croatian war independence croatian war independence fought forces loyal government croatia declared independence socialist federal republic yugoslavia controlled yugoslav people army local forces ending combat operations croatia croatia war primarily referred homeland war rat greater serbian aggression serbian sources war croatia rat commonly use war rat majority wanted croatia leave yugoslavia sovereign country ethnic serbs living croatia supported serbia opposed wanted claimed lands common state serbia serbs effectively sought new state yugoslav federation including areas croatia bosnia ethnic significant minorities attempted conquer croatia possible croatia declared independence june agreed postpone agreement cut remaining ties yugoslavia october initially tried croatia yugoslavia occupying croatia failed forces established self proclaimed republic serbian croatia january international recognition republic croatia sovereign state lines entrenched united_nations protection force deployed combat largely intermittent following years time encompassed square kilometers quarter croatia croatia launched major known operation flash operation storm effectively end war favor remaining united_nations transitional authority eastern western zone peacefully croatia war ended croatian victory achieved goals declared beginning war independence preservation borders croatia economy ruined estimated billion damaged infrastructure lost output refugee related costs total people killed war refugees displaced sides croatian governments began progressively cooperate tension remains lawsuits filed country international criminal tribunal yugoslavia returned guilty verdict milan leaders croatia having create unified serbian state prosecuted croatian generals alleged involvement crimes related operation storm acquitted outright convictions later overturned appeals panel international court justice dismissed croatia serbia genocide claims court reaffirmed crimes civilians taken place ruled specific intent present background political changes yugoslavia 1970s yugoslavia communist regime severely liberal nationalist faction led croatia supported federation greater autonomy croatia versus conservative nationalist faction led serbia supported centralized federation secure serbia serbs interests yugoslavia largest ethnic group country croatia protests nationalist doctrines actions caused ethnic tensions yugoslavia suppression state nationalists believed effect identifying nationalism primary alternative communism strong underground movement crisis emerged yugoslavia weakening communist states eastern_europe end cold war fall berlin wall yugoslavia national communist_party officially called league communists yugoslavia lost ideological croatia wanted serbia headed adhered single party rule turn effectively ended autonomy autonomous provinces march taking command votes yugoslav federal presidency nationalist ideas started grow ranks ruling league communists speeches notably speech talked battles favored continuation unified yugoslav state power continue centralized belgrade fall serbian government pressured croatian government allow series nationalist rallies country serbian media serbian intellectuals begun refer croatian leadership began reference crimes committed rhetoric approved serbian political leadership accused croatian leadership objected having completed anti bureaucratic revolution montenegro serbia secured federal presidency votes rendered governing body ineffective objected called reform federation political parties allowed number founded including croatian democratic union croatian led later president croatia january league communists broke ethnic lines croatian factions demanding federation 14th extraordinary congress congress serbian delegates accused croatian delegates supporting terrorism genocide croatian including ethnic members eventually left protest serbian delegates rejected proposed amendment january marked beginning court cases brought yugoslavia constitutional court matter constitutional amendments case claimed right right self determination constitutional court ruled federation permitted unanimous agreement yugoslavia autonomous provinces constitutional court noted constitution section basic principles constitution identified self determination including belonged peoples yugoslavia socialist matter addressed court claiming peoples yugoslavia right considered minority people yugoslavia february founded democratic_party program aimed change regional division croatia aligned ethnic interests prominent members including milan milan later testified belgrade directed propaganda campaign portrayed serbs croatia threatened genocide majority march serbs rallied shouted negative remarks aimed serbia expressed support free elections croatia scheduled months later round elections croatia held april second round based campaign greater sovereignty eventually outright independence croatia sentiment protect croatia aspirations greater serbia topped poll elections followed reformed communists social democratic_party croatia set form new croatian government tense atmosphere prevailed football game held team belgrade red star game erupted violence fans police new croatian parliament held session president announced manifesto new constitution ratified end year multitude political economic social changes notably extent minority rights mainly serbs guaranteed local politicians opposed new constitution represented serbs total population croatia held number official posts appointed officials croatia including police serbs greater proportion posts held serbs croatia earlier created perception serbs guardians communist regime caused discontent despite fact actually undermined dominance croatia came power serbs employed public sector especially police fired replaced combined remarks declare wife jewish serbian distorted media spark fear form independent croatia new state instance belgrade showed shaking hands german chancellor government leader world recognise independent croatia accusing plotting fourth civil unrest demands autonomy immediately parliamentary election croatian parliamentary election april announced era doctrine general people defense republic maintained territorial defense force croatian henceforth replaced centrally directed system defense lose role defense matters disarmed headquarters belgrade new government acted quickly retain control weapons croatia regions croatian taken away army preventing possibility croatia having weapons serbia representative federal presidency close ally claimed action came behest serbia according june yugoslav defence minister met agreed croatia expel forcibly yugoslavia simply drawing borders declaring brought decisions according day obtained agreement mixed heritage yugoslav partisan world war loyal yugoslavia greater serbia believed left yugoslavia country collapse discussed possibly impose martial law prevent collapse yugoslavia willing wage war prevent considered political crisis yugoslavia ethnic conflict caused actions foreign governments particularly germany accused seeking breakup yugoslavia allow germany exercise sphere influence balkans regarded croatian government fascist inspired serbs right protected croatian armed formations serbs croatia initially seek independence elections majority municipalities croatia largely voted communist_party croatia communist_party likely defeat nationalist croatian democratic union democratic_party election croatian democratic union serbian assembly established north july political representation serbian people croatia serbian assembly declared sovereignty autonomy people croatia august ethnic referendum held regions substantial population later known bordering western bosnia question sovereignty autonomy croatia attempt counter changes constitution croatian government sent police forces police stations populated areas seize weapons incidents local serbs southern croatia city blocked roads tourist destinations incident known log revolution years later trial claimed tricked agreeing log revolution entire war croatia responsibility orchestrated belgrade statement interview published confirmed july taken control yugoslav people army croatian government responded blockade roads sending special police teams helicopters scene intercepted yugoslav air_force fighter jets forced turn serbs pine trees block roads seal towns like near adriatic coast august serbian newspaper claimed million serbs ready croatia fight december proclaimed municipalities regions northern south western croatia article statute defined form territorial autonomy republic croatia constitution republic croatia state laws statute applied december parliament croatia ratified new constitution seen serbs taking away rights granted socialist constitution constitution define croatia national state croatian nation state members nations minorities citizens serbs guaranteed equality citizens croatian following election perceived threat new constitution nationalists region began taking armed action croatian government officials forcibly expelled excluded croatian government property region increasingly controlled local municipalities newly established serbian national council later government republic serbian discovered martin pursued campaign acquire arms black market january ultimatum issued requesting disbanding croatian military forces considered illegal yugoslav authorities croatian authorities refused comply yugoslav army withdrew ultimatum days issued march leadership army met presidency attempt convince declare state emergency allow army control country yugoslav army chief declared conspiracy destroy country saying plan drawn destroy yugoslavia stage civil war stage foreign intervention puppet regimes set yugoslavia march claims army march supported coup way crisis changed minds days later response lying claims march meeting days huge protests organized streets belgrade office invited according requested army control country military coup apparent response informing decision discuss request army leaders later inform office decision said decision informed office written form claims document doesn exist described presidency meeting failed achieve results army wanted met proposed coup meeting responded saying plan failed arrest replied fighting yugoslavia proposing rejected plan communication broke military forces yugoslav people army forces initially formed world war carry guerrilla warfare occupying axis forces success partisan movement led basing operational strategy guerrilla warfare plans normally entailed defending nato warsaw pact attacks types warfare comparatively poor position approach led maintenance territorial defense system paper powerful force tanks jet aircraft soviet locally produced majority equipment years old force consisted primarily tanks aircraft operated tanks yugoslav version soviet sizable fleet ground attack aircraft super armament included guided missiles contrast modern cheap anti tank missiles like anti aircraft missiles like