william morris william morris march october english textile designer poet novelist translator socialist activist associated british arts crafts movement major contributor revival traditional british textile arts methods production literary contributions helped establish modern fantasy genre played significant role early socialist movement britain born essex wealthy middle class family morris came strong influence studying classics oxford_university joining birmingham set university trained architect married jane burden developed close friendships pre artists edward jones neo gothic architect philip morris designed family home red house kent lived moving central london morris founded decorative arts firm jones morris marshall highly fashionable demand firm profoundly influenced interior decoration victorian period morris designing furniture stained glass windows morris assumed total control company renamed morris retaining main home london morris rented rural retreat manor greatly influenced visits iceland produced series english language translations achieved success publication epic poems novels paradise dream john ball news fantasy romance world end founded society protection ancient buildings campaign damage caused architectural restoration embracing influenced 1880s morris committed revolutionary socialist activist involvement social democratic federation founded socialist league broke organization founded press publish limited edition illuminated style print books cause devoted final years morris recognised significant cultural figures victorian britain best known lifetime poet posthumously better known designs founded william morris society devoted legacy multiple biographies studies work seen publication buildings associated life open visitors work found art galleries museums designs production early life youth morris born house essex march raised wealthy middle class family named father worked partner firm bill city london mother emma morris née descended wealthy family worcester morris parents surviving children child charles born died days later charles followed birth girls emma william birth children followed birth siblings stanley arthur isabella alice morris family followers evangelical protestant form christianity william baptised months birth mary church child morris kept largely house mother spent time reading favouring novels walter scott aged morris moved family georgian mansion hall essex surrounded acres land adjacent forest took interest fishing brothers hall grounds spent time exploring forest fascinated iron age earthworks camp banks early modern hunting lodge took rides essex countryside pony visited churches country architecture father took visits outside county instance canterbury cathedral gardens isle aged sent misses academy young gentlemen nearby preparatory school initially riding pony day later began boarding intensely experience morris father died unexpectedly point family relied continued income copper mines devon great sold hall smaller water house february morris began studies college wiltshire gained reputation eccentric nicknamed crab despised time bullied bored use opportunity visit prehistoric sites wiltshire hill fascinated school anglican faith march morris confirmed bishop salisbury college chapel developing enthusiastic attraction anglo catholic movement aesthetic christmas morris removed school returned water house privately reverend frederick guy assistant master nearby forest school oxford birmingham set june morris entered oxford_university exeter college college went residence january disliked college bored manner taught classics instead developed keen interest medieval history medieval architecture inspired medieval buildings oxford interest tied britain growing movement form rejected values victorian industrial capitalism morris middle ages represented era strong values organic pre capitalist sense community deemed period attitude compounded reading thomas book past present championed medieval values problems victorian society influence morris dislike contemporary capitalism grew came influenced work christian charles frederick college morris met fellow year undergraduate edward jones lifelong friend collaborator different backgrounds found shared attitude life interested anglo catholicism jones morris joined group birmingham studying college william richard watson charles price known brotherhood historians birmingham set morris affluent member set generous wealth like morris set fans poet alfred lord meet plays william_shakespeare morris heavily influenced writings art critic john particularly inspired chapter nature gothic architecture second volume stones venice later described necessary inevitable century morris adopted philosophy rejecting industrial manufacture decorative arts architecture favour return hand raising status artists creating art affordable hand hierarchy artistic achieved attention victorian society art group painters emerged london calling pre brotherhood pre style heavily abundant detail intense colours complex compositions greatly impressed morris set influenced john morris began spend time writing poetry style theirs jones influenced anglo catholic movement decided order found monastery live life dedication artistic pursuit akin contemporary movement time went morris increasingly critical anglican doctrine idea faded summer morris travelled belgium look medieval paintings july went jones northern france visiting medieval churches trip jones committed life art morris decision resulted strained relationship family believed entered commerce clergy subsequent visit birmingham morris discovered thomas arthur core text jones january set began publication oxford cambridge magazine designed contain mainly tales poetry friendly critiques social articles mainly funded morris briefly served editor heavily contributed stories poems reviews articles magazine lasted issues garnered praise pre marriage having passed finals awarded morris began oxford based neo gothic architect george street january focused architectural drawing placed supervision young architect philip close friend morris soon relocated street london office august moving flat central london jones area chosen avant garde associations morris fascinated london dismayed pollution rapid expansion neighbouring countryside describing spreading sore morris increasingly fascinated depictions rural life appeared paintings pre spent large sums money purchasing artworks jones shared interest took apprentice foremost pre painters soon close friends morris came associate poet robert artists arthur hughes thomas ford brown tired architecture morris abandoned painting instead chose pre style morris aided jones painting murals oxford union contributions widely deemed inferior compared recommendation morris jones moved flat red lion square november morris designed commissioned furniture flat medieval style painted scenes direct rejection mainstream artistic tastes morris continued writing poetry began designing illuminated manuscripts march bell published book morris poems defence largely self funded author sell garnered reviews morris publish years october morris met jane burden woman poor working class background theatre performance asked model entered relationship engaged spring burden later admit loved morris married low key ceremony held michael north gate church oxford april belgium settling temporarily great street london career fame red house firm morris desired new home wife resulting construction red house hamlet near miles central london building design operative effort morris focusing interiors exterior designed house represented commission independent architect named red bricks red tiles constructed red house rejected architectural norms shaped influenced forms contemporary neo gothic architecture house unique morris describing spirit situated orchard house garden linked design took year construct cost morris time fortune greatly reduced dramatic fall price shares jones described place earth construction morris invited friends visit notably jones wife wife aided painting murals furniture walls ceilings based tales war stories designed floral rooms spent time playing tricks enjoying games like hide seek singing accompanied piano stayed house summer autumn recovered traumatic addiction die february april morris founded decorative arts company morris marshall partners jones ford brown charles peter paul marshall operating premises red lion square referred firm intent adopting ideas reforming british attitudes production hoped decoration fine arts adopted anti additional staff employed boys industrial home boys central london trained working neo gothic school design differed neo gothic architects like gilbert scott simply included certain gothic features modern styles building instead sought return completely medieval gothic methods products created firm included furniture architectural carving stained glass windows murals stained glass windows proved particular success firm early years high demand surge neo gothic construction refurbishment churches commissioned architect george frederick despite morris anti firm soon increasingly popular fashionable particularly following exhibit international exhibition south received press attention medals faced opposition established design companies particularly belonging neo classical school morris slowly abandoning painting recognising work lacked sense movement paintings dated later instead focused energies designing patterns designed designs produced created firm morris supervision morris retained active interest groups joining club society corps artist volunteers contrast later morris family continued grow january morris daughter born named jane alice morris commonly known followed march birth second daughter mary morris morris caring father daughters years later recounted having problems morris marriage increasingly close painted unknown affair sexual point members group noticing imagining creation artistic community morris helped develop plans second house constructed adjacent red house jones live family plans abandoned jones son philip died scarlet fever morris increasingly tired life red house particularly unhappy hours spent london workplace daily basis sold red house autumn moved family queen square building firm moved base operations earlier summer queen square paradise queen square morris family lived flat directly firm shop joined sister