archaeological site maya civilization located department western honduras far border guatemala capital city major classic period kingdom 5th 9th centuries city located extreme southeast cultural region frontier cultural region surrounded non maya peoples fertile valley lies city small airport winding road occupied thousand years early period city developed distinctive style tradition lowland maya emphasize maya ethnicity city rulers city historical record spans greater classic period reconstructed detail archaeologists powerful city ruling vast kingdom southern maya area city suffered major political disaster greatest kings history captured executed vassal king unexpected defeat resulted year hiatus city time subject reversal fortunes significant portion eastern eroded away river river diverted order protect site damage etymology likely ancient pronounced meaning remains obscure location located western honduras close border guatemala lies municipality department situated fertile valley foothills meters mean sea level ruins site core city located kilometers modern village built site major complex dating classic period period floor valley prone seasonal flooding early classic inhabitants flattened valley floor undertook construction projects protect architecture city effects flooding major influence regional centres western central honduras introduction characteristics local population peak power late classic kingdom population covered area square kilometers greater area consisting populated areas valley covered quarter size city estimated peak population central area square kilometers inhabitants occupying periphery area square kilometers additionally estimated rural population square kilometers area valley giving estimated total population people valley late classic period history little known rulers founding new dynasty origins early 5th century city origins traced period powerful maya city states regional power southern maya region suffered catastrophic defeat hands vassal state long ruling king captured beheaded ruler sky major setback rulers began build monumental structures decades area continued occupied major ceremonial structures royal monuments erected population declined 8th 9th centuries city decrease population took centuries actually signs collapse showing stability site fall ruling royal families ceremonial center long abandoned surrounding valley home farming time arrival spanish 16th century rulers references rulers found later texts texts history fertile river valley long site agriculture known stone architecture built region 9th century city important foreign elite mentions history found later texts city inscription refers year text explains significance date event linked event happened days unknown location mentioned suggesting location basin possibly great maya city date mentioned texts linked figure known person mentioned carved skull recovered tomb said perform action city establishing capital new maya kingdom coup apparently organized launched texts record arrival warrior named installed throne city given new royal lord west title generation earlier general great metropolis decisively intervened politics central probably likely sponsored 16th ruler succession claim marrying old royal family evidenced remains presumed widow bone analysis remains indicates local establishment new kingdom city remained closely allied text altar describes lord elevated royal ceremonies involved founding dynasty included installation subordinate king text mentions dated years founded new dynasty names likely refer individual originally texts mention founding new dynasty describe arrived city indirect evidence suggests conquered city military means altar depicted warrior eyes war shield arrived initiated construction structures including temple style typical corners apron characteristic strong links maya central mexican cultures suggest maya possibly dynasty founded king ruled city centuries included sixteen kings plus probable seventeenth line monuments survived dedicated heir died tomb underneath temple discovered team archaeologists led robert david tomb contained skeleton elderly man rich offerings evidence battle wounds remains identified location underneath sequence seven buildings erected honor bone analysis identified remains foreign inherited throne father undertook major construction projects redesign core original king nickname based appearance linked oversaw construction version city decorated images scarlet bird features prominently maya mythology greatest construction activity area father palace underlying structure demolished father built successive buildings tomb rapid succession early rulers little known rulers succession known fragment broken monument reused construction fill later building son ruler depicted 8th century altar broken away 4th ruler succession rebuilt temple step base king mentioned fragments sculpture dates accompany kings sequence known sculptures altar referred jaguar king actually record position succession declaring seventh line records ruling king mentioned text outside southeastern maya region appears text site belize dates text understood undertook major construction projects building early palace number important structures eighth ruler king known appearance altar succeeded ruler accession described depicted altar ruled years 10th ruler nicknamed moon jaguar son 7th ruler surviving monuments found modern village major complex classic period famous construction dating reign elaborate phase temple discovered intact later phases temple archaeological work smoke eleventh ruler crowned king days death moon jaguar time rule undergoing unprecedented rise population residential land use spreading available land entire valley surviving contain long hard texts oldest monuments site survive broken buried reigned years death february recorded erected successors describes rite performed relics tomb years death smoke crowned days death thought longest reigning king ruling believed born king age archaeologists recovered little evidence activity years reign sudden explosion monument production erected great plaza important locations valley monuments