale movement tanks possible invasion way hitler final decision leave divisions command operational control reserves hitler took personal control divisions strategic reserves direct orders allied order battle commander general dwight commander 21st army group general bernard montgomery american zones commander army united_states lieutenant general bradley army contingent totalled approximately men including airborne divisions utah beach vii corps commanded major general collins 4th infantry division major general airborne division major general matthew infantry division brigadier general jay airborne division major general taylor beach corps commanded major general making men 1st infantry division major general 29th infantry division major general charles british canadian zones commander second army britain canada lieutenant general sir miles overall second army contingent consisted men british nominally british air naval support units included large number personnel allied nations including raf squadrons manned exclusively overseas air crew example australian contribution operation included regular royal_australian_air_force raaf squadron article squadrons hundreds personnel posted raf units warships raf supplied thirds aircraft involved invasion gold beach corps commanded lieutenant general 50th infantry division major general graham beach british corps commanded lieutenant general john 3rd canadian division major general rod sword beach british corps commanded lieutenant general john 3rd infantry division major general tom 6th airborne division major general gale armoured division major general provided specialised armoured vehicles supported landings beaches second army sector coordination french resistance london based état major des forces french forces interior british special operations executive orchestrated massive campaign sabotage implemented french resistance allies developed plans resistance execute day following days plan day operation sabotage rail system plan dealt destroying electrical facilities plan delaying operation aimed enemy forces potentially reinforce axis forces normandy plan violet dealt cutting underground telephone cables resistance alerted carry tasks messages transmitted bbc french service london messages poetry quotations literature random sentences regularly transmitted actually significant weeks preceding landings lists messages meanings distributed resistance groups increase radio activity june correctly interpreted german intelligence mean invasion imminent underway barrage previous false warnings units ignored warning report counter information analysis center details results french resistance sabotage efforts southeast locomotives destroyed june railway line cut places normandy isolated june naval activity naval operations invasion described historian surpassed masterpiece planning overall command british admiral sir served flag officer dover evacuation years earlier responsible naval planning invasion north_africa fleets carrying troops invasion sicily following year invasion fleet drawn different navies comprising vessels warships landing craft types craft merchant vessels majority fleet supplied provided warships landing craft naval personnel involved invasion fleet split western naval task force admiral supporting american sectors eastern naval task force admiral sir philip british canadian sectors available fleet battleships cruisers destroyers monitors german ships area day included torpedo boats fast attack craft thirty boats thirty patrol boats germans boats available approaches heavily mined naval losses german torpedo boats reached eastern task force launched torpedoes sinking norwegian destroyer sword beach missing battleships hms attacking german vessels turned away fled east smoke screen laid raf shield fleet long range battery allied losses mines included uss utah uss foot patrol craft addition landing craft lost bombardment bombing normandy began midnight british canadian american bombers attacking targets coast inland coastal bombing attack largely ineffective low cloud cover assigned targets difficult concerned inflicting casualties troops bombers delayed attacks long failed hit beach defences germans aircraft stationed normandy low countries day germany began clearing channels invasion fleet shortly midnight finished dawn encountering enemy western task force included battleships arkansas nevada texas plus cruisers destroyers monitor eastern task force included battleships hms monitor hms roberts cruisers thirty seven destroyers naval bombardment areas beach commenced dark gunners switching pre assigned targets beach soon light troops scheduled land utah starting hour earlier british beaches areas received minutes naval bombardment assault troops began land shore landing craft modified provide close support fire self propelled amphibious drive tanks tanks specially designed normandy landings land shortly infantry provide covering fire arrived advance infantry sank reaching shore especially landings airborne operations success amphibious landings depended establishment secure expand allow buildup supplied force capable breaking amphibious forces especially vulnerable strong enemy counter attacks buildup sufficient forces accomplished slow eliminate enemy ability organise launch counter attacks critical period airborne operations seize key objectives bridges road crossings terrain features particularly eastern western flanks landing areas airborne landings distance beaches intended ease amphibious forces beaches cases german coastal defence batteries quickly expand area airborne divisions assigned objectives west utah beach hoped capture control narrow terrain intentionally flooded germans reports allied intelligence mid arrival german infantry division meant intended drop zones shifted eastward south british 6th airborne division eastern flank assigned capture intact bridges canal river destroy bridges miles east destroy gun battery overlooking sword beach free french british brigade assigned objectives brittany june august operations bbc war correspondent robert described scene prepared board aircraft faces knives tommy guns hand grenades rope pick handles rubber hung personal like taking newspaper read plane easy familiar touch way getting ready yes climbed aboard like thirty times like combat jump american airborne landings american airborne landings began arrival navigation difficult bank thick cloud result drop zones accurately marked radar signals lamps airborne divisions numbering men delivered douglas troop carrier command avoid flying invasion fleet planes arrived west peninsula exited utah beach airborne dropped beginning tasked controlling utah beach destroying road rail bridges river fly tight formation thick cloud cover dropped far intended landing zones planes came low fire machine gun fire killed impact time open drowned flooded fields gathering fighting units difficult shortage radios terrain stone walls marshes units arrive targets afternoon time cleared members 4th infantry division moving beach troops airborne began arriving primary objective capturing bridges river destroying bridges east river cent landed near drop zone hours captured important crossroads town liberated invasion began working protect western flank failure accurately mark drop zone regiments dropped west extremely scattered cent landing target area landed nearby swamps loss life consolidated small groups usually combination men ranks different units attempted concentrate nearby objectives captured failed hold river bridge fighting crossing continued days reinforcements arrived mission chicago mission detroit mission mission bringing additional troops heavy equipment like landed far drop zones landed target experienced difficulty heavy cargo shifting landing crashing wooden fuselage cases crushing personnel board hours men airborne control divisions approximately force dropped wide dispersal effect confusing germans response 7th army received parachute drops initially believe major invasion underway destruction radar stations normandy coast week invasion meant germans detect approaching fleet british canadian airborne landings allied action day operation assault bridge canal bridge renamed bridge half mile metres east bridges quickly captured intact light casualties members 5th parachute brigade 7th light infantry parachute battalion bridges destroyed minimal difficulty 3rd parachute brigade tasked setting radar lights scheduled begin arriving clear landing zone north blown course set navigation aids far_east blown far_east landed far intended drop zones took hours days reunited units major general richard gale arrived wave equipment guns troops help secure area counter attacks initially staged troops immediate vicinity landings commander german infantry division ordered 21st division position counter attack division armoured reserve obliged seek clearance commit formation receive orders nearly meantime initiative battle group including tanks fight british forces east men members 9th battalion tasked eliminating enemy battery arrived rendezvous point lieutenant colonel charge operation decided proceed regardless destroyed prevent firing invasion fleet troops arriving sword beach battle gun battery allied forces disabled guns cost casualties found contain guns expected heavy coastal artillery action day goals british 6th airborne division achieved reinforced 1st special service brigade landed sword beach 6th brigade arrived operation utah beach utah beach area defended battalions regiment members 8th infantry regiment 4th infantry division land arriving landing craft pushed south strong currents found yards intended landing zone site turned better nearby bombers bomber command bombed defences lower prescribed altitude inflicting considerable damage addition strong currents washed ashore underwater obstacles assistant commander 4th infantry division brigadier general roosevelt senior officer ashore decision start war right ordered landings routed initial assault battalions quickly followed tanks waves engineer demolition teams remove beach obstacles clear area directly beach obstacles mines gaps blown sea wall allow quicker access troops tanks combat teams began exit beach infantry flooded fields travelling single road day elements regiment armed guns rifles main area yards south disabled noon 4th infantry division meet day objectives utah beach partly arrived far south landed troops cost casualties hoc hoc prominent situated utah assigned men 2nd ranger battalion commanded lieutenant colonel james rudder