burton number household servants changes firm left replace employed business manager taylor remain till taylor pulled firm finances order spent time controlling morris ensuring worked schedule years firm carried number high profile designs september january room james palace year designing green dining room south museum morris room victoria albert museum firm work received increasing interest people united_states resulting morris acquaintance henry james charles despite success firm turning large net profit coupled decreasing value morris stocks meant decrease spending relationship continued late 1860s gossip affair spread london regularly seen spending time morris biographer argued likely morris learned accepted existence affair year developed friendship daughter wealthy greek refugees evidence affair morris relationship mother improved regularly wife children visit house went holidays summer taylor toured churches northern france august morris joined jones family holiday august families oxford august suffolk summer morris took wife bad central germany hoped local health waters aid enjoyed walks countryside focused writing poetry morris continued devote time writing poetry bell published morris epic poem life death jason expense book retelling ancient greek myth hero jason quest find golden contrast morris publication life death jason received resulting publishers paying morris fee second edition morris worked epic poem paradise designed homage consisted stories adopted array different cultures different narrator set late 14th century synopsis revolved group flee black death sailing away europe way discovering island inhabitants continue ancient greek gods published parts soon gained cult following established morris reputation major poet manor iceland morris public figure britain resulting repeated press requests photographs despised year reluctantly agreed sit portrait establishment painter george morris interested literature having befriended theologian produced prose translations publication english morris developed keen interest creating hand written illuminated manuscripts producing books book verse completed birthday present jones copies tales black bold morris deemed art form taught roman script learning produce letters november published love poetic drama based story medieval welsh text illustrated jones popular success begun work novel set present novel blue paper love triangle remain unfinished morris later asserted written early summer morris began search house outside london children spend time away city pollution settled manor village obtaining joint building june morris building constructed circa spend time local countryside conversely unhappy eventually suffered mental breakdown morris divided time london spend days time fed family home queen square deciding obtain new house london retaining personal bedroom study queen square relocated family house green road west london january allowed far closer home jones duo meeting sunday morning rest morris life leaving jane children july morris left iceland evans sailing scottish port aboard danish mail boat proceeded island islands arriving disembarked met president morris sympathetic independence movement proceeded horse south coast departed britain september april morris jones italy visiting florence generally country morris interested gothic architecture soon july morris returned iceland sites previously seen proceeding north visits country profoundly influenced particular growing leftist opinions comment trips realise grinding poverty evil compared inequality classes morris jones spent time firm patrons wealthy george howard 9th earl wife medieval home castle cumberland july morris family took jones children holiday belgium point morris friendship seriously eroded july falling led leave morris publisher taking place company partners drifting work projects morris decided consolidate control firm sole proprietor manager march paid compensation brown marshall partners waived claims financial compensation month firm officially disbanded replaced morris jones continue produce designs future accomplished resigned devon great selling remaining shares company textile experimentation political embrace complete control firm morris took increased interest process textile entered operative agreement thomas silk operated works result morris spend time home occasions summer spring deeming colours inferior quality morris rejected chemical predominant instead revival organic blue shells roots brown red living working industrial environment gained personal understanding production lives disgusted poor living conditions workers pollution caused industry factors greatly influenced political views learning skills late 1870s morris turned attention weaving experimenting silk weaving queen square spring firm opened store oxford street obtained new staff able improve result sales increased popularity grew morris household having popular britain upper middle classes firm obtaining increasing numbers commissions wealthy provincial morris parts james palace chapel hall result growing sympathy working classes poor morris felt personally conflicted serving interests individuals privately describing luxury rich continuing literary output morris translated version translations available produced trained morris claimed unique perspective poet continued producing translations tales including northern love stories saga morris approached oxford_university offered largely honorary position professor poetry declined asserting felt knowing little scholarship theory poetry summer morris diagnosed refusing allow common period morris insisted cared family took italy suffered seizure morris rushing country proceeded visit number cities including venice morris attaining greater appreciation country previous trip april morris moved family home time renting 18th century mansion upper mall west london owned novelist george morris house according taste house grounds set workshop focusing production hand excited homes course river_thames august family took boat trip river house manor morris politically active period coming associated current british joined eastern question association appointed group treasurer november founded associated centre left liberal party opposed prime minister benjamin alliance ottoman_empire association highlighted ottoman massacre feared alliance lead join ottomans going war russian_empire morris took active role campaign lyrics song wake london sung rally military intervention morris eventually disillusioned describing little personalities joined predominantly working class activists national liberal league treasurer summer group remained small politically ineffective morris resigning treasurer late shortly group collapse discontent british liberal movement grew following election liberal party william morris particularly angered government reverse regime occupation introduced bill oversaw bombardment alexandria morris later related believed real progress lines ordinary middle class following election came realise wrong line sic fact middle classes control rich morris visited church appalled restoration conducted old mentor street recognised programs architectural restoration led destruction major alteration genuinely old features order replace old features appalled combat increasing trend restoration march founded society protection ancient buildings personally referred anti adopting role honorary secretary treasurer early members friends group program rooted seven lamps architecture campaign morris tried build connections art antiquarian societies old buildings contacted press highlight cause particularly strong denouncing ongoing restoration abbey denouncing architects responsible deeply upset street turning attention abroad autumn morris launched campaign protect mark venice restoration garnering petition signatures later life abbey democratic federation summer morris took lease seven acre silk weaving factory abbey mills southwest london moving workshops site premises weaving creating stained glass years employed working conditions abbey better victorian factories despite morris ideals little opportunity workers display individual creativity morris initiated system profit sharing firm upper include majority workers instead employed basis morris aware retaining division employer employed company failed live ideals defended asserting impossible run socialist company competitive capitalist economy firm expanding opening store manchester holding stand year foreign fair boston relationship continued correspondence occasional visits found extremely paranoid upset addiction saw died april following year morris described mixed feelings deceased friend stating greatest qualities genius great man arrogant marred work killed time august introduced poet blunt embarked second affair morris aware january morris involved establishment radical union radical working class groups hoped rival liberals member executive committee soon rejected liberal completely moved socialism period british socialism small fledgling defined movement adherents britain socialist party democratic federation founded henry socio political ideology morris joining january morris began read subject socialism including henry george progress poverty alfred wallace land das admitted economic analysis capitalism gave confusion brain instead preferred writings william read critique socialism produced john stuart mill morris appointed executive soon elected position treasurer socialist cause regularly meetings britain hoping gain converts regularly criticised mainstream press november invited speak university college oxford subject democracy art began socialism shocked embarrassed members staff earning national press coverage members travelled lancashire february amid great cotton strike socialism following month marched central london demonstration commemorating anniversary death thirteenth anniversary paris morris aided artistic literary talents designed group membership card helped author manifesto socialism plain demanded improved housing workers free compulsory education children free school meals hour working day abolition national debt land banks railways organisation agriculture industry state control operative principles comrades found difficult reconcile socialist values position proprietor firm widely admired man integrity began publishing weekly newspaper justice soon faced financial losses