pre maya archaeological site located upper san_juan river valley southeastern basin region guatemala site situated approximately kilometres north modern town near contemporary village settlement lying metres south occupied approximately late early periods chronology middle activity identified late occupation city concentrated group ceremonial complex kilometres north later site core site major period occupation late classic period important centre southeastern region structures site large residential complex structural type found southern maya lowland sites smaller similar characteristics little work undertaken site archaeological site protected location located municipality department northern guatemala kilometres south capital archaeological site southern area village named metres south highway site situated central wet drained area subject seasonal flooding local topography nature includes hills support city architecture located valley san_juan river tributary river altitude metres mean sea level site situated natural north south communication route maya mountains central region route colonial period likely inherited pre conquest times major architecture site core covered secondary forest including large trees city remains lie modern village including sizes destroyed order build modern streets cases robbed stone reused modern construction instances modern houses built ancient mound platforms modern houses previously occupied outskirts relocated civil war late 20th century guerrilla activity history occupied middle period associated burial recovered late occupation identified residential groups site core centre city probably situated distance northeast late classic centre large ritual complex located major period occupation site late classic major architecture built time city centre moved site core newly built complex sculpted monuments city indicate important late classic possess emblem city experienced period intensive construction lasting late classic terminal classic texts sculpted monuments date 8th century inscriptions heavily eroded residential groups constructed platforms sector built late classic flint workshop production group late classic occupation expanded sectors city municipal central terminal classic maintained primary place san_juan valley evidenced major building activity site core massive structures underwent new phases construction erection new monuments accompany existing late classic monuments continued importance terminal classic resulted centres region eclipsed west southeast terminal classic developed production industry spite continued intensive activity site core sector peripheral residential sectors diminishing activity compared late classic leading abandonment city period occupation identified fragments recovered structure northwest plaza excavated group central sector modern history appears spanish colonial villages region appears map central southeastern san ruins stonework ruins stripped construction modern village site visited archaeologists richard graham work published guatemala mapped site remaining monuments test excavations took place area square kilometres site core explored 1970s sculpted monuments removed del patronage development later transferred national park mid-1990s exact location identity monuments lost excavations taken place 1990s including investigations west plaza east plaza northwest plaza site description site core consists ceremonial majority sculpted monuments found east plaza west plaza northeast plaza number site core majority residential structures laid naturally level terrain built natural limestone hill residential groups built artificial basal platforms reservoir located northwest built irregular limestone blocks measures metres rain season fills depth metres contains cubic metres second natural reservoir located south artificial reservoir west rain season fills depth metres large ritual complex located considerable distance northeast civic centre city probably built period archaeologists mapped structures groups approximately site core residential structures concentrated area surrounding ceremonial centre especially north west sides near reservoir residences tended larger closer reservoir residential area extensive archaeologists divided sectors municipal consists area occupied modern village northeastern portion site northwestern area central site core central contains groups contains groups contains groups municipal contains groups area production municipal associated ritual complex city central sector built metre high limestone hill base square measuring metres complex faced northwards south west plaza upper hill wide average area square metres linked sunken north architecture arranged groups terrace highest terrace supports small labelled laid structures structures found terrace structures excavated archaeologists structure largest west terrace dated late terminal classic complex divided flights gave access terrace south upper flight descended seven steps small room measuring metres steps metres metres second flight descended small room similar room flight descended opposite direction terrace supporting terrace wall upper flight decorated sculpted relief frame wall middle flight coated painted red black design terrace situated metres terrace divided metre high pyramid temple accessed west plaza directly north rose sections minor terrace referred lower terrace lower section measured metres long extending metres plaza lower end material excavated area joined base dated late terminal classic laid beginning late classic period resurfaced number times late classic earliest surrounding structures built time additional structures built terminal classic area extended construction adjacent accessed base poorly preserved recovered western portion lower terrace dated late terminal classic low platform excavated extreme southwestern corner lower terrace finds dated terminal classic pieces dating late found terrace located southwest height terrace supports residential group formed structures formed group buildings serving dual residential administrative function evidence fact structures group divided multiple rooms internal benches form architecture recognised palace serve elite domestic administrative activity stone blocks construction measured approximately centimetres finely dressed face tapering order grip structural fill situated west main terrace terrace area square metres largest building west lies east west lower terrace supports southwest north accessed short step southeast excavations identified construction phases dating late classic final phase dating terminal classic terrace structure north consists long platform access metre wide south steps metres measuring metres structure experienced construction phases late classic terminal classic final form measured metres long metres wide stood metres high superstructure building possessed shaped bench terrace structure northeast single level platform measuring metres metres high accessed projecting measuring metres wide protruding metres structure steps metres measuring metres archaeologists unable investigate summit structure large size trees growing structure clearly shows construction phases dating late classic second terminal classic finds dating middle recovered trenches sunk structure consisting associated burial late classic found base consisting eccentric artefacts shaped like flint pieces waste flint number flint blades blades terrace structure east separates structure built construction phases phase covered raised metres level second phase consisted square platform metres high bench east platform raised height metres floor structure built small limestone blocks rubble core final form structure rectangular platform measuring metres standing metres high measured metres wide divided metres block platform supported bench measuring metres incomplete human skeleton found south wall burial broken fragments dating terminal classic material excavated construction phases dated late early classic material believed transported late classic construction building represent earlier phases structure terrace structure south earliest version building measured metres supported room measured metres central door metres wide flanking measured metres wide building dominated bench ran entire width structure metre wide descending extending metres platform steps height metres metres construction phase included metre high wall later covered floor small north facing room east structure walls found stand height metres structure deliberately demolished antiquity second construction phase extended building size metres supported rooms benches combined width rooms metres metres doors earlier phase continued use terrace structure west consists single platform highest entire measures metres metres high structure joined structures earliest phase construction structure accessed projecting ascended east measured metres wide metres platform joins metre wall topped metre high projects centimetres wall walls structure built finely dressed limestone blocks trace superstructure found platform earlier identified lowest courses limestone blocks found place believed upper courses stripped antiquity finds near southeast corner structure include piece axe spherical stones pieces human bone labelled burial concentration broken domestic finds believed represent activity end terminal classic prior abandonment site burial infant found floor structure dated late classic filled large rubble order bring level pre existing lies immediately west enclosed courtyard area square metres structures built new closing north east south sides west enclosed structures terrace structure south square platform stepped levels phase construction benches wide projecting north measures metres wide structure measures metres bench measures metres second metres human bone fragments representing pieces individuals excavated domestic smaller second southeast corner building structure dated late terminal classic terrace structure low platform east measured metres stood metres high platform metre wide bench single metres wide step lead excavations platform uncovered material dated late late classic terminal classic structure built construction structures terrace structure north rectangular platform measuring metres metre wide south facing embedded structure completely explored dense vegetation covering added terrace time large rubble extend terrace northwest slightly lower bordered structures north west sides west structure largest fill beneath depth metres previously height retaining wall northwest found excavations construction phases served administrative function directly associated buildings west structure contained metre wide room accessed metre wide doorway rear room structure contained bench throne measured metres stood metres high material recovered structure dated late terminal classic periods small dating north structure low platform covered painted red terrace structure north low rectangular platform measuring metres high walls rest surface layer structure surface abundant terminal classic remains sunken climbed structure point metres southeast corner steps measured metres deep measured metres high late classic structure apparently administrative function terminal classic domestic building evidenced abundant stone artefacts recovered include fragment stone knife flint knives terrace structure east metre tall platform possess summit superstructure upper east pyramid collapsed trenches west filled walls possessed excavations uncovered traces red paint faced west measured metres metres projected metres pyramid burial found near pyramid labelled burial dated late classic platform layers material recovered excavation dated terminal classic terrace structure west structure face terminal classic construction activity extended terrace addition structure measured metres east west excavated artefacts base dated late terminal classic west facing structure believed built single burst activity terminal classic stepped levels north south