living river living river thai south east asia rivers network thai non governmental organization impact thailand dam projects coordinates research indigenous peoples thai villagers power document influence local rivers dams founded gained prominence dam study period developed method instructing villagers document effects river lives thai government proposed dam sites living river took research methods villages surrounding sites today organization works southeast_asia counter government sponsored research encourages dam construction dam protests living river launched march international rivers day action group workers thai academics action march support occupation dam site villagers dam funded partially world bank built slowly focus national controversy received widespread complaints thai villagers focus assembly poor day person protest dam generates percent thailand electric capacity percent thailand total electric capacity goes unused everyday basis june thai government agreed open gates dam months allow studies conducted social impact later extended months coinciding agreement government announced official studies conducted university private team contracted national economic social development board university received budget million roughly government contractors alleged group recommended river received million roughly raising suspicions villagers thought outside academics able objective accurate study river unfamiliar local fish migration habitats thai research response living river developed thai research thai villagers research meant traditional approach study allowing villagers investigate document language terms aspect life river function overseeing organization villagers data publish read living river refers english thai research river research documented spawning grounds migration patterns habitats preferred species fish originally species river disappeared river reappeared gates opened meaning diversity ecosystem severely reduced dam species migrated rivers meaning dam endangered ecosystem thai villagers took photos fish counted number fish caught opening gates villagers volunteered study divided groups survey sub ecosystems channels small drinking wells don islands pools pools pools holes stone pockets underwater fishing grounds use small large fish local economy analyzed researchers found common large fish sold profit diet villagers consisted small fish caught wet dry seasons small fish eaten sold traded hill peoples rice villages documented changes towns result opening gates fishermen forced leave city returned homes increase fish caused boom rural economy fishing tourism villagers able hold religious ceremonies important riverside spaces government reaction responses results thai research supported academics including university university study recommended keeping gates open years thai government rejected studies unclear reasons instead conducted day opinion poll random sample decided gates stay closed months year prime minister decided close gates permanently citing alleged secret agreement thousands villagers internal security operations command response non governmental organizations favorable wetlands biodiversity programme international alliance managed united_nations development programme world conservation union published study thai research coordinated study district concluding useful styles village research study overseen cited academic journal submitted international conference living river spokesperson invited united_nations environment programme conference dams thai government department irrigation met demands living river assembly poor promise halt future dam projects accepted cautious optimism issue domestic electricity generating authority thailand announced plans build series dams burma river border thailand living river opposed plan citing threat environmental destruction burma karen states son province additional research living river employed research methods threatened locations rural thailand river remained free dams complex system wreck boats unusual monsoon season course branches thai government agreement china open river commercial navigation destroying thai research identified important fish spawning grounds chinese dams constructed living river gathered additional thai surveys villagers determined blasting river water unsuitable drinking bathing washed away local riverside gardens populations local plants fish response studies thai government suspended blasting response renewed plans dam construction living river released report people song province national park based experiences history called research equivalent thai research report examined ecosystem residents vegetables fungi medicinal herbs local fauna wood resources culture report divided history periods village self sustaining farming gathering overwhelming majority needs thai government allowed private companies log forest destroying villages infrastructure villagers entered employ logging companies causing internal external conflict increased reliance practices finally villagers formed conservation group forest lover group researchers agreed cut conflict mood villages returned mutual assistance traditional customs dam dam completed time dam received similar local complaints dam central reservoir occupied years villagers july decision opened gates living river coordinated thai research districts report examined village culture ecology biodiversity agriculture food water management impact closing opening gates examined concluded dam reduced fish populations importantly flooded natural salt pits spread rice vegetable fields destroying trees crops government commitment dam commission gates closed flooding river flooded banks damaging hundreds rural villages living river joined form thai people network pointed dams china primary cause flooding working group called river commission opposed claims saying china dams little flood pressed china data forth covered heavily thai press gave ample space statements people network coordination publications beginning living river began training organizations thai research beginning vietnam rivers network expanding chinese group worked burma rivers network conduct research river assisted united_nations funded wetlands biodiversity programme running thai research living river cross basin coordination thai research groups living river compiled research oral accounts thai villagers publications available website published books document local knowledge fish results village research manual thai research citizens guides defending thai rivers communities produced posters fish species dams pamphlets fishing gear short documentaries river


united_nations united_nations organization promote international operation replacement ineffective league nations organization established october world war order prevent conflict founding member states headquarters united_nations manhattan new_york_city experiences main offices situated geneva vienna organization financed assessed voluntary contributions member states objectives include maintaining international peace security promoting human rights social economic development protecting environment providing humanitarian aid cases famine natural disaster armed conflict united_nations charter drafted conference april june charter took effect october began operation mission preserve world peace complicated early decades cold war soviet_union respective allies organization participated major actions korea approving creation state israel organization membership grew significantly following widespread 1960s 1970s budget economic social development programmes far spending end cold war took major military missions world varying degrees success principal organs general_assembly main assembly security council deciding certain resolutions peace security economic social council promoting international economic social operation development providing studies information facilities needed international court justice primary judicial organ united_nations council inactive system agencies include world bank group world health organization world food programme prominent officer secretary general office held south korean ban moon non governmental organizations granted status agencies participate work organization won nobel peace prize number officers agencies awarded prize effectiveness mixed commentators believe organization important force peace human development called organization ineffective corrupt biased history background century prior creation international treaty organizations conferences formed regulate conflicts nations international committee red_cross conventions following catastrophic loss life world war paris peace conference established league nations maintain harmony countries organization resolved territorial disputes created international structures areas postal mail aviation control later absorbed league lacked representation colonial peoples half world population significant participation major powers including ussr germany japan failed act japanese invasion second italo war japanese invasion china german expansions adolf_hitler culminated second world war declaration united_nations allies world war earliest concrete plan new world organization began state department