morris covered morris regularly contributed articles newspaper contributor george bernard socialist activism time forcing abandon translation persian led seeing far jones strong political differences republican jones increasingly conservative felt exploiting morris talents influence morris devoted time trying convert friends cause morris circle artistic comrades fully embraced socialism expressed sympathy renamed social democratic federation underwent internal reorganisation group facing internal argued parliamentary path socialism like morris deemed houses parliament corrupt capitalist personal issues morris exacerbated attitude british foreign policy morris anti expressed patriotic sentiment encouraging foreign intervention division groups developed open conflict majority activists sharing morris position december morris supporters notably edward left major british socialist movement socialist league december morris founded socialist league composed manifesto describing position revolutionary international socialism advocating world revolution rejecting concept socialism country committed making organising establish strong socialist movement calling activists boycott elections hoped revolution help establish socialist society taught morris introduced collaborator friedrich thought morris honest lacking practical skills aid revolution morris remained contact sectors london far left community regular socialist international club east london avoided recently created society deeming middle class befriended prominent activists peter came influenced views extent biographer described approach visionary leading figure league morris embarked series speeches talks street corners working men clubs lecture theatres england scotland visited dublin offering support irish nationalism formed branch league house time conference july league branches england socialist groups scotland british socialist movement grew faced increased opposition establishment police frequently arresting intimidating activists combat league joined defence club socialist groups including morris appointed treasurer morris passionate denouncing bullying felt faced police occasion arrested fighting police officer magistrate dismissed charges black monday riots february led increased political repression left wing july morris arrested fined public preaching socialism streets morris oversaw production league monthly soon weekly newspaper serving editor years time kept financially afloat published february contain contributions prominent paul morris regularly writing articles poems episode poem pilgrims hope set period paris november january morris novel dream john ball set kent peasants revolt contained strong socialist themes proved popular different ideological viewpoints resulting publication book form turner shortly collection morris essays signs change published january october morris novel news resulting improved circulation paper march published book form translated french italian german classic europe socialist community combining socialism soft science fiction book tells tale contemporary socialist william guest falls asleep mid-20th century discovering future society based common ownership democratic control means production society private property big cities authority monetary system divorce courts prisons class systems depiction morris ideal socialist society morris continued translation work april turner published volume morris translation homer odyssey second following november new territory morris authored starred play tables turned awakened performed league meeting november told story trial corrupt judge tale ends prisoners freed revolution june morris traveled paris league delegate international socialist working men congress international standing recognised chosen english spokesman congress committee second international emerged congress morris distraught chaotic proceedings league fourth conference divisions increasingly apparent morris anti parliamentary parliamentary branch expelled supporting parliamentary action leadership charles league wing growing called league embrace violent action trying overthrow capitalist system autumn taken league executive committee morris stripped favour frank alienated morris league financial burden activities year large sum money time autumn morris left socialist league branch independent socialist society november press morris final years work morris continued morris final years producing array stained glass windows designed jones narrative panels depicting quest holy hall morris influence britain artistic community increasingly apparent art workers guild founded time preoccupied socialist activism pay attention proposal faced opposition morris elected guild elected position master morris similarly offer initial support arts crafts exhibition society changed opinion success exhibit held street october giving lectures group elected president time morris focused campaigning causes championed including preservation mary church oxford church suffolk cathedral cathedral socialist activism decreased remained involved socialist society october oversaw creation short lived newsletter socialist record coming oppose socialist movement sought rebuild relationship appearing guest lecturer events supporting candidate george stood election february socialist society founded joint committee socialist bodies representatives society morris helped draw manifesto english offered support far left activists trial including number militant violent tactics denounced began term communism time stating communism fact completion socialism militant triumphant communism december gave final open air talk funeral spoke alongside prominent far left activists eleanor liberated internal struggles retracted anti parliamentary position worked socialist unity giving public lecture january subject socialist party december press published morris house fantasy story set iron age europe provides reconstructed portrait lives speaking gothic tribes contained prose aspects poetic verse sequel roots mountains followed coming years publish number fantasy novels story plain wood world child christopher fair world end water isles flood embarked translation anglo saxon tale fully understand old english poetic translation based largely produced alfred john publication morris critically panned following death sitting poet great_britain ireland alfred lord october morris offered position turned associations monarchy political establishment instead position went alfred austin january morris began renting cottage near house upper mall serve premises press relocating neighbouring month company founded devoted production books deemed beautiful morris influenced illustrated manuscripts early printed books medieval early modern europe publishing work morris ensured mastered techniques printing secured supplies hand paper necessary production seven years publish volumes morris novels story plain published soon sold press publish morris books author press published editions works copies medieval texts number press books contained illustrations provided jones press taken years complete included illustrations jones morris remained firmly employer relation working press organised paid average wages early 1890s morris increasingly ill living largely invalid aside exhibited signs august took daughter tour northern france visit medieval churches england spent increasing time manor seeking treatment prominent doctor william prescribed holiday coastal town december devastated learning mother death years old july went cruise norway construction engineer john visited trondheim trip physical condition deteriorated began experiencing returning house complete invalid visited friends family dying tuberculosis morning october appearing national press reflected time morris widely recognised primarily poet mainstream press dismissed involvement socialism socialist press focused largely aspect career funeral held october corpse carried rail station transported oxford buried churchyard george church personal life morris biographer thompson described having robust bearing slight roll walk alongside rough beard hair author henry james described morris short unfinished dress loud voice nervous restless manner perfectly unaffected address talk wonderfully point remarkable clear good sense morris biographer described typical englishman typical middle class albeit transformed individual force genius described morris lifestyle late victorian mildly bohemian commenting exhibited traits victorian class honest fair minded lights generally disliked children morris exhibited strong sense responsibility family thought interested things people lasting friendships deep affections allow people penetrate central politically morris staunch revolutionary socialist anti raised christian came identify non religious came reject state socialism large centralized control instead administration socialist society later political activist wall suggested morris classified morris greatly influenced thompson asserting bred bones formed early consciousness thompson argued romantic revolt passionate protest social reality industrial capitalism britain victorian era believed led little nostalgia sweet complaint morris revolutionary adopted socialism opinion morris innate socialism penetrated dominated life given conflict personal professional life socio political views described morris conservative radical morris behaviour erratic nervous disposition life relied networks male friends aid dealing morris friends nicknamed character uncle tom cabin wild temper sufficiently enraged suffer known morris intention trying amusement friends biographer suggests morris suffered form syndrome exhibited symptoms later life suffered common complaint middle class males victorian period morris houses know useful believe beautiful held view work pleasure worth adopted personal motto fifteenth century flemish painter jan van work literature william morris prolific writer poetry fiction essays translations ancient medieval texts poems published years old final novel flood time death daughter edition morris collected works runs volumes published morris began publishing poetry short stories oxford cambridge magazine founded friends financed university volume defence poems book pre poetry published dark poems set world violence received critics discouraged publishing number years floods poems collection probably better known poems