stone age poland stone age territory today poland divided eras extended bce bce subdivided periods lower bce middle bce upper bce final bce lasted bce bce subdivided proper bce copper age bce stone age era lasted years involved different human species stone age cultures ranged early human groups primitive tools advanced agricultural societies sophisticated stone tools built fortified settlements developed copper eastern central europe stone age human cultures went stages known bringing new stone tool making techniques period human activities earliest sites years old intermittent recurring periods recession general climate warming resulting increase environment diversity characteristic bce brought settled agricultural communities founders migrated danube river area bce later native post populations adopted developed agricultural way life bce pleistocene colder glacial warmer periods poland began south poland san river bce followed bce middle poland bce bce bce human settlements polish lands occurred later regions southern western_europe dependent recurring episodes hunter inhabitants primitive stone tools bones large mammals hunted fish caught found san river period sediments years old younger sites related species found near located like lower region represents complexes lower period earlier known species early humans considered distinct species known lived southern half poland middle period bce relics found different cultures distinguished dated years ago older tools hunter sporadic groups penetrated southern poland bce examination culture east complex sites river valley north near bce early phase river period shows skilled collective hunters able kill numerous large mammals characteristic cold pleistocene climate process meat skin bones specialized tools proper type appears upper lasted bce ice age period bce humans inhabit poland warmer climatic humans considered late upper people specialized organized group hunting large mammals pursued drove entire traps needs met largely meat consumption vegetation limited land covered ice snow final long periods sophisticated tool making methods resulted production long feet narrow sharp splits cave near east culture year old world oldest found crescent shaped long object fine finish hunted area bce years old called blades culture bone found county year old burial month old child complete burial gift decorative artifacts necklace elements teeth large discovered cave near southern believed oldest intentional burial located poland complex sites river valley located makes world largest accumulation finds extend number periods beginning culture followed hamburg culture hunters final represented culture named village county best known late area include belonged people preoccupied ore mining pigment body painting red widely traded rocks minerals originating distant regions today poland slovakia hungary found pieces chocolate flint brought area processing stored quantities evidence believed people developed counting system based number bce hamburg culture site tents camp fire stone meat devices discovered county rich source late sites artifacts culture bce river valley cave contained remains typical time social unit families people numerous tools artifacts culture including bone remnants years old culture dwelling cabin site traces supporting posts imported materials discovered recently county traces younger final identified cultures located near places lasted bce rapid climate warming bce arrival farmers danube river area period food production economy entirely based plant animal material found nature gathering hunting warmer temperatures complex forest ecosystems wetlands developed natural diversity necessitated new hunting fishing strategies new populations entered poland west hunters fishermen working individually small groups pursue single large small animals traps bows arrows boats fishing equipment utilizing dogs women engaged gathering products roots herbs nuts bird eggs fruit honey possibly important hunting human settlements numerous end period economy harvesting nature highly developed tools devices materials stone flint strip mines found northern edge mountains bone wood horn plant material rope included fine fishing hooks animal amber later dead placed graves outfitted familiar objects surroundings preserved grave apparent tool maker tools items found near dated bce introduction agriculture cultures farming communities early era began bce arrival middle danube area people kept livestock cultivated crops pottery smooth surface tools land predecessors coming balkans danube region beginning thousand years earlier formed settled rural communities fundamental advance original newcomers represented linear pottery culture uniform culture survived poland original form bce despite big impact waves came small numbers hundreds thousand people judging sizes known settlements populated mainly fertile soils southern highlands river valleys north way baltic_sea lived alongside numerous native people pursuing lifestyle linear pottery culture times wasn interaction groups inhabited different environments villages consisted dozen rectangular communal long houses meters long supported wooden posts oldest come lower region location bce unearthed west end city limits large complexes recent years excavated county area fertile hills settlements included massive post construction houses meters long industrial facilities extended continuously stretch land kilometers long identified structures functioned case buildings connected courtyard protected common fence plants cultivated small nearby gardens wheat grown small fields obtained burning forest absence animal drawn devices soil manually forest burning activity brought significant ecological environmental changes lesser poland entire area utilized single settlement having radius cattle sheep goats numerous northern land fertile people communities kept touch exchanged goods large areas way regions origin mountains bce new waves immigrants arrived south accelerated process society distinct cultures half 5th millennium river basin culture named variety linear band pottery pottery culture river basin cultures appeared regions developed separation different cultural traditions younger circle overlapped houses elongated shape meters long grouped larger complexes protected beam earth walls fortifications defensive measures apparently necessary people native population settlements defensive structures built mid 5th millennium bce complicated consumed significant time resources design followed similar construction taking place danube river areas starting early millennium large graves supplied objects jewelry including called graves imported copper addition locally decorations testify emergence relatively affluent society cattle raising trading large varieties resulted cross breeding land provided basic salt obtained traded sought probably help preserve stored food salt springs utilized culture people left vessels salt production people produced richly decorated objects including clay containers animal head ornaments women settlement cemetery cultural zone dated bce discovered county consisted central long house accompanied post built supporting structures large explored settlements culture bce period fortified bce assault incident involving arson murder located region settlement nearly houses graves located copper ornaments agricultural construction activities communities centered large settlements hunting fishing practiced caused likely accumulation environmental damage eventually forced abandon area 4th millennium constructions reinforced ditches representations culture located county farming culture southern poland 5th millennium bce named site near culture originate north mountains spread south rare discovery 5th millennium culture buildings decorated pottery county cultures developed native populations bce culture northwestern origin entered phase forms pottery characteristic pointed bottoms lived baltic_sea shores specialized utilizing resources sea representing ways life settlement near stroke pottery found obtained probably trade people native populations slow gradually agricultural way life beginning use took thousand years period adopted animal especially important plant cultivation degree eventually developed interest fertile areas utilized late cultures threat compelled farmers settlements native post groups expanded traditional areas agricultural development moving favorable environments included sandy soils truly native culture culture named shape typical clay vessels developed starting bce lasted thousand years like post cultures culture built tombs large stones huge example structures meters long resembling survived demand stone building material preserved half 4th millennium found near place period came skull procedure performed medical magic reasons beginnings post cultures poland coincide beginnings period balkans copper objects ornamental luxurious items traded developed locally indigenous people copper facilities identified near clay decorative objects include realistic representations animals containers images engraved pot county bce unique narrative scene world oldest wheeled cart drawn surface stone tools highly developed acquired characteristic smooth surfaces preserved settlements rectangular buildings unearthed near remnants vertical weaving found near northern poland county structures similar ones post supported houses discovered largest main meters long meters wide dated found represent developed phase culture originating central european people able utilize large fertile soils obtained extensive reduction forested areas increased role livestock moved south regions previously developed cultures way numerous better fit environment organized economically productive culture people replaced cultures late phase culture major culture originated polish half 4th millennium lasted bce parallel culture named shape representative pottery specialized breeding domestic animals lived semi settled state seeking optimal moving needed semi nomadic lifestyle probably necessitated poor condition soils time depleted rendered preceding centuries forest burning extensive exploitation culture poland known utilizing horse important source food ritual animal especially cattle burial sites individuals buried supplied objects strange drums discovered role understood people involved north south amber trade included stone tools ornamental gifts culture