text declaration united_nations drafted president franklin roosevelt british prime minister winston_churchill roosevelt aide harry meeting white_house december incorporated soviet suggestions left role france policemen coined refer major allied countries united_states united_kingdom soviet_union china emerged declaration united_nations roosevelt coined term united_nations describe allied countries new year day president roosevelt prime minister churchill maxim ussr china signed short document later came known united_nations declaration day representatives nations added signatures term united_nations officially governments signed declaration major change atlantic charter addition provision religious freedom approved roosevelt insisted march additional states signed joint declaration united_states_of_america united_kingdom great_britain northern_ireland union soviet socialist china australia belgium canada costa_rica cuba czechoslovakia dominican_republic el_salvador greece guatemala haiti honduras india netherlands new_zealand nicaragua norway panama poland south_africa yugoslavia governments having common program purposes principles embodied joint declaration president united_states_of_america prime minister great_britain dated august known atlantic charter convinced complete victory enemies essential defend life liberty independence religious freedom preserve human rights justice lands lands engaged common struggle savage brutal forces seeking world declare government employ resources military economic members pact adherents government war government cooperate governments separate armistice peace enemies declaration adhered nations rendering material assistance contributions struggle victory war united_nations official term allies join countries sign declaration declare war axis founding united_nations formulated negotiated soviet_union china oaks conference months planning conference international organization opened san_francisco april attended governments number non governmental organizations involved drafting united_nations charter heads countries took turns chairman meetings anthony britain edward united_states china soviet_union later meetings lord halifax wellington officially came existence october ratification charter permanent members security council france republic china soviet_union majority signatories meetings general_assembly nations represented security council took place london beginning january general_assembly selected new_york_city site headquarters united_nations facility completed site like headquarters buildings geneva vienna designated international territory norwegian foreign minister lie elected secretary general cold war era primary mandate division ussr organization generally allowing intervene conflicts distant cold war notable exception security council resolution authorizing led coalition repel north korean invasion south_korea passed absence ussr general_assembly approved resolution partition palestine approving creation state israel years later official negotiated armistice resulting conflict force established end crisis unable intervene ussr simultaneous invasion hungary following country revolution deployed united_nations operation largest military force early decades bring order state restoring control democratic republic travelling meet rebel leader conflict named effective general died plane crash months later posthumously awarded nobel peace prize successor deployed united_nations force cyprus longest running missions spread 1960s organization membership saw influx newly independent nations new states joined africa october opposition united_states support world nations mainland communist people republic china given chinese seat security council place republic china occupied taiwan vote widely seen sign influence organization world nations organized group coalition leadership algeria briefly dominant power comprising ussr world nations passed resolution israeli opposition declaring racism resolution repealed shortly end cold war increasing world presence failure conflicts middle_east vietnam increasingly shifted attention ostensibly secondary goals economic development cultural exchange 1970s budget social economic development far greater budget post cold war cold war saw radical expansion duties taking missions years previous decades number adopted security council resolutions doubled budget increased negotiated end civil war launched successful mission oversaw democratic elections post south_africa post authorized led coalition repulsed iraqi invasion kuwait brian secretary general later described hopes raised successes false renaissance organization given troubled missions followed charter written primarily prevent aggression nation early 1990s faced number simultaneous crises nations haiti yugoslavia mission widely viewed failure withdrawal following casualties battle mission bosnia faced worldwide ridicule confused mission face ethnic united_nations assistance mission failed intervene genocide amid security council beginning decades cold war american european critics condemned organization perceived corruption president ronald_reagan withdrew nation funding united_nations educational scientific cultural organization founded allegations followed britain singapore secretary general initiated reform reducing size organization somewhat successor initiated management reforms face threats united_states late 1990s 2000s international authorized took wider variety forms mission sierra civil war supplemented british royal marines invasion afghanistan overseen united_states invaded iraq despite failing pass security council resolution authorization prompting new round questioning organization effectiveness current secretary general ban moon intervened crises including war conflict democratic republic sent observers chemical weapons syrian civil war internal review actions final battles civil war concluded organization suffered failure personnel died haiti earthquake worst loss life organization history structure united_nations system based principal organs general_assembly security council economic social council international court justice sixth principal organ council suspended operations independence remaining trustee territory principal organs located main headquarters new_york_city international court justice located major agencies based offices geneva vienna institutions located world official languages united_nations meetings documents arabic chinese english french russian spanish basis convention privileges united_nations agencies immune laws countries operate regard host member countries organs sit words author amazing collection entities organizations actually older operate complete independence include specialized agencies research training institutions programmes funds entities united_nations obey principle binding organization belongs united_nations system principle calls salaries draw citizens countries salaries highest calls equal pay work equal value independent employee staff salaries subject internal tax administered organizations general_assembly general_assembly main assembly united_nations composed united_nations member states assembly meets regular yearly sessions emergency sessions called assembly led president elected member states rotating regional basis vice presidents session convened january methodist central hall westminster london included representatives nations general_assembly votes important questions thirds majority present voting required examples important questions include recommendations peace security election members organs admission suspension expulsion members budgetary matters questions decided majority vote member country vote apart approval budgetary matters resolutions binding members assembly recommendations matters scope matters peace security consideration security council draft resolutions general_assembly committees general committee committee consisting assembly president vice president committee heads credentials committee responsible determining credentials member nation representatives committee international security second committee economic financial committee social humanitarian cultural fourth committee special political fifth committee administrative budgetary sixth committee legal security council security council charged maintaining peace security countries organs united_nations recommendations member states security council power binding decisions member states agreed carry terms charter article decisions council known united_nations security council resolutions security council member states consisting permanent members china france russia united_kingdom united_states non permanent members term ends chile jordan lithuania malaysia new_zealand nigeria spain venezuela permanent members hold veto power resolutions allowing permanent member block adoption resolution debate temporary seats held year terms member states voted general_assembly regional basis presidency security council month headed secretary general assisted staff international civil servants worldwide provides studies information facilities needed united_nations bodies meetings carries tasks directed security council general_assembly economic social council bodies