task scale cliffs hooks ropes destroy coastal gun battery located cliffs defended german infantry division french collaborators firing allied destroyers provided fire support scaling cliffs rangers discovered guns withdrawn located weapons ready use orchard metres south point disabled explosives isolated rangers numerous counter attacks german regiment men point isolated captured dawn rudder men able fight relief arrive members tank battalion arrived rudder men run ammunition captured german weapons men killed result german weapons distinctive noise men mistaken enemy end battle rangers casualties dead wounded german casualties killed captured unknown number french collaborators executed beach heavily defended beach assigned 1st infantry division 29th infantry division faced infantry division expected single regiment strong currents forced landing craft east intended position caused delayed fear hitting landing craft american bombers delayed releasing loads result beach obstacles remained undamaged men came ashore landing craft ran aground men wade water fire beach spite rough seas tanks companies tank battalion dropped yards shore flooded sank loss crew tanks disabled beach continued provide covering fire ammunition ran rising tide casualties men subjected fire cliffs problems clearing beach led calling halt landings vehicles group destroyers arrived time provide fire support landings resume exit beach possible heavily defended late morning barely men reached higher ground noon artillery fire took toll germans started run ammunition americans able clear lanes beaches started clearing enemy defences vehicles beach expanded following days day objectives accomplished gold beach landings gold beach set differences tide american beaches high winds conditions difficult landing craft amphibious tanks released close shore directly beach instead planned guns large sur battery disabled direct hits cruisers fourth gun resumed firing intermittently afternoon garrison surrendered june aerial attacks failed hit facing east provide fire beach thick concrete wall gun continued damage modified armoured vehicle royal engineers tank fired large charge rear entrance second containing gun tank infantry began clearing heavily fortified houses shore advanced targets inland royal marine commando moved small port port captured following day battle port company sergeant major stanley received victoria_cross awarded day actions attacking high point western flank 1st battalion hampshire regiment captured future site contact eastern flank canadian forces captured day stiff resistance infantry division allied casualties gold beach estimated beach landing delayed seas men arrived ahead supporting armour suffering casualties offshore bombardment missed german defences exits beach created difficulty mike beach western flank large crater filled abandoned tank rolls covered temporary bridge tank remained place removed restored members royal engineers beach nearby streets traffic day making difficult inland major german guns machine gun nests concrete fortifications barbed wire mines located sur sur sur towns cleared house house fighting soldiers way sur miles inland discovered road covered machine gun advance proceed elements 9th canadian infantry brigade advanced sight airfield late afternoon time supporting armour low ammunition canadians dug night airfield captured month later area scene fierce fighting nightfall gold covered area miles wide miles deep casualties men sword beach sword tanks wave safely ashore provide cover infantry began beach heavily mined obstacles making work beach clearing teams difficult dangerous conditions tide came quickly expected armour difficult beach quickly brigadier simon 15th lord 1st special service brigade arrived second wave ashore private bill personal members commando moved attack rear german gun battery shore concrete observation control tower bypassed captured days later french forces commander french soldiers arrive normandy attacked cleared heavily fortified casino aid tanks morris near sur captured hour fighting nearby headquarters infantry regiment large complex defensive work come morning bombardment essentially undamaged captured 2nd battalion king light infantry began advancing foot coming kilometres town withdraw lack armour support 21st division mounted counter attack sword nearly succeeded reaching channel met stiff resistance british 3rd division soon recalled assist area estimates allied casualties sword beach high aftermath normandy landings largest invasion history nearly landing assault craft escort vessels participating nearly troops crossed english channel day men end june allied casualties day confirmed dead germans lost men allied invasion plans called capture day beaches utah linked line kilometres beaches objectives achieved connected june time allies held kilometres long kilometres deep major objective german hands end day completely captured july germans ordered french civilians deemed essential war effort leave potential combat zones normandy civilian casualties day estimated people victory normandy stemmed factors german preparations atlantic wall partially finished shortly day reported construction cent complete areas resources diverted undertaken operation successful leaving germans defend huge stretch coastline allies achieved maintained air supremacy meant germans unable observations preparations underway britain unable interfere bomber attacks transportation infrastructure france severely disrupted allied bombers french resistance making difficult germans bring reinforcements supplies opening bombardment target concentrated impact specialised armour worked providing close artillery support troops disembarked beaches overly complicated command structure german high command factors allied success war memorials tourism beach parts harbour visible beach obstacles remain memorial american national_guard sits location german hoc little changed terrain covered bomb concrete place normandy american cemetery memorial nearby sur museum utah landings located marie dedicated activities american airmen german military located nearby bridge target british 6th airborne site earliest action normandy landings bridge replaced similar appearance original housed grounds nearby museum complex sections harbour sit sea preserved sur battery nearby beach centre opened funded canadian federal provincial governments france canadian veterans depiction media band brothers miniseries saving private ryan film longest day film


campaign campaign known battle battles attempt french naval squadron toulon admiral charles join french spanish fleet june july french revolutionary war prior planned operation egypt portugal reach french squadron pass british naval base gibraltar housed squadron tasked blockading spanish port british squadron commanded rear admiral sir james successful voyage toulon gibraltar number british vessels captured squadron anchored fortified port city sight gibraltar gibraltar bay july attacked anchored squadron battle severe damage inflicted french ships line successfully captured british forced withdraw hms grounded subsequently seized french aftermath battle sides set making urgent repairs calling reinforcements july fleet spanish french ship line frigates arrived safely escort squadron spanish port british gibraltar efforts restore squadron fighting service evening july french spanish fleet sailed british force followed catching trailing ships second battle opening fire confused night action followed british ship hms superb cut allied rearguard followed rest force confusion french ship captured spanish frigate sank huge gun spanish rates collided exploded killing men following morning french ship formidable came attack rear combined squadron successfully drove pursuit reached safely ultimately french spanish fleets successful aim uniting albeit heavy losses blockade position realise egyptian portuguese plans battles generally regarded single linked battle proved decisive british control mediterranean_sea condemning french army egypt defeat totally reinforcements french_navy background august british fleet surprised completely destroyed french mediterranean_fleet battle aftermath successful french invasion egypt immediately reversed strategic situation mediterranean_sea eliminating french fleet based toulon significant threat granting british allies war second coalition naval dominance region years british allied squadrons enforced significant french spanish naval bases region including alexandria malta particularly significant toulon drastically limited movement french troops military materials mediterranean result malta captured army egypt steadily reduced size effectiveness january attempt increase size french mediterranean_fleet reinforce egyptian garrison consul napoleon ordered squadron seven ships line sail brest atlantic coast mediterranean rear admiral squadron unsuccessful attempts reach egypt eventually retiring toulon late july final effort squadron sailed toulon april instructions briefly secure local naval supremacy allow invasion ahead travelling eastern mediterranean operations discovered ships force dangerously decided consolidate crews send ships line formidable frigate toulon presence force toulon enabled french plan secondary operation new arrivals deal earlier year charles spain spanish government provide ships line fleet french_navy orders given new squadron joined ships line detached squadron frigate overall command rear admiral charles force french ships accompanied promised vessels spanish fleet plans large scale attack lisbon portugal spain engaged war lisbon major british trading port french admiral estimated years earlier attack seize millions british goods shipping planned operation adopted following end war june force resupply egypt soldiers stationed italian ports facilitate transfer spanish ships french control napoleon ordered admiral sail arrived spanish port june frigates sailors begin manning newly purchased ships commodore ray command arrival noted british blockade squadron rear admiral sir james veteran battle lord nelson famous band brothers ships chased hms superb hms french admiral managed evade reach safely ordered orders blockade spanish fleet specifically watch attempt french squadron link spanish fleet voyage sailed toulon june ships line frigate carrying soldiers brigadier general earlier expedition eastern mediterranean british blockade force sir john warren detailed watch toulon instead malta hoping intercept return british ships hand emerged port frigates easily chased