southern poland latest ancestry cultures continued bce vessels characteristic protruding radial ornaments large fortified culture settlement bce found near finally existence forest zone cultures representing phase hunting gathering communities lasted early bronze age major industry period mining largest middle late periods flint mines europe vertical shafts preserved underground passages located near axes produced material obtained exported distant parts continent late arrivals eastern western regions europe culture existence central europe bce originated likely european nomadic people black_sea pastoral culture early stages lacking permanent settlements known primarily burial grounds large richly furnished graves discovered near moved cattle sheep goats horses river valleys southern poland engaged flint mining manufacturing tools weapons use trade culture burial found grave secured meters surface contained man skeleton gift collection highly valuable copper decorations containers stone tools uniquely equipped burial warrior chief close finds testimony geographically extensive contacts culture nomadic people culture named village near discoveries took place developed northern populations culture specialized exploitation sea resources lasted parallel mother culture comparable period time settlements consisting characteristic sea erosion reinforced houses located bay east engaged fishery hunting especially seals numerous baltic coast culture people produced special shops widely traded amber decorative items opposite end europe peninsula came people formed bce period bell culture named shape typical carefully finished precisely pottery southwestern poland eastern edge range mobility bell people helped spread new including developing large areas europe


maze prison escape maze prison escape known irish republicans great escape took place september county northern_ireland prison maze known long maximum security prison considered escape proof prisons europe held prisoners convicted taking armed paramilitary campaigns troubles biggest prison escape history provisional irish republican army prisoners escaped block prison prison officer died heart attack result escape injured including shot guns smuggled prison escape propaganda coup british government minister faced calls resign official inquiry escape placed blame prison staff turn blamed escape political interference running prison previous escapes troubles irish republican prisoners escaped custody occasions november prisoners dubbed escaped road jail rope thrown wall prisoners recaptured remaining seven managed cross border republic ireland appeared press conference dublin january seven escaped prison ship hms swimming freedom resulting dubbed magnificent seven october leading members including chief staff escaped prison dublin helicopter landed exercise yard prison irish band tones wrote song celebrating escape called helicopter song topped irish popular music charts members escaped jail august guards blast gates prisoners attempted escape long november digging tunnel member hugh shot dead prisoners captured yards prison remaining custody hours march prisoners escaped courthouse trial attempting escape long included larry later escape shot dead loyalists june members including paul joe escaped road jail prisoners took prison officers hostage smuggled prison took uniforms shot way prison escape prison maze considered escape proof prisons europe addition foot fences block encompassed foot concrete wall topped barbed wire gates complex solid steel operated prisoners planning escape months bobby storey kelly started working allowed identify weaknesses security systems smuggled prison shortly september prisoners seized control simultaneously taking prison officers hostage gunpoint order prevent triggering alarm officer stabbed craft knife knocked blow head officer attempted prevent escape shot head kelly survived prisoners control alarm raised dozen prisoners took uniforms officers officers forced hand car keys details cars possible later use escape rearguard left watch hostages alarm raised believed clear prison returned cells delivering food supplies arrived entrance prisoners took occupants hostage gunpoint took inside driver told escape instructed route react challenged storey told driver man kelly years shoot lose prisoners left driver prison orderly taken driver foot tied clutch prisoners climbed kelly lay floor cab gun pointed driver told cab trapped hand grenade nearly drove main gate prison prisoners intended gatehouse prisoners dressed guards uniforms armed guns entered gatehouse took officers hostage officers began resist officer pressed alarm button staff responded senior officer said held gunpoint alarm triggered accidentally time prisoners struggling maintain control gatehouse number hostages officers arriving work entering gatehouse outside prison ordered gunpoint join hostages officer james ran gatehouse pedestrian gate attempting raise alarm pursued stabbed times chest raise alarm collapsed continued pedestrian gate stabbed officer controlling gate officers entered prison incident seen soldier duty watch tower reported british_army operations room seen prison officers fighting operations room prison emergency control room replied right alarm accidentally triggered earlier alarm raised officer gatehouse pushed prisoner holding hostage room soon prevent escape attempts prisoners opened main gate waiting prisoners gatehouse rejoin time prison officers blocked exit cars forcing prisoners abandon way outer fence yards away prisoners attacked officers car drove external gate crashed car near gate abandoned car escaped gate captured exiting car captured chased soldier main gate prison officer shot leg chasing prisoners reached outer fence prisoner fired shot captured shot wounded soldier watch tower prisoner captured falling prisoners escaped fence main gate closed prison secured prisoners breached prison perimeter escape biggest british irish history biggest europe world war outside prison planned logistical support operation involving armed members minutes prisoners found transport waiting forced flee fields vehicles british_army royal immediately activated plan vehicle check points place prison later place strategic positions northern_ireland resulting recapture prisoner prison officers injured escape thirteen kicked beaten stabbed shot prison james stabbed died suffering heart attack escape reaction escape propaganda coup morale boost irish republicans dubbing great escape leading politician called nicholas scott parliamentary secretary state northern_ireland resign british prime minister margaret statement ottawa visit canada saying breakout present history deep inquiry day escape secretary state northern_ireland james prior announced inquiry headed majesty chief inspector prisons james report published january placing blame escape prison staff series recommendations improve security prison report placed blame designers prison northern_ireland office successive prison governors failed improve security prior announced prison governor resigned ministerial result report findings days report published minister prisons nicholas scott dismissed allegations prison governors association prison officers association escape political interference running prison october nineteen prisoners appeared court charges relating death prison officer james sixteen charged murder determined stab wounds suffered killed healthy man judge acquitted sixteen stabbing heart attack captured day including discovered hiding underwater river near prison breathe captured days including hugh patrick captured following hour siege isolated farmhouse remaining ended republican stronghold south members south brigade charge transporting given option returning active service armed campaign job new identity united_states drowned river near december attempting escape ambush special air service fellow member mac killed captured glasgow june members including brighton bomber patrick convicted cause sixteen explosions england killed april kelly returned prison december netherlands arrested january leaving run killed seven members east brigade biggest single loss life 1920s november paul kane escape brother belfast solicitor pat shot dead legal defence association arrested county issued british authorities robert russell northern_ireland august captured dublin paul kane followed april march supreme_court ireland dublin blocked james clarke grounds probable targets ill treatment prison staff returned prison northern_ireland kevin barry james collectively known block arrested united_states fought lengthy legal battles northern_ireland returned prison released married citizen detained removed united_states republic ireland august tony kelly arrested county october british government announced requests withdrawn good friday agreement men officially remain majesty prison service said actively pursued living republic ireland tracked received amnesty january allowing return northern_ireland wished tony granted similar amnesty campbell traced escape republicans held party hotel september celebrate 20th anniversary escape described party inappropriate totally unnecessary subsequent escape attempts august loyalist prisoner benjamin member defence association attempted escape prison maze hiding refuse died caught crushing mechanism july prisoners escaped prison held escaped gun smuggled prison wounding fled september prisoners including armed members including paul escaped prison prisoners possession guns smuggled prison scaled prison walls sheets guard shot wounded escape prisoners captured chased fields guards police march foot tunnel discovered maze prison tunnel fitted electric lights feet outside wall having breached block perimeter wall december prisoner serving life sentence convicted murder escaped maze dressed woman group prisoners families attending christmas party escaped coach taking families prison