celebrated ending erected santa site kilometers away mentioned altar relation event thought trying stamp authority valley end earlier restriction freedom rule wished sudden activity smoke continued rule end 7th century dedicated known monuments important changes architecture including construction structure closes northern great plaza new version temple nicknamed smoke ruled years died june age age distinguished identify place altar tomb prepared phase temple buried days death crowned 13th king dynasty july oversaw achievements city catastrophic political disasters reign style city evolved round sculpture characteristic attacked defeated unidentified site recording burning unusual stone cylinder installed vassal throne confident power rank city powerful states maya region recorded contrast predecessor concentrated monuments site core dated erected eastern entrance city continued erect seven high quality monuments considered classic maya sculpture mastery detail represent highest pinnacle maya artistic achievement depict king posed bearing attributes variety deities including king carried major construction works including new version temple bore version plus temples lost erosion river phase temple new phase construction demolished built new place recently dedicated new completely unexpected disaster city years earlier installed throne vassal king shown longer subordinate began refer holy lord simply subordinate lord appears taken advantage wider political rivalries allied sworn enemy firmly allied alliance undermine key ally south exact details unknown april captured burned patron deities days later coup physically affected evidence city attacked time victor received tribute imply managed ambush defeated outright battle suggested attempting attack site secure captives sacrifice order new ambushed warriors late classic alliance frequently associated promise military support fact powerful city failed vassal implies feared military intervention far away afraid falling directly power vassal state likely sent warriors help defeat alliance instead mutual advantage managed weaken powerful ally gained independence disaster long lasting consequences major construction ceased new monuments raised years later rulers installed 14th ruler june days execution little known reign lack monuments raised surprise victory defeat wider implications city domain loss key river trade route fall income corresponding increase evident massive commissioning new monuments architecture city subject vassal died january ruler son early period fell hiatus later began programme renewal effort recover city earlier disaster built new version temple new doubled length life size statues seated rulers installed seated died early likely interred temple tomb excavated ruler 16th dynasty founded appears direct predecessor took throne june years old produced monumental instead dedicated texts incorporated city architecture smaller texts obscure reference father mother distant mexico built platform temple tomb previous king added storey superstructure finished completed final version temple tomb founder base temple placed famous altar shows rulers city text describing founding dynasty 8th century nobility powerful raising palaces benches richly constructed king time local satellites displaying local power demonstrated ruler los end reign city struggling lack local resources distinct fall living standards populace able celebrate second monument king participation ending ceremony marked time city population long needed import basic outside troubled times time evident tomb bears sculptures king performing war dances spear shield hand sculpted column temple shrine text reading foundation house refer fall dynasty shortage disease afflicted massively valley known king took came throne february commissioned altar style altar monument finished face shows king second face started completely blank long line kings great city come end end nobility struck disease masses spread elite end political authority city population collapsed fraction height collapse city state people believe occurred sudden population continued persist flourish years gradually declined soon period valley occupied villagers stole stone monumental architecture city order build simple house platforms modern history post spanish conquest mention early colonial period letter dated march letter written diego member royal audience guatemala king philip spain french explorer jean visited site early 19th century spent month drawing ruins colonel juan led expedition ruins behalf government guatemala wrote articles site english french north american publications john lloyd frederick visited included description map detailed drawings incidents travel central_america published site later visited british archaeologist alfred expeditions sponsored museum harvard_university worked late 19th early 20th centuries including excavation john george gordon institution sponsored work site conjunction government honduras buildings suffered significantly forces nature centuries site abandonment ruins abandonment city river gradually changed course destroying eastern portion revealing process archaeological large vertical cut apparently washing away subsidiary architectural groups including courtyard buildings group cut important archaeological feature site natural erosion having created enormous cross section erosion cut away large portion eastern revealed vertical cross section measures meters high tallest point meters long buildings recorded 19th century destroyed plus unknown eroded recorded order avoid destruction institution river save archaeological site southwards 1930s dry finally filled time consolidation cut 1990s structures destroyed river eroded site away recorded investigators 19th century declared world heritage site approved funding works site looting remains threat tomb looted excavated archaeologists site description site known series portrait placed ways central plaza city adjoining large complex overlapping step palaces site large court playing parallel buildings framing carefully lies court site divided groups main group cemetery group site core linked group northeast