identified summit structure terrace level closed courtyard formed structures west south sides sides formed retaining walls structures residential buildings built low platforms principal structure south long low platform west supports structures labelled structures excavations platform recovered remains dating late terminal classic structure measures metres north south metres east west built platform supports structure structure single room measuring metres contained bench structure south structure resting basal platform measured metres room measuring metres structure built directly lower structures southwest measured metres metre wide projecting extending metres facade structure largely dated terminal classic pieces dating structure located south structure dated terminal classic east plaza east plaza covers area square metres making largest open ceremonial space entire city east medium height structures east plaza structures south base west structure west plaza north south structure northeast plaza found east plaza plaza construction phases dated late classic second terminal classic late fragments recovered east plaza involved considerable labour limestone bedrock extremely close surface metres surface east plaza structure east plaza final form platform levels standing total height metres measured metres north south metres east west structure metre wide climbing plaza west metres long lower level main platform built finely dressed limestone blocks upper level built poor quality limestone extremely badly preserved bench built structure measured metres protruding section measuring metres bench centimetres high large number flint excavated structure dated late classic east plaza structure east plaza rectangular platform measuring metres facing westwards plaza climbs west building measures metres platform supports bench measuring metres broken remains scattered structure relatively remains found associated structure dated terminal classic pit sunk summit uncovered remains dating late classic depth metre artefacts included piece knife west plaza west plaza covers area square metres south plaza formed north plaza enclosed structures measure metres high highest structure west measures metres high metre wide series steps stretched north wall structure southwest corner structure gave access northwest plaza steps metre metres high monuments found west plaza final phase occupation terminal classic refuse found base indicates west plaza occupied residential area inhabitants structures west plaza structure north west plaza near northwest corner structure faces southwards plaza measures metres climbing building final version structure measured metres bench summit structure measures metres structure phases construction earliest dates late classic west plaza structure north west plaza rectangular platform measuring metres projecting south measures metres building west plaza possess bench summit number dating terminal classic recovered platform west plaza structure east west plaza separates east plaza rectangular building wide climbing west structure measures metres possesses bench summit measures metres final construction phase platform stood metres high pit sunk structure revealed presence earlier metres high second stood metres high stages filled rubble core earliest stage consisted larger pieces stages artefacts recovered southwest corner final stage including pieces flint blades stones large domestic structure west plaza structure west west plaza tallest structure platform measures metres north south metres east west rectangular base formed stepped sections lowest section measured metres high metres wide platform upper edge beginning second section middle section metres high metre wide platform upper edge base upper section wall section poorly preserved courses stonework remaining place sides structure largely collapsed erosion leaving north best preserved positively identified believed wide sunken east broken fragments found base platform supported long superstructure facing west plaza evidenced bases walls originally superstructure consisted single long room later subdivided room south probably demolished time floor superstructure metres level west plaza walls metres thick entrance doorway measured metres wide superstructure divided rooms measuring metres rooms completely sealed cases destroyed layer compact white soil terminal classic rooms low platform summit accessed upper section basal platform steps measuring metres wide metres height metres fragments traces pigment indicate rooms painted room extremely poorly preserved southernmost rooms portion wall belonging rear bench found excavations room best preserved rooms atop structure measured metres north south metres east west doorway room metres wide room dated terminal classic room middle room superstructure room sealed terminal classic poor state preservation room possessed bench wall measured metres height metre wide room preserved similar room measured metres north south metres east west door metres wide bench room measured metres high metre thick room identical proportions rooms extremely preserved including rear wall bench room model investigations rooms structure artefacts recovered northeastern portion structure included fragments use large quantity domestic altar found structure north west plaza runs north south measures metres long metres wide sides measure approximately metres high structures supported rectangular stone benches west structure damaged trench originally climbed west sculpted blocks stone found benches structures decorated surviving blocks bear geometric designs parts sculpted figures deity masks floor south end found preserved dated late classic period northeast plaza northeast plaza covers area square metres located north east plaza northeast plaza enclosed structures similar size form accessed northeast corner tallest structure measures metres high buildings completely area measuring metres structures consist stepped rectangular platforms built finely dressed limestone blocks excavations revealed remains superstructure tallest structure including rooms different entrance construction plaza dates late classic period northeast plaza structure rectangular base structure believed stepped levels built finely dressed stone blocks decorated double design blocks found thin coating cream coloured rear structure form truncated pyramid upper parts structure deliberately destroyed antiquity leaving lower courses stonework place southeastern portion platform best preserved wall stands height metres structure believed faced northeast plaza remains found east platform structure joins structure excavations upper platform revealed layers dating late classic burial found deposited second layer location marked floor painted red circle platform found traces small metre wide room facing east west walls metres thick remains stand height centimetres floor room slopes noticeably east northwest plaza northwest plaza covers area square metres enclosed structures largest pyramid west monuments found northwest plaza plaza occupies privileged position centre city high concentration structures construction levels identified northwest plaza date late classic northwest plaza structure rectangular base measuring metres east west metres north south standing metres high lowest level platform body wall metre wide projects metres wall structure built earliest construction phase plaza rising lowest plaza level second plaza unusual style added time small bench type structure attached west platform order widen lower level building small blocks extension contrast large finely dressed blocks main structure recovered structure mainly represent late terminal classic additional fragments representing occupation structure northwest plaza structure metre high pyramid west plaza base measures metres architectural quality pyramid poor demonstrated small irregular blocks construction badly damaged collapse sides blocks average centimetres pyramid damaged pit west structure architectural detail largely pyramid poor state preservation corners identified north south sides surface finds date terminal classic artefacts recovered include portions broken blades southeast plaza southeast plaza structure rectangular platform levels dated late classic period groups group group located outside protected archaeological zone opposite house group situated immediately north group structures shared groups fragments recovered groups dated late late classic terminal classic majority dating terminal classic group structure rectangular platform projecting measures metres projecting measures metres domestic recovered excavations group structure found near northwest corner excavated large terminal classic pieces dating period group group residential group northeast site core low structures built basal platform largely east plaza area area square metres plaza construction phases earliest dating late period second late classic burial found centre plaza earlier floor level group structure north plaza severely damaged modern street laid cutting north south wall remains group structure east plaza earliest phase dates late remains consist low north wall running east west later construction phase built consisted rectangular platform supported bench small disc found near wall blades found platform pieces thin bowl burial found base platform group structure rectangular platform located south plaza core consists large pieces rubble suggest kind older platform dated late classic group structure situated west plaza group group located north reservoir layout group difficult destruction caused construction street low structures survive group distinguished group outside ceremonial centre city possess stone monuments badly eroded altar structures minor residential groups including groups formed clusters small structures platforms exceeding metre height groups date late terminal classic late recovered group municipal sector group municipal sector area north highway running sector actually falls municipality santa eighteen residential groups mapped sector residential groups group larger structures forming group ceremonial complex located kilometres site core group consists number structures small plaza include pyramid west long structure east supporting upper platform smaller structures north south sides group built late period lightly occupied early classic expanded addition structures late classic time major activity transferred area leaving central group periphery east platform group produced dating late early classic late classic east platform built limestone blocks accessed rear building projected metres climbed metres wide projection rear building east platform support usual lateral structures found groups central platform upper platform basal platform central platform group situated middle section east platform produced dated late platform total height metres west pyramid group produced evidence dating late early classic late classic limestone blocks construction poorly preserved west pyramid believed radial pyramid dating late period north structure group dated believed date late classic based comparisons groups maya cities south structure group dated believed built late classic sector sector located highway running santa contains groups structures concentrated hills lesser occupation low lying areas settlement extends northwards highway metres dry majority architectural groups located cattle pasture groups heavily looted groups covered dense vegetation groups open pasture subject looting suffered stripping stonework order use modern construction groups sector residential nature low platforms measuring centimetres high laid uncut stones structures groups date late classic north mound group south mound group structures greater metre height sector sector located lands owned kilometres highway santa altitude close site core averaging metres mean sea level sector occupies area cattle pasture trees great fruit locally produce vegetable oil northern sector possesses number hills residential