german von hungarian latin romanian highest ranking official kingdom hungary 12th century 16th century appointed monarchs heads county superiors counties province wide ranging administrative military judicial powers jurisdiction covered province saxon communities organized districts seats 13th century independent kings towns villages authority centuries largest single administrative entity entire kingdom 15th century enjoyed income royal estates attached office right grant lands collect taxes tolls coin money reserved monarchs rebelled sovereign remained faithful royal officials gradual medieval kingdom hungary 16th century came family ceased high ranking officials instead heads state ottoman new emerging eastern territories kingdom accordingly stephen elected diet new realm officially abandoned title adopted prince election king poland origins origin office unclear title slavic origin meaning commander lieutenant emperor constantine vii wrote hungarian tribes adopted term slavic interpreter border position led formation monarchs maintain direct control remote region autonomous remained provincial officials heads county indicate position origin office county royal charters issued mention important landowner holding specific office title documented certain living years earlier mentioned document addition royal charters titles office decades showing terminology remained uncertain second half 13th century functions jurisdiction territories jurisdiction known hungarian romanian chiefs counties counties attested earlier references fortresses seats archaeological finds suggest system counties existed 11th century instance county mentioned charter royal castle documented coin dated reign stephen hungary unearthed fortress counties listed witnesses royal charters beginning 13th century direct connection monarchs time interrupted employed appointed dismissed heads county remained directly connected monarchs longer period office united similarly simultaneously nearby county kings communities jurisdiction diploma royal charter placed territory authority count appointed directly subordinate monarchs likewise special royal official count administered community case offices united custom appointed count following invasion king hungary inhabitants king charles hungary granted immunity saxon communities monarch communities similar privileges received immunity honour office important royal honours kingdom income lands attached royal castles collected enjoyed income fines royal revenues taxes tolls mines remained kings 14th century held castles lands additionally enjoyed revenues royal estates instance estates attached decades monarchs started grant castles estates bishops saxon community consequently lands pertaining remained piece domain inhabitants counties compelled accommodate officials guest settlers released duty obligation abolished limited occasions year finally king charles duty preferred stay royal court seldom resided province represented deputies earliest record vicar dates later title vice documented came general use addition vice counties appointed royal fortresses tended choose serving ensured followers received fair share revenues accordingly king dismissed men replaced successor men judicial functions judge royal ban kingdom highest judges capacity authorized issue credible charters earliest preserved charter dates vice heard disputes local knew local customs initially deputies held courts heard disputes 14th century rarely headed courts represented deputies limiting jurisdiction thomas recognized right judge legal cases peasants owning parcels estates exception cases robbery highway robbery violent concession confirmed king louis hungary furthermore monarchs granted right application capital punishment nobles course century according customary law sued outside province 15th century king louis prohibited owned lands bringing legal proceedings lesser importance concerning estates royal court legal actions inhabitants parts kingdom remained outside jurisdiction appeal royal court decision 14th century remained involved proceedings legislation prescribed appeals decisions addressed judge royal general assemblies presided principal judges realm important judicial institutions decade 13th century general assemblies representatives counties presided vice assembly held june important legal institutions held regular basis year near authority monarch occasionally invited representatives saxon communities counties general meetings contributed development legal connections future nations threat peasants revolt gave rise joint meeting hungarian representatives royal authorization vice romanian invited general_assembly vice organized separate meetings military functions etymology title commander suggests significant military duties supreme leader troops recruited counties jurisdiction law obliged fight king army nobles fought command furthermore private formed primarily armed right raise army flag confirmed legislation military functions attested instance time invasion fell battle march lawrence clan fought royal army war austria army attacking southern regions defeated clan fought invading nicholas failed repel ottoman invasion contrast john defeated major ottoman army successor stephen likewise won victory hungarian romanian october contrast john battle august arrive battlefield time summoned late battle ended ottomans royal army king louis hungary killed battlefield monarchs appointment dismissal power concentrated hands monarchs replace frequently ruled monarchs usually appointing owned estates michael clan receive land grant province originally lands upper courses river confiscated era beginning characterized longer periods office survived years successor lasted years apparent stability consequence weakening central government kings dynasty andrew iii royal power restored reign charles defeated rebellious kingdom assisted thomas pop characterizes following period including members family father sons appointed likewise nicholas succeeded son pair preferred vice represent instead visiting province middle 15th century unusual hold office time instance john appointed nicholas king cooperation conflicts plundered eastern territories kingdom hungary including invasion withdrawal following year consolidation province main task lawrence clan appointed held office years successors appointed clan dismissed king son stephen taken title duke duke action showed emerging tensions father son conflicts duke years reign minor characterized armed conflicts parties leading noble families initially nobles assisting king consolidating royal power source new conflicts prevented chapter collecting income compelled saxon landowners accommodate later fought bishop resisted king andrew iii besieged fortress adrian months successor went royal assumed titles count expand authority saxon communities authority set tax collecting body seemingly covering entire province captured bavaria hungarian throne seized holy crown hungary half handed royal king charles continued rule facto independently death son declared title monarch referring charter august king charles appointed defeated rebellious minor lords royal authority restored thomas rebellion royal power broke irritated new tax king introduced representatives nations concluded alliance monarch declared incumbent brothers counts john leaders king revolt week sentence active role revolt proven end office barons find compromise candidate succeed king louis perished battle john proclaimed king group nobles opposing party elected king ferdinand family end year king john accepted ottoman treaty conceded right succeed death point stephen decided separate kingdom order save province ottoman invasion leading soon joined king john overcame rebellion weeks following john death ottoman troops occupied central parts kingdom hungary sultan permitted king widow queen isabella retain territories east river including infant son john george bishop soon started government queen son ottomans assisted bishop capturing opponent stephen sultan earlier confirmed position assembly nations elected george governor behalf infant king office vacant september ferdinand given idea reuniting territories entire kingdom appointed post isabella son left realm rule appointed monarch ending administered province isabella john returned john ceased style king hungary treaty adopted title prince lord parts kingdom hungary successor stephen elected ruler assembly nations revived title initially adopted title prince elected king poland time conferred title brother christopher christopher followed minor son continued style death uncle stephen title prince acknowledged emperor king hungary list twelfth century thirteenth century fourteenth century fifteenth century sixteenth century


conference conference german meeting senior officials nazi_germany held berlin suburb january world war purpose conference ensure cooperation administrative leaders departments implementation final solution jewish question conference called chief main security office attended representatives government including state foreign office justice interior state representatives course meeting outlined proposal final european jews german occupied europe pretext plan called removing home environment train camps general government territory occupied poland murdered sight primarily soon invasion poland september unprecedented persecution european introduced killings men women children began june onset operation soviets july gave written authorization prepare submit plan total solution jewish question territories german control coordinate participation involved government organisations emphasised mass strategy complete internal matter secondary goal arrive definition formally jewish determine scope genocide copy protocol circulated minutes meeting survived war found allies march files seized german foreign office evidence subsequent trials house site conference holocaust memorial background discrimination jews germany began immediately nazi seizure power january violence economic pressure nazi regime encourage jews voluntarily leave country ideology brought elements racial combined pan territorial goal obtaining living space people nazi_germany attempted obtain new territory attacking poland soviet_union intending jews living viewed inferior master race discrimination jews longstanding europe time codified germany immediately nazi seizure power january law restoration professional civil service passed april year excluded jews legal profession civil service similar legislation soon deprived jewish members right violence economic pressure regime force jews leave country jewish businesses denied access markets forbidden advertise newspapers deprived access government contracts citizens harassed subjected violent attacks businesses september laws enacted laws prohibited marriages jews people extraction relations jews germans employment german women age domestic servants jewish households