central density structures square kilometer greater density fell square kilometre surveyed area square kilometers main group main group represents core ancient city covers area meters main features raised royal complex south group smaller structures linked north including monument plaza contains greatest concentration sculpted monuments site royal complex heart consists named west court east court enclosed elevated structures archaeologists excavated extensive tunnels revealing royal complex heart developed centuries texts date early classic verify details early rulers city recorded altar hundreds years later deepest tunnels revealed monumental structures underlying date early 5th century established royal dynasty early buildings built stone built earlier earth structures dating period styles building overlap somewhat structures expanded years history city early masonry buildings included early classic apron style built style associated time form use central mexico structure platform situated monument plaza structure west south court accessed wide monumental structure appears royal palace 16th ruler succession known king structure built earlier structures probably contains tomb predecessor small tunnel descends interior structure possibly tomb excavated archaeologists built new temple platform predecessor tomb placed storey superstructure sculpted roof depicting mythological northern corners large sculpted group deities supported heavens superstructure panels sculpted directly walls building bench inside structure removed nineteenth century british museum collection depicted king accession throne overseen deities ancestors structure temple temple pyramid highest located east west courts heart ancient city temple faces west court dedicated founder temple placed original palace tomb king final version number temples built common practice earliest version temple nicknamed built style architecture typical traces brightly colored murals surviving traces interior walls king buried vaulted cut floor phase building accompanied rich offerings jade son founder demolished palace father built platform tomb named archaeologists built maya style bore large masks sun god painted red platform larger platform decade construction larger platform named panels flanking access bore images form phase contained tomb richly accompanied burial elderly woman nicknamed lady red likely widow mother upper chamber phase temple converted receive offerings unusual stone monument earlier phases reused later phase best preserved phases temple built remains previous versions temple archaeologist discovered intact shrine underneath final version temple notable excellent state preservation including entire building base platform roof including highly elaborate painted decoration features placed centre mythological combining founder dynasty sky deity form mythological imagery includes anthropomorphic mountains skeletons exterior designed smoke burned inside shrine interact sculpture exterior temple stone step inscription stone step preserved rest building date valley building structure site use elaborate decoration vast quantities longer spared reduce limestone plaster life size copy building built site museum phase new version building early 8th century offering rites terminate old phase included collection eccentric worked profiles humans gods wrapped blue dyed structure southeastern damaged erosion caused river having lost eastern stairs south structure lead vaulted tomb looted ancient times probably apparently plundered soon collapse kingdom unusually summit shrine sculpted panels depicting king performing war dances spear shield emphasizing rising tensions dynasty came end temples probably built lost river early 20th century structure large building north east court faces dates reign best preserved buildings rule superstructure building interior doorway elaborate sculpted frame decorated masks mountain god outer doorway framed giant mask deity stylistic similarities regional style distant temple built celebrate completion king power step person phrase completed building symbolically represents mountain created structure east court covers rich royal tomb nicknamed sub jaguar archaeologists presumed tomb ruler ruler ruler ruled half 6th century structure temple projects northwards immediately north structure structure built 13th 15th rulers succession meter wide building west courtyard earliest version temple nicknamed built reign founder architectural features corners characteristic central region phase building built son nicknamed phase structure elaborate decorated set building covering tomb unusual style burial woman accompanied wide variety offerings included animal bones mercury jade severed human heads male built new phase building nicknamed smoke demolished phase interred broken remains sculpted monuments accompanied stone heads early version built pyramid earlier phases nicknamed archaeologists turn developed pyramid addition long superstructure seven new building built upper sanctuary demolished tomb inserted floor covered large stone tomb contained remains adult male sacrificed child adult badly decayed skeleton wrapped mat accompanied offerings fine jade including ear ornaments necklace sculpted burial accompanied offerings vessels jaguar shells books decayed modeled human thought represent smoke predecessors building dedicated long lived 7th century king smoke likely remains interred building sealed phase new version temple nicknamed new phase bore version contains lengthy history built phase century removed earlier building version doubling length text adding life size statues rulers dressed warriors seated step base raised image summit shrine temple bore text composed figure placed similar faux mexican style giving appearance bilingual text climbs west structure meters wide total steps associated altar base large sculpted figure located centre 12th step figures believed represent important rulers history site takes form longest known maya text text reconstructed having collapse blocks façade temple collapsed staircase measures meters long built expanded following phase temple immediately north