away larger warships french squadron passage slow facing winds southwest delayed squadron june cape sea july spotted gibraltar warship gun hms captain george unable influence advance instead captain ordered lieutenant richard boat communicate blockade force seven ships line passed gibraltar july night discovered gun brig hms short distance ahead squadron captured number merchant vessels voyage warship match size infamous vessel command captain lord spent year raiding spanish coast great success taking destroying ships including celebrated action attacked captured far larger spanish frigate barcelona initial belief strange ships spanish treasure vessels caused bring closer ships time realised error escape impossible surrender threw guns excessive weight overboard ship avoid coming range french attempted cut directly approaching formidable small target avoiding concentrated fire french ships pulling open water commodore jean anne swung ship pursued shots damaging sails rigging slowed overtook small brig fired broadside close range fired french ship missed deck entirely failed cause single casualty tear away remaining rigging sails leaving suffer broadside surrendered ship taken aboard acknowledged brave defence refusing accept surrendered sword words accept sword officer hours struggled learned presence ahead knowing presence reported garrison gibraltar squadron returned eastwards point came anchor fortified spanish port lay directly opposite sight gibraltar bay gibraltar july squadron notified arrival lieutenant july immediately turned gibraltar wind frigate hms thames detached sent nautical miles westwards mouth river collect hms superb captain richard blockading river small brig hms follow sight battle commenced hearing inaccurate report american merchant ship escaped bay sea reasoned french returning toulon better position returning blockade attempting join chase hms plymouth detached lisbon despatches admiralty informing intentions british admiral knowing anchored bay intended descend immediately series calm spells prevented squadron slowly drifting eastwards away superb morning july position attack anchored french squadron anticipation arrival formed squadron strong defensive position ships line anchored line north south shallow waters mouth harbour protected spanish forts town anchored shallower water led line formidable parties crews ships line augment spanish defences battle ordered squadron advance bay delay engage french directly attack led captain samuel hood hms hood delayed light winds ship action hms captain charles attacked anchored french ships succession close formidable followed hms flagship hms hms hms participating greater distance unreliable wind squadrons fully engaged head british line caught current swung ship bow facing formidable broadside allowing british ship seeing danger ordered captain solomon head french line formidable light wind took hour reach head lines turned grounded directly guns spanish fort ordered squadron boats assist trapped heavy fire unable effectively respond ordered ships cut anchor cables drift away british squadron formidable successfully completed manoeuvre grounded exposed heavy fire ships cut cables effort close opponents recognised squadron danger grounding directly fire spanish batteries squadron boats sunk employed gibraltar possibility launching amphibious operation spanish forts reluctantly called attack remainder squadron retiring leaving stranded bay gibraltar exposed combined french spanish fire hours lost masts men killed wounded effort preserve lives crew ordered men shelter decks fires broke ship isolated withdrawal surrendered ship french boarding parties extinguished fires struck ensign upside surrendered royal_navy inverted flag signal distress british ship boat captured attempting bring assistance misunderstanding realised french victory come heavy cost men killed wounded french ships severely damaged dead captains formidable spanish suffered men killed destroyed batteries town badly damaged fighting british losses heavy killed wounded lost addition loss severely damaged remainder british squadron required urgent repairs interlude immediately following battle overland request assistance spanish fleet admiral embarked program repairing damaged squadrons preparation resumption action gibraltar wounded transferred naval hospital dead buried later known cemetery ordered damaged surviving ships laid dock crews distributed remaining ships ensure repaired rapidly possible situation necessary seizure gibraltar bay gibraltar sent aid stages battle entire squadron needed extensive repairs requirements met captain alexander ball naval commissioner gibraltar captain protested order permitted continue repairs crew worked day regular shifts night week ensure sailed sailed crew having replaced ship damaged masts days sent boat flag truce arrange parole officers following brief correspondence british admiral captured british officers including sent gibraltar later joined wounded british sailors captured immediately sent britain hms plymouth despatches await court martial loss ship officers completely began programme making extensive repairs ships including captured renamed jury masts set battered hulk extensive repairs required sailed week later ship sent despite spanish messages coupled strong representations prompted order squadron sea morning july commanded vice admiral don juan including large rate ships line real san guns remainder squadron consisted gun spanish ship gun spanish ship gun spanish ship gun ship saint days earlier spanish san_antonio purchased ships line commissioned french_navy saint crew drawn men brought frigates supplemented number spanish sailors commanded commodore ray accompanying squadron frigates spanish french departure combined squadron observed captain superb returning retained station port hms thames hms thames searching seized american merchant ship witnessed emergence squadron retreating ships line approached british frigate superb sighted shortly retreated ship line frigates small squadron wake force immediately sent ahead gibraltar warn brig arriving closely followed main body combined squadron saint detached departure following superb squadron anchored bay gibraltar reach british batteries gibraltar waited complete repairs saint joining squadron morning july brought ships gibraltar efforts repair squadron increased knowledge soon sailing squadron concerned size combined squadron sent urgent messages mediterranean_fleet lord keith eastern mediterranean requesting support belief delayed weeks condition ships wrong planned convoy battered squadron short distance soon second battle morning july combined french spanish squadron sea followed closely british squadron sides took day assemble hampered light winds damaged warships gave orders squadron sail westwards open ocean followed night drawing wind picking instructed superb fastest ship squadron ahead engage rearguard force discovered real pulled alongside firing spanish ship started severe fire superb pushed saint real drifted darkness confusion encountering san spanish ships enemy opening fire real drifted san huge ships fire spreading darkness exploded july killing men stage night independently sailing spanish frigate sailed battle fatally damaged sinking morning engaged defeated saint forcing wounded commodore ray surrender following action lasted half hour casualties saint heavy superb men wounded rest british squadron following darkness saint active fired ship passed intending catch remainder squadron sailed northwest spanish coastline formidable command captain seen north bay near cape sent chase french ship hood accompanied thames captain came range close action soon followed hood ordering bring ship close stern open fire formidable better action casualties mounting hood mainmast collapsed taking advantage disability british ship pulled formidable ahead light winds slowly rejoining main squadron holding station harbour formidable moved away remaining masts collapsed ship grounded concern british squadron counterattack disabled ship arrival horizon superb persuaded spanish admiral withdraw hood able july ship towed gibraltar prize saint left ships maintain blockade returning situation port battle aftermath france campaign represented victory genuine achievements followed exaggerated reports defence bay second battle represented significant success numerous british force shown skill bravery engagement subsequent reputation largely built strength report sent paris based letter written captain letter claimed fought thames report superb stated driven ships completely destroyed driving ship ashore subsequently promoted highly praised holding number important active commands french_navy spain outcome campaign infuriated spanish government contributed franco spanish alliance spanish demanded spanish forces stationed brest french atlantic coast return spanish waters spanish pressure portugal relaxed weakening franco spanish axis significant factor treaty early brought french revolutionary wars close lauded britain success second action initial defeat awarded thanks houses parliament knight bath pension annually equivalent nearly decades later second battle actions recognised naval general service medal awarded application british participants living campaign later played prominent novels master commander patrick brian touch british histories campaign usually considered single linked battle overall outcome favourable british force despite failure prevent linking loss severe losses inflicted spanish fleet blockade meant french plan reinforce army trapped egypt total failure garrison surrendering september hard fought campaign british ottoman forces emphasised british dominance sea stage war force sail french allied port detection interception royal_navy


