max max german april june german philosopher political economist ideas profoundly influenced social theory social research cited founders key proponent arguing study social action purely means based understanding purpose meaning individuals attach actions unlike believe proposed outcome multiple causes main intellectual concern understanding processes associated rise capitalism saw result new way thinking world best known thesis combining economic religion elaborated book protestant ethic spirit capitalism proposed major associated rise western world market driven capitalism rational legal nation state argued basic boost capitalism said spirit capitalism inherent protestant religious values historical emphasised importance cultural influences embedded religion means understanding genesis capitalism protestant ethic formed earliest broader investigations world religion went examine religions china religions india ancient judaism particular regard differing economic consequences conditions social major work politics defined state entity successfully claims monopoly legitimate use physical force given territory social authority distinct forms labelled charismatic traditional rational legal analysis bureaucracy emphasised modern state institutions increasingly based rational legal authority variety contributions economic history economic theory analysis significantly influenced critical theory associated frankfurt school world war max founders liberal german democratic_party ran unsuccessfully seat parliament served advisor committee drafted ill fated democratic constitution contracting spanish flu died pneumonia aged biography early life family background born province prussia oldest seven children max wealthy prominent civil servant member national liberal party wife partly descended french immigrants held strong moral ideas involvement public life immersed home politics salon welcomed prominent scholars public figures young brother alfred economist intellectual atmosphere christmas presents parents thirteen years old historical essays entitled course german history special reference positions emperor pope roman imperial period constantine migration nations class bored unimpressed teachers turn resented perceived attitude secretly read volumes recently argued important influence thought entering university read classical works time significantly affected marital tension father man enjoyed pleasures mother devout sought lead life education enrolled university law student year military service transferred university berlin years student spent time drinking beer fencing increasingly mother family arguments grew estranged father simultaneously studies worked junior lawyer passed examination comparable bar association examination british american legal systems late 1880s continued study law history earned law doctorate writing legal history titled development principle joint liability separate fund public trading company household trade communities italian cities work longer work history trading companies middle ages based south european sources published year years later completed roman history significance public private law working august having joined university berlin faculty consulting government early work years completion took interest contemporary social policy joined new professional association german affiliated historical school saw role economics primarily finding solutions social problems age pioneered large scale statistical studies economic issues involved politics joining left leaning evangelical social congress established research program examine polish question influx polish farm workers eastern germany local labourers migrated germany rapidly cities charge study wrote large final report generated considerable attention controversy marked beginning renown social scientist member pan german league organization campaigned influx polish workers degree support poles similar nationalist policies debated modern scholars work particular provocative lecture nation state economic policy delivered immigration poles blames class slavic immigration serve selfish interests married distant cousin later feminist activist author right instrumental collecting publishing journal articles books death biography important source understanding life children usually acknowledged marriage marriage granted long awaited financial independence allowing finally leave parents household couple moved appointed professor economics university accepting position university central figure called circle composed intellectuals wife robert remained active evangelical social congress research period focused economics legal history max died months severe quarrel son resolved increasingly prone depression making difficult fulfill duties professor condition forced reduce teaching eventually leave course unfinished autumn spending months summer autumn wife travelled italy end year return april withdraw teaching return till ordeal mental illness carefully described personal chronology destroyed wife chronicle supposedly destroyed feared max work nazis experience mental illness widely known later work immense productivity early 1890s publish papers early late finally resigning late freed obligations year accepted position associate editor archives social science social welfare worked colleagues new interests lie fundamental issues social sciences works period primary interest modern scholars began publish seminal papers journal notably essay protestant ethic spirit capitalism famous work laid foundations later research impact cultures religions development economic systems essay works period published book lifetime works written half decades 20th century published posthumously dedicated primarily fields religion economic legal recognised important intellectual contributions visited united_states participated congress arts sciences held connection world fair louisiana purchase exposition louis monument visit placed home relatives visited north_carolina despite partial recovery evident america felt unable resume regular teaching time continued private scholar helped inheritance disappointed founded german association served treasurer resign tried organise left wing political party combine social democrats liberals attempt unsuccessful liberals feared social democratic revolutionary ideals political outbreak world war aged volunteered service appointed reserve officer charge organizing army hospitals role fulfilled end views war expansion german empire changed course conflict early supported nationalist rhetoric war effort viewed war necessity fulfill german duty leading state power time prominent critics german kaiser war policies publicly attacked belgian annexation policy submarine warfare later supported calls constitutional reform universal suffrage joined worker soldier council served german delegation paris peace conference advisor confidential committee constitutional reform drafted constitution motivated understanding american model advocated strong popularly elected presidency constitutional power professional bureaucracy defended provisions emergency presidential powers article constitution provisions later adolf_hitler rest constitution institute rule decree allowing regime suppress opposition gain powers ran unsuccessfully parliamentary seat member liberal german democratic_party founded opposed leftist german revolution ratification treaty versailles positions defied political germany time prevented friedrich new social democratic president germany appointing minister ambassador commanded widespread respect relatively little influence role german politics remains controversial day case critique left complained leaders leftist league led controlled city government berlin campaigning party german revolution thank fact send single division poles dirt horse play belongs gardens time critical versailles treaty believed assigned war guilt germany came world war believed countries guilty starting world war germany making case argued case war power desired circumstances according political goals required russia crossed mind german invasion belgium innocent act germans later month january party defeated election delivered greatest academic lectures politics reflection inherent violence found politicians profession recently personally active nature politicians concluded cases hot air touch reality feel burden need shoulder romantic years frustrated politics resumed teaching time university vienna university munich lectures period collected major works general economic history science politics munich headed german university institute held position colleagues students munich attacked response german revolution right wing students held protests home max contracted spanish flu died pneumonia munich june time death finished writing theory economy society widow helped prepare publication max thought max bureaucratic theory model known legal rational model model tries explain bureaucracy rational point view main characteristics principles follows max bureaucratic model legal rational model wrote modern bureaucracy public private sector relies following principles based general principle precisely defined organized board offices rules laws administrative regulations means rigid division labor established clearly identifies regular tasks duties particular bureaucratic system firmly established chains command duties capacity comply described regulation regular continuous execution assigned duties undertaken hiring people particular qualifications certified notes aspects constitute essence bureaucratic administration public sector private sector aspects constitute essence bureaucratic management private company main principles characteristics specialized roles recruitment based merit tested open competition uniform principles placement promotion transfer administrative system systematic salary structure hierarchy responsibility official conduct strict rules discipline control supremacy abstract rules authority office bearer bring office political neutrality merits max noted real bureaucracy optimal effective ideal type model principles utilized analyze individual level organization implemented group setting organization form efficiency effectiveness achieved especially regards better output especially true bureaucratic model emphasizes qualification merits job scope labour hierarchy power rules discipline efficiency effectiveness unclear contradictory especially dealing matters bureaucracy distributing job scope worker having day rotating tasks fear decreasing output tasks routine contribute employees feel organization work vision missions consequently sense belonging long term furthermore type organization tends invite exploitation potential employees creativity workers brushed aside favour strict adherence rules regulations procedures inspirations thinking strongly influenced german particularly neo exposed colleague university especially important work neo belief reality essentially chaotic rational order way human mind focuses attention certain aspects reality resulting perceptions opinions social sciences parallels work contemporary neo philosopher pioneering influenced ethics nonetheless came think obsolete modern age lacking religious respect influence friedrich philosophy evident according stanford encyclopedia philosophy deep tension moral diagnosis modern cultural world apparently gives tragic shade ethical major influence life writings workings socialist thought active politics shares bureaucratic systems capable advancing logic human freedom autonomy views conflict perpetual inevitable host spirit available influence mother evident life work maintained deep lifelong interest study religions open fact personally political economist