hungarian conquest basin hungarian conquest basin hungarian conquest hungarian land taking hungarian conquest homeland series historical events ending settlement hungarian people central europe turn 9th 10th centuries arrival hungarians early medieval powers bulgarian empire east fought control basin occasionally hired hungarian horsemen soldiers hungarians east familiar future homeland land taking started hungarian conquest started context late small migration peoples contemporary sources hungarians crossed mountains following joint attack took control east river danube attacked occupied region west river exploited internal conflicts annihilated state hungarians strengthened control basin defeating army battle fought july launched series raids targeted byzantine_empire gradually settled basin established christian monarchy kingdom hungary written sources byzantine authors record events earliest work emperor leo wise tactics finished recounts bulgarian byzantine war military conflict directly preceding hungarians departure nearly contemporary narration read continuation chronicle george monk governing empire provides detailed account compiled auspices emperor constantine vii works written successor states empire events closely connected conquest annals ends earliest letter archbishop pope john refers conquering hungarians regarded fake abbot compiled world chronicle sums knowledge hungarians sole entry year valuable source bishop retribution 16th century historian provides information known works suggests lost sources reliability suspect old church compilation lives saints preserved eyewitness account bulgarian byzantine war life saint written contains nearly contemporary information fall caused hungarian invasions earliest extant copy 15th century similarly late manuscripts oldest written 14th century offer text russian primary chronicle historical work completed provides information based earlier byzantine sources hungarians initially preserved memory major events form folk songs ballads earliest local chronicle compiled late 11th century exists variant original version times extended rewritten middle ages instance 14th century illuminated chronicle contains texts 11th century chronicle anonymous author deeds hungarians written earliest extant local chronicle misleading example early hungarian texts contains information confirmed based contemporaneous sources simon priest hungarian royal court wrote surviving chronicle claims hungarians closely related earlier basin accordingly narration hungarian invasion fact second conquest territory people graves generations conquering hungarians identified basin fewer definitely hungarian unearthed hungarian include graves isolated common adult males women children buried parts horses harness objects horse graves yielded decorated silver belts furnished metal plates pear shaped metal works objects close contemporaneous culture turn 9th 10th centuries concentrated upper region plains rivers instance slovakia early small unearthed sites pre conquest hungarians continuation chronicle george monk contains earliest certain reference hungarians states hungarian warriors intervened conflict byzantine_empire behalf lower danube region known hungarian raid central europe recorded annals writes enemies called hungarians hitherto unknown ravaged king louis german realm victor historians argue war louis german hired hungarians invade east archbishop clearly states letter allied hungarians germans years fact crime falsely accused taken large number hungarians shaved heads according customs sent christians overcoming leading away captives killing imprisoned perished hunger mentions hungarians territory called invasion adds located territory rivers run identification rivers southern bug unanimously accepted names doubt refer rivers wider region river graves belonging male buried skull legs horse attributed pre conquest hungarians tombs date 10th century hungarians organized seven tribes formed confederation constantine mentions number anonymous preserved hungarian seven hungarians tribal confederation writes seven leading persons jointly bearing instead political organization confederation strengthened arrival according constantine joined hungarians following unsuccessful riot hungarians mentioned longer version annals relates hungarians fought vienna fought nearby proposes groups settled plain basin given rise reference time hungarian conquest confederation dual leadership according ibn muslim scholars 10th 11th centuries respectively geographical books preserved texts earlier work written hungarians nominal sacred leader styled military commander bore title authors add commanded army horsemen reliability number uncertain contemporary authors portray 9th century hungarians nomadic warriors emperor leo wise importance horses military tactics analysis horse found hungarian warriors graves revealed significant difference horses western breeds states hungarians knew fighting hand hand formation taking besieged cities skills remains indicate composite bows hungarians important weapons addition slightly curved unearthed warrior tombs period noted hungarians preference apparent retreat battle contemporaneous writers recounted represented slaughter adult males settlement raids hungarians armed swords body armor bows battles bear double arms carrying high shoulders holding bows hands use need requires pursued use bows great advantage wear armor horses men covered iron material devote great deal attention training horse huge herd horses follows provide food milk time impression multitude basin eve conquest peoples based extant hungarian chronicles clear occasionally extended list existed peoples inhabiting basin time hungarian anonymous instance writes romans inhabiting territory later refers people called similarly simon lists greeks germans later adds lived territory according lists based multiple sources document real ethnic conditions basin according pop simon listed peoples inhabited lands hungarian conquered nearby territories hungarians adopted ancient celtic names longest rivers basin slavic speaking population instance hungarian names rivers danube borrowed hungarians adopted great number slavic origin including swamp swift river stream river place names slavic origin basin instance black fortress new fortress citadel early medieval fortresses bore slavic preserved latin word fortress slavic presence german speaking population demonstrated based instance hungarians adopted form river slavic origin document known conversion lists place names including bend fortress marshes finally rivers slavic according theory detailed description western contemporary sources immediate hungarian intervention local wars hungarians lived eastern territories basin middle 9th century right location early hungarian settlements arabic work survived muslim authors papers placed hungarians don danube rivers identifies danube middle danube region opposed previously assumed lower danube region following description christian western neighbors basin controlled speaking people arrival region imposed authority dominated territories east river survived second half 9th century according reference conversion groups dwelling lower initially nomadic horsemen large generations growing number settlements adoption non nomadic way life 8th century power destroyed occupied attached empire archaeological investigation early medieval rural settlements places demonstrate main features change fall new settlements appeared characterized objects clear contemporary bavaria bulgaria croatia territories manor defended timber walls similar noble courts parts empire unearthed groups remained rule frequently attacked warriors asked let people settle region petition accepted conversion lists peoples jurisdiction roman catholic according simply proved impossible identity institutions high claims tradition failed growing number archaeological evidence population basin eve 10th century archaeological findings suggesting substantial late presence great hungarian plain difficult determine proper chronology charter issued king louis german abbey people origin present territory charter refers marches situated westernmost regions basin reflect slavic form territories attached empire initially governed royal officers local slavic prince named received large estates river promoted colonization lands erected fortress marshes initially defended timber walls castle complex administrative center strengthened walls end century churches surrounded unearthed settlement continued 11th century died fighting son inherited estates succeeded natural son king east rule troops conflict known war laid waste eastward according annals emerged known ruler successor developed military strength promoted activities byzantine brothers constantine attempt seek independence east reached peak importance expanded directions core territory located regions northern river territory present day czech_republic slovakia constantine places great regions belgrade serbia report supported theories location instance propose existence north south argue core territory region southern river present day serbia existence southern realm supported artifacts strongholds unearthed areas north middle danube point existence power center regions addition east bulgarian empire power deeply involved basin 9th century late 10th century byzantine known adds bulgaria attacked southeast royal annals narrates inhabiting danube probably lower courses river sought assistance bulgarian troops invaded expelled slavic appointed governors instead inscription refers bulgarian military leader named drowning time emerging power brought bulgaria east instance king east sent embassy order renew peace ask sell salt request suggests route salt mines eastern controlled time anonymous author instead rulers known contemporary sources writes personalities mentioned working end 9th century instance refers residing castle romania duke grace duke certain ruling early medieval fortresses unearthed places east definitively date 9th century instance case pairs bell shaped sites austria bulgaria poland unearthed dates 9th century period hungarian conquest prelude main theories attempt explain reasons hungarian land taking argues intended military operation following previous raids express purpose occupying new homeland view represented instance mainly follows narration anonymous later hungarian chronicles opposite view maintains joint attack forced hungarians hand theory followers refer unanimous testimony provided annals connection hungarians conflict coalition withdrawal intermediate theory proposes hungarians decades considering westward bulgarian attack accelerated decision leave instance argues fact despite series unfortunate events managed heads water goes ready attacked fact following break years hungarians returned basin came assist east condemned monarch destroying defense lines built empire borders enabled hungarians attack east decade overcome duke having dismantled fortified barriers called populace summoned aid nation hungarians ignorant god crime avid murder late source adds king hungarians stipulated people fight received lands occupy accordingly continues hungarians took possession east rivers danube hungarian chronicles unanimously state present basin hungarians moved argues hungarian historical tradition point early occupation eastern territories basin auxiliary troops hungarian tribal confederation annals narrates year hungarians crossed danube killed men old women outright carried young women like cattle satisfy reduced province desert writes hungarian attack passage death historians suppose hungarians invaded alliance monarch argue legend white horse hungarian chronicles preserved memory treaty hungarians concluded according