hall hall case filed world intellectual property organization united_nations agency filed political commentator hall concerning website hall created site parody express view commentary style challenged guests prove negative site based joke comedian gilbert comedy central bob jokingly listeners disregard non existent rumor raped murdered girl online posters began internet comparing joke style debate requesting committed act question hall launched website september filed complaint uniform domain dispute resolution policy arguing domain website asserted trademark infringement use hall filed response brief cited supreme_court case magazine asserting website domain form free speech satirical political humor supplemental filing case arguing domain misleading lead individuals believe contained factual information hall filed stated value amendment attempting evade reach legal proceeding outside courts october ruled concluding hall making political statement parody justified usage mark commentators noted actions led effect suit website drew increased attention representatives public citizen electronic frontier foundation citizen media law project opinion trademark argument complaint website ridiculous assistant director citizen media law project applauded decision saying good interest allowing guarantees constitution representative declined comment magazine conclusion case lawyers respond request national public radio comment ruling history background gilbert joke gilbert featured comedian comedy central bob aired august jokingly listeners disregard rumor fellow comedian raped killed girl repeatedly warned audience spread rumor exist comedian speech audience attendance comedy central shocked nature joke time repeated internet august post internet discussion community applied joke online posters compared internet style arguing requesting committed act question spread social media websites including encyclopedia yahoo youtube twitter variation technique google provided murder search suggestion hall year old computer science student panama city florida saw discussion joke created website intending parody style political commentary chose identify service decided remain anonymous hall domain site launched september received page views hours website asserted believe charges true hall wrote site asserting similar strategy promote opinions increase viewership originally displayed small text stating site satirical hall later placed prominent page identified parody website main page stated entire contents parody included link larger page site criticized tactic challenging opposes prove negative hall told politics daily reading initial thread started came conclusion involved online participation propagation form explained interview means utilizing strategies criticize way focus style commentary action hall website inspired parodies litigation legal action september attorneys representing mercury radio arts media company requested domain hall website site lawyers characterized site location demanded domain privacy protection service website turn contact information anonymous hall refused september lawyers sent letter domain repeating requests noting read website contents aware statements posted site operator notified second letter observed site operational september spite prior requests behalf domain changed website telling hall contacting permitted return original interview september hall remarked attorneys contacted domain hosting provider company housed website noted hosting provider informed cooperate requests lawyers received court order complaint september lawyers mercury radio arts filed complaint world intellectual property organization uniform domain dispute resolution policy privacy service hall website switzerland based agency united_nations rules arbitration center created internet corporation assigned names numbers privacy service website revealed identity site owner response complaint complaint stated hall trying perceptions purpose site argued domain website confused trademark complaint described website domain claiming legally registered claim claim libel complaint focusing legal issue trademark complaint asserted website contained inaccurate information unauthorized highly probable create uncertainty potential customers complaint asserted domain website example bad faith registration argued hall legitimate interest right website domain september process use goods services including usage merchandise hall response hall retained amendment rights lawyer represent according hall sought legal representation contacted legal requests lawyers representing september filed page response brief behalf client asserting website domain form protected political speech satirical political humor according website satirical purposes owner attempting profit wrote individual idiot come impression client website directly affiliated website domain confused trademark hurry asserted demonstrated trademark rights claimed actually trying website taken appreciate criticism satire parodied techniques argued hall legitimate rights website domain use criticize political satire internet begun website brief gave short history internet phenomena including video parodies german film downfall based film hitler hates kanye_west base belong ate balls story involving richard traced website origin explaining internet roots gilbert joke spelled root comedic intent hall website explanation termed humor equation outrageous accusation celebrity question celebrity deny accusation confirmation accusation laughter hall response brief cited clip interviewing united_states congressman keith muslim minnesota stated representative offense know muslims like muslims don think islam religion evil think frankly said democrat saying let cut run tell nervous interview feel like saying sir prove working enemies know accusing enemy way feel think lot americans feel way argued example interview style challenged guests prove negative concluded style similar simply devoid comedic intent argument compared case supreme_court united_states case magazine wrote attempting evade amendment united_states_constitution filing legal process agency united_nations instead court legal brief pointed action going attempt website taken contradiction prior statements saying preferred united_states law international law september requested voluntarily ask amendment applied arbitration case despite international setting request political commentary favored united_states_constitution international law september letter attorneys cited statements indicated preferred united_states law international law said sign rights international law constitution officially dead letter concluded certain party wishes amendment rights international trademark principles proving point case example international law causing damage constitutional rights clients hold dear request client agree application american constitutional law case october interviewed case radio program declaring independence explained file libel lawsuit united_states pointed public figure prove legal standard referred actual hall knew inaccurate explained apply hall website inaccurate supreme_court ruled magazine proof needed absurd statement context satire supplemental filing submitted supplemental filing case october supplemental filing attorneys argued joke hall website obvious website domain misleading filing asserted absolutely humorous amusing statement domain raped murdered young girl average internet user finding domain disputed domain search reason believe directed website providing factual information opposed protected criticism similar protected speech october hall filed response supplemental filing hall asserted butt viral joke protected speech perceived comedic nature subject stated value amendment attempting evade reach legal proceeding outside courts ruling october ruled case prevailed case court ruled favor issues domain mistaken mark hall stake domain bad faith point frederick ruled domain confused mark issue profit mark ruled substantial commercial activity warrant particular claim sole panel concluded hall legitimate interests website purposes political satire form comedic parody draw conclusion point noting unlikely prevailed bad faith issue wrote determination website issue instead limited case scope determination website engaged abusive domain registration use hall gives domain november hall wrote giving control domain free charge providing hall wrote point act filing complaint exacerbated situation hall explained rationale giving away domain citing desire protect amendment constitution satisfied reported november dead site november domain registered company mercury radio arts notice posted websites hall wished suffering characterized conclusion case success post blog hall lawyer described case victory freedom speech respond hall letter representative declined comment magazine conclusion case lawyers respond request comment ruling national public radio commentary complaint response electronic frontier foundation attorney paul levy public citizen commented case calling trademark claim ridiculous citizen media law project agreed assessment levy noted domain names seen statement domain deemed false levy thought filing hall identity anonymous prior complaint couldn recall prior case individual asserted domain jack post wrote attempt lawyers arguing domain website likely occurred field information technology law media commentators including paul minnesota independent andy national public radio andrew domain wire considered legal brief written writing called legal brief funny considered amusing north shore massachusetts noted case strategic import field politics referring style commentary exemplified interview congressman keith chris news commented legal issues case asked hold law involved citizens additionally wondered asserting trademark individual names called request united_states law creative daily pointed inherent legal position seeking international agency compared prior statements criticizing foreign law favor law effect commentators analyzed actions respect effect jim chicago_sun-times commented website dissuade attorneys representing attempting site removed triggered effect client politics daily wrote taking legal action achieved impact desire garnering attention hall website john cook noted attempts remove site internet helped assure noteworthy actions mike wrote case commenting effect actions spread observed retrospect simply encourage attempts remove internet pointed actions provided legitimacy wrote des register article task ahead shutting web site like trying vine eating south citizen media law project observed exacerbated situation legal tactics hall served increase popularity coverage impact conclusion case commented including afforded freedom speech guaranteed amendment allow internet environment rights given pointed lawyers replied request parties constitution amendment case observed irrelevant case weak examined standards agency hall decision turn domain conclusion case commented wise strategic washington_post remarked conclusion case division considered libel satire asked determination difficult internet speech davis online media daily commented potential impact case observed victory proponents internet rights davis pointed judgment enabled additional cases individuals focus satire web way people avoid judgment courts adhere amendment case law john cook called hall decision turn domain optimal end affair emphasized actions citizen media law project assistant director sam applauded decision noting good interest allowing guarantees constitution washington_post columnist wrote book tears clown hall confirm importance united_nations alexander came similar conclusion book common nonsense pointed criticism united_nations new world order subsequent reliance chose file case case cited thomas article published john marshall review intellectual property law discussion conflicts freedom speech trademark thomas noted panels concluded website operators fair use domain names cases question exactly individual filing complaint