groups built south land descends area seasonal swamps sector possesses architectural groups periphery causeway fragments recovered sector pieces dated late classic representing total found sector vast majority domestic nature pieces dated terminal classic representing remaining group located metres west group consists structures arranged courtyard open south structure largest structure group structures looted group dated late classic period group metres southwest group consists structures laid open east group dated late classic group metres south group like group consists structures laid courtyard open east group dated late classic group located east group consists structures completely structure north structure west largest structures group structures looted group dates late classic period group metres south group consists structures small west structure larger group dated late classic group southeast group consists structures forming enclosed group dates late classic group located artificial platform formed natural elevation group formed structures large smaller structures located southeast southwest group looted recovered date late terminal classic group situated south artificial platform supports groups group situated south end artificial platform supports group composed structures arranged open north group dated late classic group excavated notable metre long causeway running north south past plaza causeway metres wide bordered high original length causeway determined plaza bordered remains walls stand centimetres high group consists structures laid open south group tentatively identified stone workshop great quantity waste product found produced flint group dated terminal classic altar found metres east group monuments found sector monuments nineteen carved stone monuments originally found badly eroded monuments broken fragments bore sculpted designs exhibit variety forms circular texts found monuments style monuments similar 8th century monuments found west west plaza base structure associated altar broken fragments sculpted rectangular frame containing portrait standing person elaborate holding staff right hand figure accompanied vertical panel containing date text badly eroded numbers read resting construction phase plaza measured metres high metres wide metres thick best preserved fragment possessing sculpted portrait moved regional del southeastern regional museum fragment measured metres high metres wide metres thick fragments left fallen contained parts frame central pieces found excavations took place found centre west plaza butt found original location shaft broken fallen backwards appear sculpted designs text associated altar found west plaza originally erected base structure sculpted rounded frame containing figure person facing left accompanied badly eroded completely text moved original location associated altar found northern east plaza monument sculpted sides moved original location style location believed associated upper portion bears text date interpreted march site emblem depicts maya ritual richly dressed person standing legs apart standing sitting prisoners middle bears written left leg principal figure bears spear topped head flint emerging spear similar style depicted reverse depicts individuals standing monster mask seen profile child youth seated adult figures wear rectangular hold hands distinguished texts carved heads standing figures probably represent names style sides different foot level standing figures different figures reverse positioned higher shaft figure probably indicates sides sculpted different times reverse crafted floor level plaza risen cover base situated base structure east plaza carved rounded frame containing figure profile facing left figure standing legs wearing bears head hang feathers hands figure extended forward appear bear staff bears panel incomplete date fall range december november text contains king dedicated shield jaguar emblem fragments removed 1970s lost fragments situated southern half east plaza east west broken multiple pieces scattered base east plaza structure plain limestone monument found group altar monuments placed outside ceremonial centre city carved frame containing figure badly eroded figure standing feet separated turned small panels accompany moved original location probably nearby found base structures southeast plaza plain monument fallen lying found altar metres east group metres south highway sector monuments found sector plain monument sculpted limestone fallen upright position half buried broken middle measures metres long metres wide metres thick altar found centre west plaza altar found original location plain monument altar found west plaza associated base structure altar plain monument moved original location altar found northern east plaza associated sculpted badly eroded bears images seated anthropomorphic figures details distinguished altar circular monument found northern east plaza associated depicts seated prisoners central figure facing left facing texts carved underneath prisoners sides altar altar dated stylistic grounds 8th century altar found east plaza broken pieces badly eroded believed sculpted scene similar represented altar altar plain monument found group like associated moved original location antiquity probably moved far altar found west plaza base structure altar plain sculpted figures text rests construction phase plaza circular measured metres diameter metres high broken parts altar found original location southeast plaza plain altar signs sculpted monument badly cracked altar found sector near group located centimetres end plain monument circular altar broken fragments half buried measures centimetres diameter centimetres thick upper centimetres exposed altar found original location altar found original location burial found second floor levels northeast plaza structure skeleton lying head north remains poorly preserved belonged adult skull dental remains found plate placed head deceased plate placed knees plate painted seated anthropomorphic figures inclined head wearing leather gloves jaguar claws facial features figures unusual plate bears image dancer date burial late classic burial found centre group plaza corpse poorly preserved laid skull north remains covered small pieces limestone mixed brown soil piece upper jaw indicated remains child aged years old pieces deposited offering plates bowl bowl burial dated late burial found base group structure remains extremely poorly preserved deceased laid head north associated offerings included plate flint point burial dated late classic burial found earliest level terrace structure pyramid built stone measured metres metres human remains consist skull fragments pieces skull east end offering consisted pot lid dated late classic period burial found base terrace structure associated burial dated middle period burial evidence found early activity site consists burial seated infant newborn burial laid layer large stones accompanied plate offering child skull found underneath plate burnt stones earth found burial burial infant deposited floor terrace structure offering fragments found associated dated late classic period remains laid skull oriented south


oldest surviving documents britain probably best source information life northern frontier roman britain written fragments thin post card sized wooden leaf carbon based ink date 1st 2nd centuries roughly contemporary wall similar records known roman empire wooden ink text recovered archaeologist robin discovered artefacts site roman fort northern england documents record official military matters personal messages members garrison families slaves highlights include invitation birthday party held oldest surviving document written latin woman held british museum texts translated published continue found description wood found known surviving examples use ink letters roman period use ink documented contemporary records century wrote writing tablet kind lime wood cut thin sheets folded face face bent birch oak grew locally contrast stylus type writing tablet roman britain imported non native wood thick typical size size modern scored middle folded form ink writing inner faces ink carbon arabic water nearly excavated 1970s 1980s discovered march initially thought wood found stuck apart discover writing inside taken richard wright rapid wood meant black time able view sent newcastle university medical school multi spectrum photography led red photographs showing scripts researchers time results initially disappointing scripts manchester university david thomas durham university analysed previously unknown form script able produce chronology fort garrisoned construction wall slightly older wall begun original director excavations robin identified periods occupation expansion fort constructed fort fort hiatus occupation period wall constructed produced periods majority written official notes camp business personal affairs officers households largest group correspondence ninth wife correspondence relate civilian traders contractors example writer tablet entrepreneur dealing wheat hides prove civilian selected highlights best known document tablet written wife commander nearby fort inviting birthday party invitation earliest known examples writing latin woman styles tablet majority text written professional hand thought household closing personally added lower right hand tablet written roman script throw light extent literacy roman britain confirms roman soldiers wore high degree literacy roman army references indigenous discovery historians speculate romans nickname little found known term roman garrisons based northern britain describe locals written forms roman script considered forerunner joined writing varies style author exceptions classified old roman writing appears written different alphabet latin capitals inscriptions periods script derived capital writing late century century text rarely shows unusual distorted letter forms extravagant found greek period additional challenges use men arbitrary division words end lines space reasons letters split rest word ink badly faded survives little instances possible cases red photographs provide far version written original photographs contain marks appear similar writing certainly letters additionally contain great lines dots dark marks writing consequently published interpreted deciding marks regarded writing comparison sites wooden found roman settlements britain sites yield type tablet found stylus marked pointed metal significant number ink identified wall fact letters sent places wall york london raises question letters found sites possible definitive answer conditions found unique identical deposits found parts london possibility given fragile condition found archaeologists roman sites overlooked evidence writing ink imaging photographed red sensitive cameras susan british museum improved techniques red filter photographs taken red enhance faded ink wood ink dirt writing visible tablet images research programme extend use computer vision system aid series processes modelled best practice provide images marked format identifying likely placement characters words collaboration centre study ancient documents university_of_oxford british museum archaeological computing research group university southampton texture mapping detailed recording edge detection online catalogue images resolution suitable web page display text published line iii published new online catalogue exhibition impact held british museum selection display roman britain gallery room featured list british archaeological finds selected experts british museum bbc television documentary treasures viewers invited vote favourite came poll museum run trust funding selection loan british museum displayed site found museum display loan items regional museum line british museum current policy encouraging loans internationally nationally partnership scheme