pagan customs legend narrates hungarians purchased future homeland basin white horse saddle came leader region reigned people hearing greatly thought peasant people come till land dismissed messenger common resolve hungarians messenger said leader sent land big horse golden saddle adorned gold golden seeing leader thinking sending gifts homage return land messenger asked land grass water replied smile return gift let desire hungarians sent messenger leader message delivered people longer stay land bought horse bought earth grass saddle water need grant land grass water message delivered leader said smile let kill horse wooden throw field throw golden saddle water danube messenger replied loss lord kill horse food dogs throw field men find gold hay throw saddle danube fishermen lay gold saddle bank carry home earth grass water ibn raided land turks later caused new movement peoples invaded lands western neighbors clearly connected westward movement hungarians previous fights writes joint attack compelled cross river probably originally dwelling river likewise river years ago called common cause joined battle prevailed expelled country relationship bulgaria byzantine_empire emperor leo wise forced bulgarian merchants leave constantinople settle subsequently bulgaria invaded byzantine territories defeated small imperial troop byzantines approached hungarians hire fight byzantine envoy concluded treaty leaders byzantine ships transferred hungarian warriors lower danube hungarians invaded bulgaria forced flee fortress bulgaria plundered work states hungarians prince named son time suggests commander army mentioned war context chance simultaneously hungarian attack north byzantines invaded bulgaria south sent envoys byzantine_empire propose truce time sent embassy hungarians succeeded broke hungarian territories east forcing hungarian warriors withdraw bulgaria according constantine attacked routed hungarians destroyed hungarians dwelling places survived double attack left crossed search new homeland memory destruction brought preserved hungarians hungarian corresponds old hungarian word eagle 14th century hungarian chronicles story eagles compelling hungarians ancestors cross probably refers attack hungarians driven home neighboring people called superior strength number country sufficient accommodate swelling numbers forced flee violence said goodbye homeland set look lands live establish settlements invitation leo christ loving glorious emperor hungarians crossed fought totally defeated went county sent agreement attack destroy hungarians gone military expedition came completely destroyed families expelled guarding country hungarians came found country utterly ruined settled land live today passing kingdom city named crossed mountains came region saw eagles eagles stay place eagles came trees like flies horses god intended quickly hungary months descent mountains came boundaries kingdom hungary phase date hungarian invasion varies according source earliest date preserved 14th century versions hungarian chronicle anonymous supplies latest date contemporaneous sources suggest invasion followed bulgarian byzantine war route taken contested anonymous simon invading hungarians crossing northeastern passes illuminated chronicle writes arrival states hungarians sought daily food hunting fishing following arrival basin advance danube stimulated crowned emperor ruler region rivers defense civil war broke sons late ruler emperor intervened mention hungarians activities years event recorded connection hungarians raid italy letter archbishop suggests emperor attack king italy routed italian troops september river plundered region winter venice defeated venice june returned italy learned death emperor end according anonymous hungarians fought conquering subsequently hungarians turned ruler central territories according narrative contrast anonymous simon writes hungarians fight following arrival according illuminated chronicle hungarians remained quietly rested crossing attack eagles hungarian chronicles preserved separate lists hungarians leaders time conquest anonymous knows simon illuminated chronicle list nearly sources mention constantine continuation chronicle george monk constantine constantine continuation chronicle george monk according illuminated chronicle father enter killed episode implies sacred ruler hungarians time destruction caused sacrifice death fact consequence ritual murder fate similar executed according ibn case disasters affecting people second phase emperor death released hungarians alliance east way italy expanded rule furthermore according hungarians claimed nation king subdued aid coronation son louis child annals relates hungarians defeated withdrawal italy hungarians alliance jointly invaded bavaria according contemporary annals refers hungarians reaching river hungarian contingents crossed danube plundered territories river north bank bavaria gathered troops routed der november strong fortress erected hungarians masters basin occupation russian primary chronicle reflect memory event relating hungarians expelled earlier homeland associated romans instance cross respectively long period settled danube hungarian bulgarian lands lie parties scattered country known appropriate names according places settled hungarians passed hill called hungarian arriving pitched camp like coming east struggled great mountains began fight neighboring settled seized territory hungarians subsequently expelled took land settled reduced submission time territory called hungarian king louis child held meeting introduce measures hungarians envoys proposed peace east hungarians meantime plundered country hungarian army invading defeated april describes defeat hungarians river year consolidation date ceased exist uncertain clear evidence existence state fall short note refers war hungarians land succumbed text ambiguous alternatively called customs regulations mentions markets life saint relates hungarians occupied adding captured hungarians ran constantine connects fall occupation hungarians destruction early medieval urban centers fortresses places modern slovakia dated period death sons remained peace year strife rebellion fell civil war hungarians came utterly ruined possessed country hungarians live folk left scattered fled refuge adjacent nations hungarians rest nations according anonymous write hungarians invaded region slovakia defeated killed local czech ruler mount near seat anonymous continues hungarians occupied romans battled glad army composed glad ceded towns finally anonymous writes treaty hungarians local ruler daughter given marriage son argues anonymous narration glad basically later report early 11th century glad alleged descendant contrast instance maintains place names recorded 14th century 16th century memory local ruler named glad hungarians reached region stayed weeks conquered inhabitants land river received sons hostages moving army came river ford sought cross flow came oppose glad prince country great army horsemen foot soldiers supported god grace went hungarians gave great victory enemies fell hay battle slain glad duke escaped flight army melting like wax flame destroyed point sword prince glad having fled said fear hungarians entered castle sent seek peace hungarians delivered castle diverse gifts important event following conquest basin murder recorded longer version annals saint annals places event date chronicles unanimously state invited hungarian leader dinner pretext negotiating peace treaty assassinated hungarian historians argue dual leadership hungarians ended death hungarians invaded italy called route hungarians leading arrived king allies rival king louis hungarians devastated territories occupied earlier king louis river ensured victory victorious monarch allowed hungarians towns earlier accepted opponent rule agreed pay yearly tribute kilograms silver longer version annals saint reports archbishop fell bishops disastrous battle fought hungarians july contemporary sources add bavaria counts died battle historians including identify slovakia researchers instance argue refer fortress hungarians victory hindered attempts eastward expansion east following decades opened way hungarians freely vast territories kingdom consequences hungarians settled basin rivers danube tributaries continue semi nomadic lifestyle immediate consequence arrival drove non slavic wedge west south fine fine argues hungarians departure western regions weakened allies contributed collapse empire decades hungarian conquest new synthesis earlier cultures culture spread basin characteristic jewellery including shaped lack archaeological finds connected horses graves feature earliest dated unearthed coins rule constantine vii middle 10th century early culture unearthed instance hungary slovakia romania croatia hungarian society experienced fundamental changes fields including animal agriculture religion centuries following land taking changes reflected significant number terms borrowed local hungarian vocabulary slavic origin including hungarian words sheep pen similarly hungarian vegetables fruits cultivated plants hungarian terms connected agriculture slavic including hay hungarians left wide marches called new homeland defensive purposes easternmost territory basin earliest graves attributed hungarian warriors instance sic concentrated salt mines valley rivers warriors stationed outposts east suggested 10th century graves unearthed hungarians fear eastern neighbors demonstrated report failure byzantine envoy persuade attack hungarians clearly stated fight people numerous devil instead attacking east hungarians raids western_europe instance plundered bavaria west byzantine saint george refers joint attack hungarians byzantine_empire reliability established hungarians raided byzantine_empire time defeat battle end raids west stopped byzantines following defeat battle hungarian leaders decided traditional lifestyle partly based raids peoples continued defeats accelerated hungarians adoption way life process culminated coronation head hungarians stephen king hungary artistic representation famous events arrival hungarians large circular painting hungarian painter assistants completed anniversary event anniversary event painting displayed national heritage park hungary depicted event conquest hungarian parliament building

Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin


norse funeral norse burial customs viking age north early medieval known historical accounts old norse poetry notably account ibn scandinavia remaining honour viking kings addition memorials notable mound cemetery norway sweden denmark prominent tradition ship burial deceased laid boat stone ship given grave offerings accordance status profession including sacrificed slaves piles stone soil usually laid remains order create grave goods common leave gifts deceased men women received grave goods corpse burnt buried loved house buried alive person funeral value goods depended social group dead person came important bury dead right way join social standing life avoid homeless soul usual grave probably hole ground probably buried way ensure return masters use masters died slaves sacrificed useful life free man usually given weapons equipment riding receive entire set tools women provided jewellery tools female household activities viking funeral discovered far ship burial woman probably queen lived 9th century monuments viking funeral considerable expense grave goods considered wasted addition homage deceased remained monument social position descendants especially powerful norse clans demonstrate position monumental grave fields mound cemetery instance connected dynasty large contained stone ships denmark largest royal memorial viking age memory parents honour large contained chamber tomb church stones testify important mark death pagan era earliest christian times locations scandinavia large grave fields entire community graves large variation shape size stone ships mix graves triangular circular grave fields generations belong village like settlements rituals death critical moment consequently death surrounded taboo like rules family life reorganized order master transitions people use rites ceremonies transitional rites intended deceased peace new situation time provide strength carry lives despite customs element fear surrounding death belonged deceased buried provided properly find peace dead person visit sight ominous usually interpreted sign additional family members die foremost times starvation communities struck series rumours began flourish tell drastic precautions taken appeared dead person die stake corpse head cut order stop deceased finding way living rituals involved preparation corpse prose references concern funeral rite involving cutting nails nails dead available completion construction ship transport army ibn account 10th century arab muslim writer named ibn produced description funeral scandinavian probably swedish expedition eastern route account unique source ceremonies surrounding viking funeral regardless ethnic norse slavic source says disputed dead temporary grave covered days new clothes women volunteered join guarded day night given great drinks sang happily time arrived pulled ashore platform wood bed dead ship old woman referred angel death bed responsible ritual gave new clothes grave received drinks fruits instrument bed weapons grave offerings horses run cut pieces threw meat ship finally sacrificed girl went tent sexual intercourse men man told tell master love afternoon moved girl looked like door frame lifted men times time girl told saw time saw father mother second time saw relatives time saw master green beautiful saw men young boys saw master drinks thought girl trance psychic symbolic action door frame realm dead ritual appears short story pagan norwegian men lift lady household door frame help look girl taken away ship removed gave old woman removed finger rings gave old woman daughters guarded took aboard ship allow enter tent dead lay girl received vessels drinks sang friends farewell girl pulled tent men started beat shields screams heard men entered tent intercourse girl forced master bed men grabbed hands men angel death rope neck men pulled rope old woman stabbed girl ribs knife relatives dead arrived burning torch set ship said fire voyage realm dead round built ashes centre mound erected staff birch wood carved names dead king departed ships human sacrifice sacrificed funeral serve master world sexual rites slave girl symbolize role vessel transmission life force deceased contains gives instructions number slaves sacrificed funeral hero bodies arranged following stanza occasionally viking age widow sacrificed husband funeral common burn corpse grave offerings temperature reached higher modern attain fragments metal animal human bones remain constructed pillar smoke massive possible order elevate deceased symbolism described saga established law dead men burned belongings laid pile ashes cast sea buried earth said come pile enjoy buried earth men consequence mound raised memory warriors distinguished standing stone custom remained long time funeral passing inheritance seventh day person died people celebrated word funeral feast involved ritual drinking funeral way socially case death drinking funeral heirs claim inheritance deceased widow master homestead rightful heir assume high seat mark shift authority large scandinavia inheritance stone explains lady came inherit property children grandchildren tells girl sole heir death important documents time legal decisions paper interpretation tune suggests long inscription deals funeral honor master household declares daughters rightful heirs dated 5th century consequently oldest legal document scandinavia addresses female right inheritance


poland early middle ages main event took place lands poland early middle ages parts central eastern_europe arrival subsequent permanent settlement slavic peoples slavic area contemporary poland started second half 5th century half century territories vacated tribes previous inhabitants waves incoming settled vicinity upper river lands present southeastern poland southern coming east upper middle regions river immigrants come primarily western branch early known arrival classified west early traces belong prague culture similar earlier culture new population dispersed north west course 6th century lived cultivation crops generally farmers engaged hunting gathering took place invasions eastern central europe waves people armies east occurring westward movement slavic people facilitated previous emigration peoples safer developed areas western southern europe formed small tribal organizations beginning 8th century later larger state like ones beginning 7th century tribal units built fortified structures earth wood walls called developed inhabited large area inside walls 9th century settled baltic coast subsequently developed commercial military power coastline remnants scandinavian settlements found important probably trade settlement located prussia prussia relatively unaffected slavic migration remained inhabited baltic old time tribe based surrounding region controlled large area south developed fortified strongholds 10th century lit people fields turned decisive historic importance initially based central polish went period accelerated building fortified settlements territorial expansion beginning half 10th century dynasty expanded territory converted christianity generally regarded birth polish state contemporary names realm state dropped soon favour poland rendering tribal dynasty continue rule poland late 14th century origin slavic peoples slavic beginnings poland origins slavic peoples arrived polish lands outset middle ages prague culture culture formed beginning early 3rd century genetically derived post cultural horizon material culture sphere later post culture groups relationship apparent large culture population early 6th 7th centuries slavic settlements basins lacking slavic settlements older local cultures region ceased exist beginning period culture culture circle existence roughly bce extended middle upper tributary river left traces settlements parts upper bug river basin main distinguished local groups group middle group upper group culture developed culture northern range local populations southern group origin influenced cultures culture beginnings moderately affected culture black_sea area trade greek cities provided imported items centers civilization earlier stages roman influence later accordingly economic development early roman period cultures bodies practiced human remains burial gifts including metal decorations small number limited variety placed pits culture originating post cultures considered oldest slavic culture culture functioned later roman periods end 2nd century north vast culture territories basins upper middle rivers cultural features sites culture identical highly compatible representing cultural model 6th century slavic societies including settlements lands today poland culture known settlement sites burial sites involving pit graves poorly equipped metal objects found despite known native production iron processing metals including coating technology clay vessels potter wheel culture represented intermediate level development cultures central european forest zone societies eastern continent culture consisted local formations middle group group upper group don group general model culture like early slavic cultures follow originated mainly groups evolved probably larger territory stretching west base eastern mountains broader post foundation culture related groups expanded considerably state broadly speaking culture destroyed process facilitated gained pace involving time descendant cultures confederation broke century written sources eastern cradle directly confirmed written source anonymous author known names geographic region encompassing vast areas eastern_europe place generations beginnings stretching far spreading wide eastern southern directions west end seen time writing half century earlier germans river places alternative point view according alternative theory popular earlier 20th century represented today medieval cultures area modern poland result massive immigration emerged cultural transition earlier indigenous populations need regarded early view discarded primarily period archaeological settlements absent rare cultural late ancient early medieval sites article early western states transitional period relative difficult evaluate believe late antique populations poland late culture abandoned east central europe replaced coming east groups staying current says author unable satisfying answer probably aspects played role terms origin territorial linguistic groups played current understanding terms limited relevance complex realities late antiquity early middle ages local languages region identified studies genetic evaluation burial remains possible slavic expansion prague culture culture culture prague culture final process cultures recognized early slavic culture culture territory culture prague culture took place end 4th 5th century post horizon expanding early took territories culture culture previous inhabitants cultures left area groups probably contributed elements slavic cultures prague culture developed western slavic expansion basins middle upper mountains southeastern poland upper middle basin culture responsible growth 6th 7th centuries time encompassed middle danube middle basins prague culture likely corresponds area described extending west sources culture people inhabited southeastern lower danube including region culture located north eastern area culture upper basins type eastern prague culture western expansion somewhat directly dependent mother culture sister cultures early 6th century slavic settlements covered area times size culture region years earlier early settlements economy poland poland earliest sites considered slavic include limited number 6th century settlements isolated burial sites material obtained consists simple manually formed typical entire early slavic area different varieties basic clay decorations cultures distinguished largest earliest slavic prague culture settlement sites poland subjected systematic research located county dated second half 5th 7th centuries consisted nearly square partially dug houses covering area average square meters stone usually placed corner typical slavic period clay centrally located found younger different type dwellings 7th 8th 9th 10th centuries discovered vicinity characteristic early slavic cultures poorly developed limited resources communities major iron production centers metal founding techniques known metal objects occasionally found iron knives hooks bronze decorative items 7th century finds county site earliest fortified settlements typical small open settlements include normally clay including weights weaving stone horn developments arranged clusters river stream valleys flood levels usually irregular typically faced south wooden frame pillar supported square houses covered straw roof meters long fertile sought forested areas plant animal environment provide additional settlements self sufficient early functioned significant long distance trade potter wheel turn 7th century villages larger homes investigated region 6th 9th century example cottages left bank direction complex settlements located original slavic difficult determine equipment materials wood leather free standing clay dome bread found locations large 6th 9th