court south monument plaza demolished built version largest classic period dedicated great deity buildings flanking playing area carried mosaic sculptures birds completion date inscribed text sloping playing area given january monument plaza great plaza north main group group group linked causeway runs southwest monument plaza main group group consists number restored structures elite residences feature stone benches carved decorations number tombs group long history house having dated far early middle large platforms built rich complex consisted buildings arranged major time important building house palace powerful nobleman time building high quality sculpted exterior carved bench inside portion group occupied non maya inhabitants central honduras involved trade network brought goods region groups north group late classic compound archaeologists excavated fallen bear inscriptions sculpted decoration cemetery group immediately south main group includes number small structures monuments altar famous monument dedicated king kings dynasty carved figure depicted seated text inscribed upper surface relating founding dynasty shows founder transferring power discovered inscription west altar tells date inauguration portrayal political succession tells early classic maya culture inscribed stone placed tomb structure face finely sculpted portraits kings dynasty facing double column contained frame frame names mythological locations underneath feet kings place supernatural realm bears dates second probably date dedicated stone monument earlier phases temple constructed honor bears date names possible mention general monument completely style unusual originally sculpted bench step date monument associated dedication temple tomb probably tomb discovered underneath structure erected great plaza smoke erected smoke great plaza erected early 8th century dates reign erected celebrate ending ceremony found western complex underneath modern village bears long text partially found modern village erected site major classic period complex kilometers outside site core dedicated moon jaguar dates erected outside site core smoke originally interior column temple shrine found broken parts base temple portrays king elderly maya god imagery deliberately parallel tomb lid king probably close family ties city text column formed longer text carved interior walls temple describe downfall dynasty erected outside site core smoke erected outside site core smoke dated reign sculpture consists entirely text mentions king ruling city dates reign moon jaguar originally stood nearby village major complex classic period fragment monument bearing erected inner chamber temple monument erected outside site core smoke dedicated sculpture consists purely finely carved texts possible originally commissioned additional texts added sides monument son text contains date appears deliberately broken step ritual phase temple remains monuments interred building phase built erected places powerful kingdoms maya region alongside erected early 8th century erected early 8th century erected early 8th century erected early 8th century erected early 8th century erected monument stood eastern entrance city unusual topped sculpted stone roof converting monument symbolic house bears text woven cross mat design form convoluted puzzle read precisely right order understood bears portrait raised foot temple dedicated placed foot steps temple believed contain burial originally erected unknown location later moved west court bears long text fully dates reign king dedicated


spanish pre archaeological site western highlands guatemala capital late maya kingdom abandonment architecture site included number pyramid temples palaces uncovered poorly preserved remains painted murals buildings ample evidence human sacrifice ruins declared national monument 1960s site small museum displaying number pieces found including sculptures open daily years served loyal allies maya growing power alliance eventually caused friction forced flee capital found city established new capital easily ridge surrounded deep developed quickly city years foundation reached maximum extent rulers principal lords drawn main clans lords clans held real power initial establishment left peace number years peace defeated followed clans rebel clans finally overcome wars continued early 15th century spanish arrived mexico emperor sent warn surrender sent offer alliance spanish smallpox population physical arrival europeans time spanish conquest second important city highlands capital initially received city kings provided spanish native allies assist conquest highland maya kingdoms declared capital kingdom guatemala year excessive spanish demands tribute soon broke alliance deserted capital burned years later spanish europeans founded new town nearby abandoned continued hostility finally surrendered ruins described historian late 17th century visited times scholars 19th century published plans descriptions investigations site started 1940s continued sporadically early 1970s civil war meeting took place ruins maya leaders resulted stating defend indigenous rights ritual carried site order ruins sacred place maya ceremonies united_states president george bush visited site year venue iii continental summit indigenous peoples etymology site derives tree words meaning literally tree called guatemala spanish meaning forested land spanish founded capital took city speaking mexican allies applied new spanish city extension kingdom comes modern country site referred 19th century investigators word meaning city location located kilometres south kilometres west guatemala city northwest department city built altitude metres easily position ridge surrounded deep order defend city hostile neighbours ridge called hill metre high mountain northwest ruins sit southeastern end ridge flanked rivers flowing deep los join flow southwest river pacific_ocean located pine forests common highland guatemala political organisation kingdom divided clans contained principal big houses clans main branch rulers principal lords titles reality held real power main clans people provided leader lord royal titles originally