trial lord george gordon trial lord george gordon high treason occurred february lord court king bench result gordon role named riots gordon president protestant association led protest act catholic relief bill intending hand petition parliament gordon crowd announcing petition denouncing members parliament launching anti catholic crowd protesters fragmented began looting nearby buildings time riots finished week later died property damaged entire french revolution gordon immediately arrested indicted war king defended thomas lloyd gordon accidentally assisted attorney general james wallace managed ridicule evidence gordon set confusing speech speech argued gordon actions crimes illegally extended law treason led jury finding guilty result met pleasure popular idea treason left unwilling apply extended law treason result government forced incorporate statute law renowned excellent albeit unorthodox advocate gordon hand later imprisoned dying jail chosen replace wallace attorney general change ministry background lord george gordon youngest son duke gordon brother fourth duke ignorant young nobleman simple minded attitude catholics president protestant association body dedicated repeal act roman catholic relief bill prior passage act catholics legally forbidden voting land saying mass serving public office bearing arms serving military frequently overlooked particularly military act explicitly removed saying mass land inheritance academic standing involved implicit concessions encourage catholics serve military necessary ongoing course american revolution going poorly british forces felt catholic relief directly strengthen armed forces prevent repeat revolution ireland catholic nation politicians thought distinct possibility given trade grievances troubled politics june approximately people gathered george fields london hear address gordon mob hand petition parliament member act marching parliament mob declaration gordon consideration petition postponed fragmented gordon encouraged crowd anti catholic denouncing approaching members parliament groups began destroying looting catholic buildings buildings owned alleged support catholic relief members parliament attacked house lord chief justice lord destroyed prisons broken died week took military riots emma mason writes property damaged week entire french revolution arrested including gordon charged high treason indictment stated prepare levy public war said lord king trial gordon retained defence thomas lloyd attorney general lord court king bench february pleading guilty attorney general opened managing accidentally reduce evidence witnesses ridicule offset confusing poor speech gordon defence equity little experience public speaking noted curious choice defence seeing reaction jury speech asked leave delay giving speech granted following testimony witnesses stated gordon excellent character loyal king constitution rose instead arguing gordon involved instead took line crimes constitute treason high treason time based treason act mandated definition treason extended judges notwithstanding judiciary extended include treason successful showing gordon motives defend nation harm intention commit treason treason committed original law required act nature consequence gordon crimes fell second category speech replied solicitor general james lord favorable gordon reasoning carried day jury found lord george guilty aftermath verdict received pleasure majority populace principle treason widely regarded highly threatening public freedoms result far willing convict people treason government resorted treason act incorporate invented concept treason statute law speech considered source lloyd paul biography notes held jury jury courtroom logic sincerity fire driven close arguments hammer blows later lord chancellor ministry talents renowned excellent albeit unorthodox advocate hand lord chief justice gordon defendant case successful subsequent career later sent prison died


premises act premises act act parliament united_kingdom covers builders liability poorly constructed poorly maintained buildings injuries result 19th century common law principle landlord liable letting poorly maintained house established long running principle practice builders sued constructing buildings courts began turn principle 20th century imposing restrictions landlord immunity landlord largely free sued premises bill introduced house_of_commons private member bill richard december given royal june coming force premises act january act establishes duty care builders sub contractors owe property construct modify establishes duty care hold tenants parties injured failure maintain repair property act received mixed reaction critics complimented simple nature compared previously complex common rule laws felt limited desired achieved wording times vague specific background prior passing act builders constructed buildings practically sued time landlord let dilapidated house sued injuries suffered non tenants based principle overturned contract process injured prevented contract decision jones chief justice earl said landlord lets house dangerous state liable accidents happening term fraud apart law letting house immunity extended later cases courts began turn position 20th century case established landlord liable source injury property possession injury happened land longer owned occupied urban district council courts arguably abolished immunity landlord completely immunity excluded situations danger came premises landlord occupied landlord actively created danger included landlord associated people premises bill introduced house_of_commons private member bill richard december debated academic lawyer peter north called remarkable debate house_of_lords questions amendments covering section bill substantially amended north puts quality draft prepared law commission act given royal june came force january act duty care section act lays duty care applies duty applies person taking work connection provision dwelling dwelling provided erection conversion building including builders duty extends statutory powers arrange provision dwellings course business duty owed classes people person ordering house person later takes legal interest house duty laid section duty people covered act work takes case professional manner proper materials regards work dwelling fit completed test parts fulfilled example house badly designed built architect held responsible house owing duty released obligations acting according instructions section act completely accordance instructions duty care fulfilled house properly constructed instructs builder construct poorly designed unstable building builder duty warn section act approved scheme constructions run national house building council disposal premises prior passage act owner premises created danger disposed duty care disposed property selling north described bizarre operation result principle section act establishes work premises duty care arise result work people affected defects work disposed property sold let section principle providing exceptions property subject property disposed process disposed january act came force landlord duty care prior passage liability act general principle liable injuries suffered parties property act qualified providing section repealed premises act landlord tenant repair property breached obligation parties injured result breach able claim providing tenant provision limited provided remedy tenant applied visitors addition came effect landlord obliged repair property simply option remedy injured party similarly tenant failed inform landlord needing repair resulting injury sued section act includes new provisions cover sort situation section establishes general duty repair maintain property owed landlord reasonably expected harmed breach includes tenants friends family duty applies landlord ought known defect informed defect additionally landlord merely right repair property obligation found liable groups described section harmed failure repair miscellaneous act includes number miscellaneous points mainly sections act provisions taken extend crown held liable extent laid crown proceedings act section liability act replacing section act unlike act allow provisions duties excluded restricted commentary territorial extent act met mixed review academics north praised saying act confusion controversy point admitting left courts flesh statute critical academic pointed exclusion liability approved scheme buildings section time included new houses built united_kingdom schemes reduced 1980s time actions brought act subject year limitation period starting date dwelling completed regardless defect discovered significant utility act academic john criticised section section specific argues limitations imposed bill sponsors original meaning draft bill changed act goes existing common law premises northern_ireland order brought identical provisions force northern_ireland january section covering injuries parties excluded


joint custody united_states joint custody court order custody child awarded parties joint custody parents parents parent non parent words child parents united_states states recognize forms joint custody include joint physical custody called shared custody shared placement joint legal custody joint physical custody actual lodging care child shared according court ordered custody schedule joint legal custody parents share ability access children records educational records health records records history joint custody england prior nineteenth century common law considered children property father economic social changes occurred nineteenth century lead shift ideas dynamics family separated home workplace keeping fathers away children order earn wages provide family conversely mothers expected stay home care household children important social changes women suffrage child development theories allowed ideas surrounding importance maternal care major shift favoring joint custody united_states court system began mid-1980s change shifted emphasis having need child attachment psychological parent need ongoing relationship parents originally joint legal custody meant joint custody joint legal custody arrangement child parents shared responsibility discussing issues related child arrangements joint legal custody parents awarded physical custody designated primary parent parents allowed determine primary residence children implied parents significant period time children ensure factor meant parent primary custody child end having little opportunity children increasingly joint physical custody states equal shared states viewed creating necessity provide parents significant periods physical custody ensure children frequent continuing contact parents concept joint custody states recognize forms joint custody include joint physical custody joint legal custody joint custody theory different meanings united_states involves different possibility meaning sole legal custody children parents division time child spends time parents shared residence situation children alternatively children primarily reside parents authority decision making shared parents allows parent child residing authority children little chance strong relationship joint physical custody joint legal custody different aspects joint custody arrangement determination separately states divorce courts possible parent physical custody sharing legal custody possible parent legal custody sharing physical custody states referred parent parent joint physical custody terms art primary parent primary residence legal meaning determining tax status parents parents joint legal custody getting divorce judge decide steps children involved dealing joint legal custody typical parents parent physical custody parent sort rights joint legal custody awarded parents parents depending situation joint legal custody involves having parents difficult decisions children parents decide raise children matters schooling spirituality social events sports religion medical concerns commonplace decisions joint legal custody parents share ability access children records educational records health records records