secretary general acts facto spokesperson leader position defined charter organization chief administrative officer article charter states secretary general bring security council attention matter opinion threaten maintenance international peace security phrase general lie interpreted giving position broad scope action world stage office evolved dual role administrator organization diplomat addressing disputes member states finding consensus global issues secretary general appointed general_assembly recommended security council permanent members veto power specific criteria post years accepted post shall held terms years post shall appointed basis geographical rotation secretary general shall originate permanent security council member states current secretary general ban moon replaced elected second term conclude end international court justice international court justice located netherlands primary judicial organ established charter court began work successor permanent court international justice composed judges serve year terms appointed general_assembly sitting judge different nation based peace palace sharing building academy international law private centre study international law primary purpose disputes states court heard cases related war crimes illegal state interference ethnic issues called organs provide advisory opinions economic social council economic social council assists general_assembly promoting international economic social operation development members elected general_assembly year term president elected year term chosen small middle powers represented council annual meeting july held new_york geneva viewed separate specialized bodies functions include information gathering advising member nations making recommendations owing broad mandate agencies times criticized irrelevant subsidiary bodies include united_nations permanent forum indigenous issues advises agencies issues relating indigenous peoples united_nations forum forests promotes sustainable forest management united_nations statistical commission information gathering efforts agencies commission sustainable development efforts agencies working sustainable development grant status non governmental organizations organizations received status specialized agencies charter primary organ establish specialized agencies fulfill duties best known agencies international atomic energy agency food agriculture organization united_nations educational scientific cultural organization world bank world health organization performs humanitarian work agencies examples include mass programmes avoidance famine work protection vulnerable displaced people example membership addition south july united_nations member states including undisputed independent states apart vatican city charter outlines rules membership membership united_nations open peace loving states accept obligations contained present charter judgment organization able willing carry obligations admission state membership united_nations effected decision general_assembly recommendation security council chapter article addition non member observer states united_nations general_assembly holy holds sovereignty vatican city state palestine cook islands states free association new_zealand members specialized agencies treaty making capacity recognized group group loose coalition developing nations designed promote members collective economic interests create enhanced joint negotiating capacity united_nations seventy seven nations founded organization november organization expanded member countries group founded june joint declaration seventy seven countries issued united_nations conference trade development group held major meeting adopted charter established basis permanent institutional structures objectives security approval security council sends regions armed conflict recently ceased enforce terms peace agreements discourage combatants resuming hostilities maintain military forces voluntarily provided member states soldiers nicknamed blue helmets distinctive gear force received nobel peace prize september soldiers deployed missions largest united_nations organization mission democratic republic included personnel smallest united_nations military observer group india pakistan included personnel responsible monitoring united_nations truce supervision organization stationed middle_east longest running active mission study corporation found successful efforts compared efforts nation building united_nations united_states found seven cases peace compared cases peace human security report documented decline number wars human rights abuses end cold war presented evidence albeit international activism spearheaded main cause decline armed conflict period situations acted peace intervened include korean war authorization intervention iraq gulf war drawn criticism perceived failures cases member states shown reluctance achieve enforce security council resolutions disagreements security council military action intervention seen having failed prevent bangladesh genocide genocide 1970s genocide similarly blamed failing prevent massacre complete operations civil war accused child rape prostitutes sexual abuse missions democratic republic haiti south ivory coast scientists cited likely source haiti cholera outbreak killed following haiti earthquake addition active encouraging regulation armaments included writing charter envisioned way limiting use human economic resources creation advent nuclear weapons came weeks signing charter resulting resolution general_assembly meeting calling specific proposals elimination national armaments atomic weapons major weapons mass destruction involved arms limitation treaties outer space treaty treaty non nuclear weapons arms control treaty biological weapons convention chemical weapons convention ottawa treaty prohibits bodies oversee arms issues international atomic energy agency organization prohibition chemical weapons comprehensive nuclear test ban treaty organization preparatory commission human rights primary purposes promoting encouraging respect human rights fundamental freedoms distinction race sex language religion member states pledge undertake joint separate action protect rights general_assembly adopted universal declaration human rights drafted committee headed franklin roosevelt widow eleanor including french lawyer document basic civil political economic rights common human beings effectiveness achieving ends disputed drafting declaration serves common standard achievement peoples nations legally binding document basis binding treaties international civil political rights international economic social cultural rights practice unable significant action human rights abuses security council resolution substantial work investigating reporting abuses general_assembly adopted convention elimination forms discrimination women followed convention rights child end cold war push human rights action took new impetus united_nations commission human rights formed oversee human rights issues following recommendation year world conference human rights scholar describes organization mandate broad vague resources carry replaced human rights council consisting nations general_assembly passed declaration rights indigenous peoples passed resolution recognizing rights lgbt people bodies responsible women rights issues include united_nations commission status women commission founded united_nations development fund women created united_nations international research training institute advancement women founded united_nations permanent forum indigenous issues bodies mandate oversee issues related indigenous peoples held session economic development humanitarian assistance primary purpose achieve international operation solving international problems economic social cultural humanitarian character numerous bodies created work goal primarily authority general_assembly united_nations member states agreed achieve millennium development goals development programme organization grant based technical assistance founded leading bodies field international development organization publishes human development index comparative measure ranking countries poverty literacy education life factors food agriculture organization founded promotes agricultural development food security united_nations children fund created aid european children second world war expanded mission provide aid world uphold convention rights child world bank group international monetary fund independent specialized agencies observers framework according agreement initially formed separately woods agreement world bank provides loans international development promotes international economic operation gives emergency loans countries world health organization focuses international health issues disease largest agencies agency announced smallpox completed subsequent decades largely river joint united_nations programme hiv aids begun organization response aids epidemic population fund resources hiv world largest source funding reproductive health family planning services international red_cross red crescent movement takes leading role emergency relief world food programme created provides food aid response famine natural disasters armed conflict