citizenship law stated german related blood defined citizens jews minority groups stripped german citizenship decree issued november defined jewish jewish grandparents grandparents jewish faith followed start world war germany jews emigrated united_states palestine great_britain countries invasion poland september hitler ordered polish leadership destroyed special prosecution book poland lists people killed drawn early special task forces performed murders support self protection group paramilitary group consisting ethnic germans living poland members german armed forces order police shot civilians polish campaign approximately civilians killed end addition leaders polish society killed jews prostitutes people mentally ill july gave written authorization senior group leader chief main security office prepare submit plan total solution jewish question territories german control coordinate participation involved government organisations resulting general plan east called population occupied eastern_europe soviet_union siberia use slave labour murdered minutes conference estimated jewish population soviet_union million million ukraine addition eliminating jews nazis planned reduce population conquered territories million people starvation action called hunger plan food supplies diverted german_army german civilians cities razed land allowed return forest german colonists objective hunger plan inflict deliberate mass starvation slavic civilian populations german occupation directing food supplies german home population eastern according historian million soviet citizens largely russians nazis nazi controlled result plan poor germany food supplies short large numbers forced labourers brought country work armaments industry workers german people adequately fed sharp reduction number useless mouths millions jews german rule light nazi ideology obvious example time conference killing jews soviet_union underway months right start operation invasion soviet_union assigned follow army conquered areas round kill jews letter dated july communicated police leaders execute officials ranking members communist_party radical communist_party members people jews party government posts open ended instructions given execute radical elements assassins etc instructed spontaneously initiated occupants conquered territories quietly encouraged july announced jews regarded partisans gave order male jews ages shot august net widened include women children elderly entire jewish population time planning underway conference hundreds thousands polish serbian russian jews killed initial plan implement conquest soviet_union european jews deported occupied parts russia worked death road building projects planning conference november sent ministerial conference held december offices changed venue december eventual location meeting enclosed copy letter dated july authorised plan final solution jewish question represented interior justice year plan propaganda ministry occupied eastern territories date conference went november date cancelled meeting december situation changed december soviet army began counter offensive moscow ending prospect rapid conquest soviet_union december japanese attacked united_states pearl harbor causing declare war japan day government declared war december involved preparations postponed meeting time hitler resolved jews europe immediately war end sight meeting december met party officials intentions plain war ongoing transporting masses people combat zone impossible decided jews currently living general government german occupied area poland killed camps set occupied areas poland jews rest europe january sent new meeting held january venue rescheduled conference villa overlooking villa purchased friedrich security force use conference centre guest house attendees invited representatives government including state foreign office justice interior state representatives process information fate jews underway time meeting held attended held academic proceedings preparation conference drafted list numbers jews european countries countries listed groups countries direct control occupation partially occupied case france countries allied client states neutral war germany numbers reflect actions completed nazi forces example estonia listed free jews jews remained estonia german occupation end occupied poland list country split ways polish areas annexed nazi_germany west territories poland annexed soviet_union east general government polish jewish opened conference account anti jewish measures taken germany nazi seizure power said october german austrian czech jews emigrated information taken briefing paper prepared previous week reported approximately million jews europe half countries german control explained jewish emigration prohibited new solution place evacuating jews east temporary solution step final solution jewish question proper guidance course final solution jews allocated appropriate labor east able bodied jews separated according sex taken large work columns areas work roads course action large portion eliminated natural causes possible final remnant undoubtedly consist resistant portion treated accordingly product natural selection released act seed new jewish revival german historian peter notes vague orders terminology specific meaning members regime common especially people ordered carry criminal activities leaders given need severe firm jews viewed potential enemies dealt wording protocol distributed minutes meeting clear participants evacuation east death went course practical execution final solution europe west east germany austria priority housing problem additional social political reference increasing pressure regional nazi party leaders germany jews removed areas allow accommodation germans homeless allied bombing space laborers imported occupied countries evacuated jews said sent transit general government transported eastward said avoid legal political difficulties important define jew purposes evacuation outlined categories people killed jews years old jewish world war veterans severely wounded won iron cross sent concentration camp instead killed solution said fell prevented situation people half quarter jews jews married non jews complex laws status left deliberately ambiguous announced nazi mixed race persons degree persons jewish grandparents treated jews apply married non jew children marriage apply granted written exemption highest offices party state persons deported refused second degree persons jewish treated germans married jews degree racially especially undesirable appearance marks jew political record shows feels like jew persons categories killed married non jews case mixed marriages recommended case evaluated individually impact german relatives assessed marriage produced children raised germans jewish partner killed raised jews killed sent old age applied german austrian jews observed occupied countries jews rounded killed lived identified jewish community given place regarded jew commented occupied france registration jews evacuation probability proceed great difficulty end great majority french born jews survived difficulty anticipated germany allies romania hungary romania government appointed commissioner jewish affairs said fact romanian jews slow inefficient despite high degree popular order settle question hungary said soon necessary force adviser jewish questions hungarian government hungarian regime continued resist german interference jewish policy spring invaded hungary soon jews hungary parts czechoslovakia romania yugoslavia occupied hungary sent deaths collaboration hungarian authorities spoke nearly hour followed thirty minutes questions comments followed formal conversation head race settlement main office state secretary interior ministry pointed administrative difficulties mixed marriages suggested compulsory dissolution mixed marriages wider use simpler alternative year plan argued exemption jews working industries vital war effort replacements available assured policy jews killed state secretary general government stated support plan hope killings commence soon possible end meeting served conversation restrained gentlemen standing sitting said discussing subject differently language use later record conversation words spoke methods killing recorded pleased course meeting expected lot resistance recalled instead found atmosphere agreement participants feel agreement assumed form expected protocol conclusion meeting gave firm instructions appear minutes ensured explicit appeared said trial shall certain plain talk expressions rendered office language condensed records document outlining purpose meeting intentions regime moving forward stated trial personally edited reflected message intended participants away meeting copies minutes known german word minutes protocol sent participants meeting copies destroyed end war participants officials sought cover tracks copy number copies prepared found robert prosecutor international military tribunal files seized german foreign office interpretation conference lasted ninety minutes enormous importance attached conference postwar writers evident participants time meeting fundamental new decisions jewish question massive killings jews conquered territories soviet_union poland ongoing new camp construction time conference camps planning stages decision jews held meeting ensure cooperation departments conducting according primary goal meeting emphasise completed implementation final solution internal matter totally outside agency secondary goal determine scope arrive definitions jewish anybody spared representatives ministerial bureaucracy plain concerns principle crucial result meeting main reason detailed minutes prepared widely circulated said presence meeting ensured present accessories murders undertaken biographer david agrees interpretation notes main purpose impose authority agencies involved jewish policy matters avoid repetition disputes arisen earlier campaign simplest decisive way ensure smooth flow writes asserting total control fate jews east cow ing interested parties line house holocaust memorial historian joseph proposed house holocaust memorial document centre west german government interested time building use school funding available failure project west german government failure pursue convict nazi war criminals committed suicide house conference january anniversary conference site finally opened holocaust memorial museum known der house conference museum hosts permanent exhibits texts photographs document events holocaust planning joseph second floor houses large collection books nazi era plus materials original nazi documents