parents equal decision making status welfare safety children concerned generally parents involved major legal matters concerning children day day matters issues left parent physical custody children benefits criticisms joint legal custody inherent benefits form custody arrangement main benefit having joint legal custody parents legal equals means parents influence important decisions child upbringing leads animosity parents encouraging parents child upbringing second benefit having joint legal custody parents exhibit feeling knowing working making decisions based child children needs form joint custody enables parents focus solely children emphasis health child children potential reverse emotional effects children long run benefit joint legal custody environment parents child form means communication open dialogue lead ensuring safe environment child parents divorce children picture problems arise difficult process determining custody instance argument joint legal custody process earn legal custody longer anticipated ultimately impact relationship parents children encourage poor decisions damage bonds turn frequently conflict sole legal custody criticism having joint legal custody arrangement frequent occurrence parent attempt control majority decisions child life regardless decree joint legal custody states generally leads conflict additionally joint legal custody arrangement parents children situation potential cause parents argue decision needs children extremely children involved parents joint physical custody joint physical custody known joint physical care actual lodging care child shared according court ordered custody schedule known plan schedule cases term longer circumstances reserved sole custody orders states joint physical custody creates equal shared states joint physical custody creates obligation provide parents significant periods physical custody assure child frequent continuing contact parents example states alabama california texas necessarily require joint custody orders result substantially equal time states arizona georgia louisiana require joint custody orders result substantially equal time feasible courts generally clearly defined significant periods frequent continuous contact mean requires parents find states courts provided clear definition instance nevada supreme_court defined joint physical custody arrangement parent time yearly basis benefits criticisms joint physical custody according smith family lawyer inherent benefits joint physical custody arrangement benefit joint physical custody burden sole custody placed parent time involved raising children divided parties involved allowing parties time spend careers instance second benefit joint physical custody children significant period time parents closely resembles relationship marriage benefit joint physical custody helps ensure children grow male female role model ensured sole physical custody instance inherent criticisms joint physical custody criticism joint physical custody arrangement nature arrangement parents frequent contact situations leading conflict potential negatively impact parties involved including children research support concern numerous studies found parents joint physical custody lower levels conflict numerous opinions constant moving forth homes negative impact children emotionally feeling mom house dad house doesn leave children feel home main statutes relating joint custody states tend main statutes relation joint physical custody statutes states joint physical custody chosen arrangements best interest children words preferred arrangement second statute states simply option parents request judge order necessarily preferred arrangement statute states ordered judge wishes parents frequent joint custody arrangements frequent schedules include alternating weeks parents houses apartments splitting longer periods time parents houses apartments months months year spending weekends holidays parent subsequently spending parent shared custody unique configurations ensure time sharing example arrangement shown shared custody arrangements include alternating days bird nest custody bird nest custody specific form joint custody birds nest custody arrangements arrangements having children parent house parent house parents house children constantly reside general reason arrangement commonly arrangement burden moving placed parents child children impact families divorce difficult parties involved process including children nature divorce inherent issues time children spend parent process long lasting impact children children parents involved intense conflict parents abusive mentally ill children tend fare better custody arrangement joint custody arrangement numerous studies found joint custody arrangements children tend exhibit better relationships families better performance schools higher levels self esteem fewer conduct emotional issues found children sole custody arrangement tend poorer outcomes compared average children children divorced parents children joint custody arrangement tend fare average children joint physical custody division time necessary effects generally seen simply children spend substantial time parents according robert divorce expert ways joint physical custody ideal arrangement children parents involved lives statement supported psychological data effect seen situations involving high conflict parental relationships important factor influencing child adjustment divorce exposure positive relationships followed closely family economic stability children come families low contained parental conflict effective cooperative positive relationships economic stability likely benefit psychologically following divorce compared average children study specifically supports theory found assigned joint custody arrangement scored higher emotional academic functioning compared children placed sole custody arrangements furthermore children joint custody report higher self esteem lower levels issues greater overall post divorce adjustment opposed children sole custody arrangements child temperament age shown strong impact child development children likely benefit transitions inevitably experience joint custody arrangement furthermore commentators believe likely benefit joint custody arrangements importance consistent routine security primary attachment figure age belief accepted settled view mainstream scholars according consensus report published american psychological association journal endorsement researchers practitioners prominent international authorities attachment early child development divorce benefits children maintain relationships parents repeatedly shown research children joint custody arrangements report greater levels satisfaction division time parents children likely feel torn parents compared children sole custody arrangements addition children joint custody arrangements report feeling closer parents children sole custody arrangements joint custody arrangements appear benefit parents parents joint custody arrangements report lower levels conflict compared sole custody arrangements joint custody frequently related positive relationships effective lower inter parental conflict key factors ensure child following divorce important point children far likely joint custody sole custody arrangements parents consistently witness parents frequent intense ongoing conflict matter debate experts agree thing forms custody work best good communication willingness parents work shield children involved parents disputes forms custody alternating custody arrangement children live extended period time parent similar time parent children parent parent retains sole authority children sole custody arrangement parent physical legal custody child split custody arrangement parent time custody children parent custody children party custody arrangement children remain biological parent placed custody person


people people ill illinois supreme_court case court held aggravated unlawful use weapon statute violated right bear arms guaranteed second amendment court stated statute amounted wholesale statutory ban exercise personal right specifically named guaranteed united_states_constitution united_states supreme_court conviction unlawful possession proper possession minors conduct fell outside scope second amendment protection arrested charged convicted sentenced probation trial court appealed arguing statutes unconstitutional second amendment rights illinois court appeals affirmed conviction appealed ruling illinois supreme_court appeal pending federal seventh circuit court appeals ruled statute unconstitutional matter decided illinois supreme_court agreed seventh circuit declared law unconstitutional upheld law background legal background illinois state nation allow concealed carry prior illinois prohibited carry loaded condition property loaded locked case available immediate use offense called aggravated unlawful use weapon illinois courts uniformly upheld statute prior state law called unlawful possession prohibited age possessing additionally city chicago enacted strict gun control laws prohibiting possession registered prior law took effect june exactly weeks arrest supreme_court decided district_of_columbia court ruled law district_of_columbia effect banning city violated second amendment unconstitutional court said fundamental right protected second amendment right self defense district_of_columbia federal jurisdiction clear applied individual states factual background june chicago police officer thomas harris surveillance position little village neighborhood chicago observed group male teenagers creating disturbance throwing bottles cars harris observed teenagers later identified holding right waist harris notified officers officers contact teens officer john saw drop gun ground arrested officers noted rounds loaded serial number filed lower courts circuit court tried circuit court cook county officers testified gun dropped claimed gun waiting mother pick officers came running yard tackled testimony stated gun judge charles burns determined officers credible found guilty counts sentencing months probation charge pass sentence charge illinois court appeals appealed conviction arguing statute violated second amendment unconstitutional court appeals evaluating found protected right possess home court evaluated mcdonald found applied second amendment states applied possessed home court intermediate scrutiny test determined illinois statute substantially related important governmental objective protect public gun violence court affirmed conviction relevant events mcdonald city chicago shortly decision lawsuits filed illinois challenging chicago oak park cases consolidated heard united_states district court northern district illinois dismissed based earlier supreme_court second amendment apply states cases appealed seventh circuit affirmed based reasoning supreme_court reversed decision holding second amendment applicable states fourteenth amendment clarified self defense central component right moore federal lawsuits filed southern district illinois central district illinois cases claimed statute violated second amendment allow method citizen bear arms outside home mary argued statutes unconstitutional michael moore argued statutes unconstitutional applied cases judges granted state motion dismiss failure state claim holding second amendment protected right possess arms home moore appealed cases seventh circuit cases consolidated seventh circuit found illinois law violate constitution method person carry weapon self defense outside home court stated district courts read mcdonald narrowly right protected self defense great greater need outside home court rejected state argument strict gun regulation lowered crime noting evidence support decisions district courts reversed cases courts instructions declare illinois law unconstitutional issuing permanent injunction law enforcement court stayed order days illinois legislature opportunity amend law constitutional legislative actions january illinois legislature began look legislation address moore decision governor