century settlement complex existed vicinity like centuries world slavic people cremated dead usually single graves grouped small ashes placed simple ground number burial sites found small relation known settlement density food production economy based wheat cultivation cattle breeding sheep goats lesser extent hunting fishing gathering geographic expansion poland central europe arriving east beginning second half 5th century earliest settlers reached southeastern poland san river basin upper regions including area valley single early sites known upper somewhat younger settlement concentrations discovered lower 6th century areas settled end century early 7th century slavic newcomers reached western according captured constantinople named baltic_sea coastal area place came time following decades region plus greater poland lower areas west middle lower river group origin subject debate settlements appear early 6th century directly derived slavic culture reveal certain similarities findings group culture according scholars like direct continuation tradition according represents variant prague culture considered younger stage group shows significant graves typical rest slavic world rectangular dwellings set partially ground level found span particular pattern expansion lands poland germany southern 6th century route took prague culture slovakia great slavic migration took 5th 7th century period lands origin countries central southeastern europe particular reached eastern alps populated basin danube basin moved south occupy balkans far slavic related ancient early medieval written accounts baltic poland antiquity article ancient medieval authors speak east european slavic description lived possibly middle basin times correspond slavic cultural sphere meant contemporary wrote past fighting took place quarter 4th century today ukraine time mean culture people says rage war far wide punishment sins time gothic king command 6th century description populous race range includes regions near left northern ridge mountains stretching east western direction reaching sources specifically area lower danube country swamps forests cities pro adds peoples settled lands rivers slavic branch unspecified location distant ancestral relation culture likely possibility overall designation slavic peoples shoots stock names located countless tribes east spoke language according nation traveled peoples territories west large lands settle western northern parts poland decades follow good accordance findings today byzantine writers held low regard simple life lived supposedly limited combat abilities fact early 6th century threat boundaries empire waged expeditions anonymous author known pseudo wrote length deal militarily suggests formidable adversary john actually goes far saying quarter 6th century learned conduct war better byzantine army balkan peninsula soon overrun slavic invaders half 7th century emperor mentioned authors provide details character lifestyle living conditions social structure economic activities early slavic people confirmed discoveries far poland slavic communities similar range uniform old slavic language remained use depending region 9th 12th centuries example greek missionaries saints everybody spoke slavic sent byzantine ruler distant expected able communicate difficulty invasions europe presence poland 6th century speaking nomadic moved middle danube area twice undertaken military expeditions routes went polish lands envoys slavic chiefs lands control including secure participation raids exact nature relations poland known presence contacts 7th 8th centuries left artifacts region including bronze belt decoration found mound item turn 8th century date mound tribal 8th century settlements major population shifts completed 8th century brought measure stability slavic people settled poland million people actively developed utilized land rest forest normal settlements exception fortified cult places limited lowland areas meters sea level villages built artificial defensive structures located valley areas natural bodies water familiar water environment natural defense living economic activity structures distributed randomly arranged rows central lot larger settlements dozen occupied residents typically homes inhabitants 7th century previously common semi subterranean dwellings replaced buildings located areas wholly surface pits dug storage uses consisted room people leaving man land regions developed areas especially limits tribal territories separation strangers avoid conflicts construction polish tribes leave remnants imposing structures fortified settlements reinforced polish type established naturally suitable defense enhancing sites beginning late 6th 7th century near early examples large scale building effort taking place 8th century differently designed sizes small massive ditches walls strengthen perimeter involved complicated wood stone construction tribal period irregularly distributed country fewer larger ones lesser poland smaller ones central northern poland cover area hectares simple multi segment architecture protected fortifications different types permanently occupied substantial number people chief armed men utilized protect local population case external danger eventually beginning 9th century future urban developments attracting especially strategic locations kinds erected 8th century investigated instance county tribe county destroyed rebuilt times final reconstruction monumental hectares technically complex border protection area built near site old bronze age era stronghold probably seat local ruler garrison thousands relics found including pieces silver treasure set times ultimately destroyed half 11th century larger scale building activity century manifestation emergence tribal organisms new quality representing efficient political organizations social structures new level based fortifications defensive objects century later lesser poland good example threat coming state provided original motivation organizing construction projects society organized larger tribal units poland 8th century increasingly organized larger structures known great tribes voluntary forced association primarily agricultural people fields cultivated settlements nearby gardens wooden iron reinforced forest burning increase area provided ashes lasted capacity seasons rotation crops practiced winter spring crop system seasons exploitation land left idle regain fertility wheat important cultivated plant species included broad apple pear peach cherry trees fruit beginning 8th century gradually economically important cattle sheep goats horses dogs cats chickens ducks kept slavic agricultural practices known research shows progressive time increases area resulting written reports provided ibn 10th century jewish traveler described features slavic life example use steam existence bath structures confirmed anonymous arab writer turn 10th century mentions slavic people alcoholic honey celebrations accompanied music played wind instruments gathering hunting fishing essential sources food materials hide fur forest exploited source building materials wood wild forest bees kept place refuge population 9th century separated main centers civilization self sufficient primitive local community household based manufacturing specialized mediocre qualifications existed fields iron extraction ore processing pottery luxury type items imports 7th century decorated potter wheel 7th 9th century collections objects found county iron spurs knives clay containers ornamentation region weapons substantial iron treasures located places slavic warriors traditionally armed spears bows wooden shields occasionally seen later axes later swords types popular 7th 9th century europe independent distant powers slavic tribes poland lived relatively life cost change took place 9th century polish lands crossed long distance trade routes baltic trade zone lesser poland participated exchange centered countries oriental silver jewelry arab coins cut pieces iron coin type great upper basin served currency basic social unit nuclear family consisting parents children fit dwelling area square meters big family multi group related families clan declining importance discussed period larger group needed past 5th 7th centuries forest clearing burning farming communities shift location location 8th century mature settled phase agriculture family sufficient care land concept agricultural land ownership gradually developing point matter family individual clan territories grouped neighborhood association established rudimentary self government community owner forested land bodies water organizing common projects related development political power took place big extending possessions state entity referred tribe tribe level structure containing controlling region square kilometers internal relationships external defense organized general_assembly present took care pressing issues wrote early 11th century assembly kept till everybody agreed war democracy gradually replaced government system tribal elders rulers upper hand development facilitated tribes great tribes favorable conditions later tribal states communal tribal democracy self imposed contributions community members survived small entities local territorial longest larger scale replaced rule able leaders dominant families ultimately leading inevitably hereditary transition supreme power mandatory taxation service etc social economic evolution reached level concentration power facilitated possible sustain parallel development professional military force called stage ruler chief disposal religion burial customs southern poland included raising ashes placed mound post thrust ground position survived slavic burial sites poland rare dead regardless social status cremated afforded burial according arab end 9th century slavic funeral feast practice mentioned earlier according believed god creator lightning master entire universe animals people offered highest god called slavic area gods different regions different times local names natural objects rivers mountains celebrated demons ancestral spirits bought offering rituals involved beliefs practices later continued developed slavic tribes erected created statues sculptures including faced carvings symbolize aspects slavic model 9th century specimen river today ukraine found display museum sacred locations objects identified outside poland northeastern germany ukraine poland religious activity sites investigated northwestern including headed deity stood island 9th 11th century cult found confirmed cult places figures researched locations early slavic states 9th century developments realm slavic state like entity realm king originally trader close poland parts southern regions rivers existed period slavic leader successfully helping defend led probably loose alliance tribes fell apart death slavic centered austria real state developed possibly kingdom lasted native dynasty 8th century great larger scale state generating processes remote relation byzantium slavic areas took place 9th century great established early 9th century south today poland eventually included likely southern lesser poland regions glory great empire fully apparent light discoveries equipped especially spectacular finds extend peripheral areas great lands constitute southern poland great territorial expansion great took place reign end 9th century original western slovakia great state incorporated degrees mentioned regions poland great weakened internal crisis invasions ceased exist baptized state diocese aiming achieve ecclesiastical political independence east influence successor asked byzantine emperor michael iii missionaries result arrived commenced missionary activities slavic people goals brothers developed written slavic language