literally big dome ancient monument located gardens delhi india group monuments include friday mosque guest house ruler delhi constructed reign dynasty construction generally attributed believed earliest constructed dome building delhi monument situated near tomb structures share common raised platform built reign constructed time intended purpose builders unclear intended free standing tomb identified area situated formally called village history constructed believed earliest constructed dome building delhi construction generally attributed prayer niche friday mosque gives date construction islamic lunar calendar including monuments gardens tomb tomb muhammad belonged dynasty situated approximately metres southwest tomb metres south rule adjacent mosque guest house constructed speculated serve gateway friday mosque owing date placement stylistic differences theory gateway supported purpose significance unknown date remains mystery friday mosque constructed mosque built style appeared dynasty historians suggest built unidentified noble appropriated provide mosque initially monuments built independently early twentieth century park developed bringing monuments park inaugurated april lady wife lord park originally called lady park renamed gardens independence india construction architecture speculated constructed provide gateway nearby mosque structure house tomb platform central courtyard suggests structure burial place purpose unknown grouped mosque smaller structure bays structures constructed metres high platform total area square metres platform measures metres east west metres north south bays mosque remaining vaulted roofs mosque central bays feature low end bays feature flat roofs windows north south windows tapering appear later architectural styles square type construction sits mosque measures metres rear corners sides mosque feature tall tapering semi circular east south west decorated feature arch openings set rectangular frames architecture combines beams blending islamic hindu metres high metres long metres wide walls metres tall like single story structure external spanning floors viewed outside total floor area excluding mosque guest house square metres dome mosque constructed red grey black stone including grey red sandstone interior painted colored tiles carvings painted plaster mosque decorated foliage flowers geometric patterns inscriptions location located gardens delhi india village monument stands earlier called garden bounded west northwest north max east road south tomb situated southwest corner garden picture gallery


spanish pronunciation known spanish classic period archaeological site maya civilization located northern department guatemala largest city river region site occupied period terminal classic significant hiatus principal phase occupation dates late followed decline early classic experienced significant recovery terminal classic immediately prior complete abandonment reaching second peak population estimated people dates unusually late monuments dedicated classic maya collapse region late monuments artistic influence central mexico gulf_coast mexico early history site lost catastrophic defeat nearby kingdom capital dos resulting destruction earlier sculpted monuments reduced vassal state destruction kingdom late 8th century new elite installed site arrival east new arrival allowed dawn 10th century classic maya collapse region etymology corruption spanish word meaning place trees grow lumber camp near ruins time discovery change spelling originated publication form initial location located metres river major tributary river kilometres downstream river joins river form flows northwards gulf_of_mexico site lies department northern guatemala kilometres east modern town lay kilometres east late classic city dos kilometres south lake lies kilometres north ruins lies tropical limestone plain intermittently hilly flat population surveys revealed average structures square kilometer square mile site core falling structures square mile periphery height late population estimated site core dispersed periphery produce estimated total population thousand early classic population suffered severe decline population estimated dropped peak population late terminal classic population increased late level expansion appears occurred rapidly spread parts site result influx refugees arriving sites followed population crash peak population early prior complete abandonment site social social priest kings nobility living main ceremonial center common people living city excavations found peripheral zone showing distribution population class known rulers dates history site occupied middle declined late early classic renewed expansion late terminal classic completely abandoned settled period reached peak population late end phase deep middle levels belong little known real phase found western region style consisting jade similar found gulf_coast mexico artifacts probably manufactured dates approximately real complex came period dating approximately periods similar extensive separated evidence time population increase peak end period earliest settlement middle confined group late settlement expanded include group period evidence ceremonial structures build group end late experienced unexplained decline population early classic early classic decline began late continued site abandoned unknown reasons late classic underwent revival late classic expansion occupation linked great city new inhabitants moved city order found new kingdom groups saw new construction particular emphasis group important ceremonial centre monuments raised late classic rulers responsible renewed occupation city suffered catastrophic defeat 8th century defeat foreign influences seen central mexico art site dating phase post classic earliest mention inscriptions dos dated october refers involved long running war great cities respective allies dos newly founded city region established exert control river strategy seized control fledgling kingdom defeat king dos attacked capturing captive king executed vassal powerful neighbour raised monuments victory dos shown feet built recording city new status vassal dos time erected monuments victory ordered destruction records earlier monuments inscriptions dos specifically recording destruction previously recorded history phrases translate destroyed writing writing statues continued vassal king dos presided rituals regained independence late 8th century destruction dos kingdom throne restoring independent capital fell thirty year hiatus new monuments erected terminal classic independence came new brief time prominent regional capital located important river trade route architecture period demonstrate connections northern yucatán_peninsula gulf_coast mexico seventeen carved mix maya foreign styles including lord wearing mask central mexican wind god mexican style speech emerging mouth carvings foreign style foot squared stylistic affinity painted murals site central mexican state hybrid style indicate new lords maya lords adapting changing political conditions adopting mix symbols originating lowland maya central mexican sources foreign looking bear non maya changes time associated controlled trade flowing river maya warrior merchants originating gulf_coast mexico displayed mixture maya non maya characteristics texts indicate city newly sponsored new alliance formed cities east sites far survived spreading classic maya collapse likely attempting reopen old trade route drawn location overlooking river took place installation vassal new king dedicated new building overseen jewel pet king built innovative new temple arrangement south central plaza group structure consists low radial pyramid inventive arrangement sculpted monuments monument erected dated monument raised city abandoned region classic maya collapse trade longer flowed route classic maya capitals abandoned external support received overlord vanished site completely abandoned left relatively informed city ruins late marked reduction quality span years loss classic period traits bearing representations earlier reflect loss expertise terminal classic able work monuments large structures time progressed modern history ruins probably discovered working company reported existence ruins sent government order find material displayed exhibit world exposition chicago having little luck getting satisfactory material heard rumor mill site existence point traveled took resulting casts displayed exposition bringing recent discovery ruins attention archaeologists time years later july explored behalf museum harvard_university site plan discovered new add discovered returned site investigations august discovered new monuments museum published work including good quality photos investigated behalf institution washington brown visited ruins members altar expedition museum visits museum returned site thorough investigation continued led gordon director smith field director excavations carried june archaeological project site description medium sized site site core divided principal groups groups connected covers little faced masonry places causeway western causeway causeway south causeway causeway iii eastern causeway group fortress refuge concealed river frontage group small complex located kilometres site core group smaller group monuments small groups lie site core spaced metres apart extending kilometers north south west structures restored temple platform circular platform topped jaguar altar restored investigations carried museum 1960s possesses satellite site located north known site large structures built clay date middle period architecture group site core features north south central lies west end causeway group arranged monuments dating period vassal dos situated central plaza group group ball court dated terminal classic resembles group lies causeway passes end circular structure group group compact group east end causeway iii easily position edge overlooking river seventy structures crowded group plain monument erected metre high stepped pyramid east group complex located structure complex situated massive platform raised metres natural surface level accessed south includes structures structure temple platform located centre south plaza ascending sides associated structure located base fifth inside building platform large jade interred central structure associated dedicated king known structure remains vault surviving example arrangement radial pyramid associated highly innovative radial temple form ancient maya region dating late placed square shrine doors opening temple building contained vaulted chambers oriented north south doors joining chamber east west axis temple supported brightly coloured collapsed temple ancient times archaeologists able recover portions fallen attempt reconstruction originally appeared doors originally topped larger life sculpture king smaller figures spaced corner additional figure positioned half way corner central figure king known smaller figures represented spaces figures occupied panels cross hatch designs sculpted vegetation animals old gods sat centre sixteen panels including structure built earlier platform structure structure metre tall temple pyramid tallest structure site structure radial pyramid excavations uncovered mass burial burial parts people including women child traditional classic maya burial dated late occupation site structure covered forest northern central plaza range structure running north south detailing defeat dos inscriptions removed old project camp structure found contain elite female burial labelled burial structure located north east north plaza long low structure running east west closing north measures metres metres tall building contained long room wide entrance opening southwards raised step room contained stone bench built reused blocks structure superimposed earlier earliest different orientation final building periods construction appear date terminal classic phase dating time fall city structure located northeast east north plaza rectangular structure measuring metres running north south facing west remains structure stand metres high