simon formed working group thirteen democrats republicans look issue hearings matter debate centered concealed carry permits gun rights groups preferring shall issue permits gun control groups favored issue permits state house passed shall issue bill vote state senate passed vote veto proof margins july illinois legislature governor pat quinn veto concealed carry authorized state illinois state police issued permits supreme_court illinois arguments appeal argued statute unconstitutional face argument statute unconstitutional time second amendment adopted year olds bear arms state argued lacked standing contest statute state claimed denied having committing act statute prohibited contest opinion court justice robert thomas delivered opinion unanimous court thomas disposed standing argument state noting challenging statute applied arguing statute unconstitutional provide person legally bear arms challenge statute charged violating admitting underlying conduct state argument merit thomas evaluated statute noting court concluded second amendment guarantee individual right possess carry weapons case confrontation noted mcdonald reiterated self defense core right analyzed courts illinois noting focused ruling right existed home held statute constitutional affected conduct outside home thomas compared ruling seventh circuit moore concluded ruling correct statute fact rights guaranteed second amendment statute unconstitutional conviction reversed thomas rejected argument statute noting courts addressed issue found persons barred possessing firearms conviction affirmed case subsequent developments following decision cook county prosecutors stated drop charges pending cases valid illinois firearms owner identification cards charges dropped september case dismissed cook county number law enforcement springfield police sheriff office plea public immediately begin carry concealed prosecutors announced intend prosecute cases


supply goods implied terms act supply goods implied terms act act parliament united_kingdom provided implied terms contracts supply goods hire purchase agreements limited use exclusion clauses result joint report england wales law commission scottish law commission report exemption clauses act granted royal april came force month later met mixed reaction academics praised additional protection offered time questioning aspects act implementation called question act repealed sale goods act included act provisions background earlier contractual theory contract form parties equal partners use create obligations rights saw fit contract signed ways limited signed fraud general theory freedom contract contract include terms long parties agree reality doctrine problematic firstly idea person held terms agrees signs works individually negotiated contracts standard form contracts printed non specific contracts drawn advance party banks contracts include clauses severely restrict rights party exclusion clauses secondly idea signing contract indicates consent worked little parties parties small business individual major corporation smaller party leave contract problem corporations industry use similar terms long argued unfair clauses struck courts obliged doctrine freedom contract uphold ltd courts developed doctrine fundamental breach party breached contract way exclusion clause void contract contract set aside step forward doctrine problematic pointed lord armament failed exclusion clauses result unequal england wales law commission scottish law commission produced report exemption clauses designed reform area law supply goods implied terms act partially based report went respects given royal april came force month later act act extends reach implied conditions laid sale goods act section replaced section act containing types implied title condition seller right sell property passed goods additional costs buyer informed quiet possession provisions excluded original contract provision seller transfer title condition seller right sell act regulated sale description products sold based description given section provides sale goods shall prevented sale description reason exposed sale hire selected buyer ensure sale self service store considered sale description sale covered provisions section covers quality goods exception defects pointed consumer consumer easily able sellers expected provide goods quality defined goods fit purpose purposes goods kind commonly bought reasonable expect having regard description applied price relevant circumstances unlike act goods fit purpose sold course business previously provisions extend goods sold agent new act implied terms extended sales agents clear goods sold course business act designed prevent avoidance implied terms exclusion clauses provides section attempt exclude seller consumer sales sections void non consumer sales exclusion clause void extent shown fair reasonable allow reliance term burden proof situations party seeking avoid liability exclusion clause determining fair reasonable allow exclusion clause tests parties equal strength buyer induced agree clause buyer knew ought known exclusion clause liability condition reasonable goods supplied special order basic tests later extended unfair contract terms act hire purchase agreements regulated act provisions similar sale goods agreements section exclusion clauses identical act sale agreements buyer takes possession goods seller retains right treated hire purchase agreements despite fundamentally sales unification provisions hire purchase sale goods agreements sale agreements treated sales impact christopher academic practising lawyer called implementation section slightly awkward suggesting ways limited provisions contained sale goods act seller point view unlike act seller exclude provisions right sell excluded clear complimented section hire purchase agreements noting flaws questioned protection given consumers sufficient prior unfair contract terms act supply goods implied terms act limitations clauses consumer contracts eventually superseded sale goods act included act provisions

Supply of Goods (Implied Terms) Act 1973


killings killings refers homicide march shields mary patients psychiatric hospital dublin ireland giving false confession dean charged murders placed statement irish police force commonly called gave details known murderer investigators charged mark nash confessed killings later retracted confession april nash trial murder shields began unsuccessful attempt prevent trial going forward described policemen involved case walter character charles smith psychiatrist director central mental hospital felt prone attention seeking commission investigation set investigate conduct case dean died heroin spent months jail crime commit murders morning march shields mary found dead orchard view dublin found ann resident house raised alarm orchard view house story end terrace house owned eastern health board provide sheltered accommodation psychiatric hospital entire orchard view area completely demolished years murders plot surrounded wall women repeatedly stabbed faces cut women extensively mutilated women partially level encountered murder investigation ireland women raped found scene killings described brutal murders irish criminal history irish newspaper initial investigation alarm raised major investigation commenced involving detectives dublin metropolitan north central division national bureau criminal investigation house surrounding area subject forensic examination technical bureau performed house house inquiries took statements interviewed suspects examination bodies state professor john report delivered march material found forensic examination scene examination linked suspect crime beginning investigation july main suspect april engaged team criminal develop profile killer items initial report said extremely dangerous likely emphasis original killer likely prior experience local resident noticed acting week killings statement facial composite describe fellow foot foot aged years slim black long noticeable week growth thicker dark hair straight shoulder hair split middle brushed long thin face dark eyes dark badly dressed clothes suit dirty looking looking wearing jeans blue colour dirty white runners wearing type coat came inches waist coat bright colour like bright brown colour hood result psychological profile broadcast appeal information television programme request people houses broken area contact interviewing number people involved discovered dean talking killings matched facial composite released questioned july dean dean born april arrested grew west dublin fourth family children went national school difficulty according teachers today terms classified having moderate general learning disability assessed psychologist sixth class age found intelligence result psychologist report moved joseph special school period joseph developed reputation attention seeking storytelling school held steady job drifted heroin addiction time arrest murders conviction involved number interview arrest time interview staying salvation army detective william joseph connor approached leaving reported said think know brought station interviewed doctor room according point interview burst crying said killed women claimed suffering withdrawal symptoms time admission drugs said connor promised sooner confessed sooner released custody wasn thinking straight told arrest leave time result confession dean arrested suspicion murdering women july interview detailed details provided match evidence gave incorrect information precise location killings number weapons interview confused number people killed thought women awake moving house time conflicted forensic evidence subsequent interviews interview beginning second interview said wanted video recording stopped alleged decision terminate recording prompted start second interview number items discussed second interview included formal interview record including anecdotes told criminal activity believed time interview continued asked wanted formal statement agreed statement contains number points killings known public time mentioned interview included statement statement contains notable midway interview allowed break seen doctor given medication met father break told father committed murder father replied dean terrible informal meeting break expressed dean detective cox described walter character meeting significant changes story break example prior break claimed knife break said separate weapons including electric carving knives description matches closely professor report number detailed descriptions given matched closely physical evidence psychological profile doubts dean testimony mentioned expressed doubts interviewed charles smith found confession expressed concerns solicitor psychologist engaged found susceptible leading questions commission investigation pointed following exchange example changing position response question dean met women stairs went mad started screaming stabbed detective cox telling truth stage correct months ago easy remember gear head don remember don want remember reply describe woman met room came second room stairs stout inches smaller grey shoulder length hair wearing light detective sergeant happened met stabbed times stop screaming happen hallway happened bedroom agree yes mark nash confession august wife catherine stabbed death mark nash year old resident north dublin interview said months prior arrest walking broke house stabbed women sleep statement aspects crime scene known public time nash later retracted confession nash sought judicial review prevent trial going ahead grounds fair trial delay august irish high_court ruled mark nash confession caused dean charged point awaiting trial camps emerged believed nash confession threw doubt guilt believed murderer august commissioner appointed assistant commissioner james carry review available evidence released preliminary report september interim report january reports come conclusion guilt raise number doubts testimony result assistant commissioner investigation defense solicitor refusal release report director public office