bestowed leaders clans gratitude military services kingdom leaders supposed equal rank practice king senior child king subordinate child lords translate principal person speaker document los gives alternate titles lords document lists important lords drawn additional clans lord lord titles passed father son heir bore title heir bore title important positions right heirs military leaders commanded battlefield founded late 15th century according early colonial document memorial important lords section new city included palace royal court temples known rulers history early history archaeologists found traces pre phase ancient level dating late occasional early late classic remains found incidental represent classic period occupation site late history people closely related allies peoples including received strong influences central mexico time great early classic metropolis history largely drawn annals document written language latin characters soon spanish conquest document details origins history conquest served close allies years rulers served great king loyalty rewarded royal titles power rule sons jealous growing power lords led revolt father seriously damaged authority revolt consequences conquered domains seized opportunity break free minor incident capital escalated important consequences soldier tried seize bread woman selling market woman refused soldier drove stick demanded execution soldier nobility demanded punishment bread seller lords refused hand lords sentenced death wishes king king warned friends advised flee day calendar lords led people capital found capital exact year event known certainty believed scholars preferring abandoned previous capital speculated modern close prevented nobles making war remainder life giving allies time establish kingdom prepare defences died succeeded son died replaced son long successful reign lived reigns rulers kings gained definitive victory captured kings idol important deity captured kings sacrificed number nobles high ranking soldiers including son grandson king defeat clans rebelled kings crushed rebellion died july succeeded son died february succeeded son continued wars kingdom following decade emperor sent warning strangers caribbean sent messenger named warning arrival spanish veracruz suffered plague following year severely damaged fire plague described terrible annals struck city lasted years resulting large number deaths likely smallpox brought americas spanish capital fell spanish onslaught sent offering alliance spanish august chosen lords city deaths previous kings eve spanish conquest kingdom based expanding areas controlled rapidly powerful new kingdom highlands second importance capital spanish conquest spanish arrived guatemala years conquest found highland maya kingdoms weakened years warfare swept european period february march fought completely defeated razed executed kings spanish invited april received lords kings provided native soldiers assist continuing resistance help defeat neighbouring kingdom spanish stayed briefly continuing spanish returned capital july july calendar declared capital guatemala los guatemala james knights guatemala rapidly began demand gold tribute friendship peoples demanded kings deliver gold leaves priest gods destroy spanish people abandoned city fled forests hills august calendar days later spanish declared war couple years later february group sixteen spanish burnt palace sacked temples kidnapped priest acts blamed del recounted returned spent night old city guatemala members expedition honduras reported houses city excellent condition account description city spanish founded new town guatemala palace new town translated palace trees inhabitants dispersed moved towns lake abandoned continuous attacks moved valley east capital site today san district near antigua guatemala kept resistance spanish number years kings important clans returned day later joined nobles families people came surrender new spanish capital modern history ruins described historian francisco rivera published plans views ruins del guatemala state guatemala american diplomat writer john lloyd described ruins called visited english artist frederick published drawings site reported locals plundered stone site years order use building materials french architect mapped spanish colonial times focus cult ruins transferred church late 19th century ruins took place good friday cult died time civil war late 20th century alfred visited referred carried site survey published plan ruins robert carried study 1940s behalf middle american research institute university published work historian began excavations ruins january remains city excavated swiss archaeologist george published work excavation restoration ruins funded committee reconstruction national monuments july investigations funded swiss national foundation scientific research died investigations completed report published field notes finally published ruins declared national monument governmental decree congress republic guatemala published civil war ruins chosen meeting place maya leaders result stated explicitly defend indigenous rights called declaration important maya ceremony carried site order ruins sacred place indigenous ceremonies united_states president bush visited site march local maya priests said conducting rites visit area bad spirits brought president said persecuted brothers united_states reject portrayal people tourist attraction spokesman said march site iii continental summit indigenous peoples meeting closing declaration committed delegates struggle social justice forms oppression tourism majority visitors indigenous maya weekend site attracts visitors day comparatively tourists visit ruins majority nationals modern maya priests referred english arrive pilgrims highlands tourist facilities site include visitor parking small museum picnic area football field museum open daily basis displays number artefacts recovered ruins site description site largely preserved spanish alliance site central core flanked deep separated main residential area defensive ditch city developed quickly years foundation reached maximum extent explosive population