economic historian belonged youngest german historical school economics represented academics von student research interests line school views theory value diverged significantly german closer fact austrian school traditional rivals historical school section economics unlike classical figures attempt consciously create specific set rules governing social sciences general particular comparison focused individuals culture clear focused society concentrated individuals actions structure action discussion argued material world world ideas valued ideas actions individuals big picture max science attempts understanding social action order arrive explanation course effects concerned question distinguished social action social behavior noting social action understood individuals relate study social action means based understanding meaning purpose individuals attach actions social actions easily identifiable objective means ends understanding ends scientist subject layer understanding scientist noted importance social sciences makes creation fool proof universal laws difficult natural sciences objective knowledge social sciences achieve limited overall supported goal objective science noted goal definitely worth absolutely objective scientific analysis culture knowledge cultural reality knowledge particular points view objective analysis cultural events proceeds according thesis ideal science reduction reality laws meaningless knowledge social laws knowledge social reality aids minds attaining end principle holds social scientists seek understand nations cultures governments churches corporations etc solely result context actions individual persons traced particularly chapter economy society argues individuals treated agents course action words argued social phenomena understood scientifically extent captured models behaviour individuals models called ideal types actual historical events necessarily accidental factors ideal type exist reality provide objective real life measured know scientifically ideals sure makes efforts past expected create ideals breast age culture developed context wider debate social sciences position close understood social actions heavily tied particular historical contexts analysis required understanding motivations individuals social actors use comparative historical analysis interested explaining certain outcome result historical processes predicting outcome processes future scholars described question individual freedom increasingly rational society main theme work theme situated larger context relationship psychological motivations cultural values beliefs primarily religion structure society usually determined economy understood individual cost benefit calculation second wider bureaucratic organisation organisations finally general sense opposite understanding reality mystery magic fate times characterised world began studies subject protestant ethic spirit capitalism argued connection work especially protestant denominations particularly shifted human effort rational efforts aimed achieving economic gain protestant religion christian god expressed secular calling rational roots doctrine argued soon grew incompatible larger religious eventually discarded continued investigation matter later works notably studies bureaucracy classification legitimate authority types rational legal traditional charismatic rational legal bureaucracy dominant modern world works described saw society movement similarly seen economy development highly rational calculating capitalism saw main factors setting european west apart rest world relied deep changes ethics religion psychology culture changes took place western depicted western culture especially development modern societies viewpoint new structures society marked systems taken shape capitalist enterprise bureaucratic state apparatus understood process rational economic administrative action degree everyday life affected cultural societal traditional forms life early modern period differentiated primarily according trade dissolved features include increasing knowledge growing enhanced control social material life ambivalent admitting responsible advances particular freeing humans traditional restrictive social guidelines criticised individuals machine freedom trapping bureaucratic iron cage bureaucracy related process world explained mystical moving religions ones finally science processes affect society removing sublime values public life making art creative critique notes modern society product drive reformation time society created process welcoming possible salvage remnants individual freedom movement sense given powerful trend religion work field religion started essay protestant ethic spirit capitalism continued analysis religion china religion india buddhism ancient judaism work religions interrupted sudden death prevented following ancient judaism studies early christianity islam main themes essays effect religious ideas economic activities relation social religious ideas distinguishable characteristics western saw religion core forces society goal find reasons different development paths cultures orient judging like contemporary followed social wanted primarily explain distinctive elements western analysis findings maintained widely protestant religious ideas major impact social innovation development economic system west noted factors development notable factors mentioned included scientific pursuit merging observation mathematics science scholarship rational government administration economic enterprise end study religion according focused distinguishing western culture decline beliefs magic referred world proposed model religious change showing general societies moved magic finally ethical according evolution occurred growing economic stability allowed evolution sophisticated societies grew complex encompassed different groups hierarchy gods developed power society concept single universal god popular desirable protestant ethic spirit capitalism essay protestant ethic spirit capitalism famous work argued work viewed detailed study introduction later works especially studies interaction religious ideas economic behaviour economic system protestant ethic spirit capitalism forward thesis ethic ideas influenced development capitalism noted post reformation shift europe economic centre away catholic countries france spain italy protestant countries netherlands england scotland germany noted societies having highly developed capitalist economy similarly societies different religions successful business leaders protestant argued roman catholicism development capitalist economy west religions buddhism world development concept calling quickly gave modern entrepreneur clear conscience workers gave employees wages devotion calling operation ruthless exploitation capitalism prospect eternal salvation christian religious devotion historically accompanied rejection mundane affairs including economic pursuit showed certain types notably supportive rational pursuit economic gain activities dedicated seeing endowed moral spiritual significance argued reasons look origins modern capitalism religious ideas reformation particular protestant ethic specifically ethic motivated believers work hard successful business profits development pleasures notion calling meant individual action indication salvation member church reduced economic inequality meant material wealth taken sign salvation believers justified pursuit profit religion instead morally suspect greed ambition actions motivated highly moral respected philosophy called spirit capitalism protestant religious ideology inevitably led capitalist economic system theory viewed reversal thesis economic base society determines aspects abandoned research colleague professional theologian begun work book social teachings christian churches reason decision work achieved desired area laying comparative analysis religion society phrase work ethic modern commentary derivative protestant ethic discussed adopted idea protestant ethic apply japanese people jews non christians lost religious religion china religion china second major work religion edited translated text english introduction focused aspects chinese society different western_europe especially aspects contrasted work questioned capitalism develop china focused issues chinese urban development chinese chinese religion philosophy primarily areas chinese development differed european route according mutually exclusive types rational thought attempting way life based religious notably valued self control restraint oppose accumulation wealth qualities means final goal divided key difference goal status position goal create individuals tools god intensity belief enthusiasm action rare common actively working wealth proper states difference social attitudes mentality shaped respective dominant religions contributed development capitalism west absence china religion india buddhism religion india buddhism major work religion work deals structure indian society orthodox doctrines doctrines buddhism modifications brought influence popular finally impact religious beliefs secular ethic indian society view india like china barrier capitalism indian system difficult individuals advance society activity including economic activity seen context advancement soul ended research society religion india bringing insights previous work china discuss similarities asian belief systems notes beliefs saw meaning life mystical experience social world fundamentally divided educated elite following guidance prophet wise man masses beliefs centered magic asia prophecy plan meaning everyday life educated alike called ethical notably near east region found mainland focused reaching educated proper ways live life usually little emphasis hard work material world differences prevented countries following paths earlier chinese indian work ancient judaism attempt prove theory ancient judaism ancient judaism fourth major work religion attempted explain factors resulted early differences oriental contrasted developed western christianity mystical kind developed india noted aspects christianity sought conquer change world withdraw fundamental characteristic christianity compared far eastern religions stems originally ancient jewish prophecy claimed judaism fathered christianity islam crucial rise modern state judaism influence important roman cultures premature death prevented following planned analysis book job early christianity islam economy society economy society collection essays working time death death final organization editing book fell widow final german form published reflected work intellectual commitment beginning german began editing organizing german edition economy society based study papers left death english versions economy society published collected volume edited result editions german english differences organization different volumes economy society includes wide range essays dealing views social philosophy politics social world religion diplomacy subjects book typically published volume set german english pages long fortune fortune theory suggested members different social classes adopt different belief systems explain social situation concept expanded mainly thought addition ethical considerations subject religion ethical religion including mean respectively people understand able correct relationship supernatural powers explain evil bad things happen good people separation different regard class tend belief wealth privilege indications signs evil contrast fortune emphasise notion privileges blessing deserved writes affluent embrace good fortune emphasise prosperity blessing god emphasise sign evil suffering world rewarded applied class structure society racial