abundant designed destroy advanced weaponry war regular troops including professional officers fighting brought great number army responded serbian reserve troops approximately evaded draft new proved ineffective fighting force resorted reliance irregular militias paramilitary units like white eagles serbian guard volunteer guard committed number non serbs civilians increasingly yugoslav forces foreign fighters supporting russia retreat forces units reorganized army direct heir organization little improvement officer corps dominated serbs yugoslav federal institutions especially army officers serbs serbs formed population yugoslavia similar structure observed early people combined comprised population yugoslavia officers non commissioned officers serbs instructed completely eliminate army croatian forces croatian military worse state serbs early stages war lack military units meant croatian police force fighting croatian national_guard croatian garde new croatian military formed april gradually developed croatian army croatian weaponry short supply units unarmed equipped obsolete world war era rifles croatian army handful tanks including world war surplus vehicles air_force worse state consisting crop converted drop makeshift bombs august croatian army fewer brigades general instituted october size army grew brigades independent battalions end year croatia supported foreign fighters including british french german seizure barracks september december helped alleviate equipment shortage balance power shifted significantly forces croatia bosnia capable fielding estimated troops croatian army croatian defence council croatian army republic bosnia field combined force soldiers tanks course war open hostilities begin armed incidents ethnic hatred grew incidents fueled propaganda machines sides testimony leaders milan stated started force conflict escalated armed incidents majority populated areas serbs attacked croatian police units early march widely reported police officer killed forces war lakes incident late march march april serbs croatia began moves territory matter debate extent locally motivated degree led serbian government involved event declared consisted croatian territory substantial population croatian government viewed rebellion people killed end april beginning log revolution end april nearly incidents involving use explosive devices attacks croatian police recorded croatian ministry interior started increasing number special police forces led building real army april croatian president ordered special police forces renamed garde national_guard marks creation separate military croatia significant clashes period included siege thousand people besieged inner village killings croatian policemen engaged eastern village suffered casualties violence eastern villages policeman killed civilian killed caught protest split siege navy command split resulted death yugoslav people army soldier scheduled chairman rotating presidency yugoslavia serbia aided montenegro presidency votes time serbian control blocked appointment seen largely ceremonial maneuver technically left yugoslavia head state commander chief days later repeated attempt vote issue failed prime minister yugoslavia time proposed appointing panel presidential powers immediately clear panel members apart defense minister fill position commander chief quickly rejected croatia unconstitutional crisis resolved week stalemate elected president non communist yugoslav head state decades period federal army local territorial defense forces continued led federal authorities controlled watch reported authorities executed serbs willing reach accommodation officials declaration independence croatian authorities held referendum independence option remaining yugoslavia union local authorities issued calls boycott largely followed croatian serbs referendum passed favor newly constituted croatian military units held military parade review parliament croatia declared croatia independence dissolved association yugoslavia june croatian parliament decision partially left wing parliament deputies european community conference security cooperation europe urged croatian authorities place month decision government yugoslavia responded independence croatia yugoslav prime minister declaring illegal contrary constitution yugoslavia supported taking action secure integral unity yugoslavia june july short armed conflict came end partly ethnic population later revealed military strike followed planned withdrawal conceived president yugoslavia presidency published diary containing information repeated testimony trial croatia agreed agreement involved freezing independence declaration months eased tensions little conflict july attempt salvage remained yugoslavia forces involved operations predominantly areas july led territorial defence forces started advance coastal areas operation early august large areas overrun forces start military operations croatia number serbian started desert similar happened started search way legally leave serve conscription term macedonia moves ethnic composition troops near croatia month croatia declared independence yugoslav army forces held croatian territory areas predominantly ethnic population military strategy partly consisted extensive times presence civilians war progressed cities came attack yugoslav forces united_nations imposed weapons affect backed forces significantly arsenal disposal caused trouble newly formed croatian army croatian government started smuggling weapons borders august battle began eastern impacted period starting massacre august fronts developed parallel september serbian troops completely surrounded city croatian troops including brigade entrenched city held ground elite armored brigades paramilitary units completely devastated houses destroyed ethnic croatian civilians taken shelter inside city members civilian population fled area death toll estimates result siege range exiled immediately town captured estimates include serbs internally displaced duration war croatia areas large numbers civilians forced military time term ethnic meaning ranged murder entered english october yugoslav navy renewed blockade main ports croatia followed months positions known battle barracks coincided end operation failed occupy coastline attempt cut access rest croatia october president speech called population defend greater serbian pursued led serbian paramilitary formations rebel forces october yugoslav air_force attacked main government building incident referred bombing day previously agreed month implementation declaration independence expired croatian parliament severed remaining ties yugoslavia october celebrated independence day croatia bombing government offices siege started october contributing factors led european_union sanctions serbia capture october local serbs led proclaimed republic international media focused damage cultural heritage concerns civilian casualties pivotal battles pushed public view nonetheless artillery attacks damaged buildings degree historic walled city world heritage site sustained hits artillery rounds peak war response 5th corps advance river north western croatian army began successful counterattack early november major offensive operation war operation october november resulted croatia area mountains croatian army recaptured approximately square kilometers territory operation massacre took place november survivors transported prison camps majority ending prison camp sustained siege attracted heavy international media attention international journalists near peace cyrus secretary state president carter eastern massacre occurred october massacre november fall time massacre occurred northern largely overshadowed events november navy blockade ports challenged civilian ships confrontation culminated battle channels croatian coastal island based artillery damaged sank captured number yugoslav navy vessels including later battle yugoslav naval operations effectively limited southern adriatic croatian forces advances second half december including operation course croatian army recaptured approximately square kilometers territory end operation marked end month long phase intense fighting people died hundreds thousands fled tens thousands homes destroyed december intensity fighting increased croatia won diplomatic recognition western nation iceland serbian autonomous western officially declared republic serbian days later germany recognized croatian independence december dominated federal presidency announced plans smaller yugoslavia include territory captured croatia war december time war attack serbian forces attacked airport near city situated south western peninsula city yugoslav carpet bombed airport resulting deaths foreign diplomats frequently signed frequently broken croatia lost territory expanded croatian army seven brigades time brigades independent battalions december arbitration commission peace conference yugoslavia referred arbitration committee set council ministers european economic community august provide conference yugoslavia legal advice member commission consisted presidents constitutional courts starting late november committee rendered opinions commission stated things yugoslavia process dissolution internal boundaries yugoslav altered freely agreed factors croatia preservation pre war borders yugoslav federal constitution amendments yugoslav federal constitution amendments introduced concept sovereign rights exercised federal units federation authority specifically transferred constitution constitution confirmed strengthened principles introduced borders defined commissions decisions federal organization yugoslavia new sponsored fifteenth months agreed january came force day called agreement lasting croatia officially recognized european community january began withdraw croatia including clearly retained upper hand occupied territories support serbia time encompassed square kilometers territory area size encompass square kilometers occupied territory near area considered ending series unsuccessful deployed protection force serbian held croatia united_nations protection force supervise maintain agreement officially created security council resolution february parties moved entrenched positions soon retreated croatia bosnia new conflict anticipated croatia member croatia constitution protect human rights minority groups non civilian population remaining occupied territories continued despite presence troops cases troops virtually enlisted yugoslav people army took thousands prisoners war croatia interned camps serbia bosnia montenegro croatian forces captured serbian prisoners sides agreed prisoner exchanges prisoners freed end infamous prisons included camp camp camp serbia camp montenegro croatian army established detention camps prison camp split armed conflict croatia continued intermittently smaller scale smaller operations undertaken croatian forces relieve siege croatian cities forces battles included plateau incident june operation jaguar