appointed psychologist adrian grounds assess dean grounds concluded dean highly unreliable position account corrected prompted advised officers description learning details seeking account interview supported consistent earlier impressions gained reading case papers earlier report noted materials available raised questions details final derived content questions day knowledge memory unusually following interview dean parents concerns substantially strengthened think likely detailed unreliable result grounds report charge murder dean dropped april imprisoned months died heroin published apology family dean arrest detention national newspapers commission investigation february commission investigation established investigate circumstances surrounding dean confession arrest sole member george birmingham commission terms reference stated undertake thorough investigation report accordance provisions section commission investigation act following specific matters circumstances surrounding making confession dean deceased deaths mary march dublin assessment reliability confession charged murder information provided morning july director public particular additional information provided time leaking report robert leaked draft report commission evening herald newspaper publicly available detectives interviewed dean initial confession received suspended jail sentence months fine leaking report commission findings commission found acquired detailed information statement dean acquired detailed information relation crimes feature later interviews particular interview interviewing commission found written record maintained non video recorded interviews comprehensive matters excluded assisted assessment reliability dean accordance section criminal justice act treatment persons custody stations regulations report said dean abused ill treated detention produced oppression conduct produced result nature bribe deliberate attempt frame dean dean able provide accurate details murders accepted commit manner interviewed wished associate murders readily agreed leading questions asked interviewing trial conviction mark nash march mark nash trial murders april found guilty murders sentenced life imprisonment judge refused sentence direction charge nash original arrest jury jury service life


academy tennessee secondary school athletic ass academy tennessee secondary school athletic association united_states supreme_court case concerning actions sport association regulated sports tennessee schools regarded state actor amendment process purposes court held sport association sued state actor actions history state action supreme_court reconsider case future specific decision important new principle entities bound amendment background tennessee secondary school athletic association non profit membership corporation organized regulate sports members large portion public private high schools tennessee association role regulating competition public schools recognized state board education case academy private high school fields teams member highly successful sports competition winning state football championships founded success fostered resentment opponent schools questioned academy tactics recruiting players investigated rumors academy engaging illegal practices recruit public school athletes school practices identified discovered academy football coach invited eighth grade boys school following school year attend spring football practice identified violation rules fined school contacting student athletes prior official enrollment school violating policy prohibiting influence student parents secure retain student athletic purposes association placed school years probation banned participating state playoff games years academy sued association action argued enforcement rule constituted state action claimed violated amendment fourteenth amendment process clause school asserted process rights violated hearings determine validity claim recruited football players argued rule violated freedom speech restricted ways academy recruit july district court agreed argument granted summary judgement academy association enforcing rule year later sixth circuit court appeals reversed lower court decision finding actions association constitute state action united_states supreme_court granted case review question opinion court questions amendment law decided court determine state entity amendment applies government court issued divided decision splitting favor reversing sixth circuit finding actions association state action justice wrote justice majority holding nominally private character association public institutions public officials composition workings substantial reason claim applying constitutional standards basis determination historical statements tennessee board education granted regulatory authority association recognition independent authority example board explicitly approved rules reserved right continuously review future employees association given state association essentially member schools follow rules state utilizing state police power concluded restrictions denial process apply association lawsuit proceed lower courts opinion justice thomas wrote opinion joined justices criticized usage new standard determining state action said stretched doctrine limits attacked majority decision breaking prohibition extending fourteenth amendment merely private conduct relying similar cases extend state action collegiate sports associations said meaning unclear left possibly expansive concluded stating court affirmed sixth circuit opinion subsequent history case created test principle private organization connected way state organizations private organization exercises state power new rule announced court sent case lower courts reconsider arguments academy case sent sixth circuit court appeals instructed association prevail showed enforced rule narrowly defined promote governmental interests second district court trial factor resulted finding favor academy sixth circuit time affirmed supreme_court granted review time reversed favor association unanimous decision justice john paul stevens held actual rule violate amendment tactics recruit football players rose level governmental interest claims case sent sixth circuit sixth circuit rejected remaining claims supreme_court denied review ending case

Brentwood Academy v. Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Ass'n


dan paul daniel dan smith paul july january american attorney best known arguing landmark case miami herald publishing supreme_court united_states decision established principle government force newspaper publish content paul born jacksonville florida grew florida educated harvard_university receiving degrees law public administration setting practice miami florida specialized amendment environmental law clients included miami american football newspapers miami herald wall_street_journal active role city politics paul nicknamed father metro june supporters led emerge miami urban environment league new tropics named acre bay waterfront site dan paul site owned miami county called parcel miami heat promised turn site public park including mini soccer field supporters including elected officials demand county force heat honor promise site called dan paul park early life dan paul born jacksonville florida july henry paul smith paul county tax collector growing attended harvard_university receiving law degree master degree public administration legal career paul began practice miami florida firm anderson scott mccarthy preston formed partnership francis specializing corporate law decade established miami prominent attorneys miami news called knight wrote dan paul comes civic controversies hard paul eventually known father metro suit filed paul plan expand florida legislature reached supreme_court court struck plan paul stated filed suit greatly hurt future florida let legislature grow monstrous proportions cease effective government paul environmental law represented national society lawsuit stop airport constructed florida protected region subtropical wetlands acted parks activist protesting removal designed brazilian architect paul played major role miami city code block construction buildings feet shore paul worked time partnership parker prominent legal practices miami paul end practice percent paul time devoted pro work partners split 1970s 80s paul acted general counsel miami american football harvard established john kennedy school government amendment law paul represented miami herald decades working new_york_times wall_street_journal nbc james amendment specialist described paul death important figure freedom press matters nationally particularly florida florida particular leader resisting reporters sources paul best known acting chief lawyer herald miami herald publishing supreme_court case case political candidate pat requested herald print editorial criticizing citing florida right reply law mandated newspapers print responses herald challenged law case appealed supreme_court court unanimously overturned florida statute press freedom clause amendment ruling governmental newspaper publish reason tells published unconstitutional decision showed limitations decision red lion broadcasting federal communications commission similar doctrine upheld radio television establishing broadcast print media different constitutional decision considered landmark amendment law personal life paul married enjoyed tennis january paul attacked year old guest bradley home star island stabbed paul face chest arms paul subsequently underwent plastic surgery repair wounds charged attempted murder possession weapon attempted robbery initially contended paul aggressive sexual advances prompting stab paul self defense later pleaded contest charge aggravated battery paul died home miami january disease


publications act publications act act parliament united_kingdom parliament significantly reformed law related england wales prior passage act law publishing materials governed common law case exceptions artistic merit public good 1950s society authors formed committee recommend reform existing law submitting draft bill home office february failed attempts push bill parliament committee finally succeeded creating viable bill introduced parliament roy given royal july coming force august publications act committee consisting actual reform law limited extensions police powers included final version act created new offence publishing material common law offence libel previously allows justices peace issue allowing police seize materials time creates defences firstly defence innocent secondly defence public good act high profile cases trials books publishing lady lover issue background passage publications historically canon law prosecution court common law prior passing act publication materials england wales governed common law publications act common law established set test tendency letter published corrupt minds open immoral influence hands publication fall act allowed magistrate justices peace issue warrant police search seize destroy publications generally accepted existing law heavily flawed reasons firstly called test narrow example account intentions defendant secondly test meant individual sections published work analysed entire work declared rest work fairly mild defence based public good opportunity submit evidence showing artistic merits work works destroyed author publisher informed given opportunity speak 1950s efforts started attempt reform law following prosecution notable publishers society authors formed committee norman john legal advisor recommend reform existing law submitting proposals draft bill home office february instead wholesale reform society hoped government instead chose limited reform children young persons harmful publications act dealing horror comics kept test required work examined society sympathetic members parliament attempted introduce private member bill ensuing general election private member bill successfully introduced march sent committee composed mix committee recommendations mixed consisting conservative