organization reports feeds average million people nations year office united_nations high commissioner refugees established works protect rights refugees asylum people programmes funded voluntary contributions governments corporations individuals administrative costs paid primary budget creation colonies attained independence general_assembly adopted declaration granting independence colonial countries peoples votes major colonial powers works groups including committee created committee lists seventeen remaining non self governing territories largest populous western beginning formation environmental programme environmental issues prominent agenda lack success decades work area led earth summit rio_de_janeiro brazil sought new impetus efforts world meteorological organization organization established panel climate change reports research global warming sponsored protocol signed set legally binding emissions reduction targets states declares international periods time observe issues international interest concern examples include world tuberculosis day earth day international year funding financed assessed voluntary contributions member states general_assembly regular budget determines assessment member broadly based relative capacity country pay measured gross national income adjustments external debt low capita income year budget billion total assembly established principle dependent member finance operations ceiling rate setting maximum member assessed regular budget december assembly revised scale assessments response pressure united_states revision regular budget ceiling reduced developed countries ceiling rate applied addition ceiling rates minimum assessed member nation floor rate set budget year budget large share expenditure addresses core mission peace security budget assessed separately main organizational budget budget fiscal year billion supporting troops deployed missions world peace operations funded assessments formula derived regular funding scale includes weighted permanent security council members approve operations serves offset discounted assessment rates developed countries providers assessed financial contributions united_nations operations united_states japan france germany united_kingdom china italy russian federation canada spain special programmes included regular budget world food programme financed voluntary contributions member governments corporations private individuals awards criticism number agencies individuals associated won nobel peace prize recognition work general awarded prize respectively contributor universal declaration human rights secretary state hull role organization founding pearson canadian secretary state external affairs awarded prize role organizing force resolve crisis won prize international labour organization peace keeping forces international atomic energy agency reports supported organization prohibition chemical weapons united_nations high commissioner refugees awarded recipients win prize twice awarded prize sharing founding calls reform united_nations little consensus want play greater effective role world affairs want role reduced humanitarian work numerous calls security council membership increased different ways secretary general united_nations parliamentary assembly states enduring divide views north south split richer northern nations developing southern nations southern nations tend favor empowered stronger general_assembly allowing greater voice world affairs northern nations prefer economically focuses threats terrorism world war french committee national liberation late recognized government france country initially excluded conferences created new organization future french president charles criticized famously calling convinced global security alliance help maintain world peace preferring direct defence treaties countries cold war ussr repeatedly accused favoring ussr effectively forced resignation lie secretary general refusal deal 1950s 1960s popular read spell communism statement president george bush stated february referring uncertainty iraqi regime free nations allow united_nations fade history ineffective irrelevant debating society contrast french president stated france united_nations knows state matter powerful solve urgent problems fight development bring end crises france wants centre global governance critics gold israeli diplomat robert british scholar american legal scholar mark australian politician anti league consider attention israel treatment excessive september saudi_arabia elected chair united_nations human rights council panel independent experts criticized human rights groups critics accused bureaucratic waste corruption general_assembly established joint inspection unit seek system 1990s withheld citing started condition major reforms initiative introduced office internal oversight services established general_assembly serve efficiency special representative secretary general published missed opportunities book analyses reasons failure intervention showing start civil war fall regime january missed opportunities prevent major human tried provide humanitarian assistance totally dedication sharply contrasted excessive caution bureaucratic radical reform undertaken warned continue respond crisis improvisation faced accusations recently ended oil food programme iraq allowed trade oil basic needs relieve pressure sanctions suffered widespread corruption including dollars independent inquiry created found officials involved raising significant questions role son evaluating writes accomplishments united_nations years impressive terms progress human development 20th century dramatic agencies certainly helped world place millions evaluating years history author stanley writes united_nations fulfilled hopes founders accomplished great deal citing role successful efforts british historian paul kennedy states organization suffered major setbacks aspects considered brought great benefits generation bring benefits children grandchildren generations


international development association international development association international financial institution offers loans grants world developing countries member world bank group headquartered washington united_states established complement existing international bank reconstruction development lending developing countries suffer lowest gross national income troubled lowest capita income international development association international bank reconstruction development collectively generally known world bank follow executive leadership operate staff association shares world bank mission reducing poverty aims provide affordable development financing countries credit risk afford borrow commercially bank programs stated aim assist nations growing quickly reduce poverty single largest provider funds economic human development projects world nations financed projects recruited trained million teachers million children funded million loans small medium enterprises built restored kilometers paved roads built restored bridges expanded access improved water million people improved facilities million people issued total billion usd loans grants launch thirty association borrowing countries graduated eligibility lending countries graduated history 1940s 1950s developing countries began realizing longer afford borrow capital needed favorable lending terms offered international bank reconstruction development onset inaugural term president united_states harry assembled advisory group suggest ways accomplish point program significant component effort strengthen developing countries especially nearest eastern dissuade communist states advisory group recommended international mechanism function providing strictly loaned strictly granted funds united_states government published reports expressing support creation lending program developing countries united_states largely ultimately distracted involvement korean war development needed greater financial developing countries grew increasingly frustrated able afford lending perceived marshall plan comparatively generous gift european nations late 1940s early 1950s developing countries began calling united_nations create development agency offer technical support financing particular desire agency adhere bodies convention country having vote opposed weighted vote united_states ultimately opposed proposals nature united_states grew concerned growth cold war concession behest department state backing conception international finance corporation despite launch developing countries persisted demanding creation new financing mechanism idea gained traction president eugene black began circulating notion international development association opposed idea named special united_nations fund economic development governed united_nations paul marshall plan administrator proposed idea soft loan facility world bank voice allocation loans democratic senator mike oklahoma supported idea chairman senate international finance proposed resolution recommending study potential establishment international development association affiliated proposal preferred received united_states resolution passed senate treasury secretary robert anderson encouraged countries conduct similar studies world bank