segregation religion defines importance societal class religion examining difference class structures apply concept work ethic attached fortune protestant work ethic contribution higher class outcomes education work ethic believing wealth happiness granted example belief religious influences class lower status poor deep faith way comfort provide hope prosperous future higher status actions prove right possessing greater wealth found segregation religious community main division seen mainline protestant evangelical denominations relation class particular example mainline churches upper class congregations promote order stability proved powerful source status quo existing distribution wealth power wealth church comes congregation contrast churches adopted instead advocated change intended advance cause justice learned upper class religious churches preach fortune ultimately support capitalism corporation churches adopted instead preached equality politics government political influential contributions politics essay definition state entity possesses monopoly legitimate use physical force wrote politics sharing state power groups political leaders power politician man true christian ethic understood ethic sermon mount injunction turn cheek ethic ought understood saint saints according appropriately follow political realm realm saints politician ought marry ethic attitude ethic responsibility possess passion capacity distance subject governed distinguished ideal types political leadership alternatively referred types domination authority charismatic domination religious traditional domination legal domination modern law state bureaucracy view historical relation rulers ruled contained elements analysed basis distinction notes instability charismatic authority forces structured form authority pure type traditional rule sufficient resistance ruler lead traditional revolution rational legal structure authority bureaucratic structure inevitable end theory viewed social theory ties broader concept suggesting direction bureaucratic administration means fundamentally domination knowledge described ideal types public administration government masterpiece economy society critical study society enduring parts work began studies bureaucracy works led term aspects modern public administration classic organised civil service continental type called civil service efficient rational way organising key rational legal authority furthermore saw key process ongoing western society listed emergence bureaucracy growth space population administered growth complexity administrative tasks carried existence monetary economy resulted need efficient administrative system development communication transportation technologies efficient administration possible popularly requested culture resulted demands new system treat everybody equally ideal bureaucracy characterised organisation lines authority fixed area activity action taken recorded basis written rules bureaucratic officials needing expert training rules implemented career advancement depending technical qualifications judged organisations individuals decisive reason advance bureaucratic organisation purely technical superiority form organisation recognising bureaucracy efficient form organisation modern state saw threat individual freedoms ongoing leading polar night darkness increasing human life traps individuals aforementioned iron cage bureaucratic rule based rational control order counteract system needs politicians social formulated component theory social class social status political party distinct elements component theory contrast simpler theory social class ties social people theory issues honor prestige important distinction clearly described essay classes parties published book economy society components theory social class based economically determined relationship market owner employee etc status german stand based non economic qualities like honour prestige religion party refers political domain dimensions consequences called life chances opportunities improve life scholars recognize important maintain sharp distinction terms status class tend popular usage study city overarching effort understand unique development western world produced detailed general study city characteristic social economic relations political arrangements ideas eventually came define west resulted monograph titled city probably compiled research conducted published posthumously incorporated second economy society chapter city non legitimate domination according city politically autonomous organisation people living close proximity employed variety specialised trades physically separated surrounding countryside fully developed west great extent shaped cultural evolution origin rational inner ethic associated appearance developed social context alien cultures context consisted political problems status group city judaism christianity development thinking argued judaism early christianity theology later political party modern science possible urban context reached development west saw history medieval european cities rise unique form non legitimate domination successfully challenged existing forms legitimate domination traditional charismatic rational legal prevailed medieval world new domination based great economic military power organised community city citizens economics regarded primarily political economist appointments economics today contributions field largely overshadowed role founder modern economist belonged youngest german historical school economics great differences school interests methods hand school modern mainstream economics largely derives explain influence economics today hard max pioneer connection capitalism earlier texts explores american effects current means productions contribution existent literature paramount importance main reasons important relates capitalism course new max past adds correct confirming connection reform capitalism key role played norse mythology left effect concept discussed come core norse culture secondly understand future led english speaking societies construct risk prone culture resulted dubbed risk society criticism exerted uneven distribution capitalism explained economy peoples formulated research interests line german strong emphasis interpreting economic history defence social sciences represented important break school embracing arguments founder austrian school economics context academic debate methods late 19th century phrase come common usage modern debates connection coined austrian american economist joseph way referring views according social research fully descriptive understanding phenomenon implies researcher mere description interpret interpretation requires classification according abstract ideal pure types taken justification model rational economic man heart modern mainstream economics unlike accepted marginal theory value called taught students published article drew sharp distinction psychology economics attacked claims marginal theory value economics reflected form psychological response described law max article cited definitive dependence economic theory value laws george friedrich broader issue relation economics psychology come academic debate development economics economic history best known work economics concerned capitalist development particularly relations religion capitalism explored protestant ethic spirit capitalism works religion argued bureaucratic political economic systems emerging middle ages essential rise modern capitalism including rational book keeping organisation formally free labour case ancient capitalism different social political structure based conquest slavery coastal city state contributions include early work economic history roman society labour relations eastern germany analysis history commercial partnerships middle ages critique discussion roles history capitalism economy society general economic history notable example kind work associated german historical school today primarily read social philosophers work significant influence frank knight founders chicago school economics translated general economic history english knight wrote max economist dealt problem understanding emergence modern capitalism angle yield answer questions angle comparative history broad sense economic calculation like colleague regarded economic calculation especially double entry method business accounting important forms associated development modern capitalism importance economic calculation led develop critique socialism system lacked mechanism resources efficiently order satisfy human needs socialist intellectuals like realised completely economy prices exist central planners resort kind monetary economic calculation according type coordination inefficient especially incapable solving problem accurately determining relative values capital goods wrote socialism order possible rational means production system kind accounting determine value kind individual capital goods role prices book modern business accounting clear established particular verified instance vary production unit basis economic location uniform entire economy basis social utility present future consumption requirements gained assuming problem non monetary economy seriously attacked suitable accounting method discovered invented problem fundamental kind complete speak rational planned economy long decisive respect instrument rational plan argument socialism independently time von significant influence befriended university vienna spring associated austrian school 20th century friedrich particular elaborated arguments economic calculation central free market economics intellectual assault socialism model spontaneous coordination dispersed knowledge markets legacy prestige max european social scientists difficult estimate widely considered greatest german leading influence european american thought influential work economic political religion commonly regarded founders modern following worked tradition instrumental developing tradition social sciences regard belongs similar tradition german colleagues stressed differences appropriate social natural sciences presented science human social action action separated traditional value rational instrumental science object interpret meaning social action explanation way action proceeds effects produces action definition meant human behaviour extent agent agents meaningful meaning refer meaning actually intended individual agent particular historical occasion number agents approximate average given set cases meaning attributed agent agents types pure type constructed abstract case meaning thought correct true criterion difference sciences action history kind discipline logic ethics aesthetics aim extract subject matter correct valid meaning time viewed primarily historian economist breadth interests apparent depth social theory affinity capitalism religious origins western world force charisma religion politics embracing process bureaucratic price progress role legitimacy violence offspring leadership modern world ending power religion antagonistic relation key concepts enduring fascination thinking works famous today collected revised published posthumously significant interpretations writings produced parsons wright mills parsons particular works perspective personal interpretation criticised influenced later social max different elements thought emphasised joseph leo according austrian economist von met time university vienna early death genius great disaster germany lived longer german people today able look example broken national socialism friend psychiatrist philosopher described greatest german era death felt german world lost heart critical responses explanations highly specific historical periods analysed disagree pointing despite fact write early twentieth century ideas remain alive relevant understanding issues like politics bureaucracy social today scholars disagreed specific claims makes historical analysis example economist joseph argued capitalism begin industrial revolution 14th century italy milan venice florence small city state governments led development earliest forms capitalism 16th century antwerp commercial centre europe predominantly country scotland enjoy economic growth netherlands england new_england pointed netherlands majority later 19th century predominantly catholic belgium centres industrial revolution european mainland expanded argument arguing hypothesis hurt development capitalism leading development labour theory value