hill near series military actions operation july september september combat near followed withdrawal september october peninsula guarding entrance bay turned remainder restored croatian authorities croatian military advances fighting renewed beginning croatian army launched operation offensive operation area january objective attack improve strategic situation area targeted city airport bridge entirely overland link city bridge area captured september attack proved successful met declared objectives high cost soldiers killed relatively limited theater operations operation progress croatian forces attacked positions kilometers east advanced hydroelectric dam captured january shortly chased away protecting dam forces present site summer discovered serbs planted tons explosives spread seven different sites dam way prevented explosives removal charges left place retreating forces detonated explosive charges totaling tons meter high dam attempt cause fail flood area downstream disaster prevented mark nicholas gray colonel british royal marines lieutenant time military observer site disciplined acting authority lowering reservoir level held cubic kilometers water dam blown action saved lives people drowned homeless operation pocket took place south september offensive undertaken croatian army stop serbian artillery area nearby operation met stated objective removing artillery threat croatian troops overran marred war crimes later indicted croatian officers war crimes operation halted amid international pressure agreement reached croatian troops withdraw positions held prior september troops occupy events followed remain controversial canadian authorities reported croatian army intermittently fought advancing canadian princess canadian light infantry finally retreating sustaining fatalities croatian ministry defense officer given trial deny battle occurred february croatian authorities signed agreement local leaders western aim secret agreement life local populations near authorities learned arrested leaders responsible june serbs began voting referendum merging territory milan acting interior minister advocated merger serbian states stage establishment state serbs april letter assembly january stated speed process unification pass serbian leader elected president intentions countered united_nations security council resolution october affirmed time united_nations protected areas held areas integral republic croatia estimated refugees bosnia serbia settled croatia croatian volunteers soldiers participated war bosnia september croatia accepted refugees bosnia civilians excluding men drafting age large number refugees significantly strained croatian economy infrastructure american ambassador croatia peter tried number muslim refugees croatia proper perspective interview november said situation equivalent united_states taking refugees erosion support conflict erupted bosnia fighting serbs war originally fought croatian defence council croatian volunteer troops army republic bosnia croatian army estimated troops involved fighting pressure united_states agreed truce late february followed meeting croatian representatives secretary state warren christopher washington february march endorsed agreement providing creation federation bosnia alliance croatian armies forces led bosnia reduced number factions bosnia late croatian army intervened times bosnia november operation near november december winter operation near operations undertaken siege region approach capital north sides time unsuccessful negotiations way croatian governments matters discussion included opening occupied motorway near transit traffic status serbian majority areas croatia motorway initially reopened end soon closed security issues repeated failures resolve disputes serve major croatian time army continued siege army bosnia michael williams official force said village west fallen unit late november siege entered final stage added heavy tank artillery fire town north coming western military analysts said array serbian surface air missile systems surround pocket croatian territory modern system probably brought belgrade response situation security council passed resolution allowed nato aircraft deployed operation deny flight operate croatia november nato attacked airfield controlled temporarily following strike nato continued launch strikes area november nato reconnaissance plane illuminated radar surface air missile sam system nato planes attacked sam site near harm anti radiation missiles later campaigns croatian army pursue variant tactics guard brigades punching enemy lines units simply held lines points completed enemy units attempt bolster armed forces croatia hired military professional resources inc september train officers begun january assignment involved advisors taught basic officer leadership skills training management activities reviewed advance state department ensure involve tactical training violate arms place end war tensions renewed beginning croatia sought increasing pressure page letter january formally told secretary general croatia ending agreement permitting croatia effective march motivated actions serbia dominated federal republic yugoslavia provide assistance occupation croatia allegedly integrate occupied areas yugoslav territory situation noted addressed general_assembly situation croatia respect strictly territorial integrity regard concludes activities aimed achieving integration occupied territories croatia administrative military educational transportation communication systems federal republic yugoslavia serbia montenegro illegal void cease immediately international efforts continued new peace plan called plan presented croatian authorities initial croatian response serbs refused proposal deadline pull neared new mission proposed increased mandate patrol croatia internationally recognized borders initially serbs opposed tanks moved serbia eastern croatia settlement finally reached new mission approved united_nations security council resolution march mission subject minute dispute croatian foreign minister mate insisted word croatia added force united_nations confidence restoration operation croatia approved violence erupted early lost support serbian government belgrade partly result international pressure time croatian operation flash reclaimed previously occupied territory western retaliation forces attacked rockets killing wounding civilians yugoslav army responded offensive force moving tanks croatian border apparent effort possible attack occupied area eastern following months international efforts mainly concerned largely unsuccessful united_nations safe areas set bosnia trying set lasting croatia issues virtually merged july number safe areas eastern bosnia overrun threatened croatia signaled allow captured new confidence croatian military ability recapture occupied areas brought demand croatian authorities negotiated occupied territories integrated croatia developments washington agreement signed theater led meeting presidents croatia bosnia july split agreement adopted bosnia invited croatia provide military assistance particularly area croatia accepted committing armed intervention july croatian army croatian defence council troops attacked held territory north mount capturing operation summer offensive paved way military recapture occupied territory severed efficient resupply route august croatia started operation storm aim occupied territory croatia comparatively small strip land located danube considerable distance bulk contested land offensive involving croatian soldiers largest single land battle fought europe world war operation storm achieved goals declared completed august civilian population occupied areas fled offensive immediately completion later described terms ranging expulsion planned evacuation sources documents civilian protection supreme council defense published confirm evacuation serbs organized planned according amnesty international operation led ethnic croatian serbs murder torture serbs soldiers civilians civilian property hand concluded people deported bbc noted refugees point croatian refugees exiled finally allowed return homes displaced returned western according estimates committee refugees immigrants months followed intermittent mainly artillery attacks held areas bosnia area remaining held area croatia eastern faced possibility military confrontation croatia possibility repeatedly stated storm threat movement troops region mid october repeat earlier threat intervene militarily specifically saying croatian army intervene peace agreement reached end month eastern combat november agreement signed acting defense minister milan instructions received federal republic yugoslavia officials agreement stated remaining occupied area returned croatia year transitional period new mission established united_nations transitional authority eastern western united_nations security council resolution january agreement guarantees right establishment joint council municipalities local serbian community transitional period subsequently extended year january mandate ended croatia regained control area replaced mission peninsula previously control control united_nations mission observers established united_nations security council resolution january terminated december impact aftermath assessment type war standard term applied war directly translated croatian language homeland war croatian rat croatian war independence gradually standard term war early english language sources called war croatia croatian war conflict yugoslavia different translations croatian war patriotic war use native speakers english rare official term croatian language widespread croatia terms greater serbian aggression croatian term widely media war croatian media politicians conflicting views exist war civil international war prevailing view serbia civil wars area serbs living croatia yugoslavia croatia federation prevailing view croatia international law experts including international courts war international conflict war aggression waged yugoslavia serbia croatia supported serbs croatia croatia yugoslavia formally declared war unlike serbian position conflict need declared civil war croatian motivation declaring war believed croatia confront directly avoid war acts charged grave geneva conventions occurred international armed conflict partial occupation croatia displaced persons allowed return homes non serbs remained occupied areas expelled following months territory remained occupation large portions croatian forces operations remaining area control eastern peacefully integrated croatia casualties refugees sources place total number deaths war according head croatian commission missing persons colonel croatia suffered killed missing including soldiers civilians official figures list wounded mentions killed missing anglo croatian historian reports number close persons reported missing war croatian government seeking information persons missing war persons croatia registered disabled