board governors approved resolution calling drafting articles agreement later special fund merged expanded programme technical assistance form united_nations development programme end january countries signed articles agreement established international development association association launched september year initial budget million billion dollars months following launch grew member states loaned million million dollars developing countries governance operations governed world bank board governors meets annually consists governor member country country finance minister treasury secretary board governors delegates authority daily matters lending operations board directors board directors consists executive directors chaired president world bank group executive directors collectively represent member states world bank decisions matters concern member states president oversees overall direction daily operations july jim kim serves president world bank group association operate staff approximately employees evaluated bank independent evaluation group group identified weaknesses set controls protect fraud corruption projects supported lending group recommended bank provide recognition incentives staff management implementing activities implement paris declaration aid effectiveness principles alignment promote greater use sector wide approaches coordination explain reasons country financial management system client country address shortcomings recommended bank collaborate development partners strengthen country level leadership development assistance coordination offering greater financial technical support development william easterly conducted research ranked featuring transparency best practices donors development aid researchers center global development expect collection eligible borrowing countries decrease half year marking anniversary association establishment remaining consist primarily african countries face substantial population declines changes imply need association carefully examine financial models business operations determine appropriate strategy going forward center recommended world bank leadership begin discussing long term future membership member countries pay contributions years capital borrowing countries nearly half africa membership available countries members world bank particularly lifetime borrowing countries graduated association number countries sustaining graduate status eligible support countries assessed poverty lack commercial borrowing association countries based capita income lack access private capital markets policy performance implementing pro growth anti poverty economic social reforms borrow lending programs country gross national income capita exceed dollars countries graduated lending following countries graduated eligibility lending countries lending following countries eligibility lending graduated instead partially eligible referred blend country honduras nicaragua nigeria new_guinea partially eligible rounds unique world bank requires continuous resources member countries funds contributions addition funds provided international bank reconstruction development international finance corporation funds raising capital international financial markets heavily depends contributions member states received billion special drawing rights billion usd approximately half resources come member countries early years received united_kingdom united_states reliable sources funding developed nations began step fill economic gaps met countries years member nations provide funds gather resources funds come primarily developed countries including united_states japan france germany united_kingdom france rounds member countries participated 16th billion usd loans grants usually paid outset needed project donor countries united_states commit letters credit bear interest able transferred revoked exchanged cash needed project countries pay contributions date commitment cover operating expenses donors receive return funds loaned future projects donors won need commit funds future funds regularly happen financial political challenges countries donor countries negotiate intense discussion association goals objectives reforming delays united_states congress approval funding association members implemented set policy outlining commitment threshold necessary effect threshold imposed requirement aggregate share voting stock necessary executing threshold implemented aim united_states participate rounds countries intended hold united_states commitments threshold ultimately provided united_states facto veto power capital increase negotiations ability bring negotiations threatening support influence long term foreign policy objectives short term political economic goals imposing negotiations lending countries aim finance projects develop infrastructure improve education healthcare access clean water facilities environmental responsibility considered soft lending window world bank considered hard lending window association offers grants loans ranging years grace periods years interest rates depending blend country degree eligible regular eligible advantage interest loans financial resources allocated eligible countries based success implementing pro growth poverty reducing domestic policies uses world bank country policy institutional assessment development indicator determine country place resource allocation index lending countries indicated promising terms favorable policies aid effectiveness adopted crisis response window enable rapid provision emergency financing response crises association adopted immediate response mechanism provide immediate access withdraw portions loans crisis arise meets mechanism criteria africa african countries face severe poverty countries member states association approximately half resources financing projects countries result efforts improve region helped bring electricity additional million helped build restore kilometers paved roads helped additional million african children school approved provide million usd worth credit women entrepreneur development project effort help women participate business skilled employees leaders positive outcomes efforts africa historically slow large allocation funding african countries led positive outcomes particularly agriculture infrastructure development efforts asia efforts asia particularly successful numerous asian countries graduated lending program including philippines china south_korea thailand association borrowing countries approximately asia association efforts south asia focused primarily projects education healthcare transportation agriculture energy rapid growth asian countries populations pockets poverty emerged effect adopted economic plan action established organizations improve education healthcare focus reducing poverty asian nations ways compatible local culture


organization petroleum countries languages organization nations founded baghdad members headquartered vienna countries accounted percent global oil production percent world proven oil reserves giving major influence global oil prices stated mission coordinate unify petroleum policies member countries ensure oil markets order secure efficient economic regular supply petroleum consumers steady income producers fair return capital investing petroleum industry july members algeria ecuador indonesia iran iraq kuwait libya nigeria saudi_arabia facto leader united arab venezuela thirds oil production reserves middle eastern countries surround oil rich persian gulf formation marked turning point national sovereignty natural resources decisions come play prominent role global oil market international relations effect particularly strong wars civil disorders lead extended supply 1970s restrictions oil production led dramatic rise oil prices revenue wealth long lasting far reaching consequences global economy 1980s started setting production targets member nations generally production targets reduced oil prices increase december oil men ranked lloyd list influential people shipping industry influence international trade periodically challenged expansion non energy sources recurring individual members exceed production ceilings membership current member countries july member countries middle_east western asia southeast_asia africa south_america combined rate oil production represented percent world total accounted percent world proven oil reserves including percent middle eastern members october formally submitted application join approval new member country requires agreement existing members including founders members countries export petroleum relatively low volume limited negotiating power members necessarily justify imposed production membership costs ecuador withdrew december unwilling pay annual million membership fee felt needed produce oil allowed time rejoined october similar concerns prompted suspend membership january rejoined july indonesia announced leave membership expired end year having net oil unable meet production rejoined organization january commentators consider united_states facto member formal occupation iraq leadership coalition provisional authority borne minutes meetings representative attended official capacity observers 1980s representatives egypt mexico