western building damaged prior archaeological investigation trench measured metres metres deep cut structure floor bench rear wall uncover offerings fallen limestone blocks reveal structure vaulted chamber fragments recovered colourful building included modelled human figures traces orange green yellow paint building palace type structure rooms west east originally stone interior shaped bench structure built finely cut limestone blocks walls coated painted orange believed building terminal classic royal palace architectural features similar temple structure structure structure resemblance aligned east west unusual feature maya area topography site severely restricted layout city principally east west orientation lies west north plaza structure circular platform built terminal classic pre existing structure dating late period circular structures origin central mexico typically temples god wind structure rectangular building platform temple buildings circular structure larger west smaller east circular jaguar altar rests structure figures originally supported altar central column modern place additional support restoration ruins altar crude representation jaguar head carved edge structure associated altar dated monuments monuments include number carved stone shafts sculpted figures monuments fashioned hard limestone accounting generally excellent preservation excavations 1960s identified sculpted plain located structure installed king dos record status vassal defeat city stones longer having removed area camp old archaeological project north south plaza near structure names called knife wing known distant dated believed date bears text depicts frontal view masked figure monument frontal portrayal broken seven pieces restored bears non maya date head represent day day calendar central mexico stood removed museum guatemala city badly damaged having broken pieces falling tree lost years rediscovered currently remains buried thin covering soil lies north south plaza badly damaged broken middle section left bears representation dates slightly north bearing text damaged antiquity upper broken erected altar nearby stands north reasonable state preservation bears image ruler dressed monument probably dedicated records accession king preserved monument south structure king wears jaguar claws hands feet attributes jaguar god hand king holds head god text describes visitor named early form patron gods kingdom highlands propose event depicted gave rise foundation legends people erected west structure badly damaged section missing depicts attributes god describes vision north structure depicts dressed terminal classic maya style foreign looking face bears typically characteristic text displays emblem san describing received visitors cities visitors named pet wears associated patron gods god deities patrons appears attempt foreign king identify closely city came rule east structure describes march installation new lord vassal panel beneath portrait ruler depicts bound captive inscription describes arrived patron deities stands little west south plaza dates dates stands junction good state preservation stylistic similarities sculptures distant extreme north yucatán_peninsula erected lies metres west group monuments consisting demonstrates foreign influences prevalent late classic depicts lord wearing mask representing central mexican wind god stands west south plaza monuments erected dating located inside chamber structure badly damaged vaulted chamber collapsed suffered erosion monument restored depicts lord bearing like king wears attributes jaguar god jaguar claws king holds raised right hand hand hands shield face sun god inscription monument largely


long long known bath tomb multiple burial chambers located near village english county somerset example tomb scheduled ancient monument initial monuments included ancient monuments protection act law long built excavations early 19th century uncovered bones individuals stone structure metres length contains metres long gallery pairs chambers end chamber location access approximately kilometres south west village limestone ridge overlooking brook approximately metres north west surrounded rectangular grass area accessed car park farm history long constructed ritual dead long probably constructed tomb opened local farmer obtain stone road building site excavated john skinner richard gained entry hole previously excavation revealed bones burned individuals mound restored thomas artefacts excavations bristol city museum art gallery scheduled ancient monument long state care managed english_heritage provided information board site conservation work survey carried archaeological trust description tombs consist precisely built long earth covering burial chamber long stands limestone ridge overlooking brook village constructed stone including blue forest marble kilometres radius metres length metres wide south east end stands nearly metres high internally consists metres long gallery pairs chambers end chamber passage entrance roughly aligned sunrise roof overlapping stones fossil left hand unusually situated flat ground looks sliding hill


long long long located near village southeastern english county kent constructed britain early period today survives ruined state built earth local long consisted sub rectangular enclosed stones collapsed stones northeastern end chamber probably represented stone chamber human remains deposited discovered archaeologists established monument built communities shortly introduction agriculture britain continental europe representing architectural tradition long building widespread europe long belongs regional variant produced vicinity river known lies near long long western river surviving long kit house little kit house coffin stone located eastern early long fell state ruined small road built centre monument 19th century latest local folklore grew site countless stones motif ruin attracted interest early 18th century studied local archaeologists 20th nearby long open public viewing appointment landowner location monument lies approximately metres north parish church accessible minor roads area located termed park site privately owned visible road cuts middle context early revolutionary period british history beginning fifth millennium bce saw widespread change lifestyle communities living british isles adopted agriculture primary form abandoning hunter lifestyle characterised preceding period archaeologists unable prove adoption farming new influx migrants coming continental europe indigenous came adopt agricultural practices continental societies way certainly emerged contact continental europe probably result centuries interaction people living southeast britain linear pottery culture communities northeastern france region modern kent key area arrival continental european settlers visitors position estuary river_thames proximity continent bce british isles came abandon hunter lifestyle replaced new agricultural age common material culture shared british isles period great regional variation nature distribution settlement architectural styles use natural resources britain little evidence permanent dwellings period leading archaeologists believe early economy island largely pastoral relying cattle people living nomadic semi nomadic way life witnessing land clearance britain largely forested period unclear level area kent experienced early widespread forest clearance took place south east britain late bronze age environmental data area white horse stone supports idea area largely forested early covered woodland oak ash tomb building tradition western_europe early marked period humans built monumental structures landscape tombs held physical remains dead constructed timber built large stones known individuals rarely buried early instead interned collective members community construction collective burial monumental tombs wooden began continental europe adopted britain half fourth millennium bce early people britain placed far greater emphasis burial dead archaeologists suggested early people adhered ancestor cult spirits dead believing forces nature benefit living descendants archaeologist robin stressed simply tombs communal fulfilling social function communities built furthermore suggested early people entered tombs doubled temples perform rituals honour dead ask assistance reason historian termed monuments tomb reflect dual purpose britain tombs typically located prominent hills slopes overlooking surrounding landscape junction different territories archaeologist caroline noted tombs served variety markers landscape conveyed information territory political allegiance ownership ancestors archaeologists idea tomb served territorial markers different tribal groups argued markers little use nomadic society instead suggested represent markers pathways archaeologists suggested construction monuments reflects attempt stamp control ownership land representing change mindset brought suggested monuments built sites deemed sacred hunter archaeologists differentiated early tombs variety different architectural styles typically associated different region british isles passage graves characterised narrow passage large stones multiple burial chambers covered earth stone predominantly located northern britain southern central ireland alternately northern_ireland central britain long east south east britain long represented dominant architectural trend long typically constructed timber building stone scarce southern britain archaeologist argued timber tombs eye catching stone counterparts consisting carved poles painted evidence sculptures survived represent regional groups wider west european tradition tomb building period state retaining original appearance time construction largest visually imposing early monuments britain grouped river cuts north downs constitute southeasterly group monuments british isles group eastern england archaeologists brian mike deemed interesting known archaeological sites kent archaeologist paul described impressive structures kind southern england divided separate clusters west river blue bell hill east distance clusters measuring western group includes long long long eastern group consists kit house little kit house coffin stone stones parts tombs known built time constructed succession similarly known served function hierarchy usage long general design plan aligned east west axis stone chamber eastern end mound probably stone facade flanking entrance chambers constructed dense hard stone occurs naturally kent having formed sand early builders selected blocks local area transported site monument erected common architectural features tomb indicate strong regional direct parallels british isles instance taller tomb britain internal heights regional early tomb like group different monuments shape chestnut long facade long thin kit variation caused tomb altered adapted course use scenario represent composite structures apparent people built monuments influenced pre existing tomb aware people grown locally moved area known based stylistic analysis architectural designs archaeologist stuart thought originated area low countries fellow archaeologist daniel instead believed evidence showed influence scandinavia john evans instead suggested origin germany thought origins seen group noted close area reminiscent tomb shrine traditions continental northern europe emphasised regional manifestation tradition widespread early europe stressed precise place origin impossible indicate available evidence design demolition long situated northeast southwest alignment evans stated evident monument located northeastern end investigators kent archaeological rescue unit expanded number identifying monument given dimensions monument suggested likely included stones construction feet metres long sides straight monument tapered width metres east end metres western end formed truncated wedge shape chamber long located northeastern end pulled point monument history mound left standing suggested chamber false portal idea supported daniel currently stands metre feet height taller monument initially constructed evans described having immense size believing long imposing structure built evidence quarry ditches sides monument following demolition tomb chamber monument buried left visible buildings partly stone removed long suspected monument broken use repairs extensions local church nineteenth century damaged construction small road running middle folklore folk tradition thomas wright investigated site aided local man believed gold unearthed paper published folklore journal john evans recorded folk belief area applied widespread generation impossible human successfully count number stones monuments countless stones motif unique particular site found monuments britain earliest evidence found early 16th century document applies stone circle wiltshire early 17th century document applied set stone circles cornwall later records reveal gained widespread distribution england single occurrence wales ireland suggested attributed understanding lives antiquarian archaeological investigation long mentioned antiquarian john harris history kent published posthumously noted area stood known locally warren old clerk informed oak tree grown centre stones recorded antiquarian short article wrote journal society london aided minister parish reverend elderly locals heard oak tree mentioned harris asserted area retreated defeat battle buried military leader later archaeologist john evans claimed descriptions drawings completely worthless antiquarian incorrectly thought monument stone circle rectangular tomb analysis echoed 18th century writings samuel edward john road widened deepened achieve removed placed corner wood south monument early 1840s reverend post conducted investigations writing manuscript left unpublished included long long collectively labelled circles thomas wright recorded local reverend dug chamber discovering fragments rude pottery context wrote long referred remains possible question early 1860s charles smith visited site alongside charles charles moore described celtic monument subsequent article wrote gentleman magazine published basic plan monument noting similar tombs britain archaeologist listed existence stones list earthworks stated extraordinary hitherto described forming circle appear lines included small basic plan monument received mention george published noted folk tradition stone avenues connecting long asserted unable discover evidence existence feature earliest published photographs monument appeared produced george clinch publication dealing kent archaeologist working archaeological officer ordnance survey listed long alongside members kent archaeological rescue unit conducted measured survey monument noted found evidence recent metal activity site archaeologist brian conducting regular inspection monument property owner pointed area road beginning alerted kent county council organised contractors investigate reason proved decades rabbit beneath archaeologists kent archaeological unit visited site work discovering buried comparison older records revealed stone upright buried stood 19th century replacing paved road


professor june january pakistani intellectual archaeologist historian foremost authorities central asian south asian history introduced discipline higher education pakistan bangladesh career held academic positions international apart conducting archaeological excavations research particularly known archaeological work pre civilization sites northern pakistan recipient civil awards pakistan abroad prolific able speak local international languages biography early life ethnic born june central provinces india graduated degree muslim graduate hindu university scored highest marks exams earned gold medal qualified teaching fellowship university provided grant allowed teach religious beliefs stayed months started working guidance time participated excavations subsequently posted department british india received phd institute university college london career partition india migrated east pakistan worked assistant superintendent department time renovated museum married sons daughter promoted position superintendent charge year general secretary society pakistan later took position president national committee museums pakistan period years remained associate professor history university time working curator museum period carried archaeological research muslim history moved university professor remained time led renovation works museums chairman research society university moved university dean faculty social sciences left post concentrate research professor history university renamed university continued work positions retirement emeritus professor period served president archaeological historical association pakistan director german team research northern areas pakistan received honorary doctorate university year established museum appointed advisor ministry culture pakistan serving remained chairman national fund cultural heritage honorary director institute asian held position time death january admitted pakistan institute medical sciences heart kidney diabetes problems died january age years buried graveyard visiting research honorary positions associate university worked research fellow school oriental african studies university london later asian fellow australian national university canberra went university pennsylvania philadelphia visiting scholar visiting professor university wisconsin madison span career awarded honorary royal society bangladesh german archaeological institute africa royal society honorary citizen honorary member society honorary life patron trust research contributions remained engaged excavation works pre civilization site northern pakistan number discoveries sites valleys worked greek sites involved research focusing documentation rock carvings inscriptions ancient remains age late buddhist period high mountain region northern pakistan later academy sciences university led international scientific teams desert route expedition silk road china route expedition silk road soviet_union extensive research experience refuted influence south indian culture valley civilization geographic perspective socio political systems cultural distribution basin surrounding observed plain play significant role development valley culture invasion seaside bronze age coastline facilitated maritime trade major influence according came central asia west asserted hilly western appears boundary external eye actually network hill local people moved freely argued cultural history pakistan closely related central asia buddhist persian later influences revive relationship promoting organisations central asia friendship association maintained despite arabian sea allowing establish trade relations ancient egypt majority historical movements occurred central south asia geographic location link regions characterised relationship people pakistan central asia field culture language literature food dress furniture folklore awards honours muslim student hindu university scored highest graduation exams received gold medal university national awards received government pakistan awarded title distinguished national professor higher education commission recognition contributions achievements internationally contributions ancient history commended prestigious honours awards president french republic aristotle silver medal order merit government germany knight commander government italy government france gold medal society bangladesh publications published books numerous journal articles credit spoke languages fluent french hindi persian sanskrit tamil turkish english languages published texts languages books history pakistan pakistan ages sang publications isbn historic city sang publications isbn history northern areas pakistan sang publications isbn romance pass sang publications isbn new light central asia sang publications isbn central asia today sang publications isbn human records highway sang publications isbn historic city frontier sang publications 2nd revised edition isbn tribes peoples northern present times publications short history pakistan book pre muslim period university editions isbn history northern areas pakistan historical studies national institute historical cultural research isbn perspectives pakistan national institute pakistan studies university historic city centre east asian cultural studies isbn city islamic architecture institute islamic history culture civilization civilization new perspectives institute asian university record cultural history south asia university press indian record changing fortunes publisher eastern india detailed account cultures muslim inscriptions authored works history humanity volume iii millennium seventh century new_york paris isbn history central asia paris volumes isbn


jean jean december march french scholar known primarily egyptian founding figure field child gave public paper young man held posts honor scientific circles spoke arabic early 19th century french culture experienced period brought napoleon discoveries egypt campaign brought light stone scholars debated age egyptian civilization function nature script language recorded degree signs representing speech sounds recording concepts directly thought script sacred ritual functions unlikely tied philosophical ideas record historical information significance showed assumptions wrong possible begin retrieve kinds information recorded ancient liberal progressive minded man lived period political turmoil france continuously threatened disrupt research ways napoleonic wars able avoid conscription napoleonic meant considered suspect subsequent royalist regime actions reckless help case relations important political scientific figures time joseph helped periods lived exiled scientific community embarked earnest project script soon achievements british thomas young advances published breakthrough showing egyptian writing system combination signs script discovered published detailed script demonstrating values signs traveled egypt able read texts studied brought home large body new drawings inscriptions home given times health ruined hardships egyptian journey forced teaching died paris years old grammar ancient egyptian published posthumously life long death intense discussions merits carried having given sufficient credit early discoveries young accusing long disputed accuracy subsequent findings readings scholars building work gradually led general acceptance work argue acknowledged contributions young universally accepted basis developments field biography upbringing education jean seven children died born raised humble circumstances father book trader near settled small town department lot father notorious drunk mother absent figure life young raised older brother joseph biographer speculated fact son wife result affair joseph taught brother read supported education brother source interest egypt young man wanted join napoleon egyptian expedition regretted able known younger brother better known joseph jean called young later brother famous added town birth second surname referred contrast brother largely self educated jean genius language talented earning living supported jean life began studies school gift languages evident started learning latin greek quickly progressed hebrew semitic languages arabic student took interest ancient egypt age came attention joseph accompanied napoleon egyptian expedition discovered stone accomplished scholar addition known mathematical physicist entrusted napoleon publication results expedition monumental series publications titled description biographer stated invited year old home showed collection ancient egyptian artefacts documents seeing hearing declared succeed reading report visit true important allies supporters surely important role interest ancient egypt studied hated strict curriculum allowed study oriental languages day week brother different school nonetheless took study main linguistic interest years come prove crucial approach chance practice met christian monk arabic translator napoleon visited jean making preparations bring younger brother paris study university leaving presented essay geographical description egypt conquest academy members impressed admitted academy studied paris attempt read stone louis paris perfected arabic persian addition languages acquired immersed studies took habit dressing arab clothing calling arab translation divided time college france special school oriental languages national library brother librarian commission egypt institution charge publishing findings egyptian expedition began studying stone working copy working independently able confirm readings previously david returned seat joint professor ancient history newly reopened university salary assistant professor fixed quarter salary received professors struggling ends meet suffered youth bad health including health began deteriorate time paris climate environment agree political trouble napoleonic wars napoleonic wars young bachelor liable compulsory service great danger extremely high mortality soldiers napoleon armies assistance brother joseph successfully avoided draft arguing work egyptian script important skeptical napoleonic regime fall napoleon institution royalist regime louis came consider napoleonic state lesser anonymously composed circulated songs criticizing royal regime songs highly popular people napoleon escaped exile landed army marched directly received met requests exemption draft remembered asked important work progressing replied finished grammar dictionary napoleon requested send manuscripts paris publication brother joined napoleonic cause putting brothers danger end days napoleon finally defeated city resist royalist advances spite risk having royalist surveillance brothers nonetheless aided napoleonic general sentenced death participation battle giving shelter helping escape munich brothers condemned internal exile removed university post faculty closed new royalist regime brothers invested time efforts establishing lancaster schools effort provide general population education considered revolutionary undertaking ultra believe education accessible lower classes led uprising band stormed citadel hoisted instead royalist flag charged treason went hiding eventually pardoned family life later career married years engagement daughter daughter family father approve match mere assistant professor met increasing reputation eventually agreed originally joseph approve brother marriage finding dull attend wedding later grew fond sister law happy family man especially daughter frequently away family months years time traveling paris italy egypt developed italian poet presented ode work celebration honor exchanged letters affair developed groundbreaking discoveries acquaintance patron managed gain favor king entrusted managing royal oriental collections traveled inspect collection egyptian materials assembled king charles purchased rome realized necessity seeing egyptian monuments hand began plans expedition egypt collaborating scholars returning egypt professor france gave lectures illness forced teaching correspondent royal institute netherlands egyptian egyptian known scholars ancient world centuries attempts understand based script writings considered symbols representing specific spoken language example stated symbols translated words expressed marks characters figures meaning script essence impossible considered use egyptian society limited religious sphere represented concepts universe religious meaning lost suggest modern form language found egyptian script correctly suggested value word water onslaught france early 19th century scholars began approaching question renewed interest basic idea script texts represented topics sacred early work speculative suggested readings advances joseph discovery identified names rulers george compilation catalogue discovery direction reading depended direction facing early studies interest egyptian history script developed early age gave paper academy argued language spoken ancient wrote texts closely related view proved crucial able read texts proposed relation ancient egyptian confirmed history enabled propose script represented language wrote brother decision egyptian script want conduct deep continuing studies ancient nation enthusiasm descriptions enormous monuments ignited admiration power knowledge filled grow new things acquire peoples love confess equals heart received scare french published volumes des making young scholar fear work surpassed relieved find operated assumption mystic symbols literary system expressing language experience determined language began study writing brother entirely wish know egyptian like french language based great work egyptian embroiled controversy like student published sur sur saw forced publish stand paper introduction work progress les sur les avant invasion similarities topic matter fact work published allegations arose work mentor authors considered possibility great rivalry thomas young british thomas young attempt egyptian basing work investigations swedish diplomat david young aware work wrote royal society young secretary requesting better stone young implying able quickly script better copies young time spent months working unsuccessfully text young replied negative arguing french equally good british ones added doubt collective efforts deepened study language succeeded giving perfect translation drawn entirely comparison different parts greek translation heard young research realizing competitor london liking young proceeded identifying language text example comparing number times word appeared greek text egyptian text able point spelled word king unable read word letters realized elements writing correctly read signs rejected signs lack systematic approach young called script resented term considering bad form invented new instead young order superseded young young corresponded longer mentor rival advised young share work described consequently years young kept key texts shared little data notes submitted grammar dictionary publication blocked addition personal animosity resented napoleonic exile spent time grammar local work time cut able continue research read review les published anonymous englishman largely favorable encouraged return research biographers suggested review written young published anonymously robinson wrote biographies young considers unlikely young highly critical particular work soon returned seek employment university process reopening faculty philosophy letters succeeded nonetheless time following years consumed teaching work young kept working stone published major article egypt claiming discovered principle script correctly identified small number values eighty young correctly identified principle distinguishing correctly singular dual forms young nonetheless considered linear called script called belong different historical periods represent different evolutionary stages script increasing failed distinguish considering single script young able identify correctly form identified script nonetheless assigned correct values signs incorrectly dismissing unnecessary assigning partially correct values signs read managed correctly identify letter young furthermore convinced late period foreign names written entirely signs believed native egyptian names texts earlier period written signs scholars suggested young true contribution script major advances correctly identifying composed signs reason young considered case later british sir peter page summed young method worked like finding translation means arms man reads arms man right wrong able distinguish right wrong results right method discovered nonetheless time clear young work superseded published script breakthrough dismissive young work read obtained copy encyclopedia article suffering failing health kept struggling maintain job motivated return earnest study eventually removed royalist faction finally time work exclusively awaited trial treason produced short manuscript des argued script simply modified form writing young anonymously published argument effect years earlier obscure journal having cut years probably read addition fatal error claiming script entirely proud work reportedly actively tried suppress buying copies destroying errors finally corrected later year correctly identified script based script exclusively script stone people previously questioned scripts represented language considered purely script considered young suggest mixture signs hand correctly considered scripts coincide entirely essence different formal versions script year identified script stone written mixture signs young argued reasoned script entirely text require separate signs separate words greek text fact fewer suggesting script mixed signs realization finally possible idea different scripts fully fully recognized complex mixture sign types realization gave distinct advantage names rulers fact known names rulers appeared focused reading names rulers young initially tried managed number sound values signs comparing greek versions names young readings instances received text recently discovered enabled double check readings names stone identified identification margin plate actual reading individual young later use fact identified claim work remains unknown saw margin note identifying identified method managed determine value signs applying sounds soon read dozens names jean published proposed controversial arguing small stars following certain signs referred published response revue demonstrating fact signs called signs type today called young identified divine female identified presented progress academy received mentor turned praised warmly leading reconciliation main breakthrough able read related birth comparing birth signs appearance references birthday celebrations greek text september comparing readings set new texts realization running street find brother got collapsed excitement identified read young realized spelled depiction representing able read spelling second word check mentioning stone finally confirmed ancient texts recent ones writing system system mixed principles letter week later september published findings addressed joseph secretary paris des inscriptions read letter assembled main rivals supporters present reading including young happened visiting paris meeting presentation details script fact surprisingly cautious suggestions certain merely suggested script earliest available texts mean developed writing independently mediterranean paper contained relative role signs arguing primarily scholars speculated simply sufficient time breakthrough collapse fully incorporate discovery thinking paper presented new readings names rulers demonstrating clearly major advance script finally settled question dating reading erroneously read young correct reading emperor greek congratulated amazed audience including young young acquainted days sharing notes young inviting visit house parted friendly terms reactions young success writing letter friend borrow english key lock common arm strength turn easily believe victim bad feel success life lengthened accession junior person different egyptian language nonetheless relation quickly deteriorated young began feel denied credit steps tense political climate england france aftermath napoleonic wars little accept valid english young later read published copy offended fact mentioned twice times harshly failure young fact point recognized work having provided platform finally reached grew increasingly angry shared feelings friends encouraged new publication stroke luck greek translation known came possession later year share important finding anonymous review young attributed discovery form described merely extension young work recognized young author sent review maintaining anonymous review furthermore young account recent discoveries literature egyptian including author original alphabet extended complained arrived conclusions admit greatest pleasure gratitude means system fully confirming