ice trade ice trade known frozen water trade 19th century industry east_coast united_states norway involving large scale harvesting transport sale natural ice domestic consumption commercial purposes ice cut surface ponds streams stored ice houses sent ship barge railroad final destination world networks ice wagons typically distribute product final domestic smaller commercial customers ice trade meat vegetable fruit industries enabled significant growth fishing industry encouraged introduction range new drinks foods trade started new_england businessman tudor tudor shipped ice caribbean island martinique hoping sell wealthy members european elite ice house built specially purpose coming years trade widened cuba southern united_states merchants joining tudor harvesting shipping ice new_england 1830s 1840s ice trade expanded shipments reaching england india south_america china australia tudor fortune indian trade brand names ice famous london increasingly ice trade began focus supplying growing cities east_coast needs businesses midwest citizens new_york philadelphia huge consumers ice long hot summers additional ice harvested hudson_river maine demand ice began cars railroad industry allowing meat packing industry chicago cincinnati slaughter cattle locally sending dressed meat east internal overseas markets cars ships created national industry vegetables fruit previously consumed locally american british fishermen began preserve catches ice allowing longer bigger catches industry operational year ice exports diminished norway major player international market shipping large quantities ice england germany peak end 19th century ice trade employed estimated people industry million million terms ice houses capable storing tons million norway exported million tons million ice year drawing network artificial lakes competition slowly growing form artificially produced plant ice facilities unreliable expensive plant ice began successfully compete natural ice australia india 1850s 1870s respectively outbreak world war plant ice produced year naturally harvested ice despite temporary increase production war inter war years saw total collapse ice trade world today ice occasionally harvested ice carving ice festivals little remains 19th century industrial network ice houses transport facilities history century methods prior emergence ice trade 19th century snow ice collected stored use summer months parts world large scale mediterranean south_america example long history collecting ice upper slopes alps summer months traders transporting cities similar trading practices grown mexico colonial period russians collected ice river winter months consumption saint_petersburg years wealthy europeans began build ice houses store ice gathered local estates winter 16th century onwards ice cool drinks food wealthiest techniques invented produce ice drinks artificial means india ice imported 17th century expense meant 19th century ice instead manufactured small quantities winter south clay containing boiled cooled water laid straw shallow trenches favourable circumstances thin ice form surface winter nights harvested combined sale production sites ice available limited amounts considered poor quality resembled soft hard crystals water mixed india cool drinks taking advantage local supplies chemical europe chemical means cooling drinks created 19th century typically acid liquid capable producing actual ice opening trade ice trade began result efforts tudor new_england entrepreneur export ice commercial basis new_england ice expensive product consumed wealthy afford ice houses nonetheless relatively common members society filled ice cut harvested frozen surface ponds streams local estates winter months neighbouring new_york area hot summers rapidly growing economy begun increase local demand ice end 18th century creating small scale market farmers sold ice ponds streams local city institutions families ships occasionally transported ice new_york philadelphia sale southern states particular charleston south_carolina laying ballast trip tudor plan export ice luxury good wealthy members west_indies southern states hoped product summers conscious risk follow suit tudor hoped acquire local monopoly rights new markets order maintain high prices profits started attempting establish monopoly potential ice trade caribbean invested ship transport ice bought farmers boston time tudor regarded business community best eccentric worst fool shipments took place tudor transported initial trial cargo ice probably harvested family estate caribbean island martinique sales hampered lack local storage facilities tudor stock ice bought domestic customers result ice stocks quickly melted away learning experience tudor built functioning ice depot havana despite trade declared trading successfully unable acquire exclusive legal rights import ice cuba nonetheless able maintain effective monopoly control ice houses war briefly disrupted trade subsequent years tudor began export fruit havana mainland return journey kept fresh ice cargo trade charleston savannah georgia followed tudor competitors began supply south_carolina georgia ship new_york barges sent downstream kentucky price imported ice varied according economic competition havana tudor ice sold cents terms pound georgia reached cents terms tudor strong market share respond competition passing traders lowering prices considerably selling ice rate cent pound price competitors typically unable sell stock profit driven debt declined sell ice melt away heat tudor relying local storage depots increase prices middle 1820s tons million ice shipped boston annually thirds tudor lower prices ice began sell considerable volumes market moving wealthy elite wider range consumers point supplies preserve good direct consumption tudor looked existing suppliers maine harvesting passing source proved practical instead tudor teamed exploit ice supplies boston industrial scale devised new form horse pulled ice cutter cut square blocks ice efficiently previous methods agreed supply tudor fresh pond cambridge massachusetts reducing cost harvesting ice cents ton cents ice brought maine year trade new_england ice expanded 1830s 1840s eastern coast new trade routes created world profitable new routes india tudor combined businessmen samuel austin william rogers attempt export ice calcutta ship anglo indian elite concerned effects summer heat quickly agreed exempt imports usual east india company regulations trade initial net shipment tons sold successfully ice terms pound shipment aboard produced profits tudor commenced regular exports calcutta madras bombay tudor competitors soon entered market shipping ice sea calcutta bombay increasing demand driving indigenous ice dealers grand ice house built stone calcutta local british community store ice imports small shipments fruit dairy products began sent ice achieving high prices attempts italian traders introduce ice alps calcutta tudor repeated techniques caribbean driving market calcutta remained particularly profitable market ice years tudor profits new markets follow tudor sent shipments ice brazil beginning ice trade rio_de_janeiro ships typically returned north_america carrying sugar fruit later cotton ice traders new_england reached sydney australia initially selling pound later rising trade prove regular shipments arrived 1840s export vegetables fish butter eggs caribbean markets pacific grew 1840s barrels transported single ship alongside cargo ice shipments new_england ice sent far hong_kong south east asia philippines persian gulf new_zealand argentina peru new_england businessmen tried establish market ice england 1840s abortive attempt export ice england occurred william imported ice norway cargo melted reaching london fresh attempts jacob owned supplies fresh pond assets lake respectively venture successful formed lake ice company export britain building ice depot strand ice marketed unusually pure possessed special cooling properties successfully convincing british customers avoid local british ice condemned initial success venture eventually failed english chose adopt drinks way north americans long distances involved trade consequent costs ice melting nonetheless trade allowed goods arrived england america ice 1840s east_coast began consume ice particularly industrial private customers found uses ice increasingly northeast preserve dairy products fresh fruit market goods transported growing railroad lines 1840s ice transfer small quantities goods west continent eastern fishermen began use ice preserve catches fewer businesses individuals east harvested ice independently winter preferring rely commercial providers growth commerce tudor initial monopoly trade broke continued significant profits growing trade increased supplies ice needed demand onwards tudor invested pond new_england additional supplies new companies began spring philadelphia ice company use new railroad lines transport harvested ice family introduced improved ice harvesting new_york region growth westwards 1850s period transition ice trade industry large million million terms invested industry estimated million tons billion ice kept storage time warehouses nation coming decade focus growing trade shifted away relying international export market favour supplying growing eastern cities rest rapidly expanding country california midst gold rush backed sudden demand new_england companies shipments ship san_francisco sacramento california including shipment market proved shipping ice way expensive demand supply ice began ordered instead russian controlled alaska ton american russian commercial company subsequently formed san_francisco work partnership russian american company alaska supply ice west_coast america russian company trained teams harvest ice alaska built saw mills produce saw dust shipped ice south supplies fish costs operation remained high founded rival nevada ice company harvested ice pilot creek transported sacramento bringing west_coast price ice seven cents pound expanding westwards ohio joy began exploit crystal lake near chicago soon linked city chicago paul fond railroad company ice allow goods brought market cincinnati chicago began use ice help packing pork summer john developing packing room fruit began stored central illinois consumption later seasons 1860s ice allow increasingly popular beer year round improved railroad links helped growth business region east known possible artificially water mechanical equipment attempts late 1850s produce artificial ice commercial scale methods invented including jacob compression engine invented engines pre compressed air john air cycle engines based approaches championed ferdinand charles resulting product variously called plant artificial ice numerous obstacles manufacturing commercially producing plant ice required large amounts fuel form coal capital machinery producing ice competitive price challenging early technology unreliable decades ice plants faced risk explosions