battle battle took place battle set piece battle september months palestine campaign world war fighting took place hills british_empire corps attacked ottoman_empire army group seventh army defending line battle fought right flank jordan valley force attacked captured jordan river crossings attacking fourth army salt capturing thousands prisoners extensive territory battle began half day main battle fought mediterranean section line corps attacked eighth army defending line desert mounted corps rode north capture plain battles known battle began final offensive war palestine campaign afternoon september clear breakthrough attacks battle corps successful corps ordered begin battle attacking defended ottoman line supported artillery barrage attacks continued late night day early hours september continuing successful flanking attack corps combined corps assault aerial bombing attacks forced seventh eighth armies ottoman seventh army retreated area road jordan river aiming cross bridge leaving rearguard defend town captured corps 5th light horse brigade devastating aerial bombing road blocked line retreat objectives won attacks required corps captured thousands prisoners area defending right flank subsidiary battle attack began september force section force captured 53rd ottoman division road running bridge jordan river sections retreating seventh army column attacked captured subsequent battle bridge captured bridge cutting main ottoman line retreat eastwards fourth army began retreat force supported reconnaissance attacking aircraft advanced east capture salt september force continued advance eastwards capture september strong fourth army rearguard defeated southern section fourth army captured south september ending military operations area following victory final offensive continued damascus captured october days pursuit desert mounted corps pursuit resulted occupation october attack north way armistice signed allies ottoman_empire ending palestine campaign background ottoman army defeat battle loss central powers southern palestine retreat hills loss jerusalem end ottoman army commanders palestine replaced army group german commander general von replaced german general von commander eighth army von replaced commander ottoman army appointed command fourth army resigned commander seventh army early september following treaty brest march ended war eastern imperial russia imperial germany main focus ottoman army turned provinces territories lost russo turkish war ottoman army embarked series territorial conquests beginning northern persia captured russians march followed van april later possessions brought little strategic advantage ottoman_empire compared potential benefits military success palestine major offensive operations palestine low priority british_army march postponed spring offensive france july clear german offensive failed resulting return battle attrition trenches coincided approach campaign season palestine general commander egyptian expeditionary force anxious september expected capture headquarters seventh eighth armies road salt reason moving line encourage new indian troops arab allies reorganisation infantry replace british losses suffered spring offensive 52nd lowland divisions british infantry battalions 10th 53rd 60th 75th divisions sent france april august resulting divisions filled british indian army battalions 75th division received indian battalions june infantry brigades reorganised british battalion indian battalions brigade 53rd division south african indian battalions british indian army 7th division arrived campaign january followed 3rd division april 54th east division remained previously british division april infantry pioneer battalions prepared palestine battalions numbered upwards formed removing complete company experienced regiments serving forming new battalions indian infantry battalion formed company 56th rifles 51st 52nd 53rd regiment formed second battalion dividing experienced new companies battalion parent battalions supplied line transport experienced officers war time service indian infantry commanding officer british indian officers included men transferred 38th transferred experienced september indian infantry provide honour guard men parade served different fronts pre war campaigns indian battalions deployed palestine recent experience combat lost experienced company replaced recruits battalions formed experienced troops fought trained seen prior service war total troops recruits indian battalions junior british officers green speak battalion indian officer spoke english british officers communicate men indian battalions served infantry divisions employed defence lines communication line september line began near sea level mediterranean coast miles north extending miles south eastward plain eastward hills miles rising feet sea level way hills line dropped feet sea level cross jordan valley approximately miles ending foothills mountains railway ottoman railway istanbul travelled south branched lines line continued east jordan river southerly direction supply ottoman fourth army headquarters garrisons forces scattered southern railway miles south second railway line turned westward supply ottoman seventh eighth armies hills second line crossed jordan ran southwards west bank jordan river turned westward run parallel line hills plain railway lines branch line running north westerly main line turned south railway wound narrow pass foothills climb junction hills branched lines line ran westward eighth army headquarters turning south reach eighth army line coastal plain second line continued south eastward headquarters seventh army located north jerusalem main road damascus prelude concentration surprise speed key elements warfare planned victory battle depended success intense british_empire artillery barrage cover line infantry attack drive gap line cavalry advance quickly reach plain miles away day battle control skies achieved maintained destroying dominating german aircraft activity constant bombing raids royal flying corps raf australian flying corps seventh eighth army headquarters respectively cutting communications commander von hours battle battle september september german ottoman line cut infantry cavalry passed gap reach objectives communications combined action organized ottoman forces continuing british_empire infantry attack south forced ottoman seventh eighth armies hills withdraw northwards damascus main roads railways ran pass northwards having captured town 3rd light horse brigade wait british_empire deployments corps corps commanded lieutenant general consisting 10th 53rd divisions deployed sides road jerusalem hills capture launching attacks ottoman flanks aim miles north 10th division left attack inter army boundary corps miles east heading spur parallel 53rd division right east following watershed divisions miles gap lightly held watson force detachment improvised corps troops 1st pioneer battalions details corps reinforcement camp force september new_zealand mounted rifles brigade took left sector valley defences continuing active patrolling 16th september general officer commanding mounted division took command jordan valley defences desert mounted corps camps jerusalem road desert mounted corps reinforcement camp jerusalem force designated force force commanded major general edward consisted mounted division 20th indian brigade 1st 2nd battalions british west_indies regiment 38th 39th battalions royal jewish volunteers battery royal field artillery heavy battery royal garrison artillery 29th 32nd indian artillery mountain batteries medium trench mortar battery anti aircraft sections royal artillery sections captured ottoman guns section captured ottoman guns army troops company royal engineers establishment force consisted mounted division infantry brigade infantry battalions equivalent second infantry brigade brigade support troops command structure batteries sections artillery transport consisting trucks horses days later additional motor transport company company transport corps added force detached desert mounted corps independent operations primary responsibilities included continuing occupation jordan valley protection eastern flank line force exploit withdrawal ottoman fourth army positions salt headquarters air support september royal_air_force 5th corps wing 40th army wing headquartered deployed area responsible cooperation artillery contact patrols tactical strategic reconnaissance photography escorts offensive patrols bombing operations squadron australian flying corps squadron raf flight squadron raf based squadron raf based junction station tactical reconnaissance yards advance corps corps force provided corps squadrons squadron raf operating junction station assigned corps operating squadron raf balloon company assigned corps squadron raf operating orders forward soon captured assigned desert mounted corps flight squadron attached force operated jerusalem squadron consisting bristol fighters carry bombing strategic reconnaissance provide general oversight battlefield report developments nos squadrons aircraft patrol main day bombing machine targets area prevent aircraft leaving squadron consisting aircraft bomb telephone exchange railway station junction railway lines ottoman seventh army headquarters telephone exchange newly arrived page bomber armed pounds bombs piloted australian ross smith support squadron bombing medical support total beds available palestine egypt including clearing hospitals beds available egypt hospital centre region stationary hospitals accommodate casualties australian general hospital suez_canal malaria cases jordan valley overflow british general hospital cairo australian stationary hospital beds available august casualty clearing stations clearing hospitals located jerusalem supported medical stores depots jerusalem british_empire plan timing attacks corps force dependent progress corps september corps continue holding miles hills corps succeeded breaking ottoman defences advancing north secondary objectives 10th 53rd divisions launch attacks sides road jerusalem particular corps right flank swing north north east capture remaining escape routes eastwards hills jordan river jordan valley force hold occupied area right flank attack ottoman fourth army prevent force withdrawing troops sent reinforce seventh eighth armies hills ottoman force began withdrawal capture bridge plan focused capturing ottoman line communication retreat fourth army east jordan river seventh eighth armies hills west jordan anxious september lines indicated headquarters vii viii armies joined lateral line railway possession turks road salt great advantage occupy salt troops arabs reason moving line encourage new indian troops arab allies force attack pursue fourth army intercept capture strong garrison capture army group august army group commanded von consisted line organised divisions deployed kilometres line armed rifles light heavy machine guns high number machine guns reflecting ottoman army new tables organization high machine gun component german asia corps ottoman line hills entrenched south terrain favoured defence area consisted difficult broken ground rugged area hills defenders supplied railways main railway jordan damascus istanbul good roads damascus eighth army eighth army soldiers supported artillery