participation war figure includes disabled physically wounds injuries sustained persons health deteriorated involvement war including chronic diseases diabetes disease stress disorder number war related diagnosed persons total war caused refugees displaced persons non serbs displaced war organization security operation europe said displaced returned majority displaced initial fighting serbia obtained croatian citizenship incidents like belgrade based non government organization lists killed missing republic serbian including combatants civilians members croatia killed went missing deaths occurred northern officially acknowledged killed action actual number probably considerably greater casualties consistently example official reports spoke slightly wounded soldiers engagement according unit intelligence officer actual number killed wounded according serbian sources serbs displaced displaced operation storm number displaced serbs dropping early increasing end year international sources place total number serbs displaced according amnesty international displaced officially registered having returned according displaced war officially registered having returned believed number accurately reflect number returned serbia montenegro bosnia officially registering croatia according registered having returned croatia remained permanently croatian association prisoners serbian concentration camps croatian disabled homeland war veterans association founded help victims prison abuse wartime damage minefields official figures wartime damage published croatia specify destroyed housing units croatian economy destroyed billion material damage europe review estimated war damage billion damaged infrastructure lost economic output refugee related costs dropped period percent housing units cultural heritage structures including structures destroyed damaged war imposed additional economic burden high military expenditures croatia rapidly developed facto war economy military consumed percent total government spending yugoslav serbian expenditures war federal budget proposal percent funds diverted serbian war effort substantial federal budgets prior provided croatia developed yugoslavia lack federal income quickly led desperate printing money finance government operations turn produced worst episode history october january yugoslavia consisted serbia montenegro suffered percent croatian cities attacked artillery missiles aircraft bombs forces controlled areas bosnia montenegro serbia shelled cities mountain days nova directly attacked tanks infantry city surrounding villages hit artillery shells aircraft bombs approximately million mines laid areas croatia war minefields laid pattern type record position mines decade war mines buried lines segments international borders especially near facilities area containing suspected containing mines encompassed approximately square kilometers people killed injured land mines croatia beginning war including killed injured mines end war croatia spent million action programs remaining minefields clearly marked european crisis existed concerns areas mines affect flow refugees coming serbia croatia war crimes international criminal tribunal yugoslavia established security council resolution passed court power prosecute persons responsible violations international humanitarian law geneva conventions violating laws customs war committing genocide crimes humanity committed territory yugoslavia january ranged common soldiers prime ministers presidents high level included president serbia milan president general croatian army president croatia died cancer prosecutors investigating according employee investigative team worked senior members joint criminal enterprise including drafts rejected reportedly intervention del indictment limited held positions minister interior minister defense president self proclaimed serbian autonomous region later renamed republic serbian found participated period joint criminal enterprise included aim create unified serbian state commission widespread systematic campaign crimes non serbs inhabiting areas croatia bosnia envisaged parts state convicted officials croatian milan received largest sentence years prison received years expressed remorse role war asking brothers forgive yugoslav army officers sentenced massacre sentenced years mile years prison prosecutors stated following capture handed serbian forces injured soldiers women year old child murdered buried mass graves neighborhood outskirts city mayor brought trial committed suicide captivity proceedings began generals sentenced years respectively declared mentally unfit stand trial yugoslav army chief general staff charged aiding war crimes eventually acquitted charges trials pending number civilians hospitals shelters marked red_cross targeted forces numerous documented war crimes civilians prisoners war yugoslav forces croatia killings massacre massacre massacre massacre massacre massacre rocket attacks number prison camps croatian civilians detained including camp camp camp serbia camp montenegro croatian association prisoners serbian concentration camps later founded order help victims prison abuse croatian army established detention camps like prison camp split croatian war crimes included massacre killings likewise prosecuted croatian courts infamous instance war crimes later known case committed reserve police unit commanded involved killing prisoners ethnic serbs near late early events initially investigated case eventually transferred croatian judiciary decade later members unit commander indicted criminal charges related events convicted arrested crimes december croatian incumbent time convicted war crimes committed sentenced jail croatian court indicted croatian officers crimes committed operation pocket case transferred croatian courts found guilty jailed years acquitted declared unfit stand trial poor health indictment general cited civilians killed aftermath operation storm croatian committee registered civilians killed operation prosecutor stated legality legitimacy operation issue required investigate crimes committed campaign trial chamber reiterated legality operation storm irrelevant case hand processing war crimes sentenced years prison convictions overturned immediately released acquitted charges degree verdict trial chamber found certain members croatian political military leadership shared common objective permanent removal civilian population force threat force minister defence close associate chief croatian army main staff second degree verdict appeals chamber dismissed notion joint criminal enterprise verdict meant convicted role croatian war independence serbia role war serbia croatia declared war serbia directly indirectly involved war number activities foremost involvement entailed material support following independence yugoslavia serbia provided bulk manpower funding war effort serbian control yugoslav presidency federal defense ministry serbia actively supported paramilitary volunteer units serbia fighting croatia actual fighting occurred serbian soil involvement evident maintenance prison camps serbia montenegro places number war crimes committed trial revealed numerous documents belgrade involvement wars croatia bosnia evidence introduced trial showed exactly serbia federal republic yugoslavia financed war provided weapons material support croatian serbs demonstrated administrative personnel structures set support croatian armies established belgrade federal government financed percent budget supreme defense council decided hide aid public national bank operated branch office national bank yugoslavia march yugoslavia single currency numerous documents demonstrated branches public service incorporated serbia system financing caused yugoslavia trial revealed serbian ministry interior entities including civilian groups police armed civilians local territorial defense groups conflict escalated state department reported right pocket operations authorities serbia dispatched substantial numbers volunteers held territories croatia fight secretary serbian criminal testified confirming paramilitary leader took orders money directly secret police run degree control reflected negotiations held times croatian authorities serbian leadership regularly consulted frequently decisions behalf agreement ended war signed minister instructions degree control serbia held yugoslavia later evidenced trial serbia state run media reportedly conflict situation dismissing independent media reports fires burning artillery bombardment purported ruse created burning tires city war successful implementation agreement ended armed conflict relations croatia serbia gradually improved countries established diplomatic relations case international court justice croatia filed suit federal republic yugoslavia july citing article convention prevention punishment crime genocide transformation federal republic yugoslavia serbia montenegro dissolution country serbia considered legal successor application filed croatia lawyer david serbia genocide lawsuit republic croatia january serbian application covers missing people killed people refugees expelled people military actions concentration camps historical account world war persecution serbs committed independent state croatia world war croatia serbia improved relations agreement resolve remaining refugee issues visits croatian president belgrade serbian president meeting president gave statement expressing apology regret president said crimes committed time statements joint visit memorial center site massacre role international community war developed time attention united_states world iraq gulf war sharp rise oil prices growth world economy december european countries beginning germany vatican city followed sweden italy announced recognition croatia independence european_union recognized independence january major foreign governments acted somewhat differently united_kingdom john major government favoured neutrality united_states united_states george bush tended favour non intervention like united_kingdom contrast administration led bill_clinton tended engage order end conflicts yugoslavia cyrus supported integrity yugoslavia germany germany supported status quo according diplomat yugoslav feared bad example dissolution soviet_union war policy changed announced germany recognized croatia independent countries russia russia tended oppose recognition croatia russia recognized croatia february united_states april 7th