growth city caused residential area spill edges site center consists large small contained temples elite palaces larger metres long markers named running northwest southeast ceremonial centre city separated residential areas wall today ruins accessed modern town guatemala replaced destroyed modern entrance site northern ruins includes visitor parking small museum picnic area football field house area woodland south central portion ruins modern ceremonial area modern carry rituals ceremonial area linked ruins includes concrete arranged building flowers food drink placed sacrifices museum displays number pieces site including sculptures thought comprised single complex belonging clan included palace plaza possesses temples palace structures plaza separated metre wall palace complex junior ruler plaza temples facing plaza southwest plaza palace proper southeast plaza palace built east west alignment entry courtyard western palace central altar main palace entered eastern entry courtyard rooms palace contained great deal domestic artefacts palace destroyed major fire resulted collapse walls complex lodged spanish soldiers building spanish burned collapse building preserved domestic contents palace archaeologists unlike palace comparatively artefacts recovered plaza excavated cleared mapped archaeologists large plaza surrounded fairly high appear large east west present main palace south interior westernmost cross shaped altar palace smaller believed palace east plaza included palace buildings mapped remain covered trees formed single complex believed defensive ditch running originally metres deep largely filled soon conquest order render city middle 19th century defensive ditch measured yards deep 1960s visible ground totally filled finds site include frequent finds handles decoration common domestic include type imported include white red reasonably common site brown type found late occupation legged kind mortar frequently recovered excavations black blades found great quantities simple jade jewellery found human sacrifice evidenced site altar structure type heart sacrifice cylindrical taken victims accompanied knives flute crafted child recovered temples indicative human sacrifice brief nature spanish occupation city european artefacts found pieces found consisted forged iron bolts structures structures mapped structures faced stone blocks coated lime plaster cases painted style murals traces murals survive today style originated central mexico spread buildings built blocks supported beam mortar roofs survived platform generally built rough stones set clay matrix structures restored site core kept clear residential structures built platforms ceremonial usually built benches great palace great palace spanish large residential complex northeast plaza surviving remains consist sunken low house platforms excavation revealed construction phases earliest dates founding city phase covered approximately square metres came form core palace phase consisted long single residential range structures arranged courtyard possessed altar middle residential units possessed benches walls middle walls originally built covered painted murals artefacts recovered phase included knives domestic fragments recovered close palace palace expanded directions early core addition new buildings early courtyard later divided smaller phase construction palace dates joint reign end palace covered area square metres southwest palace courtyard low platforms possibly ritual dance platforms southeast building benches walls end room held court received visitors tribute great palace great palace spanish large residential complex located southeast plaza palace formed large number small rooms arranged seven interior large quantity remains recovered palace rooms northeast courtyard great palace royal apartments complex owing position near central courtyard time closed area exotic origin elite nature royal apartments included rooms north courtyard palace temple temple known structure platform west plaza climbs east structure providing access plaza structure faces sunrise summer structure best preserved excavated temples like buildings construction phases dating oldest newest reigns earliest phases located archaeologists interior structure poorly preserved facing stones stripped order reused middle phase best preserved phases construction consisted stepped tiers supporting high style walls consisting sloping wall topped vertical panel temple corners steep climbed tier high altar measuring centimetres wide centimetres deep altar stone slightly concave type human sacrifice temple floor elevated metres plaza temple superstructure including temple walls roof added metres total height structure time spanish conquest temple shrine benches built sides interior middle small rear chamber benches chamber gods kept small section temple floor opened receive burial tomb covered remains turtle excavated plaza immediately temple represented class mythical supported temple turtles played important classic period maya myth rebirth god temple shrine built final platform fourth tier exposed remains shrine date reign triple doorway divided columns built covered plaster columns walls painted decorations traces red yellow blue found archaeologists colours applied designs marked thin cap clay pointed instrument quality work fine indicated execution specialised artist painted figures building murals designs consist rows discs row vertical stripes figures painted striped background discs painted figures performing actions tongue piercing probably represent ritual progress painted murals poorly preserved deterioration caused damp combined damage caused tree roots style paintings similar art exposed parts middle phase construction damaged second phase covered final construction phase badly damaged stonework stripped away building nearby town southwest corner temple low platform bore painted murals skull crossed bands decoration platform skull place version skull racks bearing evidence found southeast temple blades temple temple known structure pyramid temple located east plaza opposite temple similar form building climbs west plaza temple platform