powers search seizure police liberal use expert evidence work artistic merit proposals committee proposals published march new bill introduced minute rule failing gain support stood parliament platform reform home office change heart introduced new bill roy compromise aims goals home office introduced house_of_lords lord received royal july came force august publications act act act relatively short divided sections fifth covering extent act commencement date section covers test determine article taken entire article taken tend corrupt persons likely having regard relevant circumstances read hear matter contained embodied test based persons established sufficient individual corrupted significant number people likely read corrupt article defined section containing material read looked sound recordings film picture record publisher act defined section publisher taken mean sells lets hire gives offers sale letting hire case article containing matter looked record shows plays projects criminal justice public order act amended section include transmission article section covers actual prohibition publishing material section creates new offence publishing article replaces common law libel previously crime somebody found guilty regardless profit article film consent director public required prosecution commence section states article common law charges brought instead dealt act intended limit crimes found act section creates defence innocent publisher prove problems examine article question issues convicted powers search seizure covered section repealed publications act section allows justice peace satisfied reasonable grounds believe publications kept certain premises profit issue warrant location warrant allows police officer enter premises search remove suspect publications publications found officer records relating businesses trade articles brought magistrate owners returned owner author publisher articles person seized appear magistrate argue section creates defence public good applies publication materials proceedings described section allows valid defence defendant publication materials public good defined interests science literature art learning objects general concern experts testimony determining value publications section initially treated strictly trial judges attitude reversed trial book inside jury found publishers guilty despite judge saying isn members jury think years later williams committee recommended restrictions written pornography lifted restrictions largely abandoned notable act lady lover trial noted prosecution publications act books books ltd publishing lady lover book contained use words fuck multiple times sexual scenes banned completely england wales conclusion trial mid-1980s school books relied section public good defence academics literary critics helen trial book literary merit trial old bailey eventually ended guilty verdict allowing book openly published sold england wales time published trial verdict seen new wave sexual morality 1960s famous graham lord wrote case trumpet society moment believe british morality manners family life began seriously deteriorate trial editors tried publishing materials specifically issue underground magazine circulation aimed challenge older generation outdated beliefs standards behaviour morality 28th issue teenagers invited contribute edit published version pages long consisting sheet french erotic book depicted naked women performing sex acts inside articles homosexuality cartoon strip showed bear john acted defence longest trial english legal history defendants convicted day hearing court appeal england wales conviction overturned court appeal recognised errors law large number errors fact trial judge jury later cases later cases included inside trial found guilty david lord horror prosecution prosecuted banned act later overturned walker walker found guilty publications act posting story entitled girls scream aloud fictional written account internet erotic story site describing kidnap rape murder pop group girls aloud smith charged discussing fantasies children crown prosecution service appealed judge original ruling case answer subsequently convicted man unsuccessfully prosecuted selling dvds featuring impact assessment act found variety ways firstly test meant sting operations police purchased materials considered sufficient evidence publication police considered easy corrupt regular exposure materials meant prosecutors prove unaware nature material sale prior purchase actively sought material deemed likely corrupted secondly offer materials sale held publication merely invitation treat courts held photographs intended publish regardless nature result act amended publications act created offence possessing articles publication sale extended materials cover photograph criticism acts failed define properly relying old common law definition giving help judge jury apply properly national campaign repeal publications acts set actor david operated late 1990s current situation cases brought individuals convicted small number trials convictions resulted prison sentences small number cases went jury trials number fallen decline partly behaviour modern likely consider material reluctant convict defendants private use material adults reason decline range alternative legislation place act suggestions given crown prosecution service include section criminal justice immigration act extreme pornography protection children act video recordings act displays control act customs consolidation act amendment act material children young persons harmful publications act act continues significant impact english law serve provide definition legal contexts instance deemed likely act prohibited videos awarded certificate british board film classification list categories material commonly prosecuted act published crown prosecution service


illinois illinois united_states supreme_court case decided case concerned extent government power limit individual complete control home pending arrival search warrant divided court held search unconstitutional reasonable law enforcement need acquire warrant prevent potential destruction evidence home background asked police officers accompany trailer home lived husband charles belongings home came trailer told police charles drugs inside police knocked asked charles search refused came trailer officer prevented going inside policeman rushed warrant illinois court held action violated fourth amendment prohibits searches warrant supreme_court granted hear case opinion court court voted reverse illinois court hold actions police officers question constitutional justice wrote majority opinion upheld search specific circumstances case police needed prevent investigation scene contaminated wrote court found case held unlawful temporary seizure supported probable cause designed prevent loss evidence police obtained warrant reasonable period time argument decision remain porch allow police entry instead noted court found prior case doorway house public place subject warrant rules noted conclusion hard contest fact probable cause difficult accept claims justice joined opinion respects wrote separately condition support belief search appropriate immediate danger evidence destroyed unique instance warrant requirement waived stevens dissent justice stevens wrote brief opinion arguing case dismissed illinois legislature largely reduced penalties marijuana possession ridiculous officers rush warrant said reached merits question hold search unconstitutional majority balancing privacy related law enforcement related concerns wanted broader protection idea home place protection home case trailer


case thomas college physicians commonly known case simply case decided court common pleas england sir edward court chief justice said cases common law control acts parliament explained thought meaning disputed years according interpretation intended kind judicial review later develop united_states scholars contend meant statute challenging parliamentary sovereignty intended eventually changed view statement considered rationale case meaning initial period decision enjoyed support statutes declared void case thrown aside favour growing doctrine parliamentary sovereignty prominent early supporting doctrine william wrote parliament sovereign law maker preventing common law courts throwing aside reviewing statutes fashion suggested parliamentary sovereignty accepted judicial doctrine legal system england wales case met mixed reactions time king james lord chancellor lord deeply unhappy suggested reasons dismissal common pleas academics 19th 20th centuries scarcely favourable calling doctrine alleged laid extra simply abortion united_states decision met better reaction legal public campaigns assistance stamp act case given justification legislation views gained acceptance madison american case formed basis exercise judicial review united_states article iii constitution words void usage somewhat different usage academics argued work case forms basis judicial review united_states academics disagree scholar calling enduring myths american constitutional law theory history background college physicians renamed royal college physicians historically elite organisation created royal charter college founded english academic doctors trained english universities admitted british men trained university passed latin exam medical theory allowed came time instead candidate senior candidate admitted vacant fellowship act parliament confirming royal charter gave college ability act court judging practitioners acting badly practising licence second act college physicians act amended charter gave right indefinitely judged flew face common law assumption practice medicine needed consent patient despite april john chief justice upheld college authority fine saying man learned doctor london free man london thomas admitted john college cambridge earning bachelor degree completed master studied medical doctorate cambridge later granted university_of_oxford completed studies moved london practised medicine associated barber company campaigning allowed medical practitioners similar way college physicians apparently giving failed petition parliament petitioned join college december rejected told return study returning april told join fined threatened imprisonment continuing ignored kept working doctor october announced arrested fined appeared college time lawyer november announced continue seeking college permission claimed power graduates oxford cambridge imprisoned fleet prison prison contempt lawyer writ corpus issued court common pleas freed november successful writ worried college previous success keen cultivation lord lord chancellor crown officials left assured jurisdiction maintained college appealed directly crown officers met committee judges house committee composed thomas judges court common pleas court king bench judges agreed practicing committed offenders success spurred college time king bench maintaining illicit practice counterattack brought suit common pleas requesting damages alleging person imprisoned law custom kingdom england case case heard court common pleas daniel foster chief justice sir edward decision finally reached winter college lawyers argued acts parliament royal charter intends shall learned expert ordinary college free punish practising licence act giving authority judged lawyers replied arguing acts charter intended prevent practising licence study texts university sic doctor means considered capable teaching man brings ensign doctrine reason examined thou allow shall allowed learned grave man intent king monopoly act doctor practice sic ill exercising making covered illicit practice foster sided college delivering joint opinion said statute clearly said person college licence verdict acceptable college valid licensing authority royal charter interpreted granting college duty behalf king office king survey subjects physician cure remove remove health man right king protection government waste consume lands goods sufficient subjects live live happily office subjects live life live flourish cure