atomic bombings hiroshima nagasaki united_states consent united_kingdom laid quebec agreement dropped nuclear weapons japanese cities hiroshima nagasaki august final stage world war bombings killed people remain use nuclear weapons warfare history final year war allies prepared anticipated costly invasion japanese mainland preceded campaign japanese cities war europe concluded nazi_germany signed instrument surrender japanese facing fate refused accept allies demands surrender pacific war continued united_kingdom china united_states called surrender japanese armed forces declaration july alternative prompt utter destruction japanese response ultimatum ignore july allied manhattan_project successfully detonated atomic bomb new_mexico desert august produced atomic weapons based alternate designs composite group united_states_army air forces equipped specialized version boeing deliver islands august dropped gun type atomic bomb little boy city hiroshima american president harry called japan surrender hours later warning expect rain ruin air like seen earth days later august dropped type bomb fat man city nagasaki months bombings acute effects atomic bombings killed people hiroshima nagasaki roughly half deaths city occurred day following months large numbers died effect burns radiation sickness injuries compounded illness cities dead civilians hiroshima sizable military garrison august days bombing nagasaki soviet_union declaration war japan announced surrender allies september signed instrument surrender effectively ending world war bombings role japan surrender ethical justification debated background pacific war pacific war empire japan allies entered fourth year japanese fought fiercely ensuring victory come enormous cost million battle casualties incurred united_states world war including military personnel killed action wounded action nearly million occurred month period june june december saw american battle casualties hit time monthly high result german offensive pacific allies returned philippines recaptured burma invaded borneo undertaken reduce japanese forces remaining new_guinea philippines april american forces landed okinawa heavy fighting continued june way ratio japanese american casualties dropped philippines okinawa allied advance moved japan conditions steadily worse japanese people japan merchant fleet declined gross tons tons march tons august lack raw materials forced japanese war economy steep decline middle civilian economy slowly deteriorated war reached disastrous levels middle loss shipping affected fishing fleet catch rice harvest worst hunger widespread industrial production overwhelmingly superior japan produced aircraft year compared japan production entire war summer aircraft carriers pacific far japan entire war february prince advised emperor defeat inevitable urged preparations invade japan surrender nazi_germany plans underway largest operation pacific war operation downfall invasion japan operation parts operation olympic operation set begin october olympic involved series landings sixth army intended capture southern southernmost main japanese island operation olympic followed march operation capture plain near tokyo main japanese island eighth tenth armies commonwealth corps australian british canadian divisions target date chosen allow olympic complete objectives troops europe japanese winter pass japan geography invasion plan obvious japanese able predict allied invasion plans accurately adjust defensive plan operation accordingly japanese planned defense little left reserve subsequent defense operations veteran divisions withdrawn army march strengthen forces japan new divisions activated february formations coastal defense high quality mobile divisions million japanese army troops prepared defend home islands backed civilian militia million men women casualty predictions varied widely extremely high vice chief imperial_japanese_navy general staff vice admiral predicted million japanese deaths study june joint war plans committee provided planning information joint chiefs staff estimated olympic result casualties dead range delivered june insight gained battle okinawa study noted japan inadequate defenses effective sea blockade american campaign chief staff united_states_army general army george marshall army commander chief pacific general army douglas signed documents agreeing joint war plans committee estimate americans alarmed japanese buildup accurately tracked ultra intelligence secretary war henry sufficiently concerned high american estimates probable casualties commission study wright william wright spoke james dean examined casualty forecasts michael gilbert wright estimated invading allies suffer million casualties scenario dead japanese fatalities million marshall began contemplating use weapon readily available decrease cost american lives poison gas quantities gas tear gas moved australia new_guinea preparation operation olympic ensured chemical warfare service units trained use consideration given biological weapons japan air raids japan united_states developed plans air campaign japan prior pacific war capture allied bases western pacific weeks conflict meant offensive begin long ranged boeing ready use combat operation involved india based staging bases china series raids strategic targets japan effort failed achieve strategic objectives planners intended largely logistical problems bomber mechanical difficulties vulnerability chinese staging bases extreme range required reach key japanese cities united_states_army air forces brigadier general determined guam islands better serve bases japanese hands strategies shifted accommodate air war islands captured june august air bases developed operations commenced october bases easily cargo ships bomber command began missions japan november early attempts bomb japan proved ineffective china based continued practice conducting called high altitude precision bombing aimed key industries transportation networks tactics produced acceptable results efforts proved unsuccessful logistical difficulties remote location technical problems new advanced aircraft unfavorable weather conditions enemy action successor major general curtis assumed command january initially continued use precision bombing tactics equally unsatisfactory results attacks initially targeted key industrial facilities japanese manufacturing process carried small workshops private homes pressure headquarters washington changed tactics decided low level raids japanese cities way destroy production capabilities shifting precision bombing area bombardment like strategic bombing world war aim offensive japan destroy enemy war industries kill disable civilian employees industries undermine civilian morale civilians took war effort activities building fortifications manufacturing munitions war materials factories workshops considered combatants legal sense liable attacked months bomber command japanese cities tokyo operation march killed estimated people destroyed square miles km2 city buildings single night deadliest bombing raid war cost shot fighters bombs dropped designed burn japan paper cities mid june japan largest cities devastated end fighting okinawa month provided airfields closer japanese mainland allowing bombing campaign escalated aircraft flying allied aircraft carriers islands regularly struck targets japan preparation operation downfall switched smaller cities populations ranging according fire bombed japanese towns cities raids devastating japanese military unable stop allied attacks country civil defense preparations proved inadequate japanese fighters guns difficulty engaging bombers flying high altitude april japanese face american fighter escorts based okinawa month imperial japanese army air service imperial_japanese_navy air service stopped attempting intercept air raids order preserve fighter aircraft counter expected invasion japanese occasionally aircraft intercept individual conducting reconnaissance sorties country order conserve supplies fuel july japanese barrels gal imp gal invasion japan japanese military decided resume attacks allied bombers late june time operational fighters available change tactics hinder allied air raids atomic bomb development discovery nuclear german theoretical explanation development atomic bomb theoretical possibility fears german atomic bomb project develop atomic weapons especially scientists refugees nazi_germany fascist countries expressed letter prompted preliminary research united_states late progress slow arrival british committee report late indicated kilograms enriched needed bomb instead tons enriched heavy water working collaboration united_kingdom canada respective projects tube chalk river laboratories manhattan_project direction major general army corps engineers designed built atomic bombs appointed robert organize head project los laboratory new_mexico bomb design work carried types bombs eventually developed little boy gun type weapon rare separated clinton engineer works oak ridge tennessee known fat man powerful efficient complicated type nuclear weapon created nuclear washington test weapon detonated trinity site july near new_mexico japanese nuclear weapon program lacked human mineral financial resources manhattan_project progress developing atomic bomb preparations organization training composite group constituted december activated december army air field utah commanded colonel paul assigned organize command combat group develop means delivering atomic weapon targets germany japan flying squadrons group consisted bomber transport aircraft group designated composite bombardment unit working manhattan_project los selected training base great bend kansas mountain home idaho completed practice drops conventional explosive bombs declared group combat ready composite group authorized strength officers enlisted men eventually deployed addition authorized strength attached civilian military personnel project alberta known 1st technical detachment composite group bombardment squadron equipped aircraft specially adapted carry nuclear weapons equipped fuel injected engines electric pitch propellers rapid opening closing bomb bay doors improvements ground support composite group moved rail april port seattle washington support elements sailed cape victory group shipped cape victory brief port calls honolulu passengers permitted leave dock area advance party air consisting officers enlisted men flew north field representatives washington brigadier general thomas deputy commander manhattan_project rear admiral william military policy committee hand decide higher policy matters spot captain william parsons commander project alberta known joint chiefs choice targets april marshall asked nominate specific targets bombing final approval formed target committee chaired included major john colonel william fisher david scientists john von robert wilson william manhattan_project target committee met washington april los able talk scientists technicians finally washington commander frederick project alberta manhattan_project scientific advisor richard target committee nominated targets site japan largest munitions plants hiroshima port industrial center site major military headquarters urban center aircraft manufacture machine tools docks electrical equipment oil port industrial facilities including steel aluminum plants oil major industrial center target selection subject following criteria target larger diameter important target large urban area blast create effective damage target unlikely