norway russia oil nations attended meetings observers informal mechanism coordinating policies leadership decision making conference supreme authority organization consists normally headed oil ministers member countries chief executive organization secretary general conference meets vienna headquarters twice year additional extraordinary sessions necessary generally operates principles member vote country paying equal membership fee annual budget saudi_arabia far largest profitable oil world capacity function traditional swing producer balance global market serves facto leader international times members displayed apparent anti competitive behavior organization agreements oil production price levels fact cite textbook example reduce market competition definition industrial organisation economics competition law international agreements covering products coffee sugar tin recently oil organization petroleum countries examples international publicly entailed agreements different national governments members strongly prefer describe organization modest force market powerful anti competitive defense organization founded previous seven sisters multinational oil companies non energy suppliers market share maintain substantial degree worldwide competition widespread cheating largely collective ability influence global oil prices members agreements involved disputes related competition rules world trade organization objectives actions principles organizations considerably key district court decision held protected governmental acts state foreign sovereign act legal reach competition law governing commercial acts despite popular sentiment legislative proposals limit sovereign immunity act far unsuccessful conflicts difficulty agreeing policy decisions member countries differ widely oil export capacities production costs reserves geological features population economic development political circumstances oil reserves source conflict instability natural resource curse religion linked conflicts middle_east recurring features landscape oil rich region internationally important conflicts history included day war war hostage siege directed palestinian iranian revolution iran iraq war iraqi occupation kuwait september attacks american occupation iraq conflict delta present arab spring crisis present international iran events temporarily disrupt oil supplies elevate prices frequent disputes tend limit long term effectiveness market information area members able cooperate decades organization significantly improved quality quantity information available international oil market publications research april collaborated international organizations improve availability reliability oil data launched joint oil data exercise joined renamed joint organisations data initiative covering percent global oil market joined eighth partner enabling cover nearly percent global market natural gas published world oil outlook annually presents comprehensive analysis global oil industry including long term projections supply demand produces annual statistical bulletin publishes frequent updates monthly oil market report bulletin crude oil crude oil standardized petroleum product serves convenient reference price buyers sellers crude oil oil prices differ based variety grade delivery date location legal requirements reference basket important oil prices calculated weighted average prices petroleum blends member countries blend algeria ecuador light indonesia iran heavy islamic republic iran light iraq kuwait export kuwait libya light nigeria marine arab light saudi_arabia venezuela north_sea crude oil leading atlantic basin crude price approximately thirds world traded crude oil known west texas intermediate crude crude oil spare capacity energy information administration statistical arm department energy defines spare capacity crude oil market management volume production brought days sustained days spare capacity provides indicator world oil market ability respond potential crises reduce oil supplies november international energy agency estimated effective spare capacity adjusted ongoing countries like libya nigeria million barrels day number increase peak million barrels day november changed assessment spare production stretched thin saudi_arabia holds lion share excess capacity gulf neighbours pump near record rates history post situation venezuela iran took earliest steps direction inviting iraq kuwait saudi_arabia improve communication petroleum nations world recovered world war time world largest oil fields entering production middle_east united_states established interstate oil compact commission join texas railroad commission limiting simultaneously world largest producer consumer oil world market dominated group multinational companies known seven sisters headquartered anger countries february multinational oil companies reduced posted prices middle eastern crude oil percent weeks later arab petroleum congress convened cairo egypt influential journalist introduced saudi_arabia venezuela juan oil ministers angered price cuts led fellow delegates establish pact gentlemen agreement calling oil consultation commission countries present price change plans reported marked hostility west growing outcry time controlled oil operations countries enormous political influence august ignoring warnings favoring canadian mexican oil strategic reasons announced significant cuts posted prices middle eastern crude oil founding expansion following month september baghdad conference held initiative governments iran iraq kuwait saudi_arabia venezuela met baghdad discuss ways increase price crude oil produced countries ways respond actions despite strong opposition arab non arab producers saudi_arabia formed organization petroleum export countries secure best price available major oil corporations middle eastern members originally called headquarters baghdad venezuela argued neutral location geneva switzerland chosen september moved vienna austria switzerland declined extend diplomatic privileges founding nations joined indonesia rejoined libya united arab originally algeria nigeria ecuador rejoined rejoined indicating expansion acting secretary general urged african neighbors join 1980s representatives egypt mexico norway russia oil nations attended meetings observers informal mechanism coordinating policies oil october organization arab petroleum countries consisting arab majority plus egypt syria declared significant production cuts oil united_states nations supported israel war previous attempt largely ineffective response day war result sharp rise oil prices revenues emergency period energy intensified panic reactions declining trend oil production currency lengthy coal miners dispute time imposed emergency day seven european nations banned non essential sunday driving gas stations limited gasoline closed sundays restricted days gasoline purchased based license plate numbers ended march following intense diplomatic activity prices continued rise world experienced global economic recession unemployment inflation simultaneously steep declines stock bond prices major shifts trade flows dramatic end post economic boom oil lasting effects united_states nations established international energy agency response oil conservation efforts included lower speed limits highways smaller energy efficient cars year round daylight saving time reduced usage heating air conditioning better increased support mass transit national emergency greater emphasis coal natural gas nuclear alternative energy sources efforts effective oil consumption rise percent real rose percent 1970s nations demonstrated convincingly oil political economic weapon nations short term special fund international aid activities date oil price explosion example kuwait fund arab economic development operated added goals selling oil socio economic growth poorer nations special fund conceived algeria march formally established following january declaration reaffirmed natural solidarity countries developing countries struggle overcome called measures strengthen cooperation countries fund resources additional available states number channels fund official international development agency renamed fund international development hostage siege december saudi_arabia iran oil ministers taken hostage semi annual conference vienna austria attack killed non ministers orchestrated person team led terrorist included self named arm arab revolution group called liberation palestine planned conference force hold ransom attending oil ministers executed arranged bus plane travel team original hostages stops tripoli planning fly eventually baghdad killed non arab hostages released excluding additional hostages released stop tripoli returning hostages remaining held phone conversation president informed oil ministers deaths result attack plane offered asylum time possibly financial compensation failing complete assignment expressed regret able murder comrades left plane hostages terrorists walked away situation days began time attack revealed operation commanded founder popular liberation palestine claimed idea funding came arab president widely thought libya fellow claimed received kept ransom million million arab president claimed saudi_arabia