guns headquarters commanded held line mediterranean coast north hills corps consisted 7th 20th 46th infantry divisions asia corps known left wing group consisted 16th 19th infantry divisions german battalion groups german brigade 2nd cavalry division held reserve corps sized german formation commanded german colonel von divisions holding line mediterranean_sea faced corps hills faced corps highly regarded veteran formations ottoman army particular 7th 19th infantry divisions fought distinction gallipoli campaign iii corps seventh army seventh army soldiers supported guns commanded headquarters army comprising iii corps 1st 11th infantry divisions corps 26th 53rd infantry division held line hills eastwards miles west north west west bank jordan river fourth army fourth army infantry cavalry supported guns headquartered commanded fourth army held line jordan valley southwards railway additional ottoman soldiers guns scattered southwards railway line fourth army corps viii corps 48th infantry division composite division included german battalion group cavalry brigade division sized group corps known group jordan group consisted 24th 62nd infantry divisions 3rd cavalry division reserve reserves 2nd cavalry division 3rd cavalry division divisional formations available reserve duty operational held reserve fourth armies respectively views force english language assessment describes fourth seventh eighth ottoman armies fighting strength infantry mounted troops guns states miles line hills defended ottoman soldiers guns british_empire infantry cavalry guns infantry battalions 16th infantry division effective strengths equal british infantry company men men assigned 19th infantry division battalions men claims ottoman armies strength suffering greatly strained supply system overwhelmingly outnumbered claimed ottoman supply system bad february normal daily army group palestine consisted grains bread boiled beans times day oil battle preliminary attack september 53rd division attempted seize basin overlooking ottoman road system lines watershed flowed gradually west hills flowed east jordan river area required construction road link british road system newly captured ottoman road system objectives captured position known british ridge held ottomans late september 53rd division attack began shortly evening september battalions brigade 21st vanguard moved wide flanking manoeuvre rocky terrain rear ottoman positions turned left attacked series ottoman positions east capturing small posts artillery bombardment enabled continue advance brigade began advance immediately encountered strong ottoman defences speaking british officers wounded despite casualties brigade captured objectives command adjutant captain brigade advanced captured position red rocket brigade indicating captured objectives sighted brigade met increasing machine gun artillery fire minute artillery bombardment enabled capture square hill position southern end ridge captured having assaults intense bombardment artillery trench mortars machine guns targeted german ottoman second line trenches ahead corps mediterranean coast additional fire support came siege batteries provided counter battery fire destroyers hms hms fired ottoman trenches north beginning battle ridge remained ottoman hands september finally captured road works begin 53rd division start attempt block line retreat jordan river september instead attempting frontal assault strongly entrenched ottoman positions divisions corps carry movement 10th division left main road capture 53rd division right east watershed cut lines retreat hills converge september received orders launch corps attack night sides road minute bombardment 10th division begin attack inter army boundary asia corps eighth ottoman army seventh ottoman army miles east western end spur 53rd division attack begin captured ridge eastwards following watershed block roman road jordan river commander seventh army reported army repulsed practically attacks withdraw second line position conform von asia corps eighth army retirement corps artillery bombardment began minutes later battalions 29th brigade 10th division began advance strongly entrenched ottoman positions reinforced supported artillery barrage village captured advance continued occupied early hours morning september jordan valley force faced stiff opposition ottoman line troops consequence progress brigade afternoon september brigade mountain batteries able position fire ridge supported brigade battery companies 2nd battalion british west_indies regiment force destroyed ottoman outposts captured ridge south ridge despite intense artillery machine gun fire heavy fire dug held position regiments 2nd light horse brigade able advance september 10th division advanced miles dawn september encountering solid resistance required artillery support defeat artillery support delayed time lack track transport guns attack 53rd division ridge proved difficult negotiate progress relatively slow left column 10th division near right column advances slowed effective ottoman right 29th brigade launched attack met strong resistance german machine gunners mile north 31st brigade began advance held woods east south 29th 31st brigades renewed attacks supported artillery brigades subsequently captured infantry charge village centre 10th 53rd divisions watson force sent 1st corps troops forward advance northwards jerusalem road road found heavily mined battalions pioneers cleared devices advanced miles fired evening advanced miles encountering small captured 10th heavy battery siege battery pulled wheel drive ammunition detachments advanced far road possible rate miles hour action evening near south strong ottoman encountered 53rd division day substantially slowed progress minute bombardment brigade attacked counter attacked battalion ottoman regiment drove heavy losses brigade half way objective yards south breach defences artillery support brigade succeeded brigade captured western bank jordan river gains previous day consolidated ridge captured dawn 2nd battalion british west_indies regiment 38th battalion royal faced heavy rifle machine gun fire strongly held ottoman forces late morning large ottoman force seen south shelled mid afternoon new_zealand mounted rifles brigade began advance eastern bank jordan river 6th 7th light horse regiments 2nd light horse brigade force company infantry attacked defended positions ottoman left flank patrols shelled guns general situation hours fighting began corps forced ottoman eighth army coastal plain desert mounted corps cut ottoman seventh remnants eighth armies main lines communication retreat plain september prisoners captured eighth ottoman army ceased exist von asia corps seventh ottoman army withdrew north eastwards hills capture jordan river losing guns transport desert mounted corps captured captured following morning coastal plain cleared corps desert mounted corps controlled main ottoman lines retreat group soldiers retreating mount captured afternoon september soldiers captured evening attempting cross line established plain 4th cavalry division battle big far successful think taken prisoners guns morning cavalry occupied pushed rapidly south eastwards entered evening closing enemy line escape infantry yesterday captured pursuing enemy eastwards today went road broken wagons dead turks horses killed smashed bombing bombing crowded roads continues today think ought capture turks guns bulk army losses heavy proportion results gained hope motor tomorrow cavalry cavalry headquarters armageddon present moment september ordered continuation corps attacks 10th division capture 53rd division advance high ground north north east direction road capture control line retreat jordan valley september 29th 31st brigades 10th division resumed advance 29th brigade supported hong_kong battery brigades left 30th brigade concentrated west preparation follow advance 29th brigade reached damascus road strong ottoman rearguard miles south delayed infantry attack hour defenders east rearguard position captured garrison retreated 1st corps cavalry regiment captured prisoners worcester continued advance north east stalled machine gun fire 31st brigade advanced hills south 29th 30th brigades went captured prisoners time fighting ceased seventh army retreat 3rd division corps continued flanking advance reach yards west september occupied miles long line stretched miles east capture cutting railway north 5th light horse brigade attached 60th division camped near night september brigade consisting 14th 15th light horse regiments ordered assist capture morning september reach negotiate wreckage caused aerial bombing road battle battle movements light horse brigade dead men animals torn ruthless bombs swollen distorted animals lived wounded cases pinned time stop help came war hell looks picture 5th light horse brigade 2nd light armoured motor battery advanced quickly road attack resistance outside capture town prisoners field guns armoured cars entered 14th light horse regiment linked 29th 30th brigades 10th division corps 10th division reached noon met fifth australian light horse brigade entered town west time light horse rode streets ancient camped plain town received orders rejoin australian mounted division fell french regiment usual demonstrations allegiance turkish troops abandoned surrounding country civic leaders formally surrendered 5th collected garrison advancing 10th division fought marched days hills mount suffering casualties capturing prisoners wrote able motor joined evening motor ahead advance guards country mass half bodies turks armed ordinary indian sergeant emerging mountains followed fully armed turks surrendered wrote estimate total number prisoners counted today miles overlooking plain beautiful view flat high hills mount opposite mount overlooking indian cavalry got turks lance plain yesterday killed passed thousands prisoners today advance road 53rd division maintained pressure day attempt capture high ground north north east seal lines retreat jordan river crossing brigade guarded water supply brigades advanced miles suffering casualties captured prisoners guns 6th occupied unopposed follow advance gained miles advance north unopposed apparent enemy forces sent orders stand fast advance blocked road unnecessary road subsequently bombarded raf artillery battery brigade 10th heavy battery batteries brigade german ottoman retreat early afternoon september organised army group resistance hills ceased ottoman eighth army surrendered seventh army retreating east road hoping cross jordan river bridge