romania middle ages middle ages romania began withdrawal migrating populations invade territory modern romania attack came end reign michael brave managed short time rule territories united centuries later form romania period regions romania west mountains kingdom hungary divided types administrative units counties seats heads counties counts special royal official called province seldom treated single unit saxon seats administered separately kingdom romanian peasants orthodox exempt ecclesiastical tax roman catholic romanian slowly lost ability participate political life 14th century monarchs pursued pro catholic policy position worse called union nations alliance hungarian formed order crush peasant uprising independent medieval state lower danube created terminated king hungary victory battle independence east achieved nobleman led revolt ruler appointed hungarian monarch independence rarely secure multiple states important aspect diplomacy paid tribute ottoman_empire medieval monarchs old stephen great conducted successful military operations ottoman turks trade parts europe began decrease decades 15th century sale hides grain honey wax holy roman empire venice poland import silk weapons manufactured goods areas widespread end 16th century ottoman_empire main market romanian products neighboring counties gained status autonomous state ottoman central territories kingdom hungary annexed ottomans fall kingdom deprived main ally struggle ottoman_empire michael brave joined anti ottoman alliance initiated pope viii series victory ottomans turned pro polish pro ottoman princes reigning invaded occupied union countries collapsed months served ideal later generations working unification lands form romania background end 8th century establishment north mountains created obstacle path nomadic people moving westward following period local population area peaceful political climate material culture called developed region finds settlements confirm role agriculture economy 9th century movements commenced subject peoples hungarians left dominion settled region rivers don abandoned crossed according 13th century deeds hungarians time hungarian invasion inhabited ruled certain romanian inhabited peoples author knowledge real conditions turn 9th 10th centuries remains debated historians second leader rank hungarian tribal federation converted christianity constantinople time according byzantine emperor constantine vii hungarians controlled region border modern romania hungary rivers annals narrates stephen crowned monarch hungary led army maternal uncle king occupied country stephen granted privileges roman_catholic_church example ordering general population local pre christian example ceased stephen divided kingdom including territories modern romania occupied counties administrative units royal fortresses administered royal official called count time higher royal official attested principal counts contrast counts modern remained direct contact king appointed replaced end 9th century controlled territories east south according saga fought swept aside territories late variant oldest turkish chronicle relates defeated nations including fled kingdom hungary employed guard border districts instance 11th century settlements characterized small marked clay increasing number coin finds suggests province experienced economic growth late 11th century document pertaining province royal charter referring taxes salt levied earliest precious metal medieval silver mentioned 12th 13th centuries guest settlers arrived germany french speaking regions river rhine time collectively known andrew hungary granted special liberties settled southern instance authorized choose local leaders head entire community count appointed king granted right use forest references connected result saxon immigration hungarian speaking free warriors communal lands transferred southeast province 13th century governed independently royal official count agents expansion abbey established early 13th century andrew ordered strip land running mountains rivers transferred new monastery following defeat river western tribes accepted authority king hungary conversion led creation roman catholic diocese east orthodox romanian population territory received pseudo bishops greek rite according papal bull organized military frontier zone kingdom hungary called expansion stopped invasion lasted march april major watershed medieval history region number casualties disputed estimates percent total population high middle ages outer regions withdrawal kingdom hungary forces halted russia river leader khan set capital henceforth rivers danube influence known golden relative khan settled lower danube absolute master neighboring regions independent golden killed battle middle 14th century westernmost territories subject frequent polish hungarian military grand prince lithuania penetrated farther territories controlled golden european army hitherto won major victory united troops near black_sea regions having raided twice single year felt consequences invasion decades administrative centers province destroyed severe process organized colonization commenced lasted decades example new wave colonization resulted establishment saxon seats lord received royal permission settle lands owned castles built stone walled towns able resist attacks following withdrawal kings encouraged landowners townspeople build stone fortifications new stone fortresses built example process characterized saxon towns towns situated counties charter referring proves city like way life inhabitants salt important item trade period trading wine documented royal charters hungary appointed eldest son future stephen govern kingdom territories east danube younger king ceded significant royal domains years reign hungary characterized civil wars entire kingdom engaged local conflict bishop took set fire cathedral series wars continued second invasion initial stage successfully blocked access later organized series provoking panic retreating invaders time military role expanded original task defending kingdom participated military campaigns example austria economic role recognized pastoral activities connected cloth production saxon settlements monarchs paid special tax sheep called andrew iii hungary ordered settled royal permission noble domains returned royal estate decades 13th century general_assembly monarchs representatives important organ court system instance general_assembly seven counties territory romania ended sentencing person death charter referring general_assembly counties recorded general_assembly nobles personally monarch andrew iii died entire kingdom hands dozen powerful ruled gained upper hand governed authority recognized assumed royal taking lands lacking rightful owners acknowledged charles hungary sovereign fact continued rule independently king transferred residence strengthen authority long series confrontations instance stronghold sons surrendered king victory loyal adherents thomas appointed suppressed saxon revolt time autonomous saxon province divided seats administered judge appointed king appreciation services crushing revolt charles taxes far paid period major incentives growth towns trade instance granted staple right respect trade cloth poland germany foreign merchants sell sought merchandise exchange animals cotton wax honey 14th century district forms territorial organizations instance district county hungary ukraine achieved official recognition mentioned district transformed county louis hungary issued royal decree prescribed firm judicial measures nation especially louis decree regulated legal status local leaders establishing distinction brought lands royal writ testimony court weighed like nobles noble evidence counted distinction mean real nobility grant exemption royal taxes noble status corresponded hungarian nobles nobility depended specified military services render according royal decree louis ordered catholics granted land district county result official pressure romanian converted catholicism example members powerful family turned catholic 15th century ottomans raided time hungary organized crusade battle bulgaria ended disaster christian forces establishment according charter issued hungary knights time existed area south john granted knights lands ruled left owned extended territory stopped paying tribute king army defeated royal forces killed battle romanian historical tradition associates foundation crossed accompanied kind men sovereign recorded contemporary sources obtained international recognition independence victory charles hungary battle november princes chosen descendants legitimate assembly 16th century members landed nobility formed important social group vast majority population formed peasants called names neighbors medieval documents period animals especially sheep remained main item export plain great quantities grain transported mediterranean area basis peasants diet formed eaten wheat orthodox metropolitan recognized patriarch constantinople issued currency earliest written information modern romania deed issued dan refers donation monastery later important monasteries owned slaves ottomans entered time invading troops defeated ragged chaos created threat attacks allowed group throne forced refuge agreed hungary vassal restored throne participated disastrous crusade organized establishment territory eastern controlled golden contemporary thomas reference conflict suggests romanian political entities existed northern time andrew count led army occupied region border province organized louis hungary romanian historical tradition links foundation romanian succeeded son line long descendants soon expelled fled joined local revolt agriculture animal raising remained principal economic activities similarly wooden remained main agricultural tool middle ages constant clearing land shows finding new land preferred crop rotation establishment enhanced security travel profit transit trade poland black_sea ports local coins peter succession throne similarly governed hereditary principle legitimate illegitimate member family proclaimed prince assembly peter recognized poland hungary maintained claim princes influence poland hungary playing territory danube black_sea