realistic piece set years war doomed lovers robert parting convincingly portrayed rain swept countryside early minor poem masters hall christmas carol written old french tune christmas themed poem snow street adapted land east sun west moon paradise morris met began learn language morris published translations saga worm tongue saga story additional volume published title northern love stories years life morris wrote series imaginative usually referred prose novels including wood world world end credited important history fantasy fiction writers wrote foreign lands dream worlds future morris news morris works set entirely invented fantasy world attempts revive genre medieval romance written imitation medieval prose morris prose style novels praised edward james described lyrical fantasies english language hand camp considered morris fantasies wholly successful partly morris literary techniques later eras particular camp argued plots novels heavily driven coincidence things happened novels weakened dependence large field fantasy sprung romance genre indirectly writers imitation william morris early fantasy writers like lord james branch familiar morris wood world considered heavily influenced lewis series inspired morris early life house roots mountains young attempted retelling story style house considered literary work inspired early reading morris suggesting unable better morris work names characters horse appear world end sir henry medieval novel influenced morris fantasies james drew inspiration work textile design lifetime morris produced items range crafts mainly including designs wall paper stained glass windows borders press emphasised idea design production item divorced possible creating items designer designing manufacturing goods field textile design morris revived number dead techniques insisted use good quality raw materials natural hand processing observed natural world hand gain basis designs insisted learning techniques production prior producing design asserted morris manufacturer wished money wished things manufactured morris designs fashionable britain upper middle classes biographer asserting safe choice intellectual classes exercise political company unique selling point range different items produced artistic control production emphasised likely morris preference medieval formed brief street street written book ecclesiastical staunch advocate abandoning work canvas favour expressive techniques based surface technique popular medieval england fond hand persian advised south museum acquisition fine morris taught working wool frame custom built old example mastered technique trained wife jane sister burden execute designs specifications kinds offered morris marshall church remained important line business successor companies twentieth century 1870s firm offering patterns finished works following street footsteps morris active growing movement return originality mastery technique designers associated royal school art aim restore ornamental secular purposes high place held decorative arts morris took practical art necessary manufacturing business spent time works mastering processes art making experiments revival old discovery new methods result experiments practical industry generally renew use vegetable red derived driven use necessary preliminary heart production woven printed highest excellence period work followed period absorbed production especially revival carpet weaving fine art morris patterns woven machine ordinary commercial conditions included intricate double woven sets create complex colour texture morris long dreamed weaving medieval manner called weaving arts september finished solo effort small piece called vine legacy president william morris society referred morris outstanding figures nineteenth century termed single important figure british textile production time morris death poetry known internationally company products found world lifetime best known poet late twentieth century primarily known designer major contributor revival traditional british textile arts methods production morris production influence aspect morris desire protect natural world pollution causing historians green movement regard morris important forerunner modern commissioned produce biography morris published morris death wishes presented creation morris greatest achievement morris biographer jones son law john william authored volume life william morris provided sympathetic portrayal morris largely omitted political activities treating passing phase morris overcame biography william morris life time published paperback edition published venice artist selected morris subject large scale mural titled sit amidst gold morris returns dead yacht russian roman waves ocean anarchy beauty exhibition commemoration morris legacy national portrait gallery recruited artists required undertake test morris news accepted writing guardian prior opening exhibition october asserted morris exerted powerful influence thinking art design past century constant conscience combat luxury waste drove revolutionary activism anger shame society burned guilt fact good fortune allowed live beautiful surroundings pursue work anarchy beauty arts crafts section featured morris copy french edition das gold leather binding describes ultimate example morris conviction design available notable collections house museums number galleries museums house important collections morris work decorative items commissioned morris william morris gallery england public museum devoted morris life work influence william morris society based morris final london home house international members society museum venue lectures morris related events art gallery south_australia fortunate holding comprehensive collection morris outside britain collection includes books drawings sketches furniture stained glass forms focus published works produced accompany special exhibitions green dining room victoria albert museum morris room british galleries house decorative works morris associates meeting rooms oxford union decorated style named morris room manor west england notable example morris style original morris morgan tiles pre works art managed national trust west sussex england designed decorated morris illustrator edward chose london family home terrace morris preserved seen today morris homes red house manor preserved red house acquired national trust open public manor owned society london open public library art collections botanical gardens san california acquired collection morris materials amassed helen collection includes stained glass drawings books original complete archives morris marshall morris materials formed foundation exhibition william morris creating useful beautiful exhibition beauty life william morris art design accompanying publication greater london council blue plaque red house commemorates morris architect philip terrace home sir walker close friend colleague morris house decorated arts crafts style including extensive collections morris furniture terrace operated walker trust open public tours graphic arts collection rochester institute technology bought william morris london built cope improved press auction printing press specially reinforced produce morris owners morris press include ben literary works collected poetry fiction essays hollow land defence poems life death jason paradise love freeing morality story fall hopes fears art pilgrims hope dream john ball signs change tale house mark written prose verse roots mountains poems way news rest story plain wood world child christopher fair world end water isles flood published posthumously king lesson world romance chants golden wings stories translations saga story strong saga worm tongue saga story certain songs elder saga northern love stories tales odyssey homer english verse english king fair tale old english tongue old french english published lectures papers lectures art delivered support society protection ancient buildings morris lecture lesser arts london architecture history westminster abbey papers read printed press london communism lecture london society gallery morris stained glass stained glass morris press press


fortifications fortifications series defensive walls surround capital city malta city founded 8th century later roman empire ancient city surrounded walls remains survived city walls rebuilt number times including byzantine_empire 8th century arabs 11th century kingdom sicily medieval period 15th century extant fortifications built order saint john 16th 18th centuries city number defeated twice rebels today city walls intact best preserved fortifications malta malta tentative list world heritage sites roman walls city occupies tip plateau located high ground northern island malta far away sea site inhabited bronze age place refuge naturally malta 8th century founded city plateau taken roman republic known roman city times size present day extending large modern walls thickness surrounded ditch little remains roman walls survive remains city gate tower discovered modern current street level parts ditch survived present day street church paul lower foundations roman consisting blocks courses high found near magazine curtain western remains ancient walls roman masonry blocks reused medieval period include wall greeks gate stones discovered excavations street palace medieval walls point following fall western roman empire built city reducing present size city perimeter easily similar reductions city sizes common mediterranean region early middle ages traditionally assumed built arabs suggested actually built byzantine_empire 8th century threat arabs increased captured inhabitants demolished fortress according chronicler account mentions malta remained muslim community slaves built settlement called site archaeological evidence suggests city thriving muslim settlement beginning 11th century date city officially founded walls constructed byzantines besieged repelled defenders surrendered peacefully roger sicily short siege malta subsequently incorporated county later kingdom sicily dominated succession feudal lords fortifications rebuilt modified number times following centuries castle known built southeast corner city near main entrance probably site earlier byzantine fort city siege invaders 15th century system double walls land flanked towers near greeks gate centre land known near main entrance camera southeast corner city built near main entrance fears