attacked august cities largely untouched nightly bombing raids army air forces agreed leave target list accurate assessment weapon hiroshima described important army depot port middle urban industrial area good radar target size large city extensively damaged adjacent hills likely produce focusing effect considerably increase blast damage rivers good target target committee stated agreed psychological factors target selection great importance aspects obtaining greatest psychological effect japan making initial use sufficiently spectacular importance weapon internationally recognized publicity released advantage important center military industry intellectual center population better able appreciate significance weapon emperor palace tokyo greater fame target strategic value japan expert army intelligence service incorrectly said prevented bombing autobiography specifically refuted claim person credit saving destruction henry secretary war time known admired honeymoon decades earlier asked remove target list historical religious cultural significance pointed military industrial significance approached president harry matter agreed temporarily removed target list attempted restore target list july remained adamant july nagasaki target list place orders attack issued general july signature general thomas acting chief staff marshall conference day noted diary weapon japan august 10th told sec war use military objectives soldiers sailors target women children ruthless fanatic leader world common welfare drop terrible bomb old capital new tokyo accord target purely military proposed demonstration early interim committee created urging leaders manhattan_project approval advise matters pertaining nuclear energy meetings june scientist lawrence suggested giving japanese non combat demonstration arthur later recalled evident suspect bomb exploded japan previous notice japanese air power adequate interference atomic bomb intricate device developmental stage operation far routine final adjustments bomb japanese defenders attack faulty easily result kind failure end advertised demonstration power worse attempt evident time came bombs available followed long intervals afford chance test neutral territory hard believe japan determined military men impressed open test failed bring surrender chance gone shock surprise proved effective contrary japanese ready interfere atomic attack possibility demonstration destroy human lives attractive suggest way convincing likely stop war possibility demonstration raised report issued physicist james june scientific advisory panel rejected report june saying propose technical demonstration likely bring end war acceptable alternative direct military use took report washington interim committee met june examine earlier conclusions reaffirmed alternative use bomb military target like officials scientists argued demonstration sacrifice shock value atomic attack japanese deny atomic bomb lethal making mission likely produce surrender allied prisoners war moved demonstration site killed bomb worried bomb trinity test stationary device air dropped bomb addition bombs available start august production cost dollars demonstration expensive months dropped million japan warning civilians air raids japanese cities suffered terrible damage aerial bombings destroyed thought increase psychological impact bombing reduce international stigma area bombing cities warnings japanese opposition war remained ineffective general japanese regarded messages caught possession arrested texts prepared recent japanese prisoners war thought best choice appeal preparation dropping atomic bomb hiroshima military leaders decided demonstration bomb special warning cases uncertainty successful wish maximize psychological shock warning given hiroshima new destructive bomb going dropped sources conflicting information dropped hiroshima prior atomic bomb robert jay writes july july history notes cities targeted july hiroshima sorties july sorties undertaken august august likely hiroshima late july early august survivor accounts talk delivery days atomic bomb dropped lists cities targeted saga hiroshima listed declaration delayed start summit weeks hope bomb tested start negotiations successful trinity test july exceeded expectations july allied leaders issued declaration outlining terms surrender japan presented ultimatum stated surrender allies attack japan resulting inevitable complete destruction japanese armed forces inevitably utter devastation japanese homeland atomic bomb mentioned july japanese papers reported declaration rejected japanese government afternoon prime minister declared press conference declaration cairo declaration government intended ignore kill silence statement taken japanese foreign papers clear rejection declaration emperor waiting soviet reply non japanese peace change government position japan willingness surrender remained preservation imperial institution japan occupied japanese armed forces disbanded voluntarily war criminals prosecuted japanese courts quebec agreement united_kingdom united_states agreed nuclear weapons country mutual consent june head british joint staff mission field marshal sir henry wilson agreed use nuclear weapons japan officially recorded decision combined policy committee agreed request winston_churchill britain represented atomic bomb dropped william group captain sent found let accompany mission send strongly signal wilson bombs little boy bomb ready beginning completed june target july target bomb pre assemblies partly assembled bombs components left hunters point naval shipyard california july aboard cruiser uss indianapolis arriving july target followed air july core transported custody project alberta field carrying case designed purpose philip morrison chosen act core departed army air field transport aircraft composite group troop carrier squadron july arrived north field july fat man high explosive pre assemblies designated picked july bombardment squadron plus army air_force base unit transported north field arriving august hiroshima hiroshima world war time bombing hiroshima city industrial military significance number military units located nearby important headquarters field marshal second general army commanded defense southern japan located hiroshima castle command consisted men allied invasion correctly anticipated present hiroshima headquarters army 5th division division recently formed mobile unit city defended batteries inch anti aircraft guns 3rd anti aircraft division including units anti aircraft regiments 22nd 45th separate anti aircraft battalions total estimated japanese military personnel stationed city hiroshima minor supply logistics base japanese military large military supplies city communications center key port shipping assembly area troops second largest city japan undamaged air raids fact lacked aircraft manufacturing industry bomber command priority target july joint chiefs staff placed limits bombers center city contained reinforced concrete buildings lighter structures outside center area dense collection small timber workshops set japanese houses larger industrial plants lay near outskirts city houses constructed timber tile roofs industrial buildings built timber frames city highly susceptible fire damage population hiroshima reached peak earlier war prior atomic bombing population steadily decreased systematic evacuation ordered japanese government time attack population approximately residents wondered hiroshima spared destruction speculated city saved occupation headquarters thought relatives hawaii california petitioned government avoid bombing hiroshima realistic city officials ordered buildings torn create long straight beginning continued expanded extended morning august bombing hiroshima hiroshima primary target nuclear bombing mission august nagasaki alternative targets having fully terms operations order bombardment squadron gay piloted took north field hours flight time japan gay named mother accompanied great commanded major charles carried instrumentation aircraft later called necessary evil commanded captain george served photography aircraft leaving aircraft way separately rendezvous feet set course japan aircraft arrived target clear visibility feet parsons command mission armed bomb flight minimize risks takeoff witnessed crash burn takeoff feared nuclear explosion occur crashed armed little boy board assistant second lieutenant morris removed safety devices minutes reaching target area night august japanese early warning radar detected approach numerous american aircraft headed southern japan radar detected bombers headed saga bound route headed bound alert given radio broadcasting stopped cities hiroshima clear sounded hiroshima hour bombing air raid alert sounded straight flush flew city broadcast short message picked gay read cloud cover 10th altitudes advice bomb primary clear sounded hiroshima started bomb run handed control major thomas release hiroshima time went planned little boy containing took seconds fall aircraft flying feet height feet city gay traveled felt shock waves blast bomb missed aiming point bridge approximately detonated directly surgical clinic created blast equivalent tnt weapon considered inefficient material radius total destruction mile resulting fires square miles km2 people ground reported seeing brilliant flash light followed don loud sound people japanese soldiers korean slave laborers population hiroshima killed blast resultant injured gay stayed target area minutes miles away bomb detonated parsons knew nature weapon bomber told expect flash given black hard believe saw told reporters parsons said thing tremendous awe inspiring men aboard god compared close burst fire events ground reinforced concrete buildings hiroshima strongly constructed earthquake danger japan framework collapse fairly close blast center bomb detonated air blast directed downward sideways largely responsible survival industrial promotional hall commonly known bomb dome building designed built czech architect jan ground zero ruin named hiroshima peace memorial world heritage site objections united_states china expressed reservations grounds asian nations ones suffered greatest loss life property focus japan lacked historical perspective americans estimated square miles km2 city destroyed japanese officials determined hiroshima buildings destroyed damaged bombing started fires spread rapidly timber paper homes japanese cities proved ineffective closest known survivor basement reinforced concrete building remained rest house war metres ground zero time attack lived 80s closest survivors blast built bank hiroshima meters ground zero time attack doctors nurses hiroshima killed injured downtown area received greatest damage hospitals destroyed heavily damaged doctor remained duty red_cross hospital nonetheless early afternoon police volunteers established evacuation centres hospitals schools stations established library elements japanese second general army headquarters