von withdrawal von units available stop cavalry advance coast plain attack having forced army group retreat early hours september fled damascus arrived morning september ordered fourth army withdraw line waiting southern troops asia corps night september 16th 19th divisions marched west von orders linked von asia corps morning von reorganised asia corps remnants battalions rifle company machine gun company trench mortar detachment battalion machine gun company guns troop cavalry infantry artillery platoon mountain guns trench mortar section mortars cavalry squadron remained intact von informed approaching road blocked consequently decided retreat miles east south east cross jordan river route cut shortly von ordered retreat guns baggage mount september largely successful suffered casualties fired british_empire artillery von 16th 19th divisions unaware desert mounted corps occupied september german ottoman soldiers 16th 19th divisions von moving northwards learned captured decided advance night september correctly von order strong rearguard action commander eighth army ordered cross jordan instead von successfully got germans ottoman soldiers jordan river 11th cavalry brigade attacked capturing failed cross river seventh army seventh army retreated road jordan river abandoning guns transports large column ottoman soldiers seen miles north moving road heavily bombed machine british australian aircraft blocked ottoman forces subjected hours sustained attack destroyed guns motor vehicles remnants army turned north ain moving ottoman 53rd division managed escape blocked later captured force jordan valley september september prisoners captured corps hills force september september mounted rifles regiment advanced western bank jordan river capture road ottoman defensive line covering bridge subsequently discovered seventh army seen moving force new_zealand mounted rifles brigade mobile detachments 1st 2nd battalions british west_indies regiment 29th indian mountain battery battery arrived early morning september force captured bridge cutting line retreat fourth ottoman army began retreat night september force advancing salt new_zealand mounted rifles brigade advanced track 1st light horse brigade advanced track 2nd light horse brigade moved round southern flank position evacuated brigades salt occupied evening september day force began advance salt attack captured september southern corps fourth army captured near september force suffered killed missing wounded battle captured prisoners guns machine guns air support royal_air_force provided timely aerial reconnaissance reports attacks bombs machine guns spread destruction death terror enemy lines nerve centres constant bombing september royal_air_force 5th corps wing headquartered deployed provide support squadron attached corps stationed junction station flight squadron attached force operating jerusalem aircraft responsible cooperation artillery contact patrols tactical reconnaissance yards advance corps force seven squadrons palestine brigade raf australian squadron allotted page bomber weeks offensive began squadron carried bombing offensive patrols strategic page bomber piloted ross smith bombed central telephone exchange artillery bombardment signalled beginning battle aircraft flying road bridge salt far reported quiet dawn morning september raf bristol fighters later attack convoy vehicles withdrawing blocking road causing horses bolt road men scattered hills reconnaissance september reported ottoman line alarmed large fires burning railway station supply brigade british cavalry seen entering dawn aerial scouting september returned reports previous day attacks roads leading jordan river precursor follow attacks day midday september particular aerial reconnaissance found ottoman troops salt surrounding areas withdrawing september bombing formation attacked large amounts munitions retreating columns salt road returning rout resulted attacked air day retreating columns column moving salt attacked australian aircraft saw columns retreating trains appeared ready leave damascus afternoon september virtually area west clear ottoman soldiers september column moving seen column attacked australian aircraft attacks continuing day tons bombs machine gun rounds aftermath september troops corps cavalry regiment desert mounted corps cleared hills capturing prisoners total corps captured prisoners guns machine guns automatic rifles suffering casualties process remnants ottoman corps previously region surrendered force end september september remaining soldiers fourth seventh eighth ottoman armies total men retreating damascus


scottish soldiers killings scottish soldiers killings incident took place northern_ireland troubles happened march provisional irish republican army shot dead unarmed british_army soldiers 1st battalion royal highland teenage brothers scotland killed duty civilian clothes having lured city centre bar belfast driven remote location shot whilst relieving whilst british soldiers killed prior event duty killed rioting deaths led public mourning protests provisional pressure act precipitated political crisis government northern_ireland led resignation northern_ireland prime minister james clark british_army raised minimum age needed serve northern_ireland response incident memorial dedicated soldiers near killed north belfast events british troops deployed northern_ireland operation banner response deteriorating security situation following northern_ireland riots british_army involved disturbances culminating falls july provisional irish republican army created december split official irish republican army split provisional planned offensive action british occupation provisional chief staff mac decided british agreed army council sanctioned offensive operations british_army beginning year robert curtis british soldier shot killed provisional february soldiers killed prior march brothers john joseph glasgow scotland ages serving 1st battalion royal highland stationed barracks belfast occurred march soldiers granted afternoon pass allowed leave base younger brother serving unit duty unable join soldiers duty unarmed civilian clothes drinking belfast city centre bar safer areas city soldiers stage troubles previous year occurred different circumstances rioting report said scottish soldiers car republican women promised party taken white hill road north belfast murdered provisional members shot head chest august able establish exact sequence events established shot close range probably line drinking joseph found severely jury told probably shot whilst relieving road commented think murder crimes heard living memory bodies beer glasses lying near failing return barracks listed bodies found children aftermath day killings british home secretary statement house_of_commons informed house security arrangements duty soldiers reviewed suggested aim killers provoke security forces said battle joined terrorists fought determination battle small minority armed ruthless men strength lies numbers held scotland john joseph buried older brother serving royal marines singapore flown home service day people attended rallies belfast belfast city hall focus mourning people attending including workers factories gathering stopped traffic city centre openly reverend led laying dozens crowd observed minute silence sang hymn national anthem deaths lead crisis government northern_ireland calls increased security measures demanded government resignation saying longer tolerate weakness land blood innocent men women march shipyard workers took streets belfast demand northern_ireland prime minister james clark flew london request troops numbers wanted resigned march brian elected party leader appointed prime minister day british_army raised minimum age serving northern_ireland response death year old john convicted killings daily_mirror reported november provisional men responsible deaths martin died patrick unnamed man questioned killings charged shot killed august gun battle area belfast suspected fatal shooting hours death private green case soldiers examined police service northern_ireland historical team memorial mother brothers visited site deaths expressed wish leave monument sons advised damaged later said touched flowers left spot royal british legion branch belfast raised money sale erect memorial men memorial stone placed site killings hill families regimental colleagues soldiers day foot incorporating carved images deceased dedicated soldiers nearby avenue service remembrance regimental drums colours held leisure centre attended people including lord mayor belfast long north belfast vandalism memorial white marks place killings july graffiti memorial stones surrounding memorial scattered road ceremonial ropes ripped poppy laid recent ceremony mark anniversary memorial opening scattered nearby fields memorial attacked numerous occasions costing thousands repair memorial hate crime erection memorial attacks vandalism


plan plan croatian plan serbian latin plan peace plan negotiated united_states secretary state cyrus november croatian war independence time special envoy secretary general united_nations assisted united_states diplomat negotiations plan designed implement parts croatia control croatian serbs yugoslav people army allow return refugees create favourable conditions negotiations permanent political settlement conflict resulting breakup yugoslavia plan consisted agreements agreement known geneva accord signed yugoslav defence minister general president serbia croatian president geneva switzerland november agreed time hold negotiations resulted implementation agreement january implementation agreement signed bosnia lieutenant colonel general croatian defence minister produced longer lasting supervised united_nations protection force parties failed completely implement remaining major aspects plan background august known log revolution took place croatia centred predominantly populated areas city parts regions settlements eastern croatia significant populations areas subsequently declared republic serbian declared intention join serbia government croatia declared rebel organization march conflict escalated resulting croatian war independence june croatia declared independence yugoslavia month independence croatia followed came effect october croatian national_guard croatian garde formed yugoslav people army croatian increasingly supported croatian police unable cope situation november year renamed croatian army croatian establishment military croatia hampered arms introduced september final months