ottoman attack efforts improve walls main ditch completed partially demolished royal licence state excessive cost cannons introduced extensive preparations attack fortifications improved direction military engineers point buildings demolished clear fortifications line fire fortifications modernized construction walls regarded obsolete lacked resist bombardment modern artillery medieval walls gradually dismantled city fortifications upgraded significant visible remnants medieval fortifications greeks gate surrounding curtain walls retains medieval form apart outer portal built 18th century parts double walls including remains gun loops stand gate northern eastern walls date medieval period sections rebuilt northern contain medieval wall tower remains byzantine foundations late 15th century artillery platform found eastern walls walls order saint john took malta nobles handed keys city grand master isle adam order settled lost status capital city isle adam converted remaining palace meeting place civil administrative council known major upgrade fortifications occurred juan new built land possibly designs military engineer parts eastern walls rebuilt instance style found malta 15th century main gate demolished line fire newly built year city brief ottoman attack attacked directly great siege malta nonetheless played crucial role siege ottoman general wanted poorly defended city overruled wanted attack fort saint fort taken month heavy fighting ottomans lost crucial time august order cavalry attacked unprotected ottoman field hospital led invaders abandoning major assault main fortifications ottomans tried city september winter abandoned plans fired cannon leading believe city ammunition spare siege military engineer drew plans reduce size half turning fortress implemented protests city nobles city main gate reconstructed early 17th century major alterations large built centre land despite modifications proposals abandon demolish entire fortress state disrepair plans opposed locals late 17th century medieval double walls began sloping major restoration fortifications undertaken french military engineer charles isle adam palace including remaining parts demolished way main gate walled new city gate built baroque style baroque portal added greeks gate remaining medieval towers land demolished built site entire western walls city demolished way single curtain wall known magazine curtain modified addition traverse like batteries built land city protected construction including places arms plans strengthen fortifications implemented order focused building fortifications harbour area major addition fortifications reconstruction built reign june captured french forces resistance french invasion malta french garrison remained city uprising broke september year following day rebels entered city port garrison men events marked beginning year uprising blockade ended malta british fortifications remained use british period minor alterations installation gun 19th century end century city regarded forming defensive system victoria lines 1890s battery near peter demolished gateway known gate opened magazine curtain order facilitate access newly built railway station located nearby fortifications included list galleries ditch air raid shelters world war recent history sections medieval walls rediscovered stephen mario surveying plans undertake major restoration walls project included restoration fortifications case main focus consolidate terrain city built blue clay plateau prone euro restoration partially financed european regional development fund works began early restoration unit process restoration documented steel rods inserted order prevent walls slipping clay slopes ditch inaugurated public garden march financed work completed late restoration later restored parts fortifications including northern walls peter area greeks gate project fully completed early course restoration number archaeological discoveries excavations eastern city walls unearthed byzantine base late 15th century artillery platform remains foundations roman walls found excavations magazine curtain late 14th century stone block bearing coat arms possibly originating discovered restoration block displayed fortifications interpretation centre layout present configuration fortifications consists irregular perimeter curtain walls number northern western eastern walls built perimeter natural plateau difficult attack southern perimeter city built level ground border realistic direction assault city known land southern perimeter contains shaped rectangular large centre peter known greeks gate built juan built martin known paul del built juan defended gates city gate greeks gate located curtain walls land remains medieval double walls 18th century located city walls land surrounded deep ditch traverse like battery located eastern eastern walls city consist built century parts walls date medieval period built walls northeastern corner city northern walls retain medieval form modifications contain surviving tower city walls mary built 16th century northwest corner city linked peter magazine curtain long curtain wall built western city gate built british 19th century located curtain wall

Fortifications and military installations


citadel old town city croatia best preserved largest ensemble baroque buildings croatia consists star fort built right bank river described world monuments fund unique example eighteenth century baroque military administrative commercial urban center star fort constructed immediate vicinity medieval defeat ottoman forces strategic importance constructed starting plans von planned gates complete inner town finished northern added complete largest advanced fortress border ottoman_empire consisting featuring depots garrison headquarters military court construction office garrison physician officers apartments military hospital seven barracks completed fort entirely surrounded walls main gates north south east west street lights site public water supply croatia opened military importance decreased berlin congress increasing stability surrounding region fort walls fortifications destroyed 1920s obstacle presented development fortifications largely removed fort interior core remains intact home churches museums schools public buildings numerous bars restaurants fortification system northern walls remain intact parts eighth northern gate known water gate sustained significant damage croatian war independence 1990s featured world monuments watch list endangered sites features croatia tentative list consideration nominee world heritage site history medieval ottoman eras new appeared center medieval banks river stands town trade port settlement early 12th century position way southwards site home church holy trinity ruled ottomans change layout settlement substantial way introduced islamic places worship giving area oriental appearance traces medieval ottoman towns remain day including remnant old ottoman fortress wall known today turkish wall fort lying access road ottoman period internationally known bridge construction bridge begun august following orders magnificent bridge connected took form wooden road piers approximately kilometres long metres wide seen great threat christian europe bridge attacked times destroyed set fire orders croatian feudal lord nicholas vii croatian vii hungarian vii bridge rebuilt rule finally burned armies design construction layout late 17th century development military settlement started armies drove ottomans city great turkish war chief commander imperial army louis william saw location exceptional strategic importance war ottomans urged repair city walls proposed construction new fort according principles military engineering town magistrate established plans new fort drawn documents august year described condition settlement months later october ottoman army suddenly attacked attack repulsed thanks organised defense turks withdrew november brief siege event clear lesson construction fort delayed phase conversion baroque fortress based plan devised engineer von second layout 18th century original plan drafted need reinforce town walls include provisions redesign interior envisaged largely development new plans fort right bank river drawn took planning fort construction way starting august austrian engineers supervised fort commander general von built barracks staff headquarters churches monasteries surrounded system gun positions design design followed model lowland dutch military fortifications period planned gates complete additional western gate leading upper town added construction opposite bank river designed offer protection north serve completed final fourth gate leading lower town added construction inner town completed additional northern completed post office fort construction office hospital completed fort major depots garrison headquarters military court construction office garrison physician officer apartments military hospital seven barracks based ring model fortifications took area hectares acres making largest fortress border ottoman_empire plan left space churches built stood initially converted churches started build baroque church consecrated monastery built new wing added subsequently new monastery commenced construction parish church michael croatian following construction monastery church use despite incomplete holy trinity column erected fort main square plague monument featuring plague placed additional added monument featuring statue saint street lighting early system supply public water croatia opened century reportedly estimated account fort buildings crown prince joseph stayed visiting joseph decreed merger upper town lower town single town council 19th 20th century early second half 18th century little new constructions taking place maintenance fort burden granted free royal town status council accommodated building south eastern corner main square military importance decreased berlin congress result increasing political military stability region north western demolished 1870s making way park croatian construction royal grammar school started royal general secondary school completed episcopal seminary built south western corner main square buildings erected walls decades 19th century grew city fort presence hindered potential urban development demolition fort walls happened construction electric gunpowder magazine located church michael demolished fortifications demolished eighth