paid ransom behalf iran money diverted route lost revolution oil crisis 1980s oil response oil high prices 1970s industrial nations took steps reduce dependence oil especially prices reached new peaks approaching iranian revolution iran iraq war disrupted regional stability oil supplies electric utilities worldwide switched oil coal natural gas nuclear power national governments initiated dollar research programs develop alternatives oil commercial exploration developed major non siberia alaska north_sea gulf_of_mexico daily worldwide demand oil dropped million barrels non production rose larger market share sank approximately percent percent result year decline price oil culminated half combat falling revenue oil sales saudi_arabia pushed national production attempt limit output boost prices nations failed comply saudi_arabia production million barrels daily level proved ineffective saudi_arabia reversed course flooded market cheap oil causing prices fall higher cost producers faced increasing economic ultimately contributed collapse soviet members previously failed comply finally began limit production shore prices based national sought balance oil related economic criteria sovereign territories national governments members able impose production limits government owned private oil companies generally production targets reduced oil prices increase responses wars instability leading invasion kuwait iraqi president end push oil prices higher order help members financially accelerate rebuilding iran iraq war iraqi wars fellow founders marked low point organization oil prices subsided quickly short term supply september attacks american invasion iraq short term impacts oil prices saudi_arabia world adequately supplied ecuador withdrew december unwilling pay annual million membership fee felt needed produce oil allowed rejoined october similar concerns prompted suspend membership january rejoined july iraq remained member organization founding iraqi production agreements country political difficulties lower demand triggered asian financial crisis saw price oil fall levels oil joint diplomacy achieved gradual slowing oil production mexico norway international energy agency held joint workshop energy issues continued meet regularly better understand trends analysis viewpoints advance market transparency widespread sabotage height american occupation iraq combined rapidly increasing oil demand china investors recurring violence oil industry spare capacity global supply prompted sharp rise oil prices levels far higher previously targeted price reached extreme crude oil record july december worst global recession world war annual oil export revenue set new record estimated billion approximate time civil war arab spring calling efforts governments regulatory bodies curb excessive speculation oil markets blaming financial increasing prices disconnected market indonesia announced leave membership expired end year having net oil unable meet production statement released september confirmed indonesia withdrawal noting accepted wish indonesia suspend membership organization recorded hope country position rejoin organization distant future production dispute differing economic needs member states affect internal politics production poorer members pushed reductions production increase price oil revenues proposals conflict saudi_arabia stated long term strategy partner world economic powers ensure steady flow oil support economic expansion basis policy concern overly expensive oil unreliable supply drive industrial nations conserve develop alternative worldwide demand oil point oil minister famously said stone age didn end ran stones september production dispute occurred reportedly walked negotiating session rival members voted reduce output delegates officially endorsed new stated anonymously observe new_york_times quoted delegate saying saudi_arabia meet market demand market requires leave customer oil policy changed oil members consistently exceeded production ceiling china experienced marked economic growth time oil production nearly doubled levels approached world leading swing producer volumes saudi_arabia russia substantial improvements technology response record oil prices developments led turn oil import requirements path energy independence record volume worldwide oil collapse oil prices continued early spite global november vienna oil minister ali blocked appeals poorer members production cuts support prices argued oil market left lower price levels strategically rebuilding long term market share ending high cost oil production explained interview reasonable highly efficient producer reduce output producer poor efficiency continues produce logic reduce happens market share price russians oil producers share want tell world high efficiency producing countries ones deserve market share operative principle capitalist countries thing sure current prices roughly support producers year later met vienna december organization exceeded production ceiling consecutive months oil production declined slightly peak world markets appeared million barrels day despite libya producing million barrels capacity oil producers making major adjustments withstand prices low indonesia rejoining export organization iraqi production years disorder iranian output rebound lifting international sanctions hundreds world leaders paris agreement committing limit carbon emissions fossil solar technologies steadily competitive prevalent light pressures decided set aside ineffective production ceiling ministerial conference june january reference basket fourth high june sixth record july april starting point historic run continued oil gradually trimmed significant production canada libya nigeria china price gradually rose maintained status quo june conference endorsed prices levels suitable producers consumers world waiting oil market fully return balance


european coal steel community european coal steel community international organisation serving unify certain continental european countries world war formally established treaty paris signed belgium france west_germany italy netherlands international organisation based principles ultimately lead way founding european_union proposed french foreign minister robert way prevent war france germany declared aim war impossible achieved regional integration step treaty create common market coal steel member states served competition european nations natural resources particularly run institutions high authority composed independent common assembly composed national special council composed nation ministers court justice ultimately form blueprint today european commission european parliament council european_union european court justice joined similar communities european economic community european atomic energy community shared membership institutions institutions merged european economic community retained independent legal personality treaty paris expired activities resources absorbed european community history prime minister foreign minister instrumental turning french policy away policy permanent occupation control parts german territory despite stiff ultra nationalist communist opposition french assembly voted number resolutions favour new policy integrating germany community international authority changed consequence guiding principles moral based equality states international democracy power politics domination declaration declaration later known europe day occurred cabinet meetings proposal french government policy france government agree surrender sovereignty community decision based text written edited friend colleague foreign ministry lawyer paul assistance jean cabinet bernard laid plan european community pool coal steel members common market proposed franco german production coal steel placed common high authority framework organisation open participation countries europe act intended help economic growth cement peace france germany historic enemies coal steel vital resources needed country wage war resources enemies seen symbolic saw decision french government proposal example democratic community new development world history plan seen like crossed mention draft inserted federation step european federation declaration created distinct aims mark birth united europe war member states impossible encourage world peace transform europe step step process building communities leading unification europe political blocks separated iron curtain create world institution create world international anti agency create common market community starting coal steel sector european economy similar community processes improve world economy developing countries africa firstly intended prevent war france germany states root cause war primarily conceived france germany mind coming nations europe requires elimination age old opposition france germany action taken place concern countries coal steel industries essential production munitions believed uniting industries france germany innovative system included european anti agency war impossible aim increased resources europe able pursue achievement essential tasks development african continent industrial tended impose restrictive practices national markets ensure increased production