old church alphabet created language translated bible church texts establishing foundation later slavic eastern orthodox churches czech state fall great room expansion czech bohemian state likewise incorporated polish lands founder dynasty prince baptized slavic rite later 9th century settled prague son successor baptized latin rite marks early stage east german influence destined decisive bohemian affairs grandson prince future czech martyr patron saint killed probably brother solidified power prague princes likely dominated lesser poland tribes parts 9th century polish lands 9th century polish lands relation major powers events medieval europe measure progress place evidenced number built raised equipment tribal influenced relative empire objects crafted occasionally found poland populated tribes sizes names western country known written sources especially latin language document written century anonymous period typically smaller tribal structures larger ones established place characteristic turn 10th century polish tribal settlement areas particular intensification building activity centers social political life tribal leaders elders headquarters protected environment tribal general assemblies took place inside religious cult locations commonly located vicinity frequently visited traders state major development period concerns somewhat enigmatic tribe western lesser poland mentioned contemporary written sources large tribal union half 9th century evolving second half century super tribal state efforts terminated powerful neighbors south main town located major international trade route main related find addition 8th century large burial remnants late 9th century treasure iron shaped known currency units great discovered wooden chest basement medieval house street near hill total weight iron material kilograms individual bars sizes bound suggests package transportation according constantine vii 7th century dwelling bavaria white lived 10th century probably upper region northern 7th century family brothers sisters left area folk came permission emperor help defend imperial borders built century typically large area hectares big ones known 9th century lesser poland likely built defense great military expansion largest county area hectares walls meters high parts giant structure probably built later located northern slope western mountains hills buildings inside walls sparsely located altogether absent role settlements administrative centers large hectares built turn 9th century county rebuilt treasure found contains great type decorations dated late 9th century century treasure hidden destroyed fire second half century large meters diameter found places total probably funeral locations rulers chiefs actual burial site mound long lost degree development built 8th century treasure point main center power past suspected role important related written reference comes life saint known legend written disciples likely right death fragment speaks powerful pagan prince residing country christians caused great harm warned speaking missionary behalf acting agent advised reform voluntarily accept baptism homeland predicted forced foreign land according legend story eventually happened passage widely interpreted indication invaded overrun army great pagan prince captured happen second stay reign story possibly found chronicle written centuries later chronicler inadvertently intentionally mixing different historic eras talks past polish war army alexander great countless enemy soldiers thrust way poland king having previously entered like door wings forces conquered area lands process ancient city walls appears point intervening period chronicler army confused emperor warrior place time dozen southern lesser poland attacked destroyed end 9th century version events east eastern lesser poland territory tribe century constantine vii wrote substantial tribe names poland lithuanian hungarian languages poles medieval begin letter derived tribe poles historically referred fall great controlled partially territory conquered end 10th century lands divided western taken poland eastern portion retained probably subjected raids additional layer added fortifications early 10th century early century entity like incorporated czech state association turned beneficial terms economic development important station prague trade route known christian church structures erected hill later 10th century uncertain circumstances peaceful way network suffered damage occasion polish state baltic coast terms economic general achievement advanced region 9th century characterized extensive contacts external world accordingly cultural diversity favorite destination traders distant lands establishing local manufacturing trade centers usually accompanied nearby inhabited local elite industrial area complexes gave rise early towns urban centers mentioned tribes area towns despite high advancement social structures indicative developed farther societies city state settlement established island late 8th century located mouth river beginning involved long distance baltic_sea trade settlement thought identical pagan readily kept accepting newcomers especially professionals world located major intercontinental sea route soon big european industrial trade power writing 11th century adam bremen saw largest european cities inhabited honest good slavic people greeks including long demonstrate christianity openly major stronghold tribal territory comprising island broad stretch adjacent mainland frontier guarded string city peak prosperity occurred year new built municipal complex metropolitan area secured walls findings include great variety imported far_east locally manufactured products raw materials amber precious metals figure prominently jewelry economic activities elite prussia baltic trade known reworking universal history alfred great king alfred included description voyage undertaken danish port located near mouth gave detailed description location land right close slavic areas west actual site discovered near established danish traders end 8th century prussian border area previously explored lasted major city commercial center early 11th century destroyed time replaced capacity settlement covered area hectares consisted dock craft trade portion peripheral residential development protected wood earth separating mainland port trade zones separated fire control ditch water flowing rows houses including long viking hall structures warehouses market areas wooden beam covered streets numerous relics found including weights currency units coins english arab workshops processing metal jewelry large quantities amber remnants long viking boats found complex testimony viking commerce activities baltic_sea region multi ethnic extensive trade contacts distant lands scandinavia slavic areas located south west products transported river crafts ironically sudden destruction fire subsequent disappearance apparently result viking raid connection baltic trade zone led establishment inner slavic long distance trade routes lesser poland participated exchange centered countries oriental silver jewelry arab coins cut pieces iron coin type great upper basin served currency intrusion wave nomadic invaders languages family coming northwestern siberia migrated south west occupying end 9th century basin second half 10th century forced settle raided vast areas europe including poland ornamental elements found hungarian warrior grave half 10th century area geographically invasions interfered previously highly influential contacts central europe byzantine christianity centers decisive factor steered poland western latin branch christianity time adoption 10th century developments greater poland state tribal greater poland period brought notable development settlement stability polish lands short lived prehistoric settlements gradually gave way villages fixed sites number villages grew time sites rarely shifted population distribution patterns established century evident today landscape sources 9th 10th centuries mention tribe closest thing huge tribe derived lake investigations confirm scale settlement activity lake area research indicate presence distinct tribes 9th century greater poland upper middle river basin lower basin west river area tribe settlements concentrated regional cult center hill today 9th century greater poland tribes constitute uniform entity cultural settlement pattern sense centrally located land time isolated external influences highly developed czech baltic_sea centers separation expansive powers probably positive factor stage efforts lineage leaders elder clan tribe known house resulted early 10th century establishment state state origins later called state known state expanded expense subdued tribes grandfather father times particular writing ibn described country king north wide ranging slavic lands ruler mentioned time mature form state included west slavic lands bug rivers baltic_sea mountains including economically crucial mouth areas rivers lesser poland poles appears writing time year like country poland possibly given later historians inhabitants greater poland presumed tribe mentioned earlier sources 10th century inhabitants greater poland originate unknown tribes instrumental bringing establishment polish state tribe constitute immediate power base predecessors account early 12th century chronicler wrote invented legend house story gives amid details names supposed ancestors royal family beginning man named father central figure humble farmer living married male heads clan following according known historic certainty expressed concerning royal story passed qualified words like error sequence names predecessors considered reliable results studies greater poland 10th century odds timing story settlement 9th century pagan cult site beginning turn 10th century built year possibly location great spiritual importance tribal community rally local population building defense effort early state expansion old tribal system tribal assembly elected chief case external threat lead defense effort temporarily granted authority clan able replace area hereditary rule tribe inhabited line trends times allowed create state controlled greater poland half 10th century particularly densely populated economically developed regions lesser poland favored mentioned geographic isolation central location culturally similar tribes extensive network suitable transportation rivers ultimate difference family members exceptional individuals able advantage arising opportunities development state traced degree following disappearance old tribal built greater poland later 9th century soon destroyed advancing tribe people example county county built soon attacked taken state forces burned initial period armed expansion old rebuilt enlarged replaced beginning decades 10th century new large massively reinforced type erected reconstructed earlier ones initially tribe native land central greater poland near county county connected water communication lines century powerful served main concentrations forces emerging state parallel building activity undertook military expansion crossing moving end period south west river basin entire network tribal rivers places eliminated conquered population central greater poland resulted partial previously developed regions end stage state formation new built north river area outlying areas annexed lands example following decade job core early state finished greater poland included central poland parts found increasingly influence southbound expansion time stalled large portions lesser poland controlled czech state expanding state developed professional military force according ibn collected taxes form weights trading spent taxes monthly pay warriors thousands heavily armored