bodies lands goods health body necessary virtue mind mind king duty protect health subjects delegated college addition given absurd answer claimed submit college vain law provide punishment monarch delegated powers college purposes punishment imprisonment right sit court delivered majority opinion favour daniel undertook closer reading college charter associated acts divided relevant passage clauses gave power fine practitioners second specified practicing argued constituted separate powers issues dealt punish illicit second covered punishment simply practising licence constitute college power accused practising licence practising dangerously went arguing validity charter associated acts acts gave college right act judge party case provided judge attorney parties appears books cases common law control acts parliament utterly void act parliament common right reason impossible performed common law control act void thomas case statutes law right execution reasons given college cease trying supervise medical practice cease acting court support judgment cited case anonymous cases given academic names respectively significance assessment decision case described john campbell lord chief justice lord chancellor 19th century doctrine alleged laid extra philip cambridge law journal simply called abortion later dismissed judicial posts immediately began making criticisms maintained allow judges power throw aside acts parliament contrary reason spoke direct acceptable act clearly obviously come criticism examples drew justify decision case gave case seriously stated said statutes law right execution fact reference law right found original wrote statutes execution meant statutes poorly drafted interpreted work parliament accept courts applying wrote reads remarks regard statute discussion falling category contrary suggested perfectly obvious straightforward interpretation authority far convincing second authority goes support thesis concerns situation william refused apply act parliament undermine common law principles notes distinction statute held void ignored fact added explanation theory example based statute required religious orders seals placed custody prior abbot use knowledge decisions seal kept fashion invalid clashed church law incredibly difficult small religious orders sir anthony said statute void impossible casts doubt validity stating looked strong fact doubtful import case deeply unpopular crown removed common pleas sent king bench theoretically senior office practice rewarding work june suspended office ordered correct case reports october king james demanded explain reasoning case claimed words report import new opinion relation authorities law resolved times cited argument case refused admit flaws writings minor language meant opinion case endorsement judicial review instead parliamentary sovereignty withdrawal endorsement later writings meaning meaning decision debated marking supremacy common law parliament judicial review simply form statutory interpretation suggested dispute meanings origins 1930s america frustration judicial review elements new deal academic world james kent commentaries american law argued case cases like meant statutes given reasonable construction charles gray proceedings american philosophical society argues judge intended advocate judicial review statutes bernard writes meant superior principles right justice acts parliament writes saying courts void legislative provision violated constitution meant courts statutes bring recognized legal principles william agreed mistake view isolated statements case endorsing limitations parliament reasons including acknowledged power parliament absolute confined causes persons bounds university pennsylvania law review words statute clear application statutory interpretation allows ignoring meanings statute main intention john writing constitutional commentary saying likely royal judges confronting case involving statute necessarily passed houses parliament received royal lightly use word void research samuel thomas sir john baker led early 17th century non common law courts claiming imperial legislative discretion statutory interpretation free jurisdiction common law courts decision seen reminding courts interpretations subject law individual discretion development lifetime dominant ideas upheld successor chief justice sir henry day lord sheffield death naturally suffered eclipse appearance doctrine twisted argue crown dismiss laws government notes revolution marks abandonment doctrine case common law judges cited decision approval city london wood john concluding statement reasonable true saying position treating statutes way documents purpose judicial review followed decades outside judiciary john case book liberties people england later treason trial justify attack parliament growth parliamentary sovereignty doctrine theory gradually died william edition commentaries laws england wrote parliament positively enact thing know power control examples alleged support sense rule prove main object statute judges liberty reject set judicial power legislature subversive government parliamentary sovereignty upheld english judiciary central principle british albeit issues membership european_union case modern philip writing notes case scarcely deserves mention history judicial duty reasons largely forgotten impact america thirteen colonies instances statement interpreted mean common law superior statute example drawing statement james declared struggle assistance duty courts ignore acts parliament constitution natural equity argument struggle significant impact john adams stamp act declared invalid massachusetts assembly rationale natural rights according lord void reversed course adopting position judges challenge acts parliament point episodes case rallying cry america instead judicial review america grew primarily political intellectual sources madison american case forms basis exercise judicial review united_states article iii constitution chief justice john marshall stated particular constitution united_states confirms principle supposed essential written law constitution void courts departments bound instrument marshall specifically words void characterised deliberate reference marshall principle involved written constitution instead reason later case california supreme_court discussed case specifically saying affected parliament common law edward samuel writing harvard law review praised idea fundamental higher law reason judges accordingly endorsed ratification doctrine received american constitutional law theory writing review politics calls enduring myths american constitutional law theory history evidence points case discussed constitutional convention ratification conventions mentioned debates striking unconstitutional statutes case brought writings additional point view united_states supreme_court come circle case process clause strike court legislation


charitable english law charitable english law form express trust dedicated charitable goals variety advantages charitable trust status including exception forms tax freedom trustees found types english trust valid charitable trust organisation demonstrate charitable purpose public benefit applicable charitable purposes normally divided categories public benefit including relief poverty promotion education advancement health saving lives promotion religion types trust recognised law requirement trust purposes benefit public section public simply group private individuals invalid circumstances charitable allowed run profit purposes charitable charitable purpose addition considered unacceptable charitable campaign political legal change discussing political issues neutral manner acceptable charitable administered trustees relationship trustees results things firstly trustees charitable trust far act trustees secondly bring court case trustees represented attorney general england wales appears crown jurisdiction charitable disputes shared equally high_court justice charity commission commission port tasked regulating promoting charitable providing advice opinions trustees administrative matters commission feels trustees removing appointing new ones temporarily taking trust property prevent harm flaws charity high_court administer schemes directing function charity doctrine change purpose charity gift altogether creation form express trust charitable subject certain requirements created vary depending gift creates trust given life given death includes land gift given death comply section act requires writing signed somebody present instruction clear intended effect signature noted witnesses carried valid document gift create charitable trust gift land donor lifetime comply section law property act requires agreement written document signed person giving gift personal property inter formal requirements oral declaration creating trust constituted properly charitable trust like express allowing trust instrument advantages charity status variety advantages charity status english law standard express trust relationship trustees apply charitable partially special definition trustee partially individual identified charitable trust instead attorney general england wales behalf enforce charitable trust lack relationship trustees powers far wider ranging regulated charity commission actions brought attorney general direct control charitable exempt created including rule trustees required act unanimously majority tax law makes special charitable free income tax paid individuals companies corporation tax paid incorporated unincorporated associations requirement charitable pay capital gains tax council tax obliged pay freedom tax liability applies charitable people donate individuals donate gift aid free paying tax companies gifts charity claim tax revenue customs definitions definitions trustee trust charitable differ significantly norm particular according charities act section charity trustees means person having general control management charity relation charity means provisions establishing charity regulating purposes administration provisions effect trust relation institutions corresponding meaning statutory definition charity instead dealt roundabout way charities act states section purposes law england wales charity means institution established charitable purposes falls subject control high_court exercise jurisdiction respect charities charitable purpose definition charitable purpose found charitable uses act standard previous attempts statute books set lord said charity legal sense comprises principal divisions relief poverty advancement education advancement religion purposes beneficial community charitable purpose expanded section charities act categories widely public benefit considered length tobacco trust fund created benefit children employees employees british american tobacco large number total number employees house_of_lords found size issue group count section public personal common relationship british american tobacco nature charitable means definition public benefit varies categories poverty act stated charities benefit aged poor people appropriate purpose accepted appear individually charity benefit people poor aged valid poverty term sir indicated treated poverty course mean means persons short regard status life forth appears indicate millionaire loses half income considered poor unable lifestyle accustomed limits set provision lord wrote good charity relief persons grinding need utter relief need sort need home means provide necessity necessity merely amusement healthy gift creates charitable trust definition poverty accepted courts poor money left provide short trousers children necessity standard definition poverty gift limited poor instead went child area result trust failed poverty category major exception rule personal relationships laid tobacco trust turner charitable trust established help poor employees linked personal relationship employer courts ruled poverty exception rule academics richard edwards argue allowing exist rest society having provide poor people result public benefit wider way general public