northern wall called water gate kept center remains intact yugoslav people army maintained garrison military hospital 1980s buildings gradually abandoned adapted local painters fort sustained considerable damage croatian war independence lasted war brought structural damage collapsing roofs walls floors damages threaten plaster sculpture murals lack proper protection subject continuing decay present day fortress military importance decreased end 19th century center administrative educational cultural scholarly life entire region school organized scholarly curriculum introduced later expanded renewed printing press started working significance educational institutions best fact croatian nobel prize serbian scientist cycles alumni graduates schools faculty agriculture university occupied general headquarters previous site destroyed croatian war independence faculty food technology relocated building served military hospital century beginning 1990s present day educational institutions include iii gymnasium music school roman catholic seminary jesuit classical gymnasium logistics barracks built century secondary school economics grammar school girls according census city district inhabitants living households fort interior centre numerous bars restaurants fort hosts museum largest general type museum croatia located town museum archives building today houses state monument protection department croatian ministry culture patron saint saint michael feast day september celebrated day city district heritage status seen european towns found identical development existing urban nucleus turned fortification similar town planning solution world monuments fund described unique example eighteenth century baroque military administrative commercial urban center croatia tentative list consideration nominee world heritage site conflict croatia cent buildings damaged extent fort featured world monuments watch list endangered sites appeared list published years building general headquarters dating ground plan fortress depicted reverse croatian issued agency restoration croatian established stated goals protection restoration restoration process aims preserve architectural historical aesthetic qualities accordance restoration principles set international council monuments sites maintaining character international cooperation envisioned particular council europe agency jointly funded government croatia county city


southampton town walls southampton town walls sequence defensive structures built town southern england earlier roman anglo saxon settlements southampton fortified walls ditches later walls originate town current site 10th century new town defended banks ditches natural curve river coastline built castle southampton attempts improve wider defences town early 13th century southampton growing prosperity trading centre conflict france encouraged construction number stone walls north east sides settlement southampton raided french forces town defences proved inadequate particularly west south city edward iii ordered immediate improvements southampton town walls substantial work began coming decades town entirely enclosed mile long stone wall towers gates advent gunpowder weapons southampton towns england install new technology existing fortifications build new towers specifically house cannon southampton town walls remained important defensive feature 15th century important civic facilities including acting town housing town end 17th century importance steadily declined walls slowly demolished adapted uses 18th 19th centuries process continued early 20th century post war years walls recognised important historical feature southampton conservation projects occurred walls promoted tourist attraction history 1st 10th centuries earlier settlements built near modern southampton featuring protective town walls following roman conquest britain fortress settlement established important trading port defensive outpost town winchester located site manor today suburb modern southampton defended eastern flint stone wall ditches fall roman empire 7th 8th centuries anglo built planned settlement called close current location southampton approximately location later mary church parts town ditch dug feet wide feet deep possibly defended bank earth 10th century viking raids prompted settlement southampton current location 11th 13th centuries time conquered england town southampton occupied rectangular area overlooking mouth river test important medieval protected water sides protective ditches banks north east southampton time relatively large town significant later medieval period built castle town site probable large english hall considerable damage caused surrounding local buildings space opened new fortification years anarchy empress stephen fought control england southampton held william bishop winchester supporter stephen henry_ii came throne took southampton carried improvements castle attempt improve general standard security south second half 12th century southampton increasingly important coastal defence base operations continent following threat french invasion henry_ii invested modest additional resources castle efforts undertaken improve town ditches banks 12th century southampton important trading port trade routes normandy levant town castle played important role trade forming warehouse king imports process managed crown castle hall turned subterranean vault 13th century probably storing wine stone houses combining accommodation storage facilities began built southampton wealthiest merchants particularly prosperous western southern parts town properties easily defended attack english channel contested militarily england france 13th century southampton important base naval operations target raiders start 13th century additional work conducted improve town defences king granted help develop earth banks town east gate built probably stone grant given southampton edward allowing town tax selected imports build maintain new stone walls initial grants ran renewed end work earth banks north east town converted stone appears little interest defending west south probably hampered southampton merchants moved trading goods town 14th century southampton major port large provincial town population raising money grants began possibly paying stone towers semi circular wall towers work appears begun stone south west town construction begun south gate wooden constructed near western docks later investigations crown suggest raised grants contributing poor standard town defences included large gaps walled circuit successful french attack southampton town defences particularly west proved inadequate french succeeded burning numerous buildings particularly western damaging castle edward iii responded raid taking immediate steps shore southampton defences ordering town fully enclosed stone walls sheriff specialists improve defences money pay building materials raised prison sentence senior official southampton fine grants reinstated economy southampton temporarily devastated raids fully recovered king instructions fully town walls carried nonetheless southampton mounted siege engines existing walls king conducted inquiry southampton defences established wider commission examine best improve commission came number conclusions town walls better maintained kept clear housing number walls reduced water filled ditch built reinforce walls west concluded outer doors ground floor windows properties facing sea filled form line resulting work southampton defences resulted considerable improvements late 14th century town completely encircled miles stone walls existing buildings including reinforced pressed service defences south gate built protect southern wide complete building work proved expensive despite mayor enforcing contributions assistance citizens parliament asked times assist taxes owed southampton french successful attack portsmouth commencing new sequence raids english coast course edward richard responded improving defences south england involved improving condition southampton castle owing theft building materials including stone lead citizens town defences poor condition henry oversaw improvements castle probably constructed arcades western walls involved adopting proposal block properties western form solid wall adding towers sir john john appointed king improve town walls working sir john castle governor towers probably named men time major changes onwards adaptation town walls mount gunpowder weapons time cannon unreliable capable reaching relatively short ranges required construction specialist cannons fired stone relatively little damage stronger stone walls primarily defence fortifications offensive weapon britain installed isle southampton far ongoing french threat led built western arcade wall town bought gun god house tower built defend southern controlled level town equipped numerous rooftop firing points tower constructed designed accommodate gunpowder weapons change process guarding maintaining walls invasion scare edward instructed mayor review processes appears town surveyed property assigned piece wall maintain varying according size property purposes walls measured units called responsible security town 15th 16th centuries threat french attack continued 15th century instead relying grants funds town walls directly granted king including ongoing annual grant concerns increased significantly invasion scare french troops successfully attacked town sandwich south coast guns southampton walls fired french raiding ships year walls continued maintained rest century allocated annually purpose contrast castle fell rapid decline inner bailey rubbish tip small scale agriculture nonetheless report quality walls noted north east sides southampton walls thin block cannon shot man stand wood earth wall walk built walls proving expensive maintain contemporary assessment weakness eastern walls confirmed modern archaeological excavation places feet thick compared typical thickness english town walls feet survey undertaken background french invasion scare shows system maintaining walls operation town gunner appointed 15th century earning highest salary local official responsible maintaining guns manufacturing gunpowder late century additional improved rectangular similar device forts channel added west gate played important administration town 15th century south gate formed main administrative centre port period housing clerk king ships collecting