mounted soldiers quality according impressive provided equipment needs military pay children regardless gender moment born force supported greater number foot fighters numerous armaments found foreign scandinavian origin mercenaries regions german norman knights constituted significant element elite fighting guard revenue generating measures conquests sustain military machine meet state expenses large amounts revenue necessary greater poland natural resources trade fur hide honey wax surely provide income according ibn prague city built stone main center exchange trading europe slavic traders brought tin salt amber products importantly slaves muslim jewish hungarian traders buyers life written end 10th century john lists fate christian slaves sold prague gold main curse time dragging slaves shown scene bronze 12th century doors territorial expansion financed partially expanding state source captured local people valuable scale human trade practice population defeated tribes agricultural work near settlements serve capacities contribute economic demographic potential state considerable increase population density characteristic newly established states eastern central europe slave trade state look options generating revenue subdue baltic coast area site wealthy trade frequently visited traders especially east west north reason believe great profits resulted ability control rich situated long distance trade routes state reached mouth based investigations erected middle lower appears lower control century powerful built latest solidified rule mouth river firmly controlled allied fighting reported ibn military great wrote events involving person saxon count younger exiled country according went probably leading defeated twice killed brother acquired great deal reports people slavic entities subjects holy roman emperor forced role powerful saxon eastern march relationship emperor series military detrimental relationships involved czech allied compelled seek support german emperor contacts described friend emperor pact negotiated finalized later price pay imperial protection emperor vassal paying tribute lands river likely making promise accepting christianity acceptance christianity response immediate practical concerns christian church installed poland western latin rite act brought country realm ancient mediterranean culture issues requiring urgent attention increasing pressure eastbound expansion rivers german state plans control parallel expansion church establishment finalized baptism attendant processes place german connections time process fixing uneasy relationship bohemian state difficulties caused mainly czech cooperation parties arrived agreement issues married daughter chosen christian princess woman possibly twenties devout christian conversion deal act fact followed initiated greater poland region point unlike lesser poland exposed christian influence independent missionary reporting directly pope established jordan installed bishop scope mission early phase limited geographically relics survived come land stone churches discovered chapel site cathedral seat jordan bishop followed early expansion great norman contributions newer research points intriguing possibilities early origins polish state greater poland indications processes led establishment state began period years tremendous advancement took place central greater poland unearthed products kinds better elaborate timing breakdown great state caused invasions fall fearing lives great people escape according notes constantine vii found refuge neighboring countries decorations found graves counterparts burial sites slovakia area medieval times known clan named indicates town established refugees generally immigrants great contributed sudden awakening remote isolated lands early expansion land tribe began likely grandfather probable real founder state chronicle speaks ruling slavic nation called people reflected played role poland origins accumulation period treasures attributed continued tradition alive court iii gave sons anonymous wrote chronicle term popular later synonymous poles like legend written chronicle turn 14th century inspired grandfather early capitals large scale construction disagreement early seat ruling clan modern shown existed fact possibility early central role long believed based account given relics including great concentration silver treasures found original built years earlier later turned powerful stronghold point location likely early capitals include old located away land older probably original court site earlier years reign cathedral church monumental structure erected events like brother law supported henry_ii rebellion created threat emperor retribution situation probably motivated government safer eastern location emperor response turned ineffective geographical advantage continued years come growing importance reflected addition new southern original segments existing summary document written death state called state enormous effort estimated population thousands residents region involved building main local supply oak timber exhausted response perceived deadly threat help pursue regional conquests people probably led father conquered soon moved germany fear tribal cult center advancing mobilized community uprising suppressed germany eastbound moving added sense danger time state allied helping situation stabilized state consolidated huge turned expansion led stage alliance germany conquest fighting beginning rule led alliance state germany alliance natural point polish state expanding westbound german state expanding eastbound common target victory achieved september leading time according forces killed helped additional mounted units provided father law revenge victory recognized emperor turning point struggle contain distracted pursuing italian policies new status allowed successfully pursue efforts leading obtaining country independent poles tradition christianity older victory successful fighting followed battle allowed conquer parts remained autonomous pagan strong built probably actual center power scandinavian colony near functioned center area western controlled region referred polish historians western roughly current polish borders opposed independent poland uprising death poland ruled son completion poland territorial expansion west land control important built east loosely associated state region southern outpost construction powerful western region river took place latest alliance time died leaving children allied germany fought took eastern lesser poland lands rest lesser poland taken region autonomous czech rule enjoyed special status state eastern added completed takeover southern poland end life state included west slavic lands geographic proximity connected natural features absence mountain ranges territorial nucleus greater poland lands regarded historians polish 10th century western slavic tribes including similar silver treasures common scandinavian countries found slavic areas including poland especially northern poland silver objects coins decorations cut pieces believed served currency units brought jewish arab traders locally wealth symbols prestige process hiding protecting danger believed researchers represent cult ritual treasure located county hidden includes coins slavic decorations southern showing byzantine influence find manifestation 10th century trade route running way central asia byzantium rivers basins baltic_sea shores treasures likely belonged members emerging


clan clan scottish clan clan historically centred lands today consumed little village located mainly traditional county highland line scottish highlands clan considered highland clan writers linked historians original later times clan like clan clans traditionally considered seven clans group clans said claimed descent mac king later kings scotland traced descent chiefs clan styled clan dates certainty 16th century clan engaged feuds neighbouring clans clan fortunes declined 17th 18th centuries decline fall clan ended death century clan dormant revival interest scottish clans 20th century movement organised revive clan modern organisation unite unrelated groups bore surname clan chief clan appointed potential chief clan petition formal recognition denied lord king arms lord ruled meet criteria blood link past chief clan commander years considered recognition question date clan chief recognised lord king arms considered clan different families ireland scotland related considered historical connection clan include scottish western isles lewis possibly irish families connection clan thought originally scottish origins clan family recorded lands controlled middle ages forms given family members today form younger son earl subject lay attributed poet property named means high means horse descendants lords extensive tract land seat clan located situated shores village town place stated derived form cape horses height horses according william charles writing end 19th century estate main residences north stated site castle distinguished time writing small mound near burn flows bay census scotland lists grid reference listed possible grid reference located site town wrote stood oak tree place called scottish english according legend beneath branches old oak member clan die actual ancestry clan uncertain recorded chiefs clan styled territorial designation early 18th century scottish alexander claimed clan descended listed rolls swearing homage edward according ancestor designed till king james time alexander head family took fancy called alexander predecessor humour designation head clan designation later 18th century chief clan walter stated derived lived reign james iii reigned according george black territorial designation ordinary surname 15th century men surname styled recorded scottish records charter witness arthur witnessed charter earl granted robert holding castle king scots later mentioned records later goods recorded according 19th century historian joseph early alexander served earl invested john stewart 3rd earl lands adjoining wife lands historians stated surname alexander son alexander lived reign james reigned record clerk watch queen mary guard history 15th 15th centuries west clans raided plundered lands combined sweep flocks clans invaded district later july mary queen scots forced scottish throne favour infant son james walter bond protect young prince appears general band principal vassal duke appear roll broken clans feud clans 16th century members clan conflict members clans august walter son killed highway street clash contingent led thomas sheriff wounded encounter walter brother duncan wounded pan brain john wounded shoulder blade lights seen lungs james wounded stomach including miller complaint registered september defenders failed appear horn denounced rebels october thomas john son john formally charged edinburgh murder walter accused ordered appear justice edinburgh december case deferred march accused failed appear following saw bond chiefs swore assist friends honest actions whatsoever person persons kings majesty spring robert purchased commission letter fire sword legally attack destroy clan pursue clan suspicious real intentions chiefs clans complained council purchased commission counsel george intentions actually likely allied direct vengeance guise hunting clearing clan matters married widowed mother consent revenge given kindness denounced evil vows revenge influence duke letter fire sword taken entire truth mention bond chief according williams unlikely council aware bond council required assist clan end 16th century clan constant disputes times outlawed order strengthen position clan proceeded enter alliances clans reputed share common ancestry alliance concluded july james alliance years later outlawed