consequent damage surrounding buildings based approaches potentially left hazardous ice leaked joints machinery 19th century plant ice clear natural ice left white melted generally regarded suitable human consumption natural product nonetheless alexander james harrison set ice plants ohio melbourne respectively 1850s engines found compete natural ice melbourne harrison plant came dominate market australia distance new_england journeys days consequent high level tons ton shipment sydney melted route relatively easy plant ice compete natural product natural ice dominated entire market expansion competition international ice trade continued second half 19th century increasingly moved away new_england roots ice exports peaked tons worth terms shipped ports factor slow spread plant ice india exports new_england india peaked tons million shipped indian natural ice market indian rebellion american_civil_war imports ice slowly declined 1860s spurred introduction artificial ice plants world british_royal_navy international ice company founded madras ice company operating calcutta ice association rapidly drove natural ice market ice trade developed europe 1870s hundreds men employed cut ice glaciers switzerland paris france began import ice rest europe norway entered international ice trade focusing exports england shipments norway england occurred larger scale exports occur 1850s ice harvesting initially centred west_coast poor local transport links pushed trade south east main centres norwegian timber shipping industries essential ice early 1860s lake norway renamed lake aim confusing product new_england exports exports england increased initially run british business interests eventually transitioned norwegian companies distribution norwegian ice britain helped growing railway networks railway connection built fishing port london created demand ice allow transport fresh fish capital eastern market ice changing cities like new_york baltimore philadelphia saw population boom second half century new_york size example drove demand ice considerably region eastern cities consuming thirds ton ice year charged cents pounds wagons needed deliver ice consumers new_york supplying demand ice trade increasingly shifted north away massachusetts maine factors contributed new winters warmer 19th century resulted natural ponds rivers contaminated trade brought new_england ways reaching western markets opened making profitable trade ice boston cost producing ships region increased finally ice hudson warm winters prevented formation ice new_england creating shortages driving prices outbreak american_civil_war northern southern states contributed trend war disrupted sale northern ice south maine merchants instead turned supplying union_army forces ice southern campaigns james responded ice famine moving ice trading business hudson northwards maine bringing latest technology techniques went win valuable contracts union_army war years ice machines brought new_orleans south focusing particular supplying southern hospitals post war years number plants increased competition north cheaper natural ice initially hard manufacturers profit late 1870s efficiency improvements allowing squeeze natural ice marketplace south ice famine impacted boston hudson famine following result descended river maine alternative source widely opened ice industry important source particularly warm winters rest 19th century 1860s natural ice increasingly western american products east starting meat chicago initial opposition cattle car owners eastern stood lose trade 1870s multiple shipments leaving east day butter mid west shipped onwards new_york europe 1870s percent united_kingdom butter consumption met way chain stations chicago utah sierra nevada allowed railroad cars cross continent ability ice companies ship product rail east proved final straw ice trade collapsed 1870s 1880s face competition destroying local saw mill industry process 1870s ice began bell brothers firm transport american meat britain shipment successfully arrived following year tons meat shipped meat special warehouses stores concern britain american meat flood market harm domestic farmers exports continued rival chicago based meat firms armour swift entered meat transport market late establishing fleet cars network stations infrastructure increasing sales chicago beef eastern tons year tons peak trade manufacture artificial plant ice began grow volume end century technological improvements finally allowed production plant ice competitive price typically ice plants took hold distant locations natural ice cost disadvantage australian indian markets dominated plant ice ice plants began built brazil 1880s 1890s slowly coming replace imported ice plants began numerous southern states long distance transportation companies continued use cheap natural ice bulk needs purchased local plant ice key points allow surge demand avoid need hold reserve stocks natural ice british fishing industry began turn plant ice catches plant technology began turned problem directly chilling rooms containers replace need carry ice pressure began grow replacement ice trans atlantic routes 1870s produced steamship ship beef argentina france glasgow based firm bells helped sponsor new compressed air ships approach called bell design technologies soon trade australia new_zealand argentina approach began taken industries von found ways applying mechanical industry removing reliance natural ice cold warehouses meat began rely chilling plants despite emerging competition natural ice remained vital north american european economies demand driven rising living standards huge demand ice 1880s drove natural ice trade continue expand million tons billion ice routinely stored hudson_river maine hudson having major warehouses banks employing workers firms expanded river maine meet demand vessels required carry ice south lakes wisconsin began production supply midwest saw ice famine hit east hudson failed entirely causing sudden rush establish operations maine ice successfully formed unfortunately investors following summer cool suppressing demand stocks businessmen ruined estimated people horses involved trade million million terms norwegian trade peaked 1890s million tons million ice exported norway major company britain kept thousand tons ice store times meet demand austria entered european ice market norway vienna ice company natural ice germany end century considerable ice trade end century foreign competitors norway complained charles businessman maine questionable financial processes acquire control new_york_city ice company consumers ice company new_york merging consolidated ice company turn bought major competitor ice company new_york giving control million tons billion regional ice year incorporated remaining rivals american ice company giving control natural plant ice supplies distribution north east west_coast edward formed union ice company san_francisco bringing range regional ice companies produce huge ice company contrast competition british market remained harsh keeping prices relatively low end trade 20th century natural ice trade rapidly supplanted cooling systems plant ice early years 20th century plant ice production new_york doubled million tons billion plant ice produced year comparison million tons billion naturally harvested ice similar trend world britain ice plants example increasingly import ice annual imports ice fell tons million reflected trade publications changing names ice trade journal example retitled world trend regular ice period british famine typically caused rapid price increases demand plant ice encouraged investment new technologies concerns grew safety natural ice initial reports concerning ice produced lakes rivers emerged early 1870s british public health authorities believed norwegian ice generally safer american sourced ice reports noted risk contamination transit recommended moving use plant ice new_york specialists claimed ice hudson_river unsafe consumption potentially containing report successfully challenged natural ice industry public opinion turning natural ice safety grounds major damage industry fire including famous blaze american ice company facilities destroyed buildings adjacent causing terms damage maine ice industry response increasing competition natural ice companies examined options invested plant ice new tools brought speed harvesting ice efficiency improvements technical advances plant ice manufacture natural ice association america formed promote benefits natural ice companies played erroneous belief customers natural ice melted slowly manufactured ice pressure ice companies attempted exploit local ice distribution networks artificially raise prices urban customers prominent cases involved charles american ice company suddenly wholesale doubled retail prices new_york midst heat wave created scandal caused sell assets ice trade altogether escape prosecution making profit million million process entered world war american ice trade received temporary boost production shipments food europe war placing significant demands country existing capabilities need produce munitions war effort meant coal plants short supply government worked plant natural ice industries promote use natural ice relieve burden maintain adequate supplies britain norway war impacted badly natural ice trade german attempt blockade north_sea boats shipments difficult britain relied increasingly heavily limited number ice plants supplies instead years war natural ice industry collapsed industry turned entirely plant ice mechanical cooling systems introduction cheap electric motors resulted domestic modern common homes 1930s widely europe 1950s allowing ice home natural ice dramatically ice warehouses abandoned converted uses use natural ice small scale remote areas years ice continued occasionally harvested carving artistic competitions festivals end 20th century physical trade supply order natural ice reach customers harvested ponds rivers transported stored sites finally domestic commercial applications processes traders faced problem keeping ice melting melted ice represented waste lost profits 1820s 1830s percent ice harvested eventually sold end user route end 19th century ice trade reduced percent depending efficiency company harvesting ice trade started harvesting ice ponds rivers winter stored summer months ahead water way falls temperature surrounding air temperature drops ice needed inches thick harvested needed support weight workers horses suitable cutting large blocks new_england ponds rivers typically deep ice harvest january march norway harvesting occurred december february natural ice occur different qualities prized hard clear crystal ice typically consumed table white coloured ice valuable industry good thickness ice tons harvested acre hectares surface water purely natural sources insufficient areas additional steps taken increase supplies new_england holes ice promote surface alternatively artificial lakes created areas guidance published best construct dams lay heart designs low lying land flooded maine end century meet surge demands pre existing artificial mill ponds wisconsin turned ideal harvesting commercial ice alaska large shallow artificial lake covering acres hectares produced order assist ice production harvesting similar approaches taken islands norway taken number artificial lakes half mile long built farmland increase supplies including built sea collect fresh water ice ice cutting involved stages typically carried night ice surface cleaned snow depth ice tested surface marked produce lines future ice blocks size blocks varied according destination largest locations smallest destined american east_coast inches square blocks finally cut ice floated shore speed