level plaza small rectangular platform large remains found associated building pieces large cylindrical temple represented elderly god emerging jaws deity standing position represent deities found exactly left abandoned bore suspended solar disc modelled rays fragments early vessel recovered scattered sides temple probably remains temple evidence early occupation plundered city long history conquered alliance flint knife recovered structure low platforms stand temple likely dance platforms structures structure known temple pyramid temple facing plaza temple completely restored structure pyramid temple base west plaza low platform southeastern corner severed heads excavated immediately west speculated heads kings members court captured found associated blades individually buried pits cut floor plaza grouped small lots structure pyramid temple excavation revealed phases construction platform single divided approached summit shrine structure temple pyramid platform southwest plaza structure southwest plaza similar dimensions structure clan older end projecting additional southeast head sculpture recovered plaza originally marker structure located southwestern plaza metre long shaped ball court metres playing area end zones enclosed accessed lateral platforms playing area extended building called seen underworld structure excavated restored excavations uncovered levels plaster indicating built second main phases construction dating structure sub pillars separating structure internal building surrounding sides structure lying internal structure sides like structure structure circular altar plaza measuring metres similar called sacrifice served purpose hypothesis supported presence noble burial interred companions structure range structure north plaza bases pillars survive separated structure best preserved palace platforms benches set inside walls set floor structure crude heads possibly jaguar heads found near structure probably markers likely served core modelling applied structure located temple found noble tomb structure metre long platform completely enclosed north plaza supported residential structures domestic found associated buildings found central mexican rain god human remains skeletal remains individuals excavated preserved unfortunately bones mixed near site excavation original locations longer clear thirty analysed archaeologists evidence practice commonly represented maya art classic period thirteen sacrifices male seven female gender sacrifices young adults aged years old aged little years old based skull development likely sacrificed individuals captives taken enemy states analysed showed evidence iron low percentage compared remains recovered altar respectively low percentage indicates individuals exposed particular stress likely belong elite class evidence infection half active time death half left evidence suggests fairly high level airborne environment tooth analysis carried individuals revealed teeth indicating high level poor health years childhood excavated tombs interred residential platforms found position particular orientation remains found accompanied broken blade offerings example woman accompanied domestic child jade burial elderly male accompanied pieces burnt pine oak burial noble tomb structure plaza remains sacrificed adults face square metre space sacrifices seated remains person individual wore gold jade mosaic necklace representations jaguar heads small gold arm wore fashioned bone human skull engraved fine designs included birds stars hanging mexican style band finely crafted piece jade found near lower jaw probably originally placed mouth deceased copper nose shape moon jade represented deity similar represented found temple remains dated earlier phase occupation deceased died battle blow head blunt instrument burial tentatively identified sons clan died wars expansion


man man refers sri_lanka late period term initially coined refer modern sites near responsible island culture earliest evidence man archaeological sequences caves sites dates excavated skeletal remains earliest reliably dated record modern humans south asia cultural remains discovered alongside skeletal fragments include geometric dating sites africa earliest record stone tools discoveries include plants animals thought formed diet wild banana fish bones articles personal ornaments shell shark indicating occasional contact coast away likely man visited plains central highlands sri_lanka annual cycle gathering foods hunting animals likely wild cattle deer man estimated thick prominent ridges depressed heavy jaws short large teeth features skeletal fragments extracted cave sites occupied different periods indicated rare biological affinity time frame roughly years likelihood biological present day indigenous people origin data late pleistocene south asia vital understanding evolution modern human behavior early humans spread old world prehistoric times movement human populations indian mainland sri_lanka took place continental shelf shared countries submerged adam bridge deep significant reductions sea level climate change past years periodically caused continental shelf exposed forming land bridge approximately wide long analysis coastal deposits near district sri_lanka gathered secure evidence prehistoric fauna sri_lanka excavations area yielded tools probably belonging middle period consequently believe possibility prehistoric humans sri_lanka earlier consider likely island analysis ancient coastal sands north south east island yield evidence early south asia general secure evidence early settlement regarded modern skull central valley india referred man discovery late middle pleistocene south asia discovery sparked debate belongs taxonomic organisation traits easily match specimens called archaic include pre europe west asia classifications skull include evolved disputed having taxonomic meaning significant discovery south asia fragments cave northeastern afghanistan associated prehistoric tools occupation cave dated analysis skeletal fragments occupants revealed characteristics common modern remains found cave later associated recent post pleistocene period skeletal cultural