physical training grounds hiroshima castle barely yards attack killed troops parade ground communications room military district headquarters responsible issuing lifting air raid warnings semi basement castle girls high school student mobilized serve communications officer sent message alarm issued hiroshima bomb exploded special phone inform headquarters hiroshima attacked new type bomb city state near total destruction mayor killed eating breakfast son granddaughter mayoral residence field marshal slightly wounded took administration city coordinated relief efforts staff killed fatally wounded including korean prince dynasty serving lieutenant colonel japanese army senior surviving staff officer wounded colonel acted chief staff hiroshima harbor undamaged soldiers suicide boats intended repel american invasion collected wounded took rivers military hospital trucks trains brought relief supplies evacuated survivors city american airmen imprisoned military police headquarters located feet blast died instantly reported executed captors prisoners badly injured bombing left bridge death later reports indicated prisoners war held hiroshima castle executed medical experiments program prior bombing reported japanese authorities having killed atomic blast japanese realization bombing tokyo control operator japan broadcasting corporation noticed hiroshima station gone air tried establish program telephone line failed minutes later tokyo railroad telegraph center realized main line telegraph stopped working north hiroshima small railway stops city came unofficial confused reports terrible explosion hiroshima reports transmitted headquarters imperial japanese army general staff military bases repeatedly tried army control station hiroshima complete silence city general staff knew large enemy raid occurred sizable store explosives hiroshima time young officer instructed fly immediately hiroshima land survey damage return tokyo reliable information staff felt taken place explosion rumor staff officer went airport took southwest flying hours nearly hiroshima pilot saw great cloud smoke bomb city order survey damage landed south city staff officer reporting tokyo began organize relief measures tokyo indication city destroyed new type bomb came president announcement strike sixteen hours later events august hiroshima bombing issued statement announcing use new weapon stated grateful providence german atomic bomb project failed united_states allies spent billion dollars greatest scientific history won warned japan accept terms expect rain ruin air like seen earth air attack follow sea land forces numbers power seen fighting skill aware japanese government react emperor government war council considered conditions surrender preservation imperial institution national assumption imperial headquarters responsibility occupation japanese home islands korea delegation punishment war criminals japanese government soviet foreign minister informed tokyo soviet_union soviet japanese neutrality pact august minutes past midnight august tokyo time soviet infantry armor air forces launched strategic offensive operation hours later word reached tokyo soviet_union official declaration war senior leadership japanese army began preparations impose martial law nation support minister war order stop attempting peace august day hiroshima destroyed atomic arrived city carefully examined damage went tokyo told cabinet hiroshima destroyed atomic bomb admiral chief naval general staff estimated additional bombs decided endure remaining attacks acknowledging destruction war american magic intercepted cabinet messages parsons met guam day discuss indication japan surrendering decided proceed dropping bomb parsons said project alberta ready august pointed weather reports indicating poor flying conditions day storm asked bomb august parsons agreed try nagasaki realize tragic significance atomic bomb awful responsibility come thank god come instead enemies pray guide use ways purposes nagasaki world war city nagasaki largest southern japan great wartime importance wide ranging industrial activity including production ordnance ships military equipment war materials largest companies city shipyards electrical shipyards arms plant steel arms works employed city labor force accounted city industry important industrial city nagasaki spared geography difficult locate night radar unlike target cities nagasaki placed limits bombers joint chiefs staff july directive bombed small scale times raids august number conventional high explosive bombs dropped city hit shipyards dock areas southwest portion city hit steel arms works early august city defended anti aircraft regiment 4th anti aircraft division batteries anti aircraft guns batteries contrast hiroshima buildings old fashioned japanese construction consisting timber timber framed buildings timber walls plaster tile roofs smaller industries business establishments situated buildings timber materials designed withstand explosions nagasaki permitted grow years definite city plan residences erected adjacent factory buildings closely possible entire industrial valley day bombing estimated people nagasaki including japanese residents korean residents korean workers japanese soldiers chinese workers allied prisoners war camp north nagasaki bombing nagasaki responsibility timing second bombing delegated scheduled august raid moved earlier days avoid day period bad weather forecast begin august bomb pre assemblies transported labeled august dress rehearsal conducted drop airplane assembly expended testing components designated august mission morning august flown crew carried fat man primary target nagasaki secondary target mission plan second attack nearly identical hiroshima mission flying hour ahead weather scouts additional flight instrumentation photographic support mission took weapon armed electrical safety engaged pre flight inspection flight engineer notified fuel transfer pump impossible use gallons imp gal fuel carried reserve tank fuel carried way japan consuming fuel replacing pump hours moving fat man aircraft long dangerous bomb live elected continue mission time allowed accompany mission flying observers plane big flown group operations officer major james observers aboard weather planes reported targets clear aircraft arrived assembly point flight coast japan big failed rendezvous according varying heights including feet higher flying tight circles previously agreed captain frederick support great instead flying mile patterns ordered circle longer minutes continued wait big urging plane command mission exceeding original departure time limit half hour accompanied great proceeded thirty minutes away delay rendezvous resulted clouds drifting smoke fires started major raid nearby previous day additionally steel works intentionally burned coal tar produce black smoke clouds smoke resulted area covered aiming point bomb runs minutes burning fuel exposing aircraft repeatedly heavy defenses unable drop visually time bomb run japanese fire getting close second lieutenant jacob monitoring japanese communications reported activity japanese fighter direction radio bands runs city fuel running low failed fuel pump headed secondary target nagasaki fuel consumption calculations route indicated insufficient fuel reach forced divert okinawa entirely allied occupied territory weeks earlier initially deciding nagasaki obscured arrival crew carry bomb okinawa dispose ocean necessary ruled radar approach target obscured japanese time air raid alert sounded nagasaki clear signal given sighted japanese apparently assumed planes reconnaissance alarm given minutes later great dropped instruments attached instruments contained unsigned letter professor physicist university tokyo studied scientists responsible atomic bomb university california berkeley urging tell public danger involved weapons mass destruction messages found military authorities turned month later authors letter met signed document minute break clouds nagasaki allowed captain visually sight target ordered fat man weapon containing core dropped city industrial valley exploded seconds later tennis court halfway steel arms works south nagasaki arsenal north nearly northwest planned blast confined valley major portion city protected intervening hills resulting explosion blast yield equivalent explosion generated heat estimated winds estimated mph big spotted explosion miles away flew observe delays mission fuel transfer pump sufficient fuel reach emergency landing field flew okinawa arriving minutes trying contact control tower landing clearance finally concluding radio faulty critically low fuel barely runway okinawa airfield fuel landing attempt brought miles hour instead normal miles hour firing distress alert field landing number engine died fuel starvation began final approach touching runway hard heavy left row parked bombers pilots managed regain control propellers insufficient slow aircraft adequately pilots standing brakes degree turn end runway avoid running runway second engine died fuel exhaustion time plane came stop flight engineer later measured fuel tanks concluded minutes total remained following mission confusion identification plane eyewitness account war correspondent william new_york_times accompanied mission aboard aircraft piloted reported leading mission great noted victor number writing personnel commented jersey number football player red interviewed crew aware referred airplane great gay names painted fact noted account unaware switch aircraft assumed victor great fact victor events ground bomb powerful hiroshima effect confined narrow valley japanese employees worked inside munitions plant including mobilized students regular workers killed worked war plants factories city died casualty estimates immediate deaths vary widely ranging days months following explosion people died bomb effects presence foreign workers number military personnel transit great estimates total deaths end range found studies unlike hiroshima military death toll soldiers killed instantly including thirty aaa regiment 4th aaa division known died bombing died including british citizen royal_air_force corporal seven dutch american joe nagasaki time bombing survived reportedly having shielded effects bomb concrete walls cell australian nagasaki survived radius total destruction followed fires northern portion city south bomb arms plant damaged steel works electric works suffered structural damage border main destruction zone nagasaki arsenal destroyed blast plans atomic attacks japan expected atomic bomb ready use august september october august sent memorandum marshall wrote bomb ready delivery suitable weather august day marshall endorsed memo comment released japan express authority president secretly requested august modified previous order target cities attacked atomic bombs ready discussion war department bombs production operation downfall problem august assuming japanese continue dropping time shipped hold pour reasonably short