operation depend likelihood warmer weather ice new_england norway harvesting occurred quiet season providing valuable local employment process required range equipment protective equipment allow workforce horses operate safely ice including shoes men horse shoes early 19th century hoc improvised tools rest harvest 1840s introduced new designs allow larger scale commercial harvesting process included horse drawn ice cutter resembling parallel help marking ice quickly uniformly later horse drawn teeth assist cutting process replacing hand saw 1850s specialist ice tool manufacturers producing selling products east_coast discussions circular cutting saw 19th century proved impractical power horses introduced ice harvesting start 20th century gasoline engines available warm winter ice harvest resulting ice thin ice formed smaller blocks harvested safely winters called open winters north_america result shortages ice called ice famous ice included mild winter norway resulted britain having seek additional supplies finland time ice promoted investment plant ice production ultimately ice trade early ice trade restrictions harvesting ice traditionally held little value seen free good trade expanded ice valuable right cut ice important legally different rules held apply water ways right harvest ice belonged stake claim areas public water streams small lakes ice considered belong neighboring land owners lakes land owners following disagreements fresh pond lawyer simon charged solution decided right harvest ice divided proportion shore line owned different onwards rights harvest ice bought sold value land adjacent sites fresh pond increased rapidly owner purchased land terms acre hectares 1820s refusing offer acre 1850s judgement remove potential disputes ice washed downstream rivers resulting arguments ownership displaced ice states illegal damage uncut ice belonging businessman arguments nasty winter example disputes pike north lake company rival wisconsin lakes ice company rights harvest ice resulted pitched battles workers deployment steamship smash competing supplies transportation natural ice typically moved times harvested end customer wide range methods including wagons railroads ships barges ships particularly important ice trade particularly early phase trade focus trade international exports railroad networks country non existent typically ice traders hired vessels ship ice freight tudor initially purchased vessel tudor company later bought fast cargo ships ice transported ships end 18th century occasionally ballast shipping ice ballast required cut order avoid shifting melted easily invention ice cutter uniform blocks process produced possible pack ice limited space ship hold significantly reduced losses melting ice typically packed tightly hold closed prevent warmer air entering forms protective protect ice included hay pine tree requirement large quantities coincided growth new_england lumber industry 1830s use time fact considered problem use ice trade proved useful local timber industry ships carrying ice needed particularly strong premium placed recruiting good crews able cargo quickly location melted end 19th century preferred choice wooden vessel avoid melting ice pumps installed remove excess water hull pumps ice tended cause damage ships longer term constant melting ice resulting water steam encouraged dry shipment sizes varied depending ports route typical late 19th century vessel schooner carrying tons ice large shipment norway england include tons important track ice loaded ship commercial safety reasons ice blocks weighed went ship total tally weight ice recorded initially crude method loading involving ice whip lower separated blocks ice hold improved method developed 1870s involving platform superseded platform device ships loaded quickly prevent ice melting ports average cargo loaded days freight charges paid intake departure weight cargo conditions laid handling ice route barges transport ice particularly hudson_river doubling occasion storage units barges carry tons ice like ice carrying ships typically installed power barge pumps barges believed help preserve ice melting ice stored beneath deck river charlie introduced larger ice barges 1890s order supply new_york pulled carry tons million ice 19th century particularly cheap transport ice new_england key ice producing centres helping grow industry region role gateway trade interior meant trading ships brought ports find return cargo ships need carry rocks ballast instead ice profitable alternative rocks result ice trade new_england negotiate lower shipping rates possible international locations later century ice trade maine new_york took advantage maine emerging requirements philadelphia coal ice ships delivering ice maine bring fuel leading trade termed ice business ice transported railroad onwards use technique track laid fresh pond charleston branch railroad company special railroad car built ice equipment designed allow cars loaded new railroad access ice pond ice popular cargo railway employees moved promptly avoid melting generally awkward transport 1880s ice shipped rail north american continent final supply chain domestic smaller commercial customers involved delivery ice typically ice wagon ice cut pound blocks distributed horse drawn ice wagons driving cart deliver ice household ice hold deliveries occur daily twice daily 1870s specialist distributors existed major cities local fuel dealers businesses selling delivering ice smaller communities britain ice rarely sold domestic customers specialist dealers 19th century instead usually sold kept ice premises commercial use storage ice stored multiple points harvesting final use customer method construction ice houses hold product typically shortly ice harvested regional depots shipped early ice houses relatively small later storage facilities size large warehouses contained larger quantities ice understanding limited start 19th century believed key successful storage ice construction underground ice houses believed incorrectly cool store ice successfully european ice houses based theory underground chambers built considerable expense store winter harvest farmers virginia developed cheaper elevated ground built wood hay addition temperature ice held need efficiently drain melted water water melt remaining ice faster warm air tudor investigated ice houses came conclude constructed ground early ice houses cuba inner outer timber walls form ventilation system formed basic design ice houses rest century tudor building ice houses brick able hold tons ice walls 1840s warehouses pond square feet square metres size built brick avoid risk fire new railroad line ice houses remained extremely caught fire including sydney ice house completely destroyed size ice houses difficult load ice invented horse drawn system raise blocks ice roofs warehouses later improvements loading included use lift systems raise blocks ice building horse power steam power largest warehouses later introduced belt systems bring ice storage power houses containing equipment support built alongside ice houses care taken avoid risk fire machinery warehouses typically painted white yellow order reflect sun summer typical hudson_river warehouse feet long feet deep stories high able hold tons million ice later railroad ice houses hold tons million apiece contrast initially ice trade norway ice houses taking ice directly lakes ships transport winter spring 1850s 1870s numerous ice houses constructed allowing exports place rest year ice houses built major ice consuming cities hold imported ice final sale consumption termed depots london early ice depots circular called wells shades new cattle market depot built feet wide feet deep able hold short tons million ice later ice depots kings cross london larger incoming barges storing norwegian ice city new_york unusual build ice depots near ports instead incoming barges occasion ships delivering ice floating warehouses ice needed order domestic commercial customer use ice typically necessary able store period away ice house result ice boxes domestic critical final stage storage process households use consume ice tudor selling boston called little ice houses households charleston wood lined iron designed hold pounds ice household manufactured 1840s east_coast notably massachusetts boston shipped west degree natural ice adopted local communities 19th century heavily depended availability ice boxes applications consumption ice trade enabled consumption wide range new products 19th century simple use natural ice drinks directly added glass barrel indirectly chilling wine cooler similar container drinks novelty initially viewed concern customers worried health risks rapidly vanished mid-19th century water america possible milk popular german traditionally drunk ice drinks mint created crushed ice distinct differences 19th century american european attitudes adding ice directly drinks europeans unpleasant habit british visitors india surprised anglo indian elite prepared drink water india regarded ice religious reasons inappropriate food large scale production ice cream resulted ice trade ice cream produced small quantities 17th century depended having large quantities ice available substantial amounts labour manufacture ice freeze ice cream relies application salt ice mixture produce cooling effect constantly mixture produce light texture associated ice cream 1820s 1830s availability ice cities east_coast meant ice cream increasingly popular essentially luxury product new ice cream maker patented nancy johnson required far physical effort time similar designs produced england france combined growing ice trade ice cream widely available consumed greater quantities britain norwegian ice growing italian community london 1850s onwards ice cream general public commercial applications ice trade way food preserved transported 19th century preservation depended techniques smoking large supplies natural ice allowed foods frozen instead ice foods relatively simple process required considerable experimentation produce efficient reliable methods controlling flow warm cold air different containers transport systems early stages ice trade tension preserving limited supply ice limiting flow air preserving food depended circulating air ice create colder temperatures early approaches preserving food variants traditional cold boxes solve problem small quantities products short distances market thomas moore engineer maryland invented early patented involved large wooden box tin container ice embedded primarily relied simple ventilation design widely adopted farmers small traders illegal copies 1830s portable meat trade taking advantage growing supplies ice use ventilation better preserve food 1840s improved supplies understanding importance circulating air making significant improvement development railroad system natural ice transport larger quantities goods longer distances invention car cars emerged late 1850s early 1860s crude constructions holding ice food placed quickly found placing meat directly blocks ice cars caused subsequent designs hung meat hooks allowing meat breathe swinging improved circulation car civil war john william davis patented improved cars ice placed end improved air circulation contents cool improved ventilation essential avoid warm air building car causing damage goods salt added ice increase cooling effect produce car preserved foods better 19th century different train lines difficult time consuming lines problem ice continually melting 1860s cars created speed process natural ice essential transportation foods railroads dressing meat transporting efficient terms freight costs opened industries mid west industrialist armour argued ice cars changed growing fruits national industry ships possible ice trade allowing goods exported internationally countries argentina australia early ships stored goods main cargo ice ships transport meat britain designed adapted railroad cars ice end hold ventilation fan meat cool improved version invented james solution ice hold meat cool created drier atmosphere hold preserving meat better natural ice fishing industries preserve catches initially eastern american fisheries fishing fleet began ice sea preserve catches allowed longer journeys bigger catches fishing industry biggest single user ice britain natural ice uses ice trade enabled widespread use medicine attempts treat diseases alleviate symptoms making tropical hospitals calcutta example ice shipment specially reserved city ice house use local doctors middle 19th century british_royal_navy imported ice cool interiors ships gun turrets attempts salmon eggs finally shipped successfully britain australia natural ice route enabling creation salmon fishery industry