saw fighting war culminating battle barracks siege battle geneva accord plan result diplomatic mission cyrus united_states secretary state special envoy secretary general united_nations assisted diplomat secretary general united_nations special political affairs mission sent yugoslavia aimed negotiating end hostilities croatia late plan proposed protection civilians specific areas designated united_nations protected areas united_nations operation croatia plan presented president serbia found plan wholly acceptable promised ensure leadership eventually supported endorsed plan ensured preservation serbian territorial gains retained croatian administration areas deployed allowed shift focus bosnia met yugoslav defence minister general endorsed plan apparently urged plan accepted croatian president geneva accord signed geneva switzerland november accord deployment force comprised provisions end croatian blockade barracks withdrawal personnel equipment croatia implementation delivery humanitarian aid parties accord agreed deployment mission croatia later authorized united_nations security council resolution november following formal request deployment submitted yugoslav government previous day plan approved security council resolution report secretary general submitted december security council resolution december resolution determined conditions necessary deploy met instead deployed liaison officers prepare mission fighting continued blockade barracks controlled territory remained place december final day round meetings negotiated agreement provisional arrangement backed deployment oversee final obstacle agreement removed agreed lift blockade remaining barracks held territory december met conditions implementation declared objections plan december implementation agreement final agreement known plan implementation agreement agreement croatian deployment possible acceptance agreement represent final political settlement description role mission allowed sides claim victory claimed situation allowed maintenance authorities final political settlement reached virtually ensuring incentive negotiate believed restore controlled area croatian authority attempt hours negotiations agreement signed croatian defence minister deputy commander 5th military district lieutenant colonel general bosnia january 15th agreement signed start croatian war independence march generally held took effect january hours main exception area held positions city nearby july area included deployment schedule january yugoslav navy retreated naval base near split january major general commander noted violations january yugoslav air_force shot european community monitor mission helicopter day resigned minister defence replaced colonel general plan designed stop fighting croatia allow negotiations proceed impact ongoing hostilities offered political solutions advance plan entailed deployment strong united_nations protection force major conflict areas designated protected areas plan listed specific municipalities included exact borders defined clearly municipalities partially included task defining exact borders delegated liaison officers deployed advance operation authorities area creation necessary acceptance plan dominated authorities yugoslavia originally requested deployment force zone croatian areas reflecting desire force securing confrontation lines croatia wanted force deployed international borders served formally satisfy parties tasked creating zones croatian territorial defence force troops overseeing withdrawal return refugees areas united_nations security council resolution february described legal basis mission requested agreed november explicit reference chapter chapter vii united_nations charter instead resolution referred chapter viii united_nations charter enforcement regional arrangements agencies authorization security council president milan refused endorse plan summoned belgrade members federal presidency commanders leaders tried persuade change mind hour long meeting despite failing persuade arranged parliament approve plan instead supporters organized separate concurrent sessions parliament group proclaiming victory february removed president following intervention replaced opposed plan considered acceptance replacement represent facto acceptance croatian sovereignty territory held plan treated territory croatia croatia considered croatia objected official recognition officials feared use mission consolidate croatian authorities considered parties plan authorities belgrade croatia aftermath despite geneva accord requiring immediate withdrawal personnel equipment croatia remained seven months eventually withdrew left equipment forces january allowed retain positions east west brink military collapse consequence organizational problems previous agreement start arrive march took months fully deploy placed heavy weapons storage areas jointly controlled january troops unable provisions plan militia return refugees restoration civilian authority establishment mixed police force military retitled police ethnic areas control continued compelled prevent return refugees poor security conditions attempt establish mixed police force failed remove forces areas outside designated control implementation agreement signed areas later better known pink zones supposed restored croatian control outset failure aspect implementation plan pink zones major source friction croatia croatia launched small scale military operations seize significant local objectives capture international attention worried situation ground permanent response military retrieved weapons controlled storage sites reversing major success march mission terminated following efforts ambassador richard united_nations confidence restoration operation deployed croatia new mandate later year territory controlled captured operations flash storm opposed plan rest held areas regained croatia following agreement negotiated croatian serbian authorities november peace talks produced agreement


capture uss capture uss battle boston harbor fought june royal_navy frigate hms shannon american frigate uss war united_states great_britain captured brief intense action men killed frigate action war force boston captain james lawrence took command june sea meet waiting hms shannon frigate written challenge missed sailing suffered early exchange gunfire having wheel fore shot away rendering lawrence mortally wounded carried american crew struggled carry captain order don ship british boarding party overwhelmed battle notably intense short duration lasting minutes time men killed wounded shannon captain philip broke severely injured fighting forecastle crew taken halifax nova_scotia sailors imprisoned ship repaired taken service royal_navy sold portsmouth england broken surviving build nearby mill seen visited day shannon survived longer broken prelude philip broke naval gunnery long period command shannon captain philip broke royal_navy introduced practical great guns virtually contemporary naval gunnery sights fitted pounder long guns improved aiming compensated barrels breech muzzle wedge shaped pieces wood placed breech long guns mark degrees elevation guns reliably fire horizontally state ship press sail similarly treated screws cannon marked paint decks contemporary ships curved upwards stern bows cut wheels slope cannon carriage order guns level horizon introduced system deck gun fire directed bearing independent ability particular gun crew target fire battery focused enemy ship broke crew extremely high standard naval gunnery regularly fire targets floating barrels drills competitions gun crew hit target fast gun crews fire targets good effect given bearing lay gun allowed sight gun target constituted early example director firing addition gunnery drills broke fond preparing hypothetical scenarios test crew example hands quarters inform theoretical attack act defend ship use training avoided method training called regularly practised game employing roughly similar cuts played wooden sticks hand guards hits painful dangerous soon developed eye wrist crew expert james lawrence commander lawrence united_states_navy returned successful war cruise having defeated sloop hms promoted captain victory received orders command uss command particularly wanted hoped larger frigate uss constitution instead little choice matter letter secretary navy william jones order request lawrence travelled boston lawrence found crew left dispute prize money replaced lawrence prior experience british navy worked battle hms warship fought british gunnery crew laden good seamen lacked time working needed change collection good seamen efficient fighting crew lawrence assumptions concerning poor quality opposition leave confident facing adversary encounter issuing challenge eager engage defeat american frigates scored number victories royal_navy single ship confrontations broke prepared challenge uss president slipped harbour cover fog evaded british constitution undergoing extensive repairs alterations ready sea future appeared ready sea consequently broke decided challenge boston harbour command captain james lawrence offering single ship ship combat whilst patrolling offshore shannon intercepted captured number american ships attempting reach harbour sending halifax found crew dangerously reduced broke resorted burning rest prizes order conserve highly trained crew anticipation battle boats burnt prizes sent boston carrying broke oral invitation lawrence come engage broke sent away hope favourable odds americans eventually began despair come harbour finally decided send written challenge copying adversary lawrence earlier war captain sloop war sent written invitation captain british sloop war single ship contest lawrence offer declined appears ready sea request favour meet shannon ship ship try fortune respective flags shannon mounts guns broadside light boat gun pounders pounder quarterdeck forecastle manned complement men boys thirty seamen boys passengers taken recaptured vessels sir imagine urged mere personal wish meeting depend personal ambition invitation noble motives feel compliment result meeting grateful service render country doubt equally confident success feel convinced repeated little navy hope console country loss trade longer protect favour reply short provisions water stay long captain lawrence fact receive broke letter according author toll difference lawrence intended sail uss day favourable weather fact nation interests point war challenging british frigates entered reasoning uss president slipped harbor embark commerce raiding mission