discoveries compared earlier fossils island fossil records onwards complete excavated fossils skeletal cultural remains period provide earliest records modern south asia earliest evidence use specific type stone tool cave district sri_lanka largest caves island yielded earliest fossils dating excavated samples indicated cave occupied period found consistent levels caves island dates cultural sequences cave suggested slightly earlier settlement oldest skeletal remains unearthed cave child associated dating caves sea level foothills adam peak yielded important ancient remains excavation cave floor late 1930s unearthed skeletal fragments child adults excavations yielded complete human skeletons sixth layer internally consistent soil rock dated associated samples excavations seventh following year produced human remains geometric long triangular stone tools flint form artifacts end points hunting weapons spears arrows tests placed tools sites africa revealed geometric contexts earlier recovered caves coastal sites earliest dates geometric world earliest date use technology india site slightly appearance sri_lanka early evidence industries sites south asia supports view industries emerged deal challenging climatic social demographic conditions brought europe earliest dates start appear trend blade production sites provinces sri_lanka confirmed technology continued island albeit lower frequency onset historical period traditionally 6th century cultural sequences rock shelters showed gradually replaced types tools including grinding stones mortars pitted stones late pleistocene specifically sites revealed ancient human skeletal fragments cave district carbon samples corresponding fragments dated respectively site suggesting island relatively continuously occupied time frame physical traits cultural practices certain samples man estimated tall males tall females significantly higher figure modern day populations thick skull bones prominent ridges depressed heavy jaws short large teeth apart hand axes times discovered manufactured extracted leg bones elephants period sites yielded evidence widespread use dogs differentiated use space strong use fire cultural discoveries interest period included articles personal ornamentation animals utilised food fish bones based shell shark shells remains wild banana polished bone tools frequency marine shells shark teeth shark occurred different cave sites suggested cave likely direct contact coast away showed signs salt brought coast tradition appears contemporaneous high mobility use resources adaptation changing climate environment discovery geometric plains located southern plateau central highlands sri_lanka suggests area visited prehistoric humans period possible interpretation annual cycle foraging food prehistoric hunter lived lowland rock shelters periodically visited plains hunting possibly wild cattle deer gathering foods wild likely temporary camp site plains appear permanent settlement transition hunter foraging food production plants begun tropical regions beginning humans probably exploited plains wetland grassland resources slash burn techniques facilitated growth rice fields link indigenous people like prehistoric people island historical sources describe people sri_lanka hunter inhabited natural caves traded game honey metal based arrow spear points neighbouring village populations villagers predominantly descendants populations middle_east europe indian mainland different periods route arrived india years remained caves neighbouring villagers joined military campaigns led kings kingdom late 15th century early 19th title adopted certain present day farming populations sri_lanka remains unclear roots populations characterised hunting foraging features skeletal remains caves revealed similar attributes signalling likelihood biological prehistoric hunter island close biological affinity period roughly years surprising given relative geographical isolation island fifth century settlers arrived indian mainland relevant question degree relative isolation ancient modern sri_lanka populations southern india relatively smaller significantly robust dental differences including somewhat larger crown sizes greater diversity populations southern india features distinct tamil inhabitants island portuguese dutch british ancestry claim certain features including genetic traits appear present day suggesting ancestry traces earliest human settlers island list prehistoric caves locations cave plains


intentionally remains members indigenous people islands majority eras prior spanish settlement area 15th century methods similar ancient fewer remain looting archaeological record remained confined islands preserved thoroughly studied found discovered municipality san southern estimated contained cemetery completely looted physical examination found tall average males stood females height generally robust constitution historical record medieval spanish explorers arriving islands 14th century reported buried individuals low social status sandy graves upper class members laid rest caves caves held disappeared complete left islands loss large generally attributed popularity substance created groups males females working specialists carry process according gender culture considered individuals nature work process early explorers reported traditions associated methods identified modern times scientific analysis preservation methods different combinations depending era created don discovered speculated remove internal organs don work confirmed method team scientists conducted examination examination revealed body abdominal packed mud like substance contained bark pine tree sort packing applied exact particular substance unknown examination conducted patrick held museum university montreal canada revealed moss stuff abdominal cavity addition moss types local plant preserved inside body packing preservation outer parts body normally achieved combination animal skin prepared mixture minerals plants spread body prior allowing dry sun smoking finally wrapped animal skins laid rest number animal skins wrapping corresponded individual social status kings wrapped skins