customs revenue expanded poor condition resulting fresh construction work site partially prison 15th century similar fashion towns floor building town onwards treasury kept towers elaborate served special occasions 17th 20th centuries town walls important defence 17th century built inside wall help watch law officers better pursue criminals walls fared better southampton castle sold property played english civil war masonry castle reused strengthen town walls english civil war 18th century onwards town walls adapted new uses simply demolished early chapel east gate leased private tenants god house tower prison official town century progressed east gate demolished south gate demolished gate shortly large sections adjacent wall 19th century progressed destruction town walls continued upper stories tower demolished 1820s rebuilt shorter storey tower remains south gate turned hotel god house tower continued criticised report described old awkward facility containing dozen prisoners damp conditions hard separate male female prisoners appropriate fashion role concluded building fell areas civic improvements attempted steps built west walls access town easier parts arcades blocked prevent homeless people sleeping arches disturbing neighbourhood ceased heavily restored town felt consistent medieval style urban growth southampton english walled towns cities considerable pressure older fortifications example parts wall west gate including square tower demolished create western road second half century surrounding walls creating traffic congestion options considered relieve including demolition 1930s decision retain gatehouse destroy walls parts southampton walls mount second world war walls escaped damage unlike areas medieval city post war period historic importance town walls recognised considerable conservation work conducted walls including reversing victorian alterations arcades town walls seen important southampton tourist industry health safety concerns prohibit tourists walking circuit god house tower reopened opened southampton museum today walls protected grade listed buildings scheduled monument architecture half length mile long medieval town walls survives 21st century mainly north west sides southampton defensive towers gates towers combination circular square designs showing open design similar built north wales isolated rest walls removing small wooden bridges general town walls southampton poorly built somewhat chaotic fashion years contrast surviving sophisticated designed probably result civic importance historians oliver robert describe surviving walls extremely preserved containing unique british context south east corner walls god house tower important urban buildings built hold gunpowder artillery respect closely resembles cow tower tower built alongside god house gate storeys high designed seen outside roof designed hold larger cannon adjacent tower god house gate storey building equipped gun port little remains eastern walls north east corner towers remain largely intact including tower powerful drum tower largely reconstructed victorian period west originally simple expanded drum towers arrow slits early 14th century expanded early 15th century heavily restored 19th century remains elaborate building taking military symbolism combining rich civic decoration gateway north west corner walls stands tower large drum tower originally overlooked small cliff south tower tower designed defended guns need support cannon leaves heavier appearance circular towers walls remains machine gun fitted tower seen arcades form surviving west walls unique feature england closest architectural equivalent france west gate stands storeys high originally defended windows west gate original medieval designs south walls twin towers protecting south gate stands largely intact


big inch big inch little big inch collectively known inch petroleum extending texas new_jersey built emergency war measures world war petroleum products transported oil fields texas north eastern states oil tanker united_states entered war january vital link attacked german submarines operation threatening oil supplies north east onward great_britain secretary interior championed pipeline project way transporting petroleum secure interior route government financed owned built operated war emergency company non profit corporation backed consortium largest american oil companies longest biggest heaviest project type undertaken big little big inch miles long respectively pumping stations routes project required people short tons materials praised example private public sector cooperation featured extensively government propaganda end war extended arguments texas east transmission corporation purchased largest post war disposal war surplus property corporation converted transport natural gas transforming energy market north east little big inch returned carry oil owned energy partners enterprise products remain use background time united_states entered world war oil vital military operations world united_states produced percent world crude oil state texas south west leading production producing twice crude state industry comprised handful large producers smaller operators north east_coast united_states depended supplies oil crude refined products texas little interest building transport oil petroleum typically moved south west north east_coast mixture sea freight railroad transport early barrels oil moved railroads day method expensive bulk oil moved barges capacity barrels operating rivers atlantic coast outbreak war eastern sea routes country attacked german boat submarines united_states naval defence limited largely obsolete january april naval losses oil sunk damaged problem worse sent help earlier began refuse remaining vessels volume crude oil reaching north east texas gulf dropped response steps taken better protect attack losses continued mount april banned navy operating north east sea routes government industry took steps use railroads increasing oil carried fold shortages rail tank cars existing fleet cars poor condition instead united_states government began examine options use demand petroleum north east concept transporting petroleum pipeline south west north east potentially attractive option government safe submarine attack operate efficiently regardless weather use industry 1930s usually inches wide able deliver barrels oil day larger pipes built structural weaknesses operate regular pressures technologies build high pressure pipes sizes larger inches began emerge decade war adoption commercially viable concept constructing pipeline proposed secretary interior argued building crude oil pipeline texas east economically sound event emergency absolutely necessary consortium led standard oil forward bid build spring plan failed concerns steel required project appointed petroleum coordinator national defense december administrator petroleum administration war new laws passed enable building necessary war effort including compulsory purchasing land right eminent domain initial planning inch began meeting oil industry commissioned aerial survey possible route preliminary design ready september consortium major oil companies formed new company national defense build pipeline route government supply priorities allocation board refused approve necessary steel consortium plan dissolved shortly outbreak war outbreak fighting consequent deterioration sea routes transporting oil industry representatives met march produce new pipeline strategy called plan included construction inch backed slogan steel finally approved war production board june steel supplies agreed initial million funding provided government reconstruction finance corporation owned manage operation subsidiary organizations defense plants defense supplies corporations turn actual construction operation carried war emergency company non profit corporation backed consortium largest oil companies united_states atlantic cities service oil consolidated oil gulf oil pan american petroleum transportation standard oil associated oil shell oil vacuum oil sun oil texas pipe line company led jones hull extensive backgrounds industry oscar chief engineer company established offices little rock arkansas construction design management inch comprised systems big inch pipeline little big inch pipeline big inch inch pipeline crude oil ran east texas oil field texas city illinois pennsylvania branched inch diameter segments served new_york terminated new_jersey served philadelphia terminated chester junction pennsylvania little big inch largely parallel inch diameter line intended refined products ran texas little rock arkansas joined path big inch making use pumping stations ran right way big inch new_jersey pennsylvania pipeline project longest biggest heaviest kind world total big inch pipeline miles long miles secondary distribution lines pumping stations route approximately miles little big inch miles long miles secondary lines seven unique pumping stations southern leg charles directed engineering project work undertaken oscar little inch pipeline richardson meeting contractors build held start july project overall different companies pipeline work cost plus basis employing staff construction required government acquire permission build pipeline parcels land right eminent domain exercised cases major director petroleum administration war considered inch amazing government industry cooperation achieved soon given names big inch little big inch construction teams account unprecedented construction project extensively advertised government war time propaganda effort ran clips pipeline goes pipe dream comes true oil short films construction work including pipeline appeared film oil blood process big inch pipeline sections seamless steel pipe feet long inch thick pounds weight little big inch inch thick seamless steel electric pipe small inch thick seamless pipe total loads steel laid project big inch requiring short tons steel pipe laid trenches feet deep feet wide dug combination machines manual labor pipes cleaned pulling inside method roll firing line methods older method worked way pipes remained stationary newer roll approach instead rotated pipes allowing remain position worked seven pipes time necessary pipeline curve fit route steel pipes bent cold bending approach pull push position hot bending method pipe heated blow pulled place new specialized piece equipment bending pipes bending