time day short period takes consideration target words concentrate targets greatest assistance invasion industry morale psychology like nearer tactical use use fat man assemblies scheduled leave field august august ordered return new_mexico collect los technicians worked hours straight cast core cast needed pressed coated august ready use august unable reach marshall ordered authority august core shipped surrender japan subsequent occupation august japan war council insisted conditions surrender day ordered quickly control situation soviet_union declared war held imperial conference authorized minister allies japan accept terms condition declaration comprise demand majesty sovereign ruler august emperor informed imperial family decision surrender prince asked war continued preserved simply replied course allied terms leave intact principle preservation throne recorded august capitulation announcement broadcast japanese nation day despite short rebellion opposed surrender declaration referred atomic bombings enemy possesses new terrible weapon power destroy innocent lives damage continue fight result ultimate collapse japanese nation lead total extinction human civilization case save millions subjects spirits imperial ancestors reason ordered acceptance provisions joint declaration powers soldiers sailors delivered august stressed impact soviet invasion decision surrender mention bombs met general september saying peace party prevail bombing hiroshima created situation furthermore soldiers sailors speech told personal political stated soviet intervention main reason surrender fact day bombing nagasaki soviet invasion ordered advisers primarily chief cabinet secretary write surrender speech speech days announcing radio august gave major reasons surrender tokyo defenses complete american invasion japan shrine lost americans atomic weapons deployed americans lead death entire japanese race despite soviet intervention mention soviets main factor surrender depiction public response censorship war rhetoric tolerated levels society according british embassy washington americans regarded japanese mass depicting japanese human common opinion poll asked japan found public favor killing japanese men women children hiroshima bomb detonated successfully robert addressed assembly los hands like prize winning boxer vatican enthusiastic newspaper expressed regret bomb destroy weapon benefit humanity dean prohibited abbey thanksgiving service war end calling use atomic weapons act wholesale massacre nonetheless news atomic bombing greeted enthusiastically poll fortune magazine late showed significant minority americans wishing atomic bombs dropped japan initial positive response supported imagery presented public mainly powerful images mushroom cloud censorship photographs showed corpses survivors journalist visit hiroshima bomb dropped arriving train tokyo september day formal surrender aboard uss missouri code dispatch printed daily express newspaper london september entitled atomic plague public report mention effects radiation nuclear fallout reporting unpopular military suppressed supporting story submitted george chicago daily_news accused sway japanese propaganda dismissed reports radiation sickness japanese efforts undermine american morale ignoring account hiroshima radiation sickness published week earlier member strategic bombing survey lieutenant daniel film crew document results early film crew work resulted hour documentary entitled effects atomic bombs hiroshima nagasaki documentary included images hospitals showing human effects bomb showed burned buildings cars rows bones ground classified secret years time america common practice editors graphic images death films magazines newspapers total film shot fully aired according mitchell documentary film original child bomb small footage managed reach american public powerful form creators intended motion picture company started sending nagasaki hiroshima september october military policeman stopped continuing film nagasaki confiscated american authorities turn requested japanese government saved black white motion pictures released shown time japanese american audiences years public release film footage city post attack research human effects attack restricted occupation japan information censored signing san_francisco peace treaty restoring control japanese sensitive detailed weapons effects information censored period censorship written accounts example book hiroshima written pulitzer prize winner john originally published article form popular magazine new_yorker august reported reached tokyo english january translated version released japan book narrates stories lives bomb survivors immediately prior months dropping little boy bomb post attack casualties spring atomic bomb casualty commission established accordance presidential directive national academy sciences national research council conduct investigations late effects radiation survivors hiroshima nagasaki early studies conducted outcome occurring hiroshima nagasaki control city located south hiroshima order conditions outcomes related radiation exposure james led study found number birth defects significantly higher children survivors pregnant time bombings national academy sciences questioned procedure filter population possible radiation exposure observed birth defects higher brain nagasaki hiroshima including times rate seen university human james crow examined research confirmed number birth defects significantly higher hiroshima nagasaki members successor radiation effects research foundation looking possible birth defects causes survivors decades later found evidence common survivors despite birth defects found study historian wrote hiroshima experienced increase birth defects infant mortality following atomic bomb studied longevity children survived bombings hiroshima nagasaki reporting percent living years later cancer deaths attributed effects bombs study states deaths solid cancer deaths bomb survivors radiation bombs statistical excess estimated solid survivors bombings called japanese pronunciation japanese word literally translates explosion affected people march recognized japanese government living japan government japan recognizes having illnesses caused radiation memorials hiroshima nagasaki contain lists names known died bombings updated annually bombings august memorials record names hiroshima nagasaki children victims severe discrimination japan public ignorance consequences radiation sickness public believing hereditary despite fact increase birth defects found later conceived children born survivors hiroshima nagasaki study long term psychological effects bombings survivors found years bombings occurred survivors showed higher prevalence anxiety symptoms double survivors march japanese government officially recognized double confirmed ground zero hiroshima business trip little boy detonated seriously burnt left spent night hiroshima arrived home city nagasaki august day fat man dropped exposed radiation searching relatives officially recognized survivor bombings died january age battle stomach cancer documentary twice survived atomic bombed hiroshima nagasaki documented lit double explosion affected people screened united_nations korean survivors war japan brought korean japan work forced labor killed hiroshima nagasaki bombings years difficult time fighting recognition atomic bomb victims denied health benefits issues addressed recent years lawsuits debate bombings atomic bomb weapon terrible destruction psychological weapon role bombings japan surrender ethical justification subject scholarly popular debate decades samuel walker wrote april overview recent historiography issue controversy use bomb certain continue wrote fundamental issue divided scholars period nearly decades use bomb necessary achieve victory war pacific terms satisfactory united_states supporters bombings generally assert caused japanese surrender preventing casualties sides operation downfall figure speech million subjects japanese empire die emperor nation served slogan phrase intended figure speech lines thousand years phrase memoirs states atomic bomb probably saved half million lives anticipated casualties allied invasion japan planned november subsequently talked saving million casualties churchill saving million american half number british lives scholars pointed alternatives ended war invasion alternatives resulted deaths japanese supporters point order given japanese war ministry august ordering execution allied prisoners war camp combat zone oppose bombings cite number reasons view belief atomic bombing fundamentally immoral bombings counted war crimes militarily unnecessary constituted state terrorism involved racism japanese people popular view critics bombings originating default position japanese school history textbooks idea atomic diplomacy united_states nuclear weapons order soviet_union early stages cold war bombings fierce conventional bombing campaign sea blockade collapse germany implications led japanese surrender time united_states dropped atomic bomb nagasaki august soviet_union launched surprise attack million troops army soviet entry war argued japanese historian played greater role atomic bombs inducing japan surrender hope japan terminate war moscow archives order general thomas general authorizing dropping atomic bomb documents decision drop atomic bomb harry presidential library museum retrieved january effects atomic bombings hiroshima nagasaki strategic bombing survey harry presidential library museum retrieved january president defends use atomic bomb original letters manuscript foundation retrieved february scientific data nagasaki atomic bomb disaster atomic bomb disease institute nagasaki university retrieved january correspondence decision drop bomb nuclear age peace foundation retrieved january tale cities story hiroshima nagasaki national science digital library retrieved january atomic bombings hiroshima nagasaki atomic archive retrieved january atomic bomb end world war national security archive retrieved january nagasaki archive google earth mapping nagasaki bombing archives retrieved january hiroshima archive google earth mapping hiroshima bombing archives retrieved january atomic bombings hiroshima nagasaki digital library nuclear issues retrieved january short film children hiroshima reel available free download internet archive short film children hiroshima reel available free download internet archive photo gallery aftermath pictures time life retrieved february video footage bombing nagasaki silent youtube atomic bombings hiroshima nagasaki public domain commemoration loss message hiroshima film hiroshima national peace memorial hall atomic bomb victims nagasaki national peace memorial hall atomic bomb victims hiroshima peace memorial museum hiroshima nagasaki look atomic bombing years later video democracy hiroshima nagasaki remembered website commemorating 60th anniversary

Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki