term coin placed mouth dead person burial greek latin literary sources specify coin explain payment bribe conveyed souls river divided world living world dead archaeological examples coins denominations practice called famous grave goods antiquity custom primarily associated ancient greeks romans found ancient near east western_europe similar usage coins occurs regions inhabited roman roman british cultures peoples late antiquity early christian era sporadic examples early 20th century shows myth reflects actual custom placement coins dead confined single coin deceased mouth inscribed metal leaf place coin gold foil crosses early christian era presence coins coin ship suggests analogous concept phrase archaeologists understood referring particular religious rite serves kind grave goods presumed deceased passage latin called journey placement coin mouth explained seal protect deceased soul prevent returning terminology coin conventionally referred greek literature greek basic denominations ancient greek worth sixth greeks coins actual relatively small gold silver bronze copper coin local use roman literary sources coin usually bronze copper 6th 4th centuries black_sea region low value coins depicting use mainly purpose local exchange serve payment specified term boat fare greek latin fee toll latin word defined christian era alexandria coin mouth dead meanings given dead defines coin traditionally buried dead paying cross river definition fee quotation poet notes custom carrying mouths dead latin called everyday usage means provision journey way road journey encompassing food money supplies word refer living granted stripped property condemned exile extension preparing death end life journey philosophical dialogue old age elder combine metaphors nearing end journey fruit speaking approach death drawing sense provision journey death ecclesiastical latin borrowed term form placed mouth person dying provision soul passage eternal life earliest literary evidence christian usage appears account death saint 7th century offers explanation word communion way guards soul shall stand judgment seat christ thomas explained term fruit god promised land called provides way getting idea christians travelers search salvation finds early expression confessions equivalent word greek like word antiquity mean provision journey literally road prefix road way later greek literature administered point death literature greek roman literary sources 5th century 2nd century consistent characteristics single low coin placed mouth placement occurs time death represents boat fare greek literary versions refer pays passage departed referring belief mocking dialogue declare collects makes downward journey spoken person dead woman poet expresses death payment bronze coin toll collector authors mention fee author uses low value coin emphasize death makes distinction rich poor pay die rich person greater death paying effect admission hell encouraged comic treatment persuaded threatened job appears literary construct reflected early classical art shown 5th century depictions called non threatening presence guides women children humor comic frogs makes journey frightening explicitly makes jokes fee character complains introduced hero role city organizer essay satirical work dead character called died asking order convey river underworld refuses pay consequently enter world dead claiming literally doesn archaeological evidence use coins grave goods shows variety practice casts doubt accuracy term category phrase continues suggest ritual religious significance context coins found greek 5th century soon greece appear roman empire 5th century examples type far west peninsula north britain east river poland found certain roman britain stained greenish contact copper coin roman coins found later anglo saxon graves pierced wearing necklace ancient greeks percent known contain coins roman half graves yield coins occurrences conform myth number coins positioning variety placement number including limited single coin mouth characteristic periods places world oldest coins mediterranean tombs found cyprus specialist said investigations tombs yielded coins varies number given burial small coins coins started placed tombs soon came circulation island 6th century issue literary reference fee small percentage greek contain coins widespread examples single coin positioned mouth skull remains coin skull coins bronze silver found archaeologists reported graves contained bronze coins believed intended placement mouth tombs contained coins single bronze coin positioned mouth head skeleton era tombs cemetery athens coins usually bronze found dead person mouth hand loose grave vessel originally settlement crete tomb dating second half 3rd century held rich variety grave goods including fine gold jewelry gold image bird clay vessel bronze mirror bronze bronze coin depicting excavations tombs cemetery mid- late 1990s majority dead found coin mouth dated 4th late 2nd century notable use occurred burial woman 4th century likely initiate mysteries religious included gold inscribed instructions figure lips placed gold stamped head coins begin appear greater frequency graves 3rd century gold plain small bottles oil place earlier black figure depicted scenes later white ground vessels usually pole rarely accepting coin black_sea region produced examples custom practiced century cemetery instance percent graves contained small bronze local coins mouth hand deceased excavations coast present day georgia single coin found seven pair coins coins silver local currency located near mouth exception near hand unclear dead greeks investigating archaeologists regard practice typical region speculate local geography lent adapting greek myth bodies dead ferried river town cemetery near east usually regarded single coin taken mark practice independent greek influence regions placing coin mouth deceased found times iran coin persian origin greeks usually greek region objects consecrated graves include coin piece silver custom thought old era form discoveries single coin near skull tombs levant suggest similar practice persian period jewish contain single coin example bearing daughter coin reign dated found skull mouth placement coin skull uncommon jewish antiquity potentially act literature preserves allusion lament dead aboard ferry having borrow fare boats depicted walls jewish coins found skull chosen depicted ship western_europe western roman empire vary widely 1st century community coins included percent graves placed mouth deceased figure percent spain york britain peninsula evidence interpreted found varying deposits coins found dead 1st 3rd centuries frequent late 4th early 5th centuries thirty roman near contained coin preference gold coins single cemetery narrow time period disposition varies cemetery normandy use centuries christ coins found minority graves time cemetery regarded exhibiting distinct phases earlier roman period dead buried vessels notably glass later given dress goods according custom neat division shown misleading 4th century area cemetery coins placed near hands protected vessel found grave fill tossed bronze coins usually numbered grave expected custom burial contained bronze coins held gold examples indicate coins represented relative social status newer cemetery remained use 6th century deposition patterns similar coins contemporaneous pierced wearing use older coins reflect shortage new currency indicate old coins held traditional symbolic meaning apart value varied placement coins different values demonstrates partial complete loss understanding original religious function remarks specialist burial customs factors difficult determine rite significance rite practiced uniformly northern europe greece examples individual small groups pattern kent young man buried gold mouth gold coin found mouth young man buried isle century grave goods included vessels drinking horn knife gaming ivory blue glass piece scandinavian gold found 5th 6th centuries particularly britain interpreted light gold similar coins generally single sided influenced late roman imperial coins feature norse myth inscriptions process created extended rim forms frame loop appear woman necklace function comparable suggested examples man burial kent group male graves sweden deposited body lack rim loop traces wear suggesting intended everyday use according interpretation purse ship burial suffolk east contained variety gold coins traditional voyage unusually splendid form burial yielded gold dating late 6th early 7th century coin small gold coins pay row ship world meant usually lone figure depictions antiquity modern era slight evidence ship furnished fragment 6th century pottery interpreted sitting stern boat fitted pairs rowed shades dead reference imply shades row boat scandinavia scattered examples documented roman iron age migration period viking age eastern sweden produces best evidence denmark rarely norway finland 13th 14th centuries appears graves sweden norway swedish folklore documents custom 18th 20th century christians custom continued christian era adopted christians single coin placed mouth christian grave yielded coin constantine christian emperor britain practice frequent christians persisted end 19th century writing able document witness britain seen penny placed mouth old man lay coffin pope coin practice widely documented turn 19th 20th centuries greece coin accompanied key ghost coins crosses called ghost coins appear dead impressions actual coin icon struck small piece gold foil 4th century grave syracuse sicily small rectangular gold leaf stamped dual faced figure possibly found skeleton mouth marble box century piece took form bit gold foil stamped owl addition bone fragments box contained gold leaves type associated mystery religions family burial plot 2nd century thin gold disk similarly stamped owl athens placed mouth male examples piece resemble material size tiny inscribed tablet called latin metal foil sheet passport dead instructions navigating conventionally regarded form prayer sheets found positions indicate placement deceased mouth functional piece suggested evidence flattened coins mouth graves crete gold damaged inscription god found skull burial late 1st century southern rome gold tablet served protective deceased lifetime mouth possibly model late roman era burial near lebanon forehead nose mouth deceased woman far skeletal remains indicate covered sheets gold leaf wore gold oak leaves clothing gold leaf decorated female faces glass vessels arranged feet interpreted bronze coin close head example evidence exists covering portions deceased body gold foil accusations christian movement known sealed mouths dead plates gold like mysteries factual charge indicates anxiety christian practice distinguished religions suggests gold fulfill similar purpose early christian poet referring inscribed gold leaf larger gold foil mystery religions says sheets gold placed bodies funeral rites practice distinct use gold leaf inscribed figures placed eyes mouths warriors late archaic period september archaeologists working near northern greece publicized discovery warrior graves deceased wore bronze helmets supplied iron swords knives gold leaf territory christian graves period reveal analogous practice form gold gold leaf shaped like cross designs deposited possibly deceased paper thin fragile gold crosses referred scholars german term appear deceased burial worn life practice comparable pierced roman coins found anglo saxon graves attached clothing instead addition necklace crosses characteristic italy roman imperial era placed deceased mouth continuation byzantine practice realm north territory crosses gradually replaced 7th century transition signalled scandinavian found kent stamped cross motifs resembling crosses plain gold foil crosses latin form found burial 7th century east saxon king known examples england announced king grave goods included glass vessels england different gold coins cross reverse coins period adapted christian facilitate use alternative traditional religions scandinavian scandinavia produced small fragile gold foil pieces called worked human figures begin appear late iron age continue viking age form resemble gold foil pieces found fashioned element associated occur archaeological record singly large numbers scholars speculated form temple money offering suggested represent good wishes travelers metaphor dead journey especially depicting religious significance ships appear greek roman art representing voyage isles blessed 2nd century found near rome included boat subject matter modern era greek death demon sea voyage river crossing later tale soul held hostage pirates representing require ransom release passage voyage crossing unique roman belief european culture occurs ancient egyptian religion belief systems culturally unrelated dead appears diverse cultures special relation greece model proposed figure possible scholars divided influenced tradition 1st century historian thought mentions fee saying comes common use idea payment introduced coins placed graves appearance myth literature diversity religious beliefs roman world mystery religions concerned placed high value secrecy knowledge single theology reconstructed account regarded numerous examples found roman tombs evidence traditional rite men performed definite meaning use coin rite depend myth religious traditions wealth underworld death wealth cultures practiced rite requires payment number underworld deities associated wealth greeks ruler dead consort wealth points meaningful ambiguity play dialogue god boundaries travel conveys souls border separates living dead acting god exchange commerce profit roman counterpart mercury thought antiquity share latin word goods merchandise numerous deities romans frequently associated wealth treatise nature gods identifies roman god greek explaining hidden arise earth regarded saturn ruler golden age consort goddess abundance obscure goddess depicted silence secrecy festival followed regulated communications realm living underworld guardian knowledge stored secret wealth roman died treasury temple venus sacred grove funeral goddess collected coin death tax republican poet death romans threw annual offering coins pit middle roman forum regarded port communication underworld wealth attributed celtic god type deities proposed divine identified relief god holds lap sack purse contents identified scholars coins food grain small fruits nuts intentionally ambiguous expressing desired abundance god appears coins britain explicit association wealth best known representation problematic surrounded animals religious significance taken context accompanying scene initiation god interpreted presiding process cycle death rebirth regarded ancient literary sources important celtic religion characteristic mysteries 7th century beginnings western ancient viewed distinctly secular form communal trust bound ties expressed religion earliest known coin antiquity found buried pot foundations temple dating century gods divine beings appeared regularly coins issued greek cities later rome effect religious practice indicated greek sacrifices pertaining fees priests prices offerings victims text refer single paid initiate mysteries symbolic value interpreted light initiate gaining access knowledge required successful passage argued basis later folk customs originally payment dead person way loss property passed living token substitute ancient practice property grave view later attached myth post facto explanation view richard introduction greece value provoked contributed creation greek criticizes common currency says guardians ideal republic divine gold silver money gods present souls money soul holds promise self coin food seal attempts explain symbolism rite negotiate placement coin mouth latin term makes sense journey suggested coins replaced offerings food dead roman tradition food living gold dead theme myth king versions draw elements mysteries king famous golden touch divine gift acceptance separated human world reproduction food daughter transformed contact gold versions myth hard won insight meaning life limitations wealth accompanied conversion cult having learned lessons initiate mysteries ritual river gold spiritual rebirth john early 20th century approach influenced cambridge argued food metaphor coin payment later original ritual single coins appear inside vicinity skull found hand logical place carry payment viewed coin originally seal lips dead block return soul believed pass body breath steps preparing corpse seal lips gold bands prevent soul return stopping mouth burial practices intended instance prevent vampires returning placement coin mouth compared practices pertaining disposition dead near east egyptian custom indicated burial dating 22nd dynasty later deceased woman mouth covered protective eye oval mouth found near east 1st century 1st century providing evidence analogous practice sealing mouths dead regions roman imperial control excavations produced examples gold leaf retained coin superior seal burial initiate described instance coin lips depicted device head seal serve regulate speech dead sought rituals powers highly regulated dangerous mystery religions offered knowledge prescribed ritual silence golden key laid tongue symbol revelation secret found objects inscriptions indicative mystery cult coin figures latin prose narrative alludes initiation ritual story synopsis narrative 2nd century narrative greek word soul sent underworld quest retrieve box containing secret beauty order restore love tale multiple approaches frequently analyzed religious initiation smaller scale plot concerns protagonist journey salvation cult isis ritual elements associated story version indicated visual representations instance 1st century cameo depicting wedding shows attendant basket initiation saw moving away earlier apology vision mystic salvation embarking descent receives instructions navigating underworld coins serve plot providing fare return return trip suggests soul rebirth divine form implied called gold myth rarely interpreted light mystery religions despite association archaeological evidence incorporate image ferry helen king notes hints death final reversed carry passengers way funeral rite kind initiation transition soul stage life coins eyes contrary popular little evidence connect myth custom placing pair coins eyes deceased larger gold foil discussed include pieces shaped eyes pairs coins found including collections british museum athens contained cremated remains figure mourning ancient greek latin literary sources mention pair coins return trip anticipated case regard sealing eyes rarely placement pair coins suggest covered eyes pair silver found eye skull burial dated 2nd century occurs jewish community religious affiliation deceased unclear jewish ritual antiquity require eye sealed object custom placing coins eyes dead practiced jews prior modern era 1980s issue embroiled controversies argued eye area revealed outlines coins placement coins eyes burial attested antiquity apart example cited interpretation evidence obtained digital image processing claimed firm support authenticity coins feet coins found deceased feet purpose positioning uncertain john mentions use coins depicting alexander great attached living head feet offers christian cross powerful alternative salvation healing christian transformation instructions recall received heroic descent inscribed christian protagonist 14th century french pilgrimage narrative advised anglo saxon early medieval irish missionaries took idea literally carrying bread oil need figures myth tinged account death king william england told anglo norman chronicler dying battle wound desperate king kept calling corpus lord body acted priest gave flowering herbs dominant tradition william death killed hunting second day red season began august date feast peter chains hunt associated medieval traditional heroic culture christian values offer multiple examples grass foliage substituted warrior knight meets violent end outside christian community sarah views substitute rite communion primitive sacred pagan beliefs beneath christian dying receives blades grass place corpus place desire communion hunt murdered killed asks killer grant communion leaf denied asks enemy eat heart instead request granted killer victim body alternative similarly assassinated corpse takes communion blades grass pre christian tradition accounts use leaves supported evidence religious practice documented peoples spells greek magical require leaf actual leaf scrap representation leaf metal foil inscribed rectangular described mouth corpse skull means conveying messages realms living dead spell attributed instructed leaf magic words insert mouth dead person herbs mouth dead promise resurrection occurs irish tale narrow stripes earliest written version dates 1800s thought preserve oral tradition early irish myth title figure performs series inducing armed men kill produces herbs bag instructs host place jaws dead man bring life end tale mysterious visitor revealed mac irish god known stories herd pigs offer eternal self flesh scholars frequently suggested use christian rite dying reflected religious practice replaced christian story recounted pope innocent iii letter dated coins said literally transformed communion presumed pre christian origin anti catholic historian religion turn 18th 19th centuries practice stating borrowed contemporary scholars likely explain borrowing light deep seated burial practices form religious motivated psychological need continuity christians practice burying corpse coin mouth widespread warrant condemnation church substitute rite came official scrutiny placed mouth death apparently desire magical protection time wrote confessions african bishops forbidden celebration presence corpse necessary stop occasional practice placing bread mouth dead replaced coin needed pay fare pope gregory biography tells story monk body twice ejected tomb advised family restore dead man resting place placed chest placement suggests functional gold purpose assure deceased successful passage analogous mystery case acts seal block dead returning world living journey death begin immediately taking offers example elderly christian managed hold death grandson placed portion mouth general audience october pope quoted account death received corpus immediately gave spirit taking good soul virtue food enjoys company angels story chronicle circa indicates regarded seal demons induced woman attempt host mouth pope urban iii corpse like serve journey seal 19th century german scholar proposed greek roman practices pertaining care dead specifically including shed light baptism baptism dead paul refers letter century james examined practices christian historical context argued intended baptism protect deceased soul interference journey baptism placement mouth person dead reflect christian responses outright rejection ancient religious traditions pertaining cult dead art modern era popular subject art particularly 19th century act payment depicted exception john exhibited story found expressions pre artists literary peers mourning death child produced number works dealing paintings likely based narrative poem william morris retelling version vision calm figure keeping archaic greek antagonist found christian era art literature contemporary artist bradley extends theme food oil canvas work shades depiction figure death transported soul stream gold coins struggle shores painting created artists bring mythological figure pop culture icon chosen randomly soul general symbol modern celebrity wealth notes artist represented dry having little physical beauty left wealth gold mouth modern poetry poets modern era continued use living allusion don juan don juan hell french poet charles marks eponymous hero entry underworld payment irish nobel makes direct allusion words imposing tongue like section long poem singing school


relief relief known queen night relief plaque high relief old period depicting winged nude goddess like figure bird flanked lions relief displayed british museum london dated bce originates southern iraq exact find site unknown apart distinctive piece noted high relief relatively large size suggest cult relief making rare survival period represents debate authenticity object questioned appearance 1930s opinion generally moved favour subsequent decades initially possession syrian dealer acquired plaque southern iraq relief deposited british museum london analysed museum declined purchase plaque passed london antique dealer subsequently known relief relief brought public attention page reproduction illustrated london news passed collection norman death acquired auction japanese collector british authorities denied export licence piece loaned british museum display relief purchased museum sum anniversary celebrations museum renamed plaque queen night relief object toured museums britain unfortunately original remains unknown relief excavated information came context discovered interpretation relief relies stylistic comparisons objects date place origin established analysis interpretation sources mythology religion description detailed descriptions published monograph curator british museum plaque housed composition unique works art elements interesting counterparts images time physical aspect relief fired clay plaque centimetres large centimetres thick head figure projecting centimetres surface manufacture relief clay small mixed visible suggest material stiff worked british museum department scientific research reports likely plaque subsequent modelling details addition rod ring symbols hair eyes relief polished details pointed tool firing burned leaving characteristic pitted surface curtis believe surface appeared paint antiquity dimensions unique plaque larger mass produced plaques popular art items excavated house ruins old periods overall relief excellent condition originally received pieces fragments british museum repair cracks apparent particular triangular piece missing right edge main features deity animals intact figure face damage left left nose neck region damage right hand overall shape symmetry half necklace missing symbol figure held right hand lost piece lion tail comparison images shows modern damage sustained right hand crown lost tier lower left corner piece mountain owl lost right toes major aspects relief survived intact years traces red pigment remain figure body originally painted red overall feathers wings feathers colored red alternating black white red pigment identified red black pigment carbon lamp black white pigment black pigment found background plaque hair lions triangle appear red pigment separately painted black lions bodies painted white british museum assume horns necklace originally colored yellow similar clay figure rod ring symbols painted yellow traces yellow pigment remain relief female figure nude female figure sculpted high relief eyes beneath distinct joined hollow presumably accept material feature common stone bronze sculptures time seen clay sculptures lips slightly corners adorned horns topped disk head framed hair bulk hair wedge shaped extending breasts stylized treatment hair represent ceremonial wig wears single broad necklace composed squares structured horizontal vertical lines possibly depicting square necklace virtually identical necklace god found necklace lines square wears appear composed rings hands lifted turned viewer detailed visible heart lines holding rod ring symbols left hand preserved wings clearly defined stylized feathers registers extend shoulders feathers register shown overlapping scales lower registers long flight feathers appear drawn ruler end convex trailing edge feathers smooth surfaces drawn wings similar entirely symmetrical differing number flight feathers details coloring scheme wings spread triangular shape fully extended breasts high separately modelled body sculpted attention detail deep structured abdomen modeled area outline beneath crest bony structure legs distinct knee caps suggest artistic skill certainly derived observed study spur like fold extends knee interprets figure legs change bird bird feet detailed long separated toes approximately equal length lines surface ankle toes depict visible toes prominent toes extended perspective appear rest ground line figure impression background animals background lions male patterned dense short lines continue beneath body distinctly patterned hair grow lion ears shoulders central disk shaped lie prone heads sculpted attention detail degree artistic liberty form rounded shapes lions look viewer mouths closed shown recognizable sculpted shape length legs details plumage indigenous region plumage colored like deity wings red black white similar perfectly symmetrical feather right hand plumage left hand legs feet red group placed pattern scales painted black way mountain ranges commonly art context date place origin stylistic comparisons place relief earliest period slightly later beginning old period especially notes stylistic similarity sculpted head male deity found finds close queen night quality details come workshop possible city origin relief points virtual identity style lion hair detail seen fragments clay plaques excavated reported similar necklace fragment found context creation date beginning second millennium bce places relief region time political situation marked influence city states invasion finally conquest unification empire bce years earlier population time high invaders toppled dynasty population declined stabilized number time relief cities like order inhabitants maybe grew bce developed infrastructure complex division labour required sustain cities size religious imagery specialized large numbers smaller plaques excavated fabricated fertile crescent considered oldest history time relief late bronze age equally bloom travel cultural exchange commonplace possible east capital frequent military conflict later valley civilization past peak china culture southwest egypt ruled 12th dynasty west civilization centred crete old palace dominated mediterranean north establishing old kingdom brought end empire sack city bce mentions raid possibly reason damage right hand relief religion size plaque suggests belonged shrine possibly object worship probably set mud brick wall shrine dedicated space large private home house main focus worship cities temples contained representations gods sculpted round temples time rectangular sides according shrine located inside art history compared important religious practice compared number temples existed cult figures preserved certainly lack artistic skill ram image shows elaborate sculptures years earlier lack interest religious sculpture deities myths cylinder seals preserved plausible main figures worship temples materials valuable escape looting shifts power region saw relief comparatively plain survived fact relief existing large representations old period code actually discovered brought booty image static frontal image typical religious images intended worship compositions common art context narrative examples found cylinder seals arrangements god figures common arrangements exist respect relief follows established conventions terms representation deity sculpted modest nudity reminiscent egyptian goddess sculptures sculpted defined region details lower dress indicates covering intended conceal typical statue genre bat shown human form sculpted relief fact given features queen image article depicting anthropomorphic god human innovative artistic idea egypt like number concepts religious rites architecture banquet plaques artistic innovations previously respect relief shows clear departure style men women found temples periods years earlier image distinct major style region art rigid detailed representations scenes war hunting image extraordinary survival figure type interpretations cult context shifted intervening centuries expressed cast figure 1st century bce coast asia minor excavated french school athens illustrated left comparisons compared visual artworks time relief fits style representation rich images earlier contemporary somewhat later examples woman goddess depictions contemporaries religion recognizes literally thousands deities distinct identified dozen frequently gods identified written label dedication labels intended creating religious object sculptor free create novel images representation deities attributes context religion rituals mythology innovation accepted canon considered offense large degree similarity found plaques seals suggests detailed based famous cult statues established visual tradition derivative works lost appears relief product tradition source composition unique frontal nudity frontal presentation deity appropriate plaque worship reference god symbol presence relief existing plaque intended worship know generally true particular depiction goddess represents specific motif nude goddess wings bird feet similar images found number plaques cylinder seal approximately time period instances frontal view nudity wings crown features occur images linked representation particular goddess examples motif existing examples nude god goddess representations gods clothed bird feet preserved counter examples nude winged goddess human feet crown crown usually general symbol deity art male female gods alike wear instances lesser gods wear crowns pair horns number horns generally symbol rank importance form style popular neo times later earlier representations horns projecting conical wings winged gods mythological creatures birds frequently depicted cylinder seals 3rd millennium way winged winged figures known wings extended spread wings type representation specific depiction hanging wings nude goddess evolved originally cape rod ring symbol symbol depict measuring tools builder architect token representation tools frequently depicted cylinder seals held god usually later images extended king lions lions chiefly associated male gods art lions nearly depicted open jaws suggests relief shows modification normal canon fact lions turned lions appear threatening mouths open examples context exist art references directly associate particular god goddess mountains god standing seated pattern scales typical scenery depiction associated gods connection mountains restricted deity particular identification figure initially identified depiction immediately arguments forward identification relief depicting staple popular writing subject believes relief extant depiction female demon called define assertion lead based interpretation deity demon presence wings birds feet representation cites epic source creatures inhabitants land dead text appearance partially changed led world creatures wearing feather passage reflects belief world cites evidence ruler underworld depicted bird feet wrapped gown identification figure cites instead believes figure lower order explain exactly goes state wings regularly suggest demon associated wind indicate nocturnal habits female demon candidate demons states representation demon demon evil wind named literally wind maiden phantom maiden beautiful maiden asserts antagonist brief episode epic cited evidence identification appendix disputed episode holy tree invaded spirits quotes preliminary translation midst built house maid joyful bright queen heaven modern translations instead trunk phantom maid built dwelling maid laughs joyful heart holy cried earlier translation implies association demon owl time asserts god like nature modern translation supports attributes fact translator writes associated mythology jewish traditions concerning form late great authority single line evidence taken virtual proof identification relief motivated later associations later jewish sources association later jewish literature songs sage 1st century bce 5th century derived reference list wilderness birds animals 7th century bce scholars blair consider pre reference non supernatural reflected modern bible translations shall grow strongholds fortresses shall wild animals shall meet wild goat shall cry fellow night bird finds resting place owl nests lays young shadow hawks gathered mate today identification relief questioned figure generally identified goddess love war years later substantially revised interpretation identified figure analysis primarily based evidence according hypothesis tablet created worship makes unlikely demon depicted demons cult religious practice demons know food know drink eat flour offering drink relationship giving taking established crown symbol fact suggests principal gods goddess associated lions example hymn specifically mentions seated crossed lions goddess depicted standing mountains according text sources home mountain gods depicted mountain scales examples shown mountain pattern god pattern identify rod ring symbol necklace wig attributes explicitly referred myth descent world quotes evidence word owl corresponds word divine lady corresponds translated epithet goddess known theme mythology text called kid rendered appears cluster metaphors linking prostitute owl goddess match enigmatic component relief known aspect concludes link sufficient explain wings adds nudity indicate relief originally house altar contrast british museum acknowledge possibility relief depicts prefers identification antagonist sister goddess underworld interpretation based fact wings background relief originally painted black correct identification relief smaller plaques nude winged known representations propose identification associates hanging wings demons states suggested relief proves correct imposing demonic figure depicted identified female ruler dead major figure old occasionally associated death supporting evidence given analysis published comes conclusion von der describes evidence weakly developed existing cult cites aspects similarity sources example called sisters myth descent world finally explains unique doubled rod ring symbol following way shown peak power taken divine symbols sister identifying lions authenticity london illustrated news feature doubt authenticity object subjected chemical examination showed traces dried way possible course centuries stylistic doubts published months later noted absolutely unique nature artefacts article douglas van examined examples sic art excavated presented examples lions plaque nude bird goddess standing similar plaques small owl owl isolated piece context year later acknowledged van examples added concluded relief genuine concurred opinion consistent examples especially rod ring symbol symbols focus communication questioned relief authenticity subsequently british museum performed dating consistent relief fired antiquity method samples surrounding soil available background radiation levels curtis published scientific analysis british museum sufficiently convinced relief purchase discourse continued extensive stylistic features called relief artistic features continue antiquity arguments noting particular relief created unit possibility modern figure parts added antique background reviewed links pieces concluding states believed time look worse worse genuine object grow better better years queen night grown better better interesting real work art old period relief included exhibitions museum berlin paris metropolitan museum art new_york


book dead book dead ancient egyptian text beginning new kingdom bce bce original egyptian text translated book coming forth day translation book emerging forth light book closest term describe loose collection texts consisting number magic spells intended assist dead person journey underworld written priests period years book dead tradition texts includes earlier pyramid texts coffin texts painted objects spells included drawn older works date 3rd millennium bce spells composed later egyptian history dating intermediate period 11th 7th centuries bce number spells book continued inscribed tomb walls spells originated book dead placed coffin burial chamber deceased single canonical book dead surviving contain varying selection religious magical texts vary considerably illustration people commissioned copies book dead choosing spells thought vital progression book dead commonly written script illustrated depicting deceased journey development book dead developed tradition manuscripts dating egyptian old kingdom texts pyramid texts pyramid king 5th dynasty bce texts written walls burial chambers exclusively use 6th dynasty queen pyramid texts written unusual style representing humans animals left incomplete drawn mutilated likely prevent causing harm dead purpose pyramid texts help dead king place gods particular reunite divine father period seen sky underworld described book dead end old kingdom pyramid texts ceased exclusively royal privilege adopted regional governors high ranking officials middle kingdom new text emerged coffin texts coffin texts newer version language new spells included illustrations time coffin texts commonly written inner surfaces occasionally found tomb walls coffin texts available wealthy private individuals vastly increasing number people expect participate process described book dead developed beginning second intermediate period bce earliest known occurrence spells included book dead coffin queen 13th dynasty new spells included older texts known pyramid texts coffin texts spells introduced time claim older instance spell states discovered prince reign king hundreds years attested archaeological record 17th dynasty book dead widespread members royal family officials stage spells typically inscribed wrapped dead occasionally found written new kingdom saw book dead develop spread famous spell weighing heart known reign iii bce period onward book dead typically written text illustrated 19th dynasty particular tended lavish expense surrounding text intermediate period book dead started appear script traditional cheaper version lacking illustration apart single beginning produced smaller time additional texts instance 25th 26th book dead updated revised spells consistently ordered numbered time version known today 26th dynasty late period period book dead remained based increasingly abbreviated end period new texts appeared including book breathing book traversing use book dead 1st century bce artistic motifs drawn use roman times spells book dead number individual texts accompanying illustrations sub texts begin word mean mouth speech chapter book spell ambiguity reflects similarity egyptian thought ritual speech magical power context book dead typically translated chapter spell article word spell present spells known single manuscript contains served range purposes intended deceased mystical knowledge identify gods instance spell obscure lengthy description god ensure different elements dead person preserved reunited deceased control world protect deceased hostile forces guide underworld past obstacles famously spells deal judgement deceased weighing heart ritual spells spells relate heart inscribed texts images book dead magical religious magic legitimate activity praying gods magic aimed controlling gods little distinction ancient magical religious practice concept magic linked spoken written word act speaking ritual formula act creation sense action speech thing magical power words extended written word script held invented god powerful written words conveyed force spell true text abbreviated omitted occurred later book dead particularly accompanying images present believed knowing gave power book dead owner mystical names entities encounter giving power spells book dead use magical techniques seen areas egyptian life number spells magical protect deceased harm addition represented book dead spells appeared wound everyday magic use huge numbers items direct contact body tomb considered value number spells refer egyptian beliefs magical healing power organization book dead unique containing different mixture spells drawn corpus texts available history book dead defined order structure fact paul pioneering study common themes texts concluded internal structure period 26th dynasty onwards defined order books dead period tend organize chapters sections chapters deceased enters tomb descends underworld body regains powers movement speech chapters explanation origin gods places deceased live arise morning sun chapters deceased travels sky sun blessed dead evening deceased travels underworld appear chapters having deceased assumes power universe gods section includes chapters protective provision food important places egyptian concepts death spells book dead depict egyptian beliefs nature death book dead vital source information egyptian beliefs area preservation aspect death modes existence rituals served integrate different aspects served preserve transform physical body form divine aspects book dead contained spells aimed preserving body deceased recited process heart regarded aspect included intelligence memory protected spells case happened physical heart common bury heart body provide replacement life force remained tomb dead body required offerings food water case priests relatives failed provide offerings spell ensured satisfied dead person constituted required continued existence written places book spell ensured deceased remember free ranging spirit aspect deceased depicted human headed bird forth day tomb world spells acted preserve finally shut shadow deceased preserved spells aspects person variously preserved remembered dead person live form blessed spirit magical powers gods nature dead person enjoyed difficult define differing traditions ancient egyptian religion book dead dead taken presence god confined subterranean spells enable dead join travelled sky sun barque help fight joining gods book dead depicts dead living field likeness real world field depicted lush plentiful version egypt living fields crops people waterways deceased person shown encountering great group gods parents depiction field pleasant plentiful clear manual labour required reason included number named later inscribed spell included book dead requiring undertake manual labour owner duty clear dead went place gods lived acquired divine characteristics occasions deceased mentioned book dead path laid book dead difficult deceased required pass series gates guarded supernatural creatures terrifying entities armed enormous knives illustrated forms typically human figures heads animals combinations different ferocious names instance lives snakes dances blood equally creatures reciting appropriate spells included book dead posed threat extend protection dead person breed supernatural creatures killed behalf book dead equipped owner escape supernatural entities threats natural supernatural animals including snakes beetles judgment obstacles negotiated deceased judged weighing heart ritual depicted spell deceased led god presence dead person swore committed sin list sins reciting text known negative confession dead person heart weighed pair scales goddess embodied truth justice represented feather sign point risk deceased heart bear witness owning sins committed life spell guarded scales balanced meant deceased led good life find place meaning true voice heart balance beast called stood ready eat dead person early unpleasant end scene remarkable parts book dead explicit moral content judgment dead negative confession representation conventional moral code governed egyptian society negative confession possible read thou christian ethics rules conduct laid perceived divine revelation negative confession divine enforcement everyday morality views differ far negative confession represents moral absolute ethical purity necessary progress john taylor points wording spells suggests pragmatic approach morality preventing heart truths deceased enter life entirely pure says moral existence hope successful pinch suggests negative confession essentially similar spells protecting demons success weighing heart depended mystical knowledge true names judges deceased moral behaviour producing book dead book dead produced order commissioned people preparation funeral relatives recently deceased expensive items source gives price book dead silver half annual pay evidently costly instances use everyday documents creating case book dead written second hand owners book dead evidently social elite initially reserved royal family later found tombs priests officials owners men generally included owner wife beginning history book dead roughly copies belonging men woman intermediate period women women owned roughly late periods dimensions book dead vary widely longest long short composed sheets joined individual varying width working book dead took care work working mundane texts care taken frame text margins avoid writing joints sheets words coming forth day appear reverse outer margin acting label books workshops spaces left deceased written later instance appears column immediately following introducing speaker block text appears different rest manuscript places omitted entirely text new kingdom book dead typically written left right right left columns separated black lines similar arrangement carved tomb walls monuments illustrations frames columns text largest illustrations took page 21st dynasty onward copies book dead found script similar manuscripts new kingdom text written horizontal lines wide columns column size corresponds size sheets occasionally book dead contains text book dead written black red ink regardless script text black red ink titles spells opening closing sections spells instructions perform spells correctly rituals names dangerous creatures demon black ink based carbon red ink cases mixed water style nature illustrate book dead varies widely contain lavish colour illustrations making use gold leaf contain line drawings simple illustration opening book dead work different artists work literally usually possible identify style given manuscript manuscript shorter text illustrations produced different number books text completed illustrations left discovery translation interpretation preservation existence book dead known early middle ages contents understood found tombs evidently document religious nature led widespread book dead equivalent bible didn recognize ritual richard published translation manuscript dated era coined book dead introduced spell numbering system use identifying different spells promoted idea comparative edition book dead drawing relevant manuscripts project undertaken starting completed producing volume work including selection spells worked significant variations text spell commentary samuel birch british museum published extensive english translation published photographic copy work birch successor british museum wide circulation including editions english translations considered inaccurate date recent translations english published allen work book dead spells identified total stands 1970s university began working group develop history book dead texts later received sponsorship german state north rhine german research foundation coming auspices german sciences arts today book dead project called maintains database documentation photography covering extant copies fragments corpus book dead texts provides current services housed university material available online affiliated scholars series monograph studies alongside series publishes manuscripts des print released series related focused analysis comparison criticism research work book dead posed technical difficulties thanks need copy long texts initially copied hand assistance tracing paper camera mid-19th century available reproduction manuscripts feasible present day rendered publishing software combined digital print technology means costs publishing book dead considerably reduced large source material museums world remains unpublished chronology bce preserved small labels tomb king buried tomb bce beginning numbered kings ancient egypt bce royal pyramid king contain pyramid texts carved intended king literature book dead ultimately developed bce coffin texts developed pyramid texts time painted spells book dead closely derived bce earliest spells book dead coffin queen kings new kingdom bce time onward beginning new kingdom copies book dead instead spells walls tombs bce approximately order spells standard 2nd century possibly copies book dead produced poorly documented era history christianity spreads egypt napoleon invasion egypt encourages european interests ancient egypt handed copy book dead cadet makes publication plates book dead des notice descriptive paris announces key ancient egyptian writing subsequently developed later publications extensive death publishes major study book dead begins numbering spells chapters brings book dead general circulation


prehistoric prehistoric refers period human occupation archipelago scotland islands period prior occupation genus geology scotland written records refer roman invasions scotland northern scotland end commencement early historic period numerous important prehistoric remains especially period form world heritage site diverse reasons abundance archaeological record sandstone bedrock provides easily stone materials wind blown sands helped preserve sites relative lack low helped preserve ancient monuments local tradition hints fear ancient structures inherited norse period occupation helped retain structural integrity conventionally divided number shorter periods eras human history complex task boundaries uncertain changes gradual lasted retreat ice adoption farming commenced number sites span long periods time particular later periods clear cut extraordinary wealth structures matched early periods evidence human occupation sparse non existent later bronze age provides relative evidence subsequent iron age supported return monumental building especially formal excavations recorded late 18th century proceeded understanding structures involved progressed little folklore modern archaeological science sites discussed found mainland stated traces found scotland presence pleistocene indications humans occur ice retreated 11th millennium current began time landscape altered human natural forces initially sea levels lower present large volume ice remained meant islands attached mainland present day island great_britain continental europe north_sea basin dry land travel northern scotland relatively easy early human settlers subsequent rise land makes estimating post glacial coastlines complex task limited archaeological record provides evidence life particular scotland north general sites south hill produced small polished stone tools shell recovered excavations dated evidence suggest sites year round occupation burial sites uncovered scotland date recently excavated site produced thousand pieces flint evidence temporary camp tentative dating older prove oldest settlement site found far coast norway created reached metres normal high tides places evidence widespread coastal wave metres high found far south impact shore dwelling societies considerable monumental structures parallel united_kingdom mainland provides entire landscape features period time complex new societies came fore radical departure earlier hunter capable creating substantial structures scotland lasted approximately nearly identified sites told british archaeologists interpreted era having distinct phases earlier dominated regional styles pottery architecture followed relatively abrupt change later characterised new traditions found british isles incorporate structures scale context definite developments changes gradual tend build earlier ideas appearing form distinct periods great monuments constructed emergence ancient egyptian culture years building great pyramid millennium stones erected time believed flowering culture essentially peripheral origins found south mainland great_britain recently discovered evidence shows starting place culture including styles architecture pottery developed later southern british isles early dwellings probably oldest preserved house northern europe situated island combined nearby early consists adjacent rounded rectangular thick walled buildings low linked structure inhabited years evidently built site older settlement pottery pieces found site discovered 1920s coastline exposed tides settlement cluster buildings including communal gatherings occupied design houses built ground level includes central box beds stone network stone drains leading common ditch pottery type stone tools found thought come isle consists houses northern europe complete village occupied houses similar linked common passages built large containing ash bones shells stone organic waste roofs probably supported timber visible outside case stone erected dominated view entering house low doors elaborate carvings unknown meaning stones houses passages variety bone carved stone balls discovered site revealed storm winter ripped away grass covering sand existing ruins belong secondary phase building foundations phase largely hidden view main types islands type burial chamber approached low passage usually divided stalls upright stone type later development layout elongated passage island substantial number prehistoric sites including tombs resulting known egypt north western shore island finest example exterior walls large stone burial mound survive head height constituent stones arranged herring bone pattern original interior chambers simple style stalls later enlarged include separate compartments set metres substantial tombs burial progressed theme found scotland simple private tombs larger structures entrances apparently designed public gatherings linked emergence landscape scale ceremonial complexes tombs significance include mainland links site north coast island excavated 1980s shaped discovered carved believed earliest representation human face found scotland face dots eyes heavy nose pattern body represent clothing archaeologist richard described find astonishing rarity heart ring stones form heart world heritage site western mainland inscribed small area provided rich archaeological heritage location relatively remote main centres population scotland densely populated parts europe mistake imagine placed today substantial evidence suggests variety smaller islands british isles developed advanced society took centuries longer develop mainland great_britain clear whilst flow ideas technologies britain south north time evident played significant role development british culture possibility tribal differences cultural landscape pottery associated small settlements like stalled tombs pottery hand tends associated larger village settlements like howe style tombs dating large passage grave howe element old norse word meaning mound common grass mound hides complex passages chambers built carefully crafted sandstone scale accomplishment equals prehistoric europe aligned rear wall central chamber rough cube cubic metres illuminated winter gives type include significant sites hill hill fell bronze age opened centuries later 9th 12th centuries left series inscriptions stone walls chamber left group winter thirty individual inscriptions remain largest collections europe ring ring stone circle metres diameter originally stones remain standing set circular ditch metres deep metres wide remaining stones metres high estimated ditch took man hours construct ring stands small generally thought erected excavations college nearby site ring stones revealed buildings ritual domestic works suggest likely vicinity structure appears metres long metres wide pottery bones stone tools polished stone heads discovered important find remains large stone wall metres long metres wide appears traverse entire peninsula site symbolic barrier ritual landscape ring mundane world rock coloured red orange yellow unearthed containers found previously sites discovery britain possibly northern europe evidence peoples paint buildings thought primitive paint iron ore mixed animal fat milk eggs week later stone pattern painted red pigment discovered nearby stones stones remaining largest metres high site thought date earliest dates britain stones landscape evidently considerable ritual significance people ring lies kilometres north west similar distance east metres north existing originally elliptical shaped stone circle stones metres diameter surrounded ditch metres wide metres deep single entrance causeway north faces settlement watch stone stands outside circle north west metres high smaller stones include square stone like huge setting centre circle bones cattle sheep wolves dogs found ditch suggest ritual sacrifice 18th century site associated traditions rituals relating norse gods stone pierced circular hole local couples engagements holding hands gap early 19th century local landowner recent immigrant decided remove stones grounds local people disturbing land stones started december smashing stone caused outrage stopped destroying stone toppled stone erected inaccurate reconstruction inside circle late sites popularly known tomb eagles located cliffs south tomb use years separate stalls chambers human bones found excavations bird bones predominantly white tailed sea eagle kilograms pottery tomb island single huge block red sandstone central chamber style unlike site probably dates ancient monument described writing appearing 16th century ben provided explanation existence having built giants bronze age bronze age scotland lasted approximately northern scotland produced relative remains period comparison later iron age deteriorating weather conditions second millennium fewer large stone structures built period small away great sites new culture began dominate nonetheless great ceremonial circles continued use bronze slowly introduced scotland europe lengthy period agreement historians legitimate talk celtic culture scotland nature celtic relationships neighbours remains largely unknown addition mainland sites hill impressive mound near ring bronze age structures islands remains houses burnt mound iron age early iron age iron age provides numerous substantial building remains 1970s excavations near site tomb revealed atlantic built stone stripped older building fallen previously numerous similar finds example mainland quarry impressive sites substantial stone towers developed tradition north west scotland dry stone walls reached metres height towers surviving walls metres high important sites excavated numerous associated buildings forming village lies close appear separate periods occupation point buttresses added exterior wall suggesting structure need support sites sound island built second half millennium excavated mid 19th century earth intact allowing visitors peer walls metres thick places complete chamber entrance passage remains stone furniture evident interior howe located near parish prehistoric subterranean man chamber dug metres deep inside large mound purpose obvious walls lined stones fitted form arch cavity steep steps lead rock floor entrance small hill surrounding ditch evidence sophisticated metal working site earth house consisting oval chamber roof supported pillars structures usually associated storage food site reminiscent tombs excavations revealed human skeletons stone buildings later iron age characteristic features include outer wall circle stone piers bearing resemblance wheel form basis arches supporting hub presumed sites identified style different western isles sites mainland influence rome brief period emerged greek explorer visited britain mainland ocean refers northerly point reference remarkably earliest written record formal connection rome scotland attendance king british kings submitted emperor following invasion southern britain months earlier long distances short period time involved strongly suggest prior connection rome evidence found contrast later resistance rome striking roman recorded written thirty islands certainly evidence connection rome prior pottery found 1st 2nd century roman coins found roman presence scotland little series relatively brief partial military occupation roman influence waned scotland onwards faded history celtic iron age way life continued largely unchanged rule centuries following rome scottish territory time kingdom little known main archaeological relics symbol stones best examples located shows warriors spears sword combined traditional symbols small tidal island long history settlement continued norse period biographer states court high king described hostages imply difficult relations king simply guests court cemetery found grounds house adjacent christianity probably arrived 6th century organised church authority emerged 8th century found site inscribed interpretation caused controversy generally considered irish christian origin evidence associated church suggests island seat christian times 8th century time viking invasions scottish commenced came arrival new culture language islands norse era provided variety written records substantial saga point archipelago fully emerges historic era archaeological history formal excavations recorded earl statistical account scotland mound assumed giant grave time following soon work house tomb commenced little note achieved mid 19th century thomas day job captain royal_navy published celtic listed sites aimed interest subject hopes met dozen tombs worked james george work near decades late 1920s work assistance royal commission ancient historical monuments scotland ministry works eminent archaeologist work time gordon involved excavations pottery discovered site understood settlements dated iron age tombs excavated including 1960s outlines modern understanding emerged advent dating enabled detailed dates established refuted earlier theories tombs developed similar structures found eastern mediterranean built clear pre dated considerable margin timeline


history roman byzantine history roman byzantine traces architecture ancient roman empire medieval continuation today called byzantine_empire important architectural elements widespread influence contemporary later styles russian ottoman architecture italian renaissance modern octagonal shapes known developed form use structure centuries early examples rested directly walls round rooms featured central ventilation light common byzantine period provided support square spaces early wooden known literary source use wooden concrete labor enabled monumental size late republic early imperial period called temple mercury bath hall introduced dome roman palace architecture 1st century rooms served state halls audience rooms throne rooms dome largest famous example built concrete 2nd century served audience hall imperial beginning 3rd century smaller built technique tubes place wooden concrete permanent structure embedded concrete light brick preferred building material course 4th 5th centuries brick ribs allowed thinner structure facilitated use windows supporting walls replacing need light source christian 4th century likely wooden dome church holy constantine octagonal palace church precedent similar buildings centuries afterward built 5th century church southern turkey earliest proposed example 6th century architecture church architecture standard roman east church holy inspired copies later centuries churches crossings churches nicholas typical 7th 8th century architecture dome barrel sides standard structural system drums cylindrical shape standard 9th century empire later period smaller churches built smaller normally meters 10th century exceptions include 11th century 12th century church cross square plan single dome crossing pattern church popular type 10th century fall constantinople overview rounded arches distinguish roman architecture ancient greece facilitated use concrete brick varying weight aggregate material concrete weight concrete altered allowing lighter layers laid concrete concrete required expensive wooden called built kept place process usually destroyed removed brick need kept place long easily reused roman palaces tombs common features shape partially totally concealed exterior order horizontal large masonry dome supporting walls built base dome dome covered conical roof variety shapes including shallow audience halls imperial palaces common garden construction development declined west decline fall western portion empire term byzantine invented historian wolf popular 19th century refer medieval eastern roman empire capital constantinople town byzantine period supporting structure arches allowed spaces opened allowed weight loads concentrated points practical square plan circle important elements churches tombs normally occasional exceptions drums ranged simple tile expensive form fitting lead drums typically incorporated wooden tension rings levels resist mortar allow faster construction metal stone blocks metal tie rods metal chains stabilize buildings timber belts bases helped stabilize walls earthquakes remained vulnerable collapse surviving dome examples constantinople structurally equivalent techniques number divisions corresponding number windows aided small scale churches 6th century built ribs built self supporting rings small effectively altogether late republic early imperial period roman played leading role development construction general monumental particular modest dating 2nd 1st centuries seen cold rooms del conical shape similar relief found roman era spain dome identified middle 2nd century refined version parallel arch construction found earlier bath dome sicily according temperature humidity warm rooms regulated raising lowering bronze discs located particularly suited hot rooms circular plan facilitate heating walls extensive use occur 1st century book agriculture describes wooden dome decorated winds compared analogy winds depicted tower winds built athens time wooden dome represent fully developed type wooden general allowed wide spans earlier use inspired development introduction large stone previously unprecedented size complex wooden forms necessary dome support construction eventually efficient standardized time mortar aggregate roman concrete built horizontal layers laid hand wooden form work thickness layers determined length poured mold concrete today roman concrete built similarly earlier mediterranean region different structural characteristics aggregate romans rubble lightweight aggregate upper levels served reduce stresses hidden inside reduce weight dry concrete romans eliminate added animal blood acted water roman concrete weak tension provide structural advantage use brick stone constructed slave labor provided advantage facilitated building large scale reached monumental size roman imperial period survived ideal centimeters called temple mercury suggest frames horizontal supporting radial shallow dome building actually concrete bath hall dating age known large roman dome openings dome circular square dome span meters largest known dome built earliest preserved concrete dome century earlier examples republican period early imperial period growth construction increased emperor 1st century 2nd century centrally planned halls increasingly important parts palace palace villa beginning 1st century serving state halls audience rooms throne rooms arranged horizontally surviving evidence 1st 2nd centuries typical palace architecture emperor marks important development evidence dome intersection corridors resting large piers center golden house planned walls large octagonal room transition octagonal vault transitions dome earliest known example dome city rome built dome meters diameter octagonal dome concrete brick radial walls surrounding rooms dome allowing octagonal walls directly beneath contain large openings flat arches room unusually lit indication mosaic facing material applied surface dome hidden tent like fabric canopy like pavilion tents earlier persian rulers unusually large span room served support lightweight structure covered opening circular channels upper surface support idea rotating dome referred written accounts according dome rotated base imitation sky reported newly discovered foundations round room rotating dining hall reported contemporary sources ceiling dining hall palace fitted pipes rain ceiling known feature dome expensive lavish decoration palace caused scandal abandoned soon death public buildings built site intact dome reign emperor meter wide example villa church santa maria established semi dome imperial motif square chambers palace hill support palace contained resting walls alternating rectangular openings octagonal hall existed domestic wing unlike similar octagonal dome segments extended way dining hall private palace called dining hall contained rotating ceiling like built stars set simulated sky second century reign emperor semi standard elements roman architecture possibly efforts architect damascus famed engineering ability meters diameter finished built meters wide built markets north east forum architecture successor continued style considered example architecture evidence rebuilding present form begun speculation architect proven stylistic large half dome foot wide patterns align lower axes alignment ribs temple rome completed emperor famous best preserved largest roman dome diameter twice wide known earlier dome dating 2nd century concrete dome meters wide resting circular wall meters thick brick faced concrete contains large number relieving arches solid seven interior entrance way divide wall structurally virtually independent piers openings additional account quarter wall volume opening dome brick lined meters diameter provides light ventilation interior shallow dome accounts percent reduction dome mass decorative aggregate material hand placed concrete heaviest base dome changes lighter materials height increases dramatically reducing stresses finished structure fact commentators cite example revolutionary possibilities architecture provided use roman concrete vertical cracks developed early practice dome acts array arches common single unit exterior step rings dome necessary dome acted structure builders common roman arch construction cracks dome seen upper internal chambers covered rendering inner surface outside roof originally covered bronze tiles removed emperor replaced lead function remains open question strangely temple inscription attributes building site builder marcus mention god group gods comes greek gods unofficial included list temples restored circular temples small rare roman temples traditionally allowed room resembles structures found imperial palaces believed held court main opposite entrance explain large size later roman buildings similar include temple old city called round temple related imperial cult dome roman feet wide versus brick cut stone dome roman feet wide brick faced concrete later dome built imperial era came close span remained largest dome world millennium world largest concrete dome concave alternating concave flat appear 2nd century preserved examples style date period villa examples recorded details decoration dome suggests evoke tent imitation kings examples exist called temple venus style dome required complex oriented create tight curves earliest surviving direct evidence radial found large villa amateur architect apparently like architect damascus called prior emperor according memory insult contributed emperor having exiled killed middle 2nd century largest built near present day naples large bath complexes taking advantage volcanic hot springs area bath complex remains collapsed dome spanning meters called temple venus larger half collapsed dome spanning meters called temple diana dome temple diana bath complex seen section horizontal layers brick capped light dates second half 2nd century largest dome known roman world second largest collapsed temple apollo built nearby shore lake span precisely measured ruined state meters diameter second half 2nd century north_africa distinctive type tube shape developed tradition tube dome era idea preserved use roofs tube mass produced potter wheels form permanent concrete avoiding use wooden altogether spread mainly western mediterranean rarely dome known 2nd century roman architecture monuments widely byzantine period century 3rd century imperial began built structures types following similar monuments private citizens pagan christian time differentiated structures buildings reflect religious functions pagan buildings typically story lit free standing structures lower area remains upper area sacrifice christian contain single lit space usually attached church examples 3rd century include brick dome villa uses small arched brick built circular base overlapping scales pattern called stepped dome scales pattern popular motif adopted likely related persian masonry common roman provinces 3rd century temple venus built stone dome meters diameter meter dome built close imperial palace throne room converted church 5th century large oldest public rome dated period beginning 3rd century known addition simply reconstruction earlier technique building lightweight hollow tubes developed north_africa italy late 3rd early 4th centuries 4th century thin lightweight technique right simply serving permanent concrete early christian buildings italy arranging tubes continuous spiral created dome strong large spans required minimal later dome neon example fourth century 4th century roman changes way constructed including advances techniques use brick called temple example brick ribs step rings lightweight aggregate concrete form dome material choice construction gradually transitioned 4th 5th centuries stone concrete lighter brick thin shells use ribs structure allowing thinner massive supporting walls windows walls replaced source light necessary compensate large openings santa windows beneath dome paired columns beneath surrounding barrel vault structure octagonal golden built emperor constantine imperial palace likewise roof presumably wood covered lead dedicated years council harmony divine power universe church empire cathedral court church constantine precedent later octagonal plan churches near palaces saints cathedral dome rebuilt wood destroyed fire churches syrian region built wood like later dome rock jerusalem dome survived series earthquakes 6th century destroyed rest building record church rebuilt earthquake general abandonment public buildings longer capital empire centralized buildings circular octagonal plan shapes assembly single object began built manner 4th century italy octagonal holy style spread 5th century church holy probably planned constantine built successor new capital city constantinople combined centralized shrine similar plan church saint projected central containing constantine tomb spaces tombs center wooden dome bronze gold accents christian developed centralized church type dome raised central space today cologne germany built extraordinary richly decorated 4th century roman building semi dome church built city northern cemetery original dedication unknown built governor later emperor family oval space patterned imperial audience halls buildings temple church holy jerusalem likely built wooden dome shrine end 4th century meters diameter centered tomb christ consisted center room surrounded dome rose ground floor gallery dome meters wide razed ground rebuilt emperor constantine reportedly mosaic depicting christ current dome renovation thin reinforced concrete largest centrally planned early christian church milan san built middle 4th century city served capital western empire theories shape dome byzantine style dome spherical ring windows similar later era octagonal vault following roman trends like site contemporary chapel saint possibly built tubes pieces found excavations tubes shown date medieval reconstruction evidence supporting use roman concrete original dome original concealed square drum externally today dates 16th century fifth century 5th century structures small scale cross plans existed christian world examples include attached san churches macedonia coast asia minor small brick found towers constantinople early 5th century land walls underground constantinople composed grid columns supporting small groin square bay overhead sail vault dome basic unit architecture early byzantine centuries found variety combinations early examples byzantine existed hall palace 5th century mary church small rectangular rooms sail arched brick courses brick dome mary composed series tightly arched sections church saint likely wooden dome central meter wide end western roman empire signature feature church architecture surviving eastern roman empire transition timber vaulted churches occurred late 5th century 7th century early examples constantinople asia minor known church southern turkey dated ruins provide definitive answer possible earlier examples existed constantinople suggested plan church designed found 6th century sixth century 6th century marks turning point church architecture centrally planned churches built 4th century particular functions palace churches slight widening use church buildings timber halls plan church constantinople apparently built large lavish similar church years later emperor imperial house story contribution public funds promised ascension throne roof church gold church included inscription praising having surpassed solomon building mind later solomon thee second 6th century church building emperor cross unit monumental scale keeping emphasis bold architectural innovation church architecture emphasized central dome architects brick vaulted central plan standard roman east divergence roman west second 6th century considered beginning byzantine architecture timber previously standard church form continue medieval west earliest existing buildings central plan church saints constantinople completed called little mosque today actually begun years earlier building dome rests octagonal base created arches piers divided sixteen sections sections flat sides flat contain window base alternating sections corners creating unusual kind dome building built palace residence ascension throne includes inscription mentioning god crowned revolt destroyed city constantinople including churches holy wisdom holy peace opportunity rebuild plan churches rebuilt rebuilt scale built constantinople called greatest building world original innovative design known way covers plan dome semi periodic earthquakes region caused partial collapses dome necessitated repairs precise shape original central dome completed significantly different current according contemporary accounts wrote original dome rest solid masonry cover space golden dome suspended heaven byzantine chronicler john reported dome byzantine feet lower replacement theory original dome continued curve existing partially reconstructed collapse creating massive sail vault pierced ring windows vault theoretical sphere meters diameter distance base base opposite percent greater span dome theory raises shallow cap dome portion today relatively short drum containing windows dome partially collapsed earthquake design revised present profile earthquakes caused partial collapses dome present dome consists portions dating 6th century north south sides portions 10th 14th centuries west east sides respectively irregularities sectors meet current central dome millimeters thick meters wide contains radial ribs spring windows base windows blocked repairs 10th century ring windows base central dome portion greatest tension expected help alleviate cracking iron marble blocks helped reduce outward base limit cracking like wooden tension rings byzantine brick dome supported large arches piers additionally huge semi similar proportion placed opposite sides central dome contain smaller semi additional piers cathedral constantinople church adjacent great palace constantinople form octagonal plan city italy served capital western roman empire milan capital subsequent kingdoms octagonal san begun completed byzantines contains dome belong school architecture 4th 5th century milan building similar byzantine church saints later throne hall palace church constantinople model palace chapel hollow fitted inside provide lightweight structure dome avoid additional meters diameter arranged continuous spiral required minimal strong large spans dome covered timber roof favored practice later medieval architects italy unusual time constantinople tore aging church holy rebuilt scale original building central replacement apparently likewise central dome flanking central dome crossing windows base arms cross windows appear radically altered addition drums beneath raising central dome higher second important church city fell disrepair latin occupation constantinople razed ground build mosque site john venice mark derivative holy loosely cathedral saint anthony derived church successors modernized frontier fortifications century example ibn desert eastern syria particularly impressive containing governor palace barracks church built techniques plans possibly imported constantinople church dome unusual sprang octagonal drum main arches brick rare syria golden great palace constantinople served audience hall emperor palace chapel survived descriptions indicate dome containing sixteen windows dome supported arches connecting adjoining rooms building likely circular plan alternatively building octagonal plan circular dome alternated straight concave like dome church saints built years church begun emperor completed successor continued improved subsequent rulers connected imperial living quarters space assembly religious festivals high promotions hall chapel emperor throne room fully described frequent mentions byzantine texts room restricted members court highly rated foreigners 10th century throne east niche chamber directly icon christ seventh eighth centuries period roughly corresponding 7th 9th centuries poorly documented considered transitional period cathedral unsettled date construction ranging years middle 7th century balkans lost combines barrel vaulted plan crossing dome hidden externally drum resembles churches later centuries type popular later byzantine architecture 5th century mary rebuilt 8th century cross church development typical 7th 8th centuries similar cross examples nicholas church decline empire resources following losses population territory byzantine architecture modest new buildings large scale churches byzantium kept good repair upper portion church thoroughly rebuilt earthquake nave covered elliptical vault hidden externally low cylinder roof place earlier barrel vaulted ceiling original central dome era replaced raised high drum barrel supporting new extended creating cross units dome broad arches sides cross unit provided secure structural system units raised drums standard element smaller scale later byzantine church architecture built transitional period symmetry small monastic community near constantinople developed cross square plan church period explain plan small scale unified ruined church john monastery early example monks supported use icons unlike government appointed secular clergy increasingly popular new type privately funded urban monastery developed 9th century help explain small size subsequent building ninth twelfth centuries timber standard form 6th century displaced churches 9th century middle byzantine period normally built emphasize separate functional spaces ceiling units earlier resting circular drums pierced windows eventually standard style regional characteristics cross square plan single dome crossing pattern widely popular middle byzantine period examples include early 9th century church called mosque palace chapel built emperor built constantinople substantial building renovation construction program reign known literary sources different arrangements proposed different plans arranged pattern like contemporaneous church andrew older church holy constantinople arrange pattern minor corners square larger fifth center cross cross square plan suggested design based cross square common church plan 10th century fall constantinople type plan columns supporting dome crossing best suited meters wide 10th 14th centuries typical byzantine dome measured meters diameter width variations plan required piers place columns incorporating core building distinctive design roofs begins 10th century mainland greece circular octagonal drums common constantinople drums fourteen sides popular beginning 11th century 11th century rock cut churches shallow drums dim natural lighting cave interiors plan variant cross square plan earliest extant example monastery meter wide dome built half 11th century dome built drum supported remarkably open structural system weight dome distributed piers avoid concentrating weight corners use transition supports base dome led speculation design origin arab architecture byzantine interpretation similar design earlier church originally built sophisticated design smaller monastic church uses simpler version plan monastery island built time featured sided dome rising meters floor collapsed replaced slightly taller present version transition square round base drum accomplished flat sides relatively shallow corners relatively narrow novelty technique byzantine architecture led dubbed island type contrast mainland type speculation design influences ranged arab influence transmitted recently built church holy jerusalem mosque islamic cairo buildings armenian cathedral holy cross later copies alterations include churches church larger scale byzantine buildings 12th century required stable support structure slender columns cross square type provide churches called mosque mosque mosque greater meters diameter piers large plans practice fashion centuries variant cross square called greek cross plan provides greater support dome typical cross square plan piers projecting corners square columns design church constantinople 12th century previous cross square structure destroyed earthquake 12th century monastic complex built imperial sponsorship adjoining churches south church cross square dome corners dome gallery north church cross square plan middle church built fills long space earlier churches oval types appear separate functional spaces western space imperial eastern dome covered space written account nicholas persian style dome built late 12th century imperial palace constantinople called hall built tensions court evidence complex nature relations states account written nicholas shortly fourth crusade description coup attempt john mentioned device thirteenth fifteenth centuries late byzantine period unsettled chronology buildings especially latin occupation empire beginning reflected church design regional innovations new church architecture constantinople consisted mainly additions existing monastic churches monastery lips church result building complexes distinguished array roofs effect imitation earlier triple church monastic complex 15th century account russian traveler constantinople mentions abandoned hall presumably sun moon stars succeeded heaven church empire dates variation plan heavy traditional detailing asia minor possibly armenian georgian influence brick drum dome remain byzantine church complex example core built capital external appearance resembles cubic palace upper level galleries middle dome open greek cross design similar earlier example byzantine found ruled constantinople plan churches galleries create cross square ground level plan monastery built later church monastery type originally planned cross square church blend longitudinal central plan components interior divided nave like barrel vaulted nave cross arms dome crossing corner bays galleries form pattern metropolis church created additional example incorporates western elements porch hidden externally ribs rectangular section similar distinctive type church dome developed decades 14th century characterized drum rounded corners brick construction faces featuring arches stepped narrow single light window churches plan wrapped sides churches church holy makes example cross square church late byzantine style monastery built serbia architect monastery church probably came style reflects byzantine cultural influence church said represent culmination late byzantine architectural design influence constantinople cultural influence extended sicily russia armenia border state roman byzantine influenced exact relationship byzantine architecture unclear georgia armenia produced central planned buildings 7th century arab invasions architecture flourished middle byzantine period armenian church initially wooden structures cathedral originally wooden dome covered wooden roof replaced stone construction churches stone standard type 7th century possible exodus syria long traditions wooden construction carried examples stone late 12th century detailed clearly wooden prototypes armenian church building prolific late 6th 7th centuries 7th century churches tend central plans combinations central longitudinal plans supported empire rarely byzantine like byzantine_empire combination cross plan hall church plan influenced architecture cross arms added longitudinal cathedral church examples include church cathedral balkans byzantine rule weakened 7th 8th centuries architecture represent byzantine influence case centrally planned churches 9th century revival earlier roman types interest roman models expression religious maneuvering region church constantinople rome examples include church church near split early 9th century church church originally built palace resembles palace churches byzantine tradition architectural chronology central eastern balkans unsettled period bulgarian empire similarity era churches 6th century revival style late 9th early 10th centuries remains round church building traditionally associated rule indicate palace chapel construction features resemble instead 3rd 4th century roman association structures imperial idea byzantine architecture introduced people 10th century churches conversion prince modeled constantinople wood russian dome later development earliest architecture vast majority wood lost fire 12th century masonry low drums little different byzantine modified helmet type slight point cathedral distinctive having thirteen jesus baroque style combined additional arrangement byzantine characteristic largest important 11th century building byzantine tradition details building disputed origins tall drums development northern russia demands heavy ice snowfall rapid innovation permitted region emphasis wooden architecture central dome cathedral dates 12th century shows transitional stage churches built time nicholas virgin george italy byzantine influence clearly seen venice mark churches southern italy cathedral old cathedral norman sicily architecture fusion byzantine islamic forms dome chapel decorated byzantine mosaic church santa maria unusual use series seventy churches region france strongly suggests byzantine influence mark modeled lost byzantine church holy constantinople cathedral likewise greek cross arrangement examples include cathedral cathedral abbey church marie byzantium neighboring orthodox powers emerged architectural centers right late byzantine period bulgarian churches similar constantinople time following construction monastery architecture serbia called plan example romania influenced serbian architecture original monastery small dome moscow emerged important center architecture following fall constantinople cathedral assumption built house icon lady designed traditional russian style italian architect italian renaissance architecture combined roman practices byzantine structures decorative elements square bays congregation byzantine style arrangement churches built abbey santa technique wooden tension rings levels drums resist frequently said later invention common practice byzantine architecture technique double shells revived renaissance originated byzantine practice dome symbol rome monumental past particularly celebrated imitated copied loosely studied detail early renaissance explicit point reference dome peter inspired construction temple western architecture modern era examples include chapel church maria library university virginia church mary malta ottoman architecture adopted byzantine dome form continued develop type mosque modeled church dome contained square mosque dome semi particular replicated refined universal mosque design based development spread world ottoman mosque use dome semi dome nave scheme like mosque modeled similarly ali mosque mosque ottoman similar described structural criticism set build dome larger mosque stable octagonal supporting structure mosque type originating church imperial istanbul built classical style include large semi central dome sultan completed built byzantine revival style architecture occurred 19th 20th centuries early example revival style russia cathedral christ approved model churches empire style popularity spread scholarly publications produced independence greece balkans ottoman_empire europe north_america peaking popularity greek orthodox cathedral roman catholic westminster cathedral begun london examples throne room castle built king bavaria late 19th century widespread model greek orthodox churches southeastern europe monumental national built capital cities ottoman areas neo classical neo byzantine styles alexander cathedral belgrade church saint examples model large sizes united_states built variety styles europe mixture elements different styles byzantine revival style popular 1920s examples include temple cleveland israel chicago based san istanbul congregation san_francisco united_states greek orthodox churches beginning 1950s tended use large central dome ring windows base evocative central dome recent historically common byzantine types greek cross plans examples include greek orthodox church completed designed frank lloyd wright ascension greek orthodox cathedral oakland greek orthodox cathedral atlanta use large central dome american greek orthodox churches continued 1960s 1970s moving smaller middle byzantine versions early christian