included area dominated byzantine_empire control danube delta fell direct rule golden end 13th century communities merchants settled towns middle 14th century state dependent byzantine_empire known country developed region known ruler succeeded brother holdings received ruler territory soon disappeared ottoman expedition occupied ottomans ottoman domination regions order establish zone states hungary tried draw neighboring orthodox rulers granting estates kingdom example serbia received mare mare modern romania granted monarch recognized legislative estates initiative assembly declared case ottoman attack nobleman tenth arms ottoman attacks occurred annual basis period saxon churches later churches region fortified gave local architecture distinctive appearance increasing defense costs fell primarily rent land raised extraordinary taxes imposed peasant revolt territory modern romania broke efforts taken bishop collect church taxes led rebellious peasants called rightful hungarian romanian inhabitants established fortified camp hill early fought important battles won peasants second near river clear winner leaders set union order join forces crushed peasants resistance end january ottomans attempt conquer new territories led better organized policy temporary union eastern western churches proclaimed council florence created favorable background concentration christian forces found champion john gained series victories ottomans instance routed ottoman army devastating victory siege belgrade modern serbia saved kingdom ottoman occupation decades reign son hungary ottomans launched attack defeated officials assert royal fallen found particularly tax replaced new tax nations entered formal alliance king quickly intervened took disorganized rebels surprise time land held common community gradually divided smaller smaller units vast number free warrior peasants enter service prosperous fellow social formally recognized royal decree performed mounted military service differentiated fought foot soldiers unable finance foot soldiers legally reduced prominence german element towns led conflicts ethnic lines struggle leadership hungarians came end establishing rule municipal offices shared equally groups united saxon districts university leadership elected mayor death assembly estates called diet began function regular organ power suffered rule estates instance limitation right free movement thousands peasants summoned modern hungary join crusade proclaimed pope leo ottomans turned weapons masters rebels led george occupied towns july john defeated retaliation diet decreed peasants tied land downfall kingdom hungary marked battle hungary royal army annihilated ottomans august political factions engaged conflict elected kings john supported lesser nobility ferdinand recognized mainly kingdom western counties supported seeking assistance ottomans john pay homage sultan battle ottomans occupied bulgaria attack easily old taking advantage ottomans difficulties defeat battle intervened ottoman civil war supported struggle brother defeated ottomans annexed occupied forced pay annual tribute sultan iron mines opened copper mining began addition amber extracted region death princes succeeded throne devastating frequency instance michael overthrown cousin dan decade throne occupied frequent changes dan cousin bald supported hungary ottomans alexander romanian ruler forced render military service ottomans decades later iii notorious model legend turned ottoman_empire carried series attacks danube winter response massive invasion led drove iii throne replaced brother iii fair frequent military operations plain heavily end 14th century hand received steady flow immigrants balkans preserved autonomy mainly intervention stephen great end century great subject sultan visited istanbul annually personally offer tribute stay power collaborating powerful family strongly connected ottomans trading member family rose throne adopted order rule wrote original work romanian literature titled teachings son moral political military questions ottoman governor advantage internal fights parties dominated political life imminent danger annexation grouped fought battles ottomans finally forced accept ottoman rise tribute orthodox metropolitan recognized patriarch reign alexander good reinforced traditional pro polish orientation declared vassal poland armies fought poles knights ottoman attack repulsed alexander death followed long period political instability characterized frequent fights throne instance struggle sons stephen ended division country cottage industries peasant households main source clothing food construction specialized production weaving pottery started develop middle 15th century oil wells went production oil household use gypsy slaves mentioned alexander awarded gypsy families monastery time specialized crafts example middle ages working iron occupation reserved exclusively peter iii aaron prince agreed pay tribute ottomans ousted nephew stephen support stephen iii great important medieval romanian monarch managed uphold autonomy hungary poland ottoman_empire early years reign remained allied poland ottoman_empire joined ottomans attacking supported rebellion estates hungary launched expedition royal army defeated battle came view ottoman_empire chief enemy refused pay tribute soon received ultimatum demanded surrender fortress recently captured stephen iii refusal large ottoman army sent called pope pleading crusade pope acknowledged merits naming athlete christ anti ottoman coalition external military support stephen great led troops victory battle january following battle addressed letter christian princes expressing idea romanian gateway christian world fell danger recognized hungary received return following year found invaded army defeated battle ottomans suffering lack provisions outbreak plague forced retreat stephen great suffered greatest setback reign ottomans captured ukraine black_sea having tried unsuccessfully regain fortresses concluded peace sultan agreed pay tribute succeeded son iii eyed reign troubled long series military conflicts poland good relations poland reign stephen younger successor peter intervened struggle crown kingdom hungary order sultan invaded land defeated army ferdinand partisans ottoman establishment resistance john broken series small campaigns instance magnate stephen went john early occupied february secret pact signed representatives kings hungary according treaty rulers allowed retain territories held childless john promised recognize succession john married daughter poland isabella bore son dying king took oath barons evade treaty counselor george infant john elected king ferdinand sent troops withdrew advance ottoman army august summoned hungarian lords camp reception taking place troops occupied capital kingdom time sultan assigned territories kingdom east queen isabella son return annual tribute october kingdom eastern territories including swore allegiance infant king diet hungary separate country started emerge george negotiating ferdinand kingdom purpose ferdinand sent army recognized sole ruler diet ottomans occupied great ferdinand consolidate rule kingdom eastern territories finally diet meeting march swore allegiance son king john young king mother returned 16th century brought major religious changes converted hungarians converted remained nations catholic diet decreed free worship received denominations continued tolerated status worsened period decided catholic protestant peasant accused crime seven catholic protestant witnesses orthodox peasant accused catholic protestant seven orthodox witnesses diet decreed settled lands abandoned catholic obliged pay inhabited nations hungarians add easily equal number liberties nobility rights small number living district believed capital lay nobles time john native place took battles turks common people hungarians settlements scattered entire country rarely settled open places retired woods leading unfortunate life alongside flocks continuing warfare demanded increased military service royal administration imposed special taxes leaders community taxation foot soldiers continued resulting double burden military monetary obligations took arms john defeated saxon towns continued develop years population increased slowly mainly consequence traditional desire segregation hungarian merchants prohibited settling towns treaty august john acknowledged rival king hungary adopted title prince parts kingdom hungary treaty marked borders new included historical province neighboring counties collectively known death john threatened throw country hands officers supported sultan appointed stephen catholic politician decisive battle candidates won stephen july year elected king poland personal union formed countries lasted death left administration brother christopher brother minor son title took title prince february announced country join anti ottoman alliance formed holy roman emperor philip spain smaller italian german states estates twice refused endorse declaration war joined alliance january leaders opposition executed order monarch return recognized title prince short reigns successors increased crisis starting shepherd prince placed throne sultan crown according largest tribute offered michael brave time turn ottomans ascended throne support people influence sublime sir edward english ambassador istanbul soon embarked program strengthen central authority replacing members advisory body consisting officials personally loyal michael brave adopted anti ottoman policy initiative aaron signed treaty form anti ottoman alliance rebellion started massacre ottomans november peter invaded poland order region modern ukraine army defeated concluded secret treaty ferdinand hungary soon seek refugee led army occasion prince stephen appointed sultan time sultan occupied region ukraine peter recovered throne exchange large sum money death followed period characterized fights throne parties idea anti ottoman struggle revived john iii terrible refused pay tribute sultan result ottoman troops invaded defeated john iii surprise attack near sultan sent large army prince captured aaron joined anti ottoman coalition started rebellion november simultaneously michael brave 16th century characterized ecclesiastical mural painting technique remained secret today example interior exterior monastery represent style age michael brave following coordinated uprising michael brave attacked ottoman strongholds danube recovered aaron seized ukraine response sultan ordered grand invade princes needed support took advantage situation aaron refused conditions replaced protégé throne according treaty signed michael brave ruler adopted title prince treaty stipulated taxes established diet council time peasants bound land ottoman troops entered summer defeated michael brave united armies meantime poles invaded replaced june michael brave recognized emperor promised grant subsidies finance mercenaries march throne favor cousin andrew new prince loyal poles promptly demanded michael brave accept secured emperor approval invasion attacked joined defeated opponent october entered diet recognized imperial governor respected traditional organization crushed revolt romanian peasants forced diet relieve orthodox priests feudal obligations spring invaded emperor established control july proclaimed prince bringing union hungarian dissatisfied disorder rebelled rule defeated september time poles invaded restored throne entered defeated michael brave moment crisis michael brave left prague appeal emperor support returned july head imperial army imperial general defeated troops august august assassinated order ally union michael brave death ruled imperial military commission stephen voluntarily accepted ottoman decades princes unsuccessful attempts unify fell control ottoman_empire michael brave death prince ruler appoint greeks district istanbul high government posts started trend ultimately led called period romania history


scotland scotland process christianity spread scotland took place principally fifth tenth centuries christianity probably introduced lowland scotland roman soldiers stationed north province collapse roman authority fifth century christianity presumed survived british south scotland retreated pagan anglo advanced traditional narratives depict scotland largely converted irish missions associated figures fifth seventh centuries figures later founded monasteries collegiate churches areas christianity spread scholars identified distinctive form celtic christianity significant bishops attitudes clerical relaxed significant differences practice roman christianity particularly form method calculating easter issues resolved mid seventh century scandinavian scotland tenth century christianity papal authority dominant religion kingdom process significant development scottish national identity scottish mission continental europe development art introduction latin formal education background pre christian religion little known religion scotland arrival christianity lack native written sources means judged parallels occasional surviving archaeological evidence hostile accounts later christian writers generally presumed resembled celtic names celtic deities noted like come later irish mythology whilst like come evidence celtic constructed temples gods offerings performing sacrifices possibly including human sacrifice according greek roman accounts britain ireland religious specialists known little definitely known irish legends origin stories life associate associated christian writing demon worship christian interpretation deities story concerning demon suggesting worship spirits feature roman mentions worship goddess wells stone associated near castle taken support case roman influence roots christianity scotland probably soldiers ordinary roman citizens lived vicinity wall roman period indicates northern parts roman province island inscriptions christian grave found wall fourth century period known existed wall attacked destroyed presumably christians post roman kingdoms collapse roman authority early fifth century major circles influence emerged northern britain east kingdoms eventually stretched river forth west people close links ireland brought scots south british speaking descendants peoples roman influenced kingdoms old north powerful longest surviving finally anglo overrun southern britain held kingdom later northern reached borders scotland south east scots remained pagan scholars christianity survived departure romans retreated anglo advanced north gods included gave names days week appropriated spring festival easter british christians continued practice grave goods pagan anglo visible archaeological record practice burial accompanied extensive grave goods designed accompany dead despite growing evidence settlement southern scotland grave found east early spread missions traditional view scotland seen carried irish scots missionaries lesser extent rome england historian richard argued motivations missions included example patrick idea growing interest missionaries ireland operating british mainland sixth century movement traditionally associated figures historian gilbert highlights fact figures church founders usually active areas christianity established probably gradual invisible historical record included trade conquest scholars agree place element word church represents evidence british church roman immediate post roman period scotland located south country area british successor states known old north fifth sixth centuries inscribed stones indicate christianity spread southern scotland earliest called stone dating slightly later stone commemorates bishops key containing long generally east west orientation like christian graves suspected known christian proximity church christian inscriptions found end roman era early fifth century twelfth century concentrated strongly eastern scotland south river modern east borders scotland writing sixth century patrick mentioned probably ruled fort rock accepted christianity poem set early sixth century probably written scotland indicates warriors probably kingdom based site modern edinburgh christian receiving communion sins battle figure traditionally credited introducing christianity region south west scotland widely regarded later construct result confusion irish saint church known dedicated sixth century created new centre worship extend influence region clear christianity gained southern scotland sixth century conversion kingdom west modern scotland traditionally attributed work given close cultural linguistic ties short distance seas region ireland begun fifth century likely christianity reached modern scotland arrival mid sixth century view role clergy owing loyalty consolidate position christianity region provide pastoral care people probably disciple left ireland exiled founded monastery west_coast scotland probably land granted christian king missions carried western islands later influence extend emerged important religious centre north britain partly result work abbot unclear historic conduct missions outside small life elevated north britain general means speed converted christianity uncertain gives credit conversion probably eighth century writing anglo saxon kingdom control south west scotland english bishop possession theoretically reminding church allegiance stresses role saint visited region claims conversion unlikely saint major impact separate mission attempt north east undertaken younger contemporary irish priest large number churches dedicated region process conversion begun earlier traditional mission based narratives likely knowledge christianity reached region close contacts including war trade traditions place fifth century saint left ireland link contemporary saint evidence early date include fact patrick active fifth century referred letter indicating previously christian abandoned faith addition poem remark recent archaeological work places foundation monastery area assumed converted late sixth century east north class stones began christian symbolism early eighth century conversion assessed taken place considerable period beginning fifth century complete seventh conversion general population stretched eighth century evidence place names suggests wide area influence large numbers churches seventh century anglo seventh century died went found church east_coast influence spread kingdom south east scotland second half century church increasingly influenced roman form christianity careers active death abbot monastery bishop founder monasteries intensified ties rome established region west presumed adopted roman forms christianity king accepted arguments roman authority practices victory battle ended dominance region bishop followers ejected controversies celtic christianity result different missions forms conversion series overlapping informally organised churches past historians term celtic church describe specific form christianity origins conversion ireland traditionally associated patrick later spread northern britain general description christian establishment northern britain prior twelfth century new religious institutions primarily french origin began root scotland celtic form christianity contrasted derived missions rome reached southern england leadership canterbury subsequent missions canterbury helped convert anglo saxon kingdoms reaching early eighth century begun presence result christianity mix celtic roman influences roman celtic christianity similar doctrine accepted ultimate papal authority differences practice contentious method calculating easter form head priests known differences rites baptism form service addition scholars identified significant characteristics organisation irish scottish christianity relaxed ideas clerical intense ecclesiastical institutions lack structure bishops important element church hierarchy growth roman influence major spokesman roman case called king decide form kingdom decided favour roman form calculating easter affected anglo saxon point celtic christianity declined mac der king attempted establish links church wrote abbot asking formal irish position calculation date easter help building stone church manner romans historian duncan suggested group clergy led bishop took latin suggested presence church ross dedicated peter seen bishop rome early eighth century subsequent similar territory mid eighth century ireland accepted roman practices decline place centre scottish christianity disrupted arrival raiders sacked monks killed year abbot withdrew ireland taking relics periodic returns relics ending western isles eventually fell pagan influence church highlands islands threat posed forced union kingdoms kenneth mac traditionally dated according annals abbot took relics ireland earliest version chronicles kings scots says year removed kenneth mac church built probably indicating relics divided abbot new monastery emerged bishop new combined kingdom subsequently come known kingdom scotland conversion scandinavian scotland official conversion scandinavian scotland took place end tenth century evidence christianity viking controlled highland islands large number isles called western northern isles indicate priest isle period changes patterns grave goods viking place names suggest christianity begun spread official conversion according saga written northern isles king norway stopped south walls way ireland norway king summoned local stout said order subjects baptised refuse killed spot swear island fire steel story islands officially christian receiving bishop early eleventh century appears authority york hamburg bremen different points twelfth century subordinate archbishop today trondheim scandinavian scotland record clear bishop late tenth century followed gap century possibly filled bishops appointment bishop major effects conversion bring end raids christian sites allowed recover status cultural intellectual centres probably viking violence led settled society northern scotland significance scotland brought country cultural mainstream europe kingdom emerged ninth century overtly christian kingdom despite cultural diversity religion major source scottish identity dynasty rule scotland eleventh century end thirteenth identified christianity strong relationship emerged crown church acceptance papal authority meant subsequent centuries scottish church faced claims superior jurisdiction canterbury york independent status scotland matters established papal bull cum scottish played major scottish mission scottish irish clergy undertook missions expanding empire founded monasteries called meaning monasteries german establishments germany scottish monks local saints region conversion cultural culture scots angles common artistic style emerged britain ireland known art surviving examples found carving mainly illuminated manuscripts highly decorated intricate like book wholly partly created art highly influential continental europe contributing development gothic styles establishment christianity brought latin scotland scholarly written language monasteries served major knowledge education running schools providing small educated elite essential create read documents largely society


ice block expedition ice block expedition norwegian publicity stunt carried norwegian material producer today called responding challenge radio station radio decided equip truck bring ton block ice arctic circle equator form applied expedition intended display efficiency glass wool truck brought hospital albert expedition followed worldwide press corps great crowds spectators gathered european cities route crossing truck repeatedly got stuck sand proved dangerous task truck desert reached final destination revealed ice block lost original weight expedition enormous success judged end result media attention generated company called world greatest publicity stunt mark 50th anniversary event company original documentary expedition available online released new interview expedition leader years old time interview background preparations autumn radio launched challenge transport tons ice arctic circle equator radio station award kilogram time kilogram currency remained destination condition form managing director norwegian material company today saw announcement suggested company challenge estimated ice glass wool norwegian driver million radio realised potential loss retracted offer point planned expedition received attention decided sponsors shell provided fuel provided truck altogether sponsors countries financed expedition including french mother company saint corporation french sponsors wanted french truck insisted scandinavian position won selected task expedition leader later admitted french truck probably suitable driving desert february expedition left responsibility expedition given engineer good instinct public relations ice brought advice soon clear entire ton block brought instead blocks cut carried away flown helicopter town centre melted block ice weighing block placed specially constructed iron container wood glass wool container placed truck carry way equator accompanied van carrying equipment film crew europe stop expedition oslo greeted great ceremony university truck loaded value nok delivered hospital humanitarian albert near final destination capital oslo expedition continued sweden copenhagen denmark brought public relations purposes expedition way european cities including hamburg cologne brussels received ceremony attention belgium problem arose missing customs declaration ice solved customs official agreed accompany cars country later received personal apology conveyed norwegian foreign minister belgian colleague personal friend paris expedition escorted police streets crew members invited mayor paris truck continued lifted aboard freighter sailed cargo special crane obtained lift truck weighing total sixteen tons including ice shore container drained point ice melted spite unusually hot european weather season litres water shed crossing crossing considered particularly time forces hiding mountains carried truck valuable groups desert expedition accompanied french foreign legion instruction men received stops drive lives flat tire crossing passed violent incidents greater problems presented elements roads desert truck heavily loaded especially adapted conditions times got stuck desert sand crew place steel plates underneath traction spend hours digging sand wheels took great toll men limited supply water temperatures approaching crew spent nights way occasion slept sleeping bags sand point expedition met tribe greeted offering water container according commentary documentary film delicious norwegian water entirely true water contaminated glass wool tar paper barely expedition arrived mountains near cancer fourteen days travelling measurement point showed loss litres water traversed driving litres melted away average litres melted day desert arrival aftermath approximately weeks expedition arrived met albert later described meeting greatest moment entire expedition later hospital received norwegian dried particular favourite hospital patients handed container opened drainage monitored expedition great excitement associated seeing result block ice turned entirely intact expedition arrived final destination march seven days block ice found weigh lost way unclear time expedition initially estimated loss end result approximately french representative company met crew personal friend president charles presented offer drive ice paris crew accepted president received crew arc men exhausted point offer instead arrangement vehicles brought freight crew fly home ice cut divided citizens rare conscious promotional opportunities brought portion ice home ice subsequently drinks served journalists expedition documentary home oslo expedition enormous success goal set accomplish generating worldwide press coverage company product venture reported far away india oslo marketing association commemorated ice block expedition special event titled world greatest publicity stunt commemorate 50th anniversary event original documentary expedition available online released newly recorded interview time years old


greek byzantine title curator director important imperial constantinople established 4th century lasting 13th century eventually rose office particular significance ranked senior ministers byzantine state history spirit christian philanthropy byzantine world showed particular care weaker members society including sick elderly adopted foster parents sheltered monasteries run monasteries constantinople byzantine capital particularly large northeastern corner city site ancient byzantium eventually came imperial patronage according constantinople traced series charitable establishments founded reign ruled church according novel emperor leo bear title 5th century priest later patriarch constantinople known capital future patriarch held post provincial town legislation mentions office reign successor institution capital acquired definite characteristics wife aid named built near church paul peter paul according probably church near gate sea wall golden horn mentioned restored foundation possibly converted bequeathed annual possessions probably capital began appointed emperors result provinces post continued occupied capital soon formal office held members secular administrative hierarchy 9th 11th centuries role limited imperial capital provincial charitable foundations supervision officials responsible steward fortune age married earlier forbidden selling possessions special case city according 10th century following subordinate officials house probably new founded saint probably charge original founded treasurer apparently common establishments number unspecified function affiliated institutions holds rank comes 37th precedence immediately comes 56th place conferred decree ton describes role certain imperial ceremonies led emperor presence sung chants received gifts court ranks conferred 9th 11th centuries restricted secular holders office rule hold court rank holders office combined secular administrative offices famously john rose virtual regent empire late reign iii raising brother michael nephew michael throne john named iii monk soon secular titles maintained known imperial restored damaged earthquakes late reign iii fallen disrepair time charitable activities included restoration foundation township charitable institutions blind crippled elderly endowed institution considerable revenue founded school receive free tuition son successor john enlarged period latin empire fate unknown likely like byzantine public buildings fell disrepair wide scale reconstruction city following emperor michael viii erected school grounds old likely indicating ceased function time despite dissolution imperial office survived period fiscal capacity early classed fiscal occupying 11th place apparently succeeded earlier fiscal official functions early 14th century calls treasurer imperial means century book offices pseudo records office occupying 56th place palace hierarchy longer particular function according court dress consisted long silk hat covered velvet topped small red list known number seals unidentified holders office survived records certainly dated seals survive subordinate officials michael clerk dated 13th century bishop mega great