deemed national interest half officers quarter crew new ship short time command lawrence twice exercised crew great guns walking decks personally supervising drill instigated signal crew board enemy vessel unfortunately crew member able produce note dull boy surgeon assistant called william brown lawrence believed win battle wrote quick notes secretary navy intentions brother law asking look lawrence wife children event death hms shannon boston days running short provisions whilst extended period sea wearing ship disadvantage facing uss fresh harbour refit boat carrying invitation manned discharged american prisoner boat reached shore seen underway sailing harbour flying american large white flag foremast inscribed free trade sailor rights shannon carried officers seamen marines proper complement recaptured seamen irish labourers hours ship speak english boys years age broke trained gun crews fire accurate hulls enemy vessels aim killing gun crews shooting masts lawrence confident ship especially carried substantially larger crew previous american victories royal_navy ships left success engagement american crew gave cheers ships close match size force possible given variations ship design armament existing contemporary navies uss rated guns armament pounder long guns exact match hms shannon measurements proved ships deck length major difference ships shannon comparison vessels english measurement methods ships dimensions armament battle gunnery duel american ship approached broke spoke crew ending description philosophy gunnery throw shot away aim cool work steadily fire quarters quarterdeck quarterdeck don try kill men ship ships met half past afternoon nautical miles east boston light cape ann cape shannon flying weather worn blue ensign dilapidated outside appearance long period sea suggested easy opponent observing flags sailor questioned broke sir like said broke ship hms shannon refused fire uss bore uss hms shannon despite having weather lawrence behaviour day earned praise british officers gallantry ships opened fire range metres shannon scoring hit striking forward round shot bag musket balls fired william gun captain shannon starboard pounders moving faster shannon ranged british ship destruction inflicted precise gunnery british crew moved aft american forward gun crews suffering heaviest losses american crew despite losses returned fire shots struck water waterline shannon causing little damage american fire caused damage shannon rigging particular pound ball struck shot shannon pounder gun main chains shot propelled like hail distance closed shannon gun crews kept relentless fire unprotected quarter deck surface moon captain lawrence realised ship speed past shannon ordered pilot small brief turn sails reduce ship speed began limited turn away shannon means entirely disabled second round accurate british fire caused losses critically men officers manning quarterdeck killed pounder gun broke ordered installed quarter deck purpose gun shortly shot away wheel surviving american gun crews land hits shannon second round fire especially american fire swept shannon forecastle killing men wounding shannon pounder bow gun round shot demolished shannon ship bell time lost control helm fore shot away fore yard dropped losing forward momentum wind sails pressed masts went backwards port stern quarter rear left corner contact shannon starboard level fifth bow caught projecting shannon anchors boom swung deck british ship stevens broke boom ships lost arm trapped shannon angle guns fire british ship unable manoeuvre away stern exposed swept fire earlier action shannon gunnery devastated forward gun crews destruction inflicted gun crews aft ship american ship situation worsened small open musket mast blew smoke cleared broke judged time right gave order board captain lawrence gave order board frightened aboard william brown failed sound near lawrence heard command time lawrence officer left upper deck wounded lieutenant cox brought men lower deck form boarding party reached quarterdeck find captain badly mortally wounded musket ball lawrence order stay upright cox served sea life lawrence carried cockpit help sailors taken lawrence called tell men fire faster don ship british board contrast confusion loss leadership aboard american vessel british boarding party effectively organised number small arms men rushed aboard led broke including clerk john killed crossed rest party captain broke head men stepped rail waist muzzle jumped quarterdeck british boarded american officers left quarterdeck organise resistance deserted having swept shannon gunfire surviving gun crews responded taken refuge american officers lieutenant cox returned carrying captain lawrence surgeon russell saw pounders port bore shannon working managed fire lieutenant slightly wounded gone cockpit treatment returned upper decks rallying american crew lieutenant joined band men led fore hatch led counter attack pushed british far wave british reinforcements arrived received mortal wound americans thrown james shannon charged americans wielding boarding pike shouting spit lacking officers lead lieutenant wounded lacking support americans driven american resistance fell apart exception band men forecastle tops number americans driven upper decks main comparative safety berth deck seeing cox called damned sons jumping asked nearby stop cutting cox replied sir use fighting ongoing tops platforms junction mast ships rival fired opponents sailors exposed decks ships locked british led william smith commander fore stormed fore yard arm killed americans following wind tore ships apart blown bows shannon left british strong stranded organised resistance aboard american ship ceased time broke led charge number americans managed rally forecastle american sailors probably rigging descended attacked taken surprise killed second hit musket stunned whilst open skull sabre knocking deck sailor finish broke american british marine named john hill shannon crew rallied defence captain carried forecastle killing remaining americans broke sat weak slide head bound william shannon believed broke probably british desperate violent attempt broke life men motivated fact faced death penalty royal_navy articles war shannon lieutenant george attempted british colours aboard shannon hit forehead killed taken british cleared upper decks american resistance crew taken refuge berth deck musket pistol shot berth deck killed british marine william young guarding main furious british crewmen began firing americans crowded lieutenant charles shannon leader rushed restored order threatening blow brains person fire demanded americans send man killed young adding taken men aboard act hostility called deck shot given command british prize vessel shannon action smith british officer broke wounded action die infection wounds weeks later acting master ship action shortly secured broke loss blood rowed shannon attended ship surgeon engagement lasted minutes according shannon log minutes lieutenant watch broke claimed minutes official shannon lost men killed wounded killed including master officers wounded shannon hit total projectiles figures include time batteries ships firing americans exposed whilst british received reply figures shot produced casualties material damage shot fired low bouncing shannon waterline level boarded lost gunnery duel considerable margin large lime found open forecastle bag lime discovered fore british sailors alleged intention throw eyes shannon men unfair manner attempted board crew historian albert called allegation absurd noting lime carried ship stores fact left deck ship cleared action probably neglect junior petty officer aftermath victory prize crew aboard commander prize lieutenant good deal trouble americans outnumbered men leaders unrest transferred shannon leg ironically shipped aboard deal expected british prisoners rest american crew rendered carpenter cutting holes pounder cannon loaded pointed shannon commanded lieutenant escorted prize halifax arriving june entry frigates harbour naval ships anchor manned yards bands played martial music ship shannon passed greeted cheers american survivors battle interned island ship taken british service renamed hms ferry prisoners island england prison officers halifax began riot performance patriotic song defeat parole restrictions beginning officers required attend monthly muster island violated parole confined prison major victory naval war british capture raised shaken morale royal_navy setting september brief cruise captain shannon departed england october carrying recovering broke arrived portsmouth november successful action promoted rank commander smith broke september court common council london awarded freedom city sword worth received piece plate worth pounds cup worth captain lawrence buried halifax military honours british naval officers served active service royal_navy eventually sold portsmouth england broken construction mill hampshire shannon reduced receiving ship broken capture seen humiliation contributed popular sentiment war new calling conflict madison war james madison demanded resign presidency war reached new lows historical accuracy sacrificed patriotic fever accounts shannon victory ascribed reasons took account lawrence rushed fight unprepared crew awaited roosevelt later state american history writers minutes shannon crew taken horrible losses break crew unfortunately lawrence meet average british frigate point long wars men aboard real seamen frigate crew highest pitch training led expert naval gunnery said shannon destructive vessel force probably existed history naval warfare broke commanded ship head wound blow exposed brain severe initially pronounced fatal ship surgeon broke survived wound moderate old age years suffered greater lesser extent problems rest life casualties heavy british lost killed wounded americans lost killed wounded wounded ships companies died wounds weeks following action relative total number men participating ship ship actions age sail comparison hms victory suffered fewer casualties battle entire action lasted minutes speaking fighting sister ship hms shannon restored preserved hms class seen dock north east england oldest british warship afloat fiction capture uss hms shannon features prominently fortune war sixth book series historical fiction novels patrick brian main characters having escaped boston prisoners war board shannon engagement battle described considerable accuracy brian fictional characters playing minor roles action battle discussed science fiction novel starship robert