known yale field situated basin south estimated contain million barrels oil corporation discovered yale field shortly start second civil war soon suspended operations government troops began attacking civilian settlements area burning houses driving people away late 1990s militias helped army clearing away people way roads infrastructure president inaugurated site march initially produced barrels day production lies close borders potential bring significant economic benefits region recently focus clearing population away longer term strategy developing region china provided large investment south plans extensive investments background location area southeast lies white upper state west drains marshes flows region northwest direction reaches swamps lie triangle north river east white flooded wet season extend square kilometres swamps marshes fed local rainfall small foothills extend kilometres eastern border spill water channels discharge marshes river low years exceptionally heavy rainfall water lost reaching proposed build canal white increase volume water flowing northern egypt apparently major environmental impact political instability prevented project starting corporation discovered yale field shortly start second civil war wells flow rates exceeded barrels day oil held formation sandstone age field area square kilometres average pay zone square kilometres initially field estimated hold million barrels seismic data acquired pushed million barrels small oil pools discovered south yale million barrels started pull employees killed finally selling interests development production suspended operations concession later divided smaller units gulf petroleum corporation awarded basin blocks owned gulf petroleum corporation company owned national islamic consortium reported invested developing yale field october began drill reopen wells build weather road connecting yale garrison town president inaugurated yale site march production barrels day taken truck barge export export volumes tiny compared field potential crude exported symbolic significance march resources canadian company signed agreement government develop concession covered basin including field partnership consortium arab companies forced withdraw financial backing collapsed pressure human rights groups government highly critical canadian involvement oil development february treasury announced american persons forbidden business greater petroleum operating company incorporated october owned china national petroleum company malaysia implemented major upgrades oil development infrastructure including barrel day production facilities yale field largely cleared original inhabitants november brought pipeline operation linking blocks yale fields port red_sea pipeline barrels day maximum capacity barrels day january combined output blocks potential reach peak barrels day late blocks producing close barrels day blend blend crude oil heavy highly acidic lower prices people predominantly inhabited people mainly crops raise cattle use east bank white dry seasons usually find alternative edges marshes country suited cultivation crops rain soon closed operations government troops began attacking civilian settlements area burning houses driving people away resulted deaths late 1990s militias helped army clearing away people way roads infrastructure aid workers targeted attacks compounds farm supply distribution centers primary health care centers destroyed estimate people forced weather road built source said church leaders reported government militias burned villages displaced people area according international relief development agency director hammond areas contained fields destroyed crops evidence type food handful local people swamp eat security july government attacked people liberation army positions west goal secure passage barge shipments oil field november leader john gave warning forces attack yale oil field june captured town close yale field march 13th battalion defeated government brigade town victory yale range artillery april russian airplane broke runway apparently crash killed deputy defense minister colonel din high ranking officers touring southern military area people survived crash spokesman denied responsibility accident saying forces area civil war officially ended january declaration january laid basis rival military forces south gordon deputy commander south defense forces supported government resisted merger core faction peace force based village north fighters august reserve forces area position border north near functioning yale sensitive july recruits arrived area august reported active area china provided large investment south pipeline port china established september upgraded embassy november china plans significant investments south pipeline port discussed provide alternative route chooses close northern pipeline china interest resolve security problems major investor customer countries china leverage achieve goal


confederate war finance confederate war finance refers means fiscal monetary confederate states america financed war effort american_civil_war war lasted virtually entire existence nation dominated national finance early war confederacy relied imports taxes exports voluntary self intended europe cotton force diplomatic recognition confederacy blockade southern ports enforced union navy revenue taxes international trade smaller smaller likewise financing obtained early voluntary donations coins private individuals support confederate cause early substantial dried end result confederate government forced resort means financing military operations war tax enacted proved difficult collect likewise appropriation union property south forced debts owned failed raise substantial revenue subsequent issuance government debt substantial printing confederate dollars contributed high inflation plagued confederacy end war military setbacks field played role causing loss confidence expectations beginning war confederate dollar cost worth gold union dollars war end price dropped overall price level south increased war secretary treasury confederate states christopher aware economic problems posed inflation loss confidence political considerations limited internal taxation ability long voluntary union blockade place impossible find adequate alternative sources finance tax finance south financed lower proportion expenditures direct taxes north share direct taxes total revenue north south share major reason tax revenue play large role confederacy individual states opposition strong central government belief states rights giving power government richmond factor extending tax system broadly belief present north south war limited duration compelling reason increase tax burden realities prolonged war necessity paying interest existing debt drop revenues sources eventually forced central confederate government individual states agree war tax middle law passed august covered property confederate value luxury items tax levied ownership slaves tax proved difficult collect total revenue came direct taxes reached low level taking account difficulty collection confederate congress passed tax kind april set tenth agricultural product state tax directly tied confederate army despite fact ran collection problems successful implementation accounted half total revenue converted currency equivalent monetary finance inflation financing war expenditures means currency issues printing money far major avenue resorted confederate government total revenue created way north doubled money supply war money supply south increased times extensive reliance money printing press finance war contributed significantly high inflation south experienced course war fiscal matters negative war news played role estimates extent inflation vary source method technique definition aggregate price level according classic study eugene standard price index rose beginning war war facto end april october price index implies large portion rise prices occurred months war drop demand money corresponding increase velocity money resulting rapid increase price level attributed loss confidence southern military victory success south bid independence quantity theory money inflation confederacy war resulting increases money supply changes velocity money change real output southern economy according equation exchange formula money supply velocity money related people demand money price level real output assumed real remained constant south war actually concluded fell equation implies price level increase times presence times increase money supply velocity money increased times reflecting significant drop demand money problems money caused inflation exacerbated influx bills north plentiful southern fairly crude easy copy confederacy lacked modern printing equipment largest famous northern samuel philadelphia calculation notes percent confederate money supply june august jefferson davis placed bounty yankee known south evaded capture southern agents problem north united_states secret service formed deal problem april currency reform act went effect decreased southern money supply union control mississippi_river january law effective east mississippi fairly peculiar economic phenomenon occurred war confederate government issued regular money notes interest bearing money united_states issue interest bearing notes war legal tender financial transactions circulation interest bearing money kind money enforced southern banks threatened return gold standard cooperate southern debt held foreigners ease currency confederate congress decided adopt gold standard actual come effect law went effect supplanted act end confederacy debt finance issued loans accounted roughly finance confederate war expenditure fact initially south successful selling debt north partially new_orleans major financial center bought million dollar loan early main types loans issued south war cotton bonds pounds sterling sold london high risk loans sold netherlands cotton bonds directly cotton included means political pressure european countries recognize confederacy shipments needed picked blockaded southern ports new_orleans cotton bonds initially popular high demand british william time chancellor supposedly buyers confederate government managed honor cotton bonds war fact price rose fall atlanta reflecting increase underlying cotton prices possibility george elected president peace platform contrast price dutch issued high risk loans fell war south obligations revenue international trade beginning war majority finance southern government came duties international trade import enacted set roughly matched coverage previously existing federal february government revenue raised import revenue disappeared union imposed blockade southern coasts november proportion government revenue coming custom duties dropped half percent secretary treasure expected bring million dollars revenue year fact total revenue raised way entire war million similar source funds tax exports cotton addition difficulties associated blockade self imposed cotton meant practical purposes tax completely ineffective fund initial optimistic estimates revenue collected tax ran high million dollars end thousand collected sources revenue confederate government tried raise revenue unorthodox means early half support separation union military effort running strong donation coins gold government accounted sources government funds source dried time individuals institutions south ran personal holdings unwilling donations war set consequence summer share government revenue coming donations fell course entire war source revenue contributed total wartime expenditure potential source finance found property physical capital owned south debts owed individuals parallel manner act provided union lands goods right credits transfer debt obligation confederate citizens northern creditors directly confederate government proved unwilling transfer debt obligations furthermore exactly constituted northern property proved hard define practice result share source revenue government funding exceeded ultimately contributed overall financial war effort expenditures military spending constituted largest national government budget course war time payment interest principal acquired debt grew share confederate government expenditure initially early war expenditure budget october share fell majority rest overall accounted debt service civilian expenditures spending navy recorded separately general war expenditures confederate records exceeded budget