necessary ambitions africa political pressures west_germany kept closest contacts new generation democratic politicians arnold minister president north rhine province included coal steel producing initially spokesman german foreign affairs gave number speeches broadcasts coal steel community time robert began propose community social democratic_party germany german spite support unions europe decided oppose plan kurt personal distrust france capitalism aside claimed focus integrating little europe prime objective german ultra nationalist communist movements democratic countries thought end hopes steel industry lock europe conservatives younger members party like favor community pointed long socialist support idea france gained strong political intellectual support sections nation non communist parties notable ministerial colleague philip president foreign relations committee prime minister paul projects coal steel authority communities formulated specialist council europe period french government policy charles power early supporter economies french terms spoken european confederation exploit resources opposed faux false pool faux considered unsatisfactory approach european unity considered french government weak dominate thought proper felt insufficient authority assembly ratified european referendum accept contention intended movement away united_states domination consequently followers voted ratification lower house french parliament despite attacks extreme left found substantial public support established gained strong majority votes chambers approval associations european public opinion thought war inevitable steel coal interests vocal opposition council europe created proposal government helped articulate european public opinion gave community idea positive support treaties article treaty paris established signed april inner france west_germany italy belgium netherlands international organisation based principles establishment common market coal steel intended expand economies increase employment raise standard living community market intended progressively distribution high level production whilst ensuring stability employment common market coal opened february steel taking effect gradually replaced international authority august united_states non member recognise community stated deal coal steel matters establishing delegation brussels responded choosing washington site external presence headline delegation bulletin read federal government europe years treaty paris treaties rome signed members creating european economic community european atomic energy community communities based adjustments treaties rome force indefinitely unlike treaty paris years new communities worked creation customs union nuclear power community respectively rome treaties given emergency powers proclaimed fifth republic despite efforts communities fields rapidly expanded important tool political unification merger despite separate legal entities initially shared common assembly european court justice councils high authority commissions remained separate avoid merger treaty merged separate bodies later pillars present day european_union treaty paris frequently amended evolved expanded treaty debate began beginning 1990s eventually decided left areas covered treaty transferred treaty rome financial loose ends research fund dealt protocol treaty nice treaty finally expired july day flag lowered final time outside european commission brussels replaced flag timeline treaties institutions institutions high authority common assembly special council ministers court justice committee established alongside high authority fifth institution representing civil society international representation consumers history institutions merged european community governed committee continued independent treaty paris treaty stated location institutions decided common accord members issue contested temporary compromise institutions located city despite assembly based high authority high authority predecessor european commission member executive body governed community authority consisted members office term years members appointed governments signatories members appointed ninth person president high authority despite appointed agreement national governments acting members pledge represent national interest took oath defend general interests community independence aided members barred having occupation outside authority having business interests paid unpaid tenure years left office ensure membership renewed years article authority principal innovation character broad area ensure objectives treaty met common market functioned smoothly high authority issue types legal instruments decisions entirely binding laws recommendations binding aims methods left member states opinions legal force merger authority presidents followed interim president serving final days institutions common assembly later european parliament composed representatives exercised powers executive high authority common assembly representatives national mps delegated year assembly directly elected universal suffrage article practice requirement elections treaties rome actual election rome required agreement council electoral system emphasise chamber traditional international organisation composed representatives national governments treaty paris term representatives peoples assembly originally specified plan hoped community use institutions assembly court council europe impossible british objections separate institutions created assembly intended democratic counter weight check high authority advise power sack authority incompetence injustice corruption fraud president akin speaker paul special council ministers equivalent current council european_union composed representatives national governments presidency held state period months rotating order key aspects work high authority national governments responsible state general economic policies council required issue opinions certain areas work high authority issues relating coal steel exclusive domain high authority areas council unlike modern council act scrutiny authority areas outside coal steel required consent council court justice ensure observation law interpretation application treaty court composed seven judges appointed common accord national governments years requirements judges certain simply qualified independence doubt court assisted advocates general committee similar economic social committee members equally divided producers workers consumers dealers coal steel sector national treaty requires representatives european associations organise democratic procedures establish rules membership fully representative democratic organised civil society members appointed years bound mandate instruction organisations appointed committee assembly bureau president required democratic procedures introduced nomination members remained hands national ministers high authority obliged consult committee certain cases appropriate informed committee remained separate despite merger institutions treaty expired duties taken economic social committee despite independence committee cooperate consulted issue achievements failures mission article general contribute expansion economy development employment improvement standard living citizens community little effect coal steel production influenced global trends trade members increase steel saved members money having import resources united_states high authority issued modernization loans industry helped industry improve output reduce costs costs reduced abolition borders greatest achievements welfare issues mines example clearly government subsidies miners extremely poor housing years financed flats workers paying flat enabling workers buy home afforded paid half costs workers lost jobs coal steel facilities began close combined regional redevelopment aid spent million creating jobs unemployed coal steel workers welfare guarantees invented extended workers outside coal steel sector members far important creating europe social regional policy argued introduced european peace involved continent european tax flat tax levy production maximum rate percent given european community countries experiencing longest period peace seventy years described tax peace history world war world suicide called threat avoided october said possibility european war eliminated reasoning prevail member states failed achieve fundamental aims treaty paris hoped prevent resurgence large coal steel groups helped adolf_hitler rise power cold war trade offs major companies emerged leading apparent price fixing element meant tackled democratic system worst aspects past abuse avoided anti powers authority international anti agency world efficient firms allowed expand european market domination oil gas electricity natural competitors coal broke powers furthermore oil community failed define proper energy policy treaty largely european governments refused suggestion energy community involving electricity suggested time high inflation monetary instability fell short ensuring upward pay workers market failures short period time goals merely political ignored argued greatest achievements european coal steel community lie revolutionary democratic concepts community