invented big inch build construction little big inch pipeline protect pipeline outside cleaned machine painted layer coal tar hot coal tar coating wrapped felt finally pipeline lowered position taking care damage ends pipes larger pipes heavy required tractor equipped counter weights lift trench filled completing process big inch pipeline pass rivers creeks lakes railroad highway intersections specially lined tunnels bored lay pipe roads railroad lines specialist trenches dug lay lakes weighing pipeline stop floating surface miles underwater laid total areas soft ground filled provide firm foundations pipeline rest pumping stations built parcels land acres acres size storage tanks acres acres big plain buildings initially steel supplies grew scarce wood instead short tons materials needed total project completion work inch began immediately establishment june built phases constructed big inch initial leg running interim terminal city oil loaded railroad network leg complete extended terminus big inch complete work began phase project little big inch purchase order short tons inch diameter pipe placed july meet construction deadline january laying pipe began august near little rock pipeline crews began work immediately segments arkansas texas september crews consisting men field working schedule called miles big inch pipeline laid day soon men laying miles day roughly cubic yards material excavated oil began flowing big inch line texas illinois new year eve work little big inch began crude oil arrived big inch august refined product little big inch arrived march big inch carried barrels crude oil day little big inch barrels gasoline lines largest industrial consumers electricity requiring million hours day pump oil pipes construction process recorded john post war sale end war considerable debate future major oil companies standard oil campaigned conversion transfer natural gas demand natural gas rising rapidly produced large quantities texas got market north east burnt atmosphere railroad coal companies saw likely introduce additional competition coal coal gas lower demand goods services argued smaller oil companies proposed continuing use oil order undermine transport larger corporations government inquiry undertaken determine future use took evidence presented case favored companies industry inquiry concluded sold continued use transporting petroleum auction announced designed preference intended use moving petroleum bids received highest cash companies hoping use natural gas assessing different bids proved difficult discussions national politics companies seeking support washington politicians threatened national coal strike raised concerns availability natural gas strengthening arguments natural gas lobby fresh inquiry declared november previous competition inch lines transferred war assets administration december disposal pending final decision sale lines leased tennessee gas company use shipping natural gas far ohio east months tennessee gas convert way new role simply pumped gas system pressure moving cubic feet gas day way second auction held bids natural gas given equal weight wishing transfer crude oil natural gas obliged maintain oil pumping stations use national emergency bids received february texas east transmission corporation declared successful bid disposal largest sale war surplus property private sector following world war conversion corporate lawyers charles francis james convinced construction specialists george brown fuel engineer buying big little inch lucrative opportunity corporation established specifically purposes bid came bidding figure estimating likely competition bid million figure exceeded percent added avoid round number believed afford offer intended reuse electric motors oil pumping mechanisms moving natural gas believed price gas rise considerably post war markets winning bidding raised money pay government combination bonds share issues government required sale allowed complicated reluctance state pennsylvania allow pump gas east territory government pennsylvania influenced coal industry feared lose sales eventually relented sale finally completed november value company original investors saw value holdings increase fold immediately began convert permanent use natural gas transmission lines direction chief engineer stations constructed pipeline increasing capacity system cubic feet gas day old oil pumps retained reuse future crisis steel replaced older reliable cast iron designs demand continued increase requiring additional capability january moving cubic feet day supply route undermined local markets manufactured gas major cities north east rapidly converted use natural gas historian david describes contributed extraordinary expansion natural gas customers gas company employees world war inch encouraged development long distance 1960s 1970s later use operation little big inch ownership south ohio transferred subsidiary texas eastern petroleum products corporation converted use petroleum products purchased enterprise products discussion converting big inch pipeline petroleum use continued use gas pipeline taken panhandle eastern corporation company merged duke power form duke energy corporation oil spun duke energy form energy partners inch listed national_register_of_historic_places western parts percent pipes original installation east large parts replaced largely absence anti protective original original buildings remain including pump houses offices employee houses best surviving examples original buildings pennsylvania big inch pipeline construction produced children toy company list pumping stations big inch northern little big inch station texas station atlanta texas station hope arkansas station arkansas station little rock arkansas station bald arkansas station egypt arkansas station missouri station missouri station gale illinois station creek illinois station city illinois station princeton indiana station french indiana station indiana station indiana station lebanon ohio station ohio station ohio station ohio station wind ridge pennsylvania station pennsylvania station pennsylvania station pennsylvania station pennsylvania station pennsylvania station new_jersey station new_jersey southern little big inch station texas station texas station newton texas station louisiana station texas station arkansas station arkansas


upper bunker forward bunker underground concrete structure originally intended temporary air raid shelter adolf_hitler guards servants located large reception hall added old berlin germany bunker officially called air raid shelter complex expanded addition located level january hitler moved joined senior staff including martin later joseph moved children took residence upper family lived deaths construction adolf_hitler decided expand considered small needs july submitted plans large reception hall ballroom built old drawings unique large cellar led half meters bunker later known roof meters thick twice thick bunker underneath nearby air ministry building thick walls supported weight reception hall overhead entry points north west south construction completed rooms branching single corridor built company extensive program subterranean construction berlin finished connected set right angles spiral staircase closed bulkhead steel door permanent guard detail posted steel door located metres beneath garden old meters north new building located meters lower west southwest accommodations hitler moved february decorated high quality furniture taken framed oil paintings events air raid drills berlin central government district included occurred autumn protocol drills stated carry air raid drills precise regulation required office buildings officials residents substitute shelters inhabitants chancellor house use shelter ballroom residents hitler servants unknown january hitler transferred headquarters berlin january influential private secretary martin remained end april military officers housed men hitler personal bodyguard april battle berlin joseph showed strong support hitler moving family occupied room recently vacated hitler personal physician rooms food supply hitler personal cook meals kitchen equipped wine store evening arranged children unconscious crushed mouths according later testimony gave children hitler personal doctor administered wife went stairs ground level emergency exit bombed garden different accounts followed according account shot wife account bit given coup immediately adjutant testified couple walked ahead stairs garden waited heard shots sound walked remaining stairs outside saw bodies couple following joseph prior order told soldier sure dead soldier fired body bodies petrol remains partially burned buried soviets picked radio message corps requesting cease fire stating come white flag bridge early morning soviets captured general artillery commander berlin defense area surrendered staff chief army general staff general hitler chief adjutant committed suicide gunshot head master electro mechanic bunker complex stayed committed suicide left field hospital needed power water surrendered red army entered bunker complex bodies children discovered found beds clear mark appeared faces post war events ruins buildings soviets effort destroy landmarks nazi_germany bunker complex largely survived areas partially flooded december soviets tried blow separation walls damaged east german government began series including bunker complex meters water pumped inside east germany conducted survey interior took external measurements near berlin wall site undeveloped neglected construction residential housing buildings site underground sections bunker complex uncovered work crews april east german government allowed visits site photo journalists water pumped days access underground led interior floor covered muddy having underwater years old wine bottles found floor kitchen wine store room present room kitchen broken frames beds children end hallway stairs leading men mid landing underwater ceiling doorway collapsed performed work crews removed destroyed bunker complex external walls structures torn construction buildings area complex strategy ensuring surroundings remained anonymous emergency exit point gardens occupied car park june lead world cup information board installed mark location bunker complex hitler bodyguard people living bunker complex time hitler suicide hand ceremony board including found corner den small streets minutes walk