clan formal agreement known bond bond acknowledged chief cadet house promised pay chief giving tribute cattle best eighth goods superior lord chief significant custom society contract gave temporary relief prior contract appear involved clan way according feud unclear alliance benefit clan wrote known connection clan end actually manner disastrous connected turbulent according 19th century historian william forbes contract evidence ancestral connection clans bond stated family alexander understanding surname opinion descend concluded clan member group clans claim descent kenneth mac scots considered king later historians shown bonds secure weaker clans bond forced powerful following battle clan clan february public outcry rebellious act council april offence bear shelter earl responsible council actions entrusted bring force law clan deeply suspicious dealings moves bring acts march ordered appear answer aiding supplying answer rising pursuing outlawed clan accused bringing lands stealing influence duke saved clan fate april james wrote justice general deputies declaring innocent alleged crimes accompany king england duke time king letter received left district duke train accompanied james way england declared king james england outlawed finally january year hiding brought edinburgh stand trial preliminary statement titled confession convicted mouth confession accused trying persuade kill chief confess god destroy respect maid feud campbell 7th earl pursued violent feud late 16th early 17th century area duncan campbell captain campbell led raids lands attempting chief seated castle shores kilometres northwest duncan campbell captain registered bond men time robert registered bond campbell harm followers following year legally evicted campbell followers lands banks close supporters retaliation combined force assembled opposite shore laid waste duke new acquisitions case presented council campbell campbell denounced rebels november evidence brought forth council attempt life september evidence pointed captain men coming night attacking followers killing second attempt life carried night staying patrick servants shot encounter council denounced captain men rebels end november captain followers invaded lands armed bows force hid woods night taking prisoners fleeing morning rider making house presumed nearly killed identified campbell earl force fear men district left area destroying houses animals making livestock belonging tenants duke process men john actions participating denounced rebels stated claimed confession attempted convince record treasurer books dated november record instance item charge day december sic things lying await set slain episode clans western slowly settled peaceful ceased exist clan resident clans powerful lands slowly passed hands strangers angus seized castle held bishop isles sir men accompanied bishop demand surrender castle march captured castle prevent royalist base event invasion ireland secured earl placed walter keeper castle garrison men parish row modern created wanted separate parish opposite built parish year later provided land garden glorious revolution saw overthrow roman catholic james england favour protestant william iii orange english accepted william ireland scotland opposed favour deposed james earl offer raise regiment men aid william accepted regiment consist companies men year raised company aid william william wife mary crowned king queen scotland william mary november company earl regiment commanded captain lieutenant john ensign robert ancient later younger brother robert listed captain robert earl regiment foot revolution succeeded fear invasion adherents expelled king local parishes required muster men example size particular muster follows men guns seventy men score swords seventy men arms men thirty stand arms eighty men individual parishes selected officers general divided companies containing living selected captain company noble lieutenant ensign beginning 18th century group migrated counties william 18th century account surname stated group claimed descend ireland early 17th century clan involved plantation james began regions ireland english scottish settlers scotland era region comprised acres km2 stewart 2nd duke allotted acres km2 land acres km2 alexander gentleman king appointed commissioners visit order account progress july inspection report stated duke duke chief undertaker acres sir knight agent resident british families preparation building save timber trees squared alexander report stated alexander acres appeared nicholas surveyed recorded duke portion acres duke strong castle built lime stone inhabited people portion report stated acres alexander stone house able produce men arms later alexander known alexander alias stewart sold alexander stewart according hill alexander stewart ancestor stewart alexander succeeded sir chief clan branch settled leading member family owning estate time passed fall clan loss power clan fortune diminished 17th century 18th century successive forced divide sell piece piece lands governed clan resources dried lands fell decay expansive lands farms perfect type true old celtic school men thought old connection clan send fight alliance thought acres power bear fruits industry peace early roof castle seat clan chief fallen overall condition castle deteriorated extent forced abandon live nearby bulk estate ultimately passed hands john campbell 4th duke chief died high encompassed tiny village heir succeed chief lord frederick campbell brother john 5th duke supervised draining marsh ridden lands poor state lands year illustrated statement george campbell 8th duke land bear weight cow local men time remembered horses lost prevalent area modern era clan associations death chief 18th century ceased exist clan currently clan chief member clan granted arms revival scottish interest 20th century unsuccessfully attempted prove link chief movement organised revive clan interim leader clan commander later assembly organisation objectives determined unite unrelated groups chief clan lewis ross new chief effect chief intended petition lord king arms recognised chief challenged originally native claimed direct chiefs clan hoc took place castle easter ross intention person petition court recognised clan chief prior ross herald wrote landowners supplied clan association involved voting supervised ross herald took place clan members voting carried members ruled year old lead clan nominated leader petitioned lord king arms right receive arms chief clan legally making clan chief later robin blair lord king arms rejected petition ruled link past chief rule commander clan years considered recognition chief following reported reasoning ruling recognising chief discourage research finding blood link chiefs clan research unnecessary lord stated historical evidence linking lewis clan firm basis considering present petition context later clan members decided democratic process select clan chief decided potential chief elected clan members duration years time elected time debated potential chief resident scotland decision agreed following death son elected members chief according website clan association scotland clan gathering held edinburgh homecoming scotland festivities took place july august clan association elected chief clan association association clan international gathering took place august county northern_ireland event gathering scotland clan gathering held international clan gathering clan august expected descending weekend august unrelated irish today living northern_ireland republic ireland descend clan different clans native irish bear exactly similar names unrelated connection clan mac originating lands derive old irish clan considered native irish origin descending hostages chiefs recorded irish annals chiefs lands known times country mac derive personal derived old norse names traces descent younger son king family junior non families area consequence military actions family left mark area mac branch today members bear names like usually found hardly found outside chiefs resided castle located near territory described clan thought scottish descent located allies 16th century held parts occupied northeast coast plain near led boy fought battle appealed lower middle assistance small clans days late battle arrived spectators battle near climax boy rode chief persuaded join ranks combined force drove banks river finally defeated chief slain known battle festivities lasted days battle called boy raised mountain clan profile etymology clan thought people descend family family personal given individuals mid 20th century george black stated clan surname numerous variations originated mac meaning son old personal pronounced like uncertain meaning clan member crest badge cases crest clan chief crest motto case clan coat arms chief clan lord king arms head authority scotland crest badge appropriate clan member contains crest boot ankle spur proper motto translation latin danger sweet sir commissioner prior acts union commissioner equivalent english office member parliament sir commissioners tasked regulating price boots shoes clan badge clan plant attributed clan scots pine clans attributed badge clan west clan claims descent earl badge scots pine attributed seven clans clan grant clan clan clan clan clan clan coat arms chief clan lord king arms 19th century listed different arms 19th century king arms sir john bernard listed arms arrows second 19th century robert published different coat arms pictured article seal bore chief early grant arms member clan descendant george merchant edinburgh coat arms registered court arrows second crest boot ankle spur proper motto celebrated 19th century historian thomas 1st baron granted english arms alluded despite having connection clan descended unrelated lewis according prominent derived arms basic stewart coat arms utilised stewart ultimately derived arms alexander daughter time married sir john stewart younger son alexander stewart 4th high steward scotland couple founded stewart branch clan descendants tended couple sons sir stewart founded stewart branch clan time non published associated surname associated families official clan campbell derived meaning son little english peter forms greek meaning stone rock william 18th century account surname states original member lands awe largely clan campbell territory earliest account granted confirmation lands sir duncan campbell according david descend located close old seat kilometres popular culture fictional clan appeared walter scott novel legend set james graham 5th earl highland campaign main characters novel member army younger brother angus clan chief novel feuds known children mist historically term children mist referred line 16th century character based historical james stewart called mad major