benefit rule poverty category gifts relief poverty poor people particular description charitable gifts particular persons relief poverty motive gift education poverty category found act refers charities established maintenance schools learning free schools scholars universities common law years recognised wide area covered education includes education young particularly wide category described lord balanced systematic process instruction training practice containing spiritual moral mental physical elements wide things courts feel harmful excluded schools prostitutes education includes research long subject useful gift makes requirement information available gift given francis bacon society find proof william_shakespeare plays written bacon held valid gift discovery highest value history literature gave definition research required gift valid word education wide sense certainly extending teaching requirement order charitable research educational value researcher directed lead pass store educational material improve sum knowledge area education cover education context extending formation literary taste appreciation definition expanded attorney general said trust research qualify charitable trust subject matter proposed research useful object study contemplated knowledge acquired result research trust benefit public sufficiently important section public absence contrary context court readily inclined trust research subsequent results thereof furthermore trust research constitute valid trust advancement education necessary teacher pupil relationship persons benefit knowledge acquired persons course receiving education conventional sense artistic pursuits promote things generally vague body specific artistic purposes charitable royal choral society promotion particular composer seen gift charitable courts convinced subject advancement artistic merit includes famous composers seen social trust doubt courts ignore opinions instead rely experts area covered charities act lists advancement citizenship community development advancement arts culture heritage science valid types charitable trust religion purposes category religion seen mean faith higher power include ethical principles secular society act expanded noting religion includes religion involve belief god extends support religious buildings sick old members clergy category covers groups small watson doubtful theology howe individually religious charities public benefit requirement justified assumption according cross estates benefit public attendance places worship persons live world mix fellow citizens notably gifts groups associate public coats purposes fourth category contains individual categories general principles applied body seeks recognised charitable trust sub categories contains benefit sick old act gave aged poor people acceptable charity acceptable read individually requirement aid aged poor exclude poor dealt hospital charged fees second sub category charitable relating animals religious charities benefit derived comfort afforded animals indirect moral benefit mankind public grove trust sought provide refuge animals shall safe destruction man charities purpose creating animal usually pass public benefit test despite completely exclude public educational value sub category covers charitable benefit trust benefit locality long held apply area purpose area charitable valid money spent non charitable purposes trust fails regardless fact applies particular area class charities held valid impacts class locality corporation apply class act gift benefit inhabitants group cottages inhabitants charitable historically invalid include purely recreational city glasgow police athletic association purpose charity improve efficiency police force fact included recreational element trust response case recreational charities act passed provides shall deemed charitable provide assist provision facilities recreation leisure time occupation facilities provided interest social welfare section act preserves need provide public benefit act lays kinds activities interest social welfare stating section facilities provided object improving conditions life persons facilities primarily provided section persons need facilities reason youth age poverty social economic circumstances section facilities available members public large definition acceptance need public benefit allows courts reject charitable recreational activities felt activities harmful act private clubs members fall section courts willing accept charitable recreational activities benefit people people covered section guild lord keith stated fact persons walks life kinds social circumstances conditions life improved provision recreational facilities suitable nature invalid purposes political activism charitable promote political changes charities attempting consistently rebuffed courts campaign political change stated benefit community court decide change beneficial second laid national anti society courts assume law correct support charity trying alter law academic hudson describes argument little thin given judges interpret limit extend statutes occasionally recommending creation new statutes shore common law peculiar judges face argument advanced legislation changed leading case anti society sets strict rule charities campaign politically illustration secular society held attempted changes law main goals unacceptable dividing line charitable discussing political issues valid discussed attorney general ross line considered charity commission official guidelines allow commission look wider purpose organisation deciding constitutes valid charity profit making organisation run profit charity public school charitable body despite fees paid directly run profit girls public day school trust benefit societies benefits limited funded air raid distress fund charitable trust created gift exclusively charitable purposes charitable trust fails trust instruments identify money charitable purposes use words beneficial causes trust fail creation words synonymous charity example council decision attorney general islands council held gifts organisations institutions operating public good acting good benefit mankind failed definition given exclusively charitable exceptions rule purposes non charitable purpose necessary charitable trust fail matter degrees discussed attorney general said distinction non charitable activities authorised trust instrument merely incidental subsidiary charitable purpose non charitable activities authorised form trust purpose case reference non charitable activities trust charitable status refers separation charitable non charitable purposes dividing funds allows charitable element effect possible trust instrument indicates donor intended fund divided work donor gives list purposes single fund standard rule dividing funds based rule equity equality money divided equally exceptions gift city london charitable purposes dinner small gifts board trustees funded administration charitable administration charitable covered primarily charities act charities act widely divided groups attorney general england wales trustees charity commission official charities attorney general trustees mentioned attorney general represents appearing crown case involving charities joined party act trustees disputes actions recover property parties role discussed brooks richardson court quoted text tudor charity reason duty sovereign representative protecting persons interested charity funds attorney general general rule necessary party charity proceeding represents beneficial interest follows proceedings beneficial interest court party represents objects charity effect parties significant role played charity trustees defined section act persons having general control management administration charities mentioned charitable trustees significantly freedom act normal trustees act restrictions charitable trustee section people convicted crime involving people previously removed charity people struck directors companies trustees appointed duties trust including informing commission changes charity dissolution registering charity keeping proper accounts records submitted annually commission charity commission charity commission originated charity commissioners created charitable act provide advice charitable currently governed exercising functions charities act core objectives increase public trust confidence charities promote understanding public benefit requirement increase compliance trustees legal obligations promote effective use charitable resources charities donors public objectives functions act determining institutions charities encouraging better administration charities identifying investigating taking appropriate action regard apparent misconduct issuing public collection certificates respect public charity collections providing information relating functions objectives including maintenance date register giving information advice minister crown regard commission functions meeting objectives charity commission power issue inquiry charity section act satisfied allowed suspend trustees officers appoint additional trustees vest charity property official charities order people holding charity property transfer permission remove trustees grounds bankruptcy mental failure act trustee absence country commission authorised appoint new trustees replace removed ones increase number trustees jurisdiction charity commission concurrent high_court justice high_court possesses powers commission exercise theirs application charity attorney general trustees interested people charity income commission section act keeps register charities section act commission tasked giving advice opinions trustees relating performance administration charity commission acts official charities acts trustee charities direction commission schemes high_court charities commission authorised establish schemes charities come money left charitable purpose specified suggestion administered scheme appoint new trustees trustee identity crucial intentions schemes fix administrative difficulties caused uncertainty completely defeat gift schemes application trustees extend powers investment consolidate funds trustees apply change core purpose trust enacted scheme follows doctrine doctrine doctrine form variation allows original purpose trust altered doctrine originated ecclesiastical law coming norman french possible close possible typically original purpose charity failed results trust purpose altered nearest realistic alternative prior charities act failed purpose situation time applied required original purpose impossible impractical act relevant provisions included act applied original purposes far fulfilled carried according directions given spirit gift original purposes provide use property available virtue gift property available virtue gift property applicable similar purposes effectively conjunction end suitably regard spirit gift applicable common purposes original purposes laid reference area ceased unit purpose reference class persons area reason ceased suitable regard spirit gift practical gift original purposes laid adequately provided means ceased useless harmful community reasons law charitable ceased way provide suitable effective method property available virtue gift spirit gift definition amended charities act replace spirit gift appropriate considerations defined hand spirit gift concerned social economic circumstances prevailing time proposed alteration original purposes failures lead application sorts subsequent failure trust constituted properly failed period action initial failure trust fails creation subsequent failure cases designed charity funds applied effective purposes money donated charity returned original money wright said money dedicated charity excluded schemes initial failure hand ask court decide gifts returned estate applied new purpose deciding gift failed distinction gifts unincorporated bodies incorporated bodies laid trust gifts unincorporated body treated gifts body purpose body unincorporated bodies hold property gift revert body dissolved gift purpose presumably valid