balanced growth theory balanced growth theory economic theory pioneered economist theory government country needs large investments number industries simultaneously market size increase productivity provide incentive private sector invest favour attaining balanced growth industrial agricultural sectors economy recognised expansion inter balance agriculture manufacturing necessary sectors provides market products turn supplies necessary raw materials development growth paul pioneers balanced growth theory understood today dates work theory discusses poor size market countries state clarified market size puts primary focus productivity according productivity levels rise developed country market size expand eventually developed economy apart nicknamed export feels finances investments countries arise domestic territory importance given promoting exports size market invest size market assumes primary importance study investment country referenced work young assert invest limited size market original idea forward adam smith stated division labour invest limited extent market according countries lack adequate purchasing power low purchasing power means real income people low monetary terms high money income low problem easily overcome expanding money supply meaning context real income expanding supply money generate pressure real output real investment rise noted low purchasing power means domestic demand low apart encompassing consumer goods services includes demand capital size market determines incentive invest nature economy invariably production decisions taking consideration demand concerned product example automobile manufacturer trying decide countries set plants naturally invest countries demand high prefer invest developed country population lesser countries people prosperous definite demand private resort heavy advertising means attracting buyers products lead rise demand entrepreneur good service actually raise aggregate demand economy demand merely shifts provider clearly long term solution concluded limited size domestic market low income country constitute obstacle application capital individual firm industry working market sense small domestic market obstacle development generally size market according expanding size market crucial increasing invest vicious circle poverty broken mentioned following points size market determined money supply emphasised theory shouldn applied countries don face lack effective demand way developed countries problem lack real purchasing power low productivity levels merely increasing supply money expand market fact cause pressure population argued notion large population implies large market countries large population levels productivity low results low levels capita real income consumption expenditure low savings low completely absent hand developed countries smaller populations countries virtue high levels productivity capita real higher create large market goods services geographical area refuted claim country geographical area large size market ought large country extremely small area large effective demand example japan contrast country cover huge geographical area market small occur large country country suffers low productivity levels low national income transport cost trade barriers notion transport costs trade barriers hinder expansion market age old emphasised duties exchange controls import non barriers trade major obstacles promoting international cooperation specifically high transport costs nations producers incentive export result capital accumulation remains small address problem united_nations produced report solutions countries suggested expand markets forming customs unions neighbouring countries adopt system taxation abolish customs duties altogether logic customs duties removed transport costs fall consequently prices fall demand rise export agree view export trade theory governed idea inward looking growth opposed outward looking growth import sales promotion true company private increase demand products succeeds extensive use advertisement sales promotion technique argues activities succeed level increase country aggregate demand level calls productivity stressed productivity primary size market increase productivity defined output unit input increases flow goods services economy response consumption rises economies aim raise productivity levels sectors economy particular agriculture industry example economies technology carry agricultural activities backward low degree coupled rain dependence large proportion population actively employed agriculture sector contribution gross domestic product low points need increase output unit input output head government provides irrigation facilities high yielding variety seeds etc positive outcome farmers earn income higher purchasing power real income demand products economy rise provide incentive invest country size market expands improves condition country opinion law markets operates countries money people rise price level economy stays size market expand till real income productivity levels rise quote areas generally gap excessive savings production creates demand size market depends volume production analysis market enlarged round increase productivity capacity buy means capacity produce export citing limited size market main economic growth reasons increase productivity create circle growth large scale investment programme wide array industries simultaneously answer increase demand industry lead increase demand industry demands law states supply creates demand clarified finance development arise large extent possible country domestically stated financing increased trade foreign investments strategy past 19th century success limited case united_states_of_america reality called new countries united_states_of_america separated british_empire high income countries begin endowed efficient producers effective markets high purchasing power point trying usa rich resource labour force labour force merely migrated britain usa level skills advanced begin situation outward led growth unique countries fact strategy financing development outside home country undertaken creates number problems example foreign investors resources country turn limit economy ability especially natural resources plundered create distorted social structure apart risk foreign investments finance private luxury consumption people try imitate western consumption habits balance payments crisis develop economic inequality population reason exports promoted likelihood country skilled promote export primary goods agricultural goods face demand extent sell market limited population rise additional demand exports created assumed developed countries operating replacement rate population growth exports means economic development completely ruled large scale development feasible capital generated country export surplus foreign investment productivity increase lead increasing returns scale eventually create circles growth role state world war debate country introduce financial planning develop rely private emerged believed subject promote development concern administrative problem crucial idea large dispersed investment economy market size expands leads higher productivity levels increasing returns scale eventually development country question noted favoured balanced growth hypothesis believed state capacity kind heavy investments theory gestation period investments usually long private sector normally undertake high risks reactions balanced growth theory criticised number grounds main critic albert pioneer strategy growth singer criticised certain aspects theory stressed fact economies called face lack resources maybe natural resources resources skilled labour technology nation undertake large scale investment industries economy simultaneously unrealistic resources quote country ready apply doctrine balanced growth place singer asserted balanced growth theory applicable cure economy facing feature advanced stage sustained growth vicious cycle poverty stated conditions activity developed countries stock resources machines merely unemployed present idle capacity situation simultaneous investment large number sectors suited policy economic agents temporarily unemployed invest starts operating slump overcome economy resources absent principle doesn fit contention approval law economy supply production goods services creates matching demand output results entire output sold consumed stated law operational country people spend entire income fraction saved future consumption according critics assumption law operational countries needs greater justification section putting emphasis supply demand widely states demand output sector rises nature demand demand output industries experience rise paul spoke similar concept called demand large investments large number industries simultaneously economy developed phenomenon demand took consideration situation industries produce goods substitute goods competition state pumps large investments car industry example naturally lead rise demand petrol state makes large scale investments coffee sector country tea sector suffer singer suggested theory makes dubious assumptions economy example assumes economy starts hand economy usually starts position reflects previous investment decisions undertaken country given moment exists logical step investment programmes compliment existing economy clearly investment balanced economy makes mistake setting balanced investment new likely appear require balancing investment bring forth believed balanced growth theory wasn fact theory growth growth implies gradual transformation economy stage stage series actions leads economy stage infancy maturity balanced growth theory involves creation brand new self sufficient modern industrial economy laid self sufficient traditional economy transformation reality dual economy come existence separate economic sectors begin country differ levels development technology demand patterns create inequality country