government early modern scotland government early modern scotland included forms administration crown national institutions systems local government law early sixteenth century mid eighteenth century roughly corresponds early modern era europe beginning renaissance reformation ending beginnings industrial revolution monarchs period james james mary queen scots james charles charles_ii james vii william mary anne george george crown remained important element government period despite royal minorities saw aspects associated new monarchy europe theories limited monarchy resistance articulated scots particularly george sixteenth century james advanced theory divine right kings debates subsequent reigns crises court remained centre political life sixteenth century emerged major centre display artistic patronage council great offices state remained central administration government departure stuart monarchs rule england sidelined abolished act union rule direct london parliament vital running country providing laws taxation fluctuating fortunes achieved national life counterpart england disbanded revenue remained continual problem scottish government introduction regular taxation receipts insufficient business government costs paid english revenues local government attempts increase effectiveness creation justices peace commissioners supply continued existence courts baron introduction sessions helped consolidate power local law expansion central institutions lawyers group scottish law maintained separate system union central courts gained clear authority local institutions crown james scottish monarch wear closed imperial crown place open medieval kings suggesting claim absolute authority kingdom reworked include arches added reconstructed remains crown scotland idea imperial monarchy emphasised dignity crown included role national force defending national borders interests royal supremacy law distinctive national church catholic communion new monarchy seen reliance crown new men great use clergy form civil service developing standing armed forces navy major intellectual figures reformation included george works major texts outlining case resistance young james succeeded producing highly educated protestant prince publish works subjects including government poetry failed convince ideas limited monarchy debate status crown james asserted concept divine right king appointed god gained degree ideas passed charles ability compromise undermined helping lead political difficulties executed scottish objected avoided advancing kings reason scottish estates find justification james vii turned argument contractual nature monarchy claim right court royal court consisted leading nobles office holders ambassadors surrounded king queen centre monarch members chamber gentleman chamber usually leading nobles individuals links leading noble families direct access monarch exert influence usually resident court increasingly based royal palace edinburgh monarch court spending time royal palaces sterling undertaking royal progress kingdom ensure rule law royal authority smooth government maintained sixteenth century court central patronage renaissance works ideas central staging lavish display portrayed political religious role monarchy display tied ideas evolving period practical military ornamental cult tournaments provided focus display pursued enthusiastically james proud membership international orders brief personal rule mary queen scots brought elaborate court activities grown french court balls celebrations designed illustrate resurgence monarchy facilitate national unity james court returned centre culture learning cultivated image philosopher king models david solomon constantine james inherited english throne scottish court effectively ceased exist ending role centre artistic patronage political display intrigue officers state chancellor effectively minister kingdom department responsible great seal needed process inheritance land titles confirmation land transfers key responsibility meetings council rare occasions attended meetings court session second prestigious office secretary responsible records council foreign policy including borders despite post retained importance union crowns treasurer major posts dealt royal finances office merged treasurer lord president court session known simply lord president acted link council court king advocate acted legal council post emerged deal king land rights usually king indicating increase level work increasingly public prosecutor union offices remained political power increasingly centred london john 1st duke secretary state scotland post abolished rising council council developed theoretically larger king queen council leading nobles office holders sixteenth century secret councils maintained later medieval era origins council minority mary queen scots majority disbanded continued sit accepted government session edinburgh council met west drawing room palace monarch royal palaces visiting region kingdom official business council normally result away servants records members output tended decrease monarch away holiday hunting trip council usually stayed session edinburgh continued run government council primary function judicial acted body advisers king result secondary function executive absence minority monarchy monarch attend council presence necessary council act royal authority like parliament power issue acts force law james departure england functioned executive carrying instructions london theoretical membership council relatively large persons business carried informal inner group consisting mainly officers state council presided lord chancellor james decreed president college justice chancellor absence additional title president council added separated charles reorganisation council court session lord president council accorded precedence king chief officers restoration charles_ii nominated set council london directed affairs edinburgh situation continued glorious revolution council abolished act union parliament sixteenth century parliament usually met castle old edinburgh rebuilt orders mary queen scots king charles ordered construction parliament hall expense edinburgh built remained parliament home dissolved end middle ages parliament evolved king council bishops political judicial role attendance knights important commissioners joined form estates acquired significant powers particular issues including consent taxation strong influence justice foreign policy war legislation political ecclesiastical social economic legislative business scottish parliament carried parliamentary committee known lords articles chosen estates draft legislation presented assembly confirmed like continental assemblies scottish parliament called frequently early sixteenth century crown series minorities dominated crown able convention estates quicker assemble issue laws like parliament making crisis deal specific issue resistant giving taxation rights crown parliament played major reformation crisis mid sixteenth century james uphold catholic asserted right determine nature religion country royal authority parliament included predominantly protestant claimed right sit parliament provision failed election act position parliament remained uncertain presence fluctuated act revived provision annual election commissioners property qualification voters held land crown value extent excluded growing class gain rights clerical estate parliament reformation acquired monasteries sitting catholic clergy excluded small number protestant bishops continued clerical estate james attempted revive role bishops abolished parliament entirely lay assembly group appeared parliament minority james members council representing king interests excluded james continued manage parliament lords articles legislation reached parliament controlled committee filling royal officers non elected members forced limit having officially suspended end regime parliament returned restoration charles_ii parliament known drunken parliament revoked presbyterian gains thirty years subsequently charles absence scotland use commissioners rule northern kingdom undermined authority body james vii parliament supported rivals attempted rebellions escape exile william parliament dominated supporters contrast situation england effectively deposed james claim right offered crown william mary placing important limitations royal power including abolition lords articles argues parliament focus national political life reached position true centre national identity attained english counterpart new parliament subsequently bring demise act union english scottish replaced combined parliament great_britain sat westminster largely continued english traditions scots added members house_of_commons scots members house_of_lords taxation revenue early era authority crown limited large number minorities seen early fifteenth century monarch coming throne minor tended decrease level royal revenues lacking royal authority create support alienated land revenues margaret tudor reducing royal income scots minority james james able extract heaviest taxation levied scottish church exchange continued loyalty taking years regular taxation adopted called increasing frequency scale demand resulted opposition new tax annual amounting cent interest loans mainly directed merchants introduced levy collected decade later charles annual income sources scotland sterling inadequate normal costs government court london financed english revenues sum month county assessment demanded regime scotland failed fully supply contribute year parliament formal grant year charles_ii rising costs civilian government war meant inadequate support scottish government william union engagement continental colonial wars led heavier existing taxes new taxes including poll taxes local government sixteenth century central government increasingly involved local affairs feud limited regulated local taxation regular local commissions justices peace english model established deal petty crimes greater control exerted borders joint commission english set james hostile culture highlands predecessors sent colonists parts region forced highland chiefs accept lowland language culture statues seventeenth century responsibilities expanded judicial functions wider local administration commissioners supply appointed collect land tax parish important unit local government major pieces legislation established known old poor law pressured justices parish responsible taking care periods famine prevent impoverished taking roads causing general disorder mid seventeenth century system largely rolled limited highlands able cope general level poverty minor crises helping old survive provide life support periods relatively low cost overwhelmed major crisis like seven ill years behaviour regulated sessions composed local church elders replaced church courts middle ages dealt moral religious conduct local court baron remained important regulating minor property offences held behest local baron cases appoint usually senior tenants resolve disputes issues combination sessions courts baron gave considerable power local control behaviour populations communities law late middle ages justice scotland mixture royal local overlapping jurisdictions undertaken clerical lawyers local leaders james legal functions council royal court session meeting daily edinburgh deal civil cases office justice general created earl held family study law popular scotland middle ages students travelled continental europe study canon law civil law royal college justice founded leading training emerging group career lawyers court session placed increasing emphasis independence influence including king superior jurisdiction local justice judges increasingly able control entry ranks bench led entry requirements latin law property qualification designed limit danger helping create exclusive wealthy powerful professional dominated government posts way clergy middle ages high_court founded college justice supreme_court appeal act union largely distinct scottish legal system courts separate english jurisdiction major reform scottish law came result jurisdictions act government reaction rising limited powers courts abolished hereditary offices courts obsolete strengthening reach central judicial courts period saw widespread attempts comment scottish legal system substantive account scottish law bishop john senator college justice followed james sir john major figure produced edition acts parliament legal dictionary edited history scottish law attributed creation david thomas produced large works examined feudal law explored possibilities english scottish legal systems seen beginning modern scottish legal study james 1st institutions law scotland