extending france success produced enemies chief spared occasion achievements pointing egypt suggesting represented major progress young work insulted demonstration young age proposed old years exact finding brought good catholic_church claims egyptian civilization older church sanctioned chronology according earth years old young claims new merely method meant publish data clear degree progress built found young work realized apparent total system young merely words year published series egyptian gods including names building progress began study texts addition stone studying series older inscriptions succeeded identifying names written ancient texts help new acquaintance duke finally published des dedicated funded king louis presented correct translation key egyptian system referred young claim having script wrote real discovery read fixed proper value characters composed manner values applicable characters appear task exactly set accomplish entire framing argument young translation article brushed translation introduction described argument points alphabet sense readings employed read inscriptions periods egyptian history discovery alphabet true key understanding entire system ancient system periods egyptian history represent sounds spoken language texts composed entirely signs discovered admitted debt young work year death young appointed french academy sciences support cemented having main claim teacher enemy reviewed work positively stating need confirmation year henry salt test successfully read inscriptions published system criticized acknowledging dependence young work work realized order advance needed texts better quality caused spend years visiting collections monuments italy convinced fact working inaccurate point making copies texts possible time italy met pope congratulated having great service church referring counter arguments provided biblical chronology ambivalent pope support helped efforts secure funds expedition franco expedition met stay florence went paris year order improve knowledge method system decided organize expedition egypt confirm validity discovery headed assisted disciple great friend mission known franco expedition possible support grand duke king france charles second command joined expedition charles representing french government team including artist italians including artist preparation expedition wrote french consul general advice secure permission egyptian ottoman muhammad ali egypt initiated business plundered egyptian want affairs sent letter expedition stating political situation unstable expedition letter reached joseph weeks expedition scheduled leave delayed sending brother expedition left july expedition boarded ship toulon set sail egypt arrived alexandria august met continued warn political situation assured permission expedition proceed met august immediately gave permission week waiting suspected working took complaint french complaint worked soon provided expedition large river boat expedition bought small boat persons named isis egyptian september arrived cairo stayed october left desert sites memphis examining texts tombs october realized word hour included representing star served function word wrote journal star divisions time important writing system probably struck concept egypt appeared edition saw lamented inscription chest covered sand able remove week arriving november excited paris realized convinced inscription recent date fact found monument seemingly invented nonetheless realized late date correct based evidence day expedition continued particularly captured array important monuments inscriptions decided spend time possible way north south isis sprang leak nearly sank having lost provisions spent days repairing boat continued south boats left traveled small boats spent days recovering attack brought hard trip received letters wife brother sent months earlier attributed delay ill arrived november site visited respectively sand cleared entrance returned january reached returned north day composed letter stating proud having followed course mouth second right announce modify letter alphabet alphabet good appalled rampant looting ancient artefacts destruction monuments expedition contributed destruction notably studying valley kings damaged tomb removing wall panel corridor english explorers attempted dissuade destruction tomb persisted stating permission muhammad ali carved pillar noted lamented widespread looting destruction monuments letter recommended tourism excavation trafficking artefacts strictly controlled suggestions led muhammad ali ordinance prohibiting exports ordering construction museum house ancient artifacts way stayed march september making new drawing paintings monuments valley kings expedition moved tomb 4th 20th dynasty air cooler located tomb great badly looted received news young campaign discredit received news days young death london expedition arrived cairo late september expedition bought worth budget extended minister arriving alexandria notified french boat delayed stay months sixth december return alexandria muhammad ali offered standing entrance temple france transported paris stands place spoke request wrote outline history egypt choice challenge short biblical chronology arguing egyptian civilization origins years islam spoke social reforms education lower classes point agree returning members expedition spend month ship able continue paris expedition led posthumously published extensive monuments death exhausted scientific expedition egypt died attack stroke paris age buried cemetery tomb simple erected wife stone slab stating simply jean lot paris mars rests jean born department lot december died paris march certain portions works edited published posthumously grammar dictionary ancient egyptian left finished published posthumously death told brother hold carefully hope calling card contained entire theory method including classifications signs grammar including write marred tentative nature readings conviction read directly fact represented older stage language differs ways son louis wrote biography brothers sister interviewed major biography published remained controversial death brothers alexander von famously championed sided young refused consider talented young posthumous publication grammar england sir george lewis maintained years egyptian language extinct impossible reply lewis scathing critique defended method describing method interpreting originated young developed sir peter page defended method young building grammar student richard continued develop realizing contrast written important champion work decree discovered successfully method reputation true legacy honors place des monumental reproduction stone american artist joseph pictured right museum devoted jean created birthplace lot inaugurated december presence president jean permanent secretary academy inscriptions letters years building work extension museum opened life discoveries museum recounts history writing façade covered original world located jean brother portrayed films documentaries example portrayed bbc egypt david thriller involving cia simple genius character named derived cairo street carries leading square egyptian museum located named crater lunar crater far moon works des des grand paris relative alphabet des collection des les monuments explanatory text illustrations jean joseph des notice descriptive des monuments charles des sur les sur sur les les new edition preface orient


san san spanish cargo ship wrecked storm gulf_of_mexico island national southern texas april san flotilla ships carrying treasure new spain mexico cuba wrecked storm including san sailors passengers drowned trying reach shore thirty took boat seek help died starvation killed hostile local indians attempt walk safety spanish sent salvage expedition recovered half cargo treasure rediscovered private company ltd began santo wreck late caused public outrage passage new laws protect coast remains san found excavated artifacts recovered held corpus museum science history include world oldest confirmed date 16th century journey san left spain november fleet ships command captain general included escort armed ships soldiers escorting ships vessels destined mainland south_america ships heading santo domingo parts west_indies sixteen bound san_juan veracruz new spain mexico fleet difficult voyage suffering bad weather accidents skirmishes pirates vessels lost rest scattered new spain flotilla arrived safely february march plan scrap vessels return journey typical ships americas spain carried smaller volume cargo ships traveling direction shipments spain included valuable gold silver september battered hurricane harbor facilities repaired ships refitted slowly prepared sail havana join fleet return journey spain year waited year fleet san francisco del master santo santa san master eventually decided wait longer sailed havana escort named captain general flotilla oral tradition holds priest mexico predicted disaster ships set sail warning ignored ships left april carrying people valuable treasure cargo passengers included wealthy citizens merchants soldiers prisoners dominican missionaries decided return spain ships carried barrels holding pounds silver coins mexico_city total cargo worth million equivalent million prevailing winds currents best route veracruz havana ran shore texas louisiana vessels took route april ships nearing havana ran severe storm ships blown west wrecked island san escaped santa maria sank miles north rio mouth channel today santo sank miles north point san wrecked miles north survivors people wrecked vessels escaped drowning women children reached shore francisco del master san able salvage boat way men help survivors tried walk south shore realizing nearest spanish outpost miles away met local people friendly offered food later fight broke spanish escaped indians followed picking arrows spanish cross rio lost unstable tipped indians seized men took clothes released thought indians wanted clothes stripped naked going women children walked ahead protect ambushed killed men died starvation killed records reached safety brother left dead receiving multiple arrow wounds recovered managed reach aid friendly indians francisco left group early went dunes facing hid help arrived event came called wreck salvage francisco del managed reach tell tragic event rescue mission dispatched sea small body troops arrived june guarded site spanish settlements salvage expedition arrived remained salvage operation july september main salvage crew dispatched try recover treasure nephew bought vessels recover emperor charles coin cargo sailors including spanish divers masts san seen salvage san began sunk feet water thoroughly explored salvage team dragged chain find ships santa maria located august hull split cargo scattered wreck recovered pounds silver salvage crew recovered personal items cargo included sugar wood hides salvage crew found total value cargo pounds precious metals coins jewelry religious artifacts lost island rarely visited europeans years 20th century santo excavations documented shown maps treasure hunters knew searching random found traces spanish coins fragments ships island beaches 20th century search intensified accidentally destroyed santa maria late 1950s summer lee connor found santo diving spent years exploring discovery marking announcing find went site later found private diving party taking items wreck start major debate found texas ltd private company began santo wreck late found objects including gold bar jewelry equipment navigation exploration objects site started long running argument state texas ownership artifacts triggered texas legislature pass code prevent unauthorized excavation future finds supreme_court ruled territory miles texas coastline property state texas basis concern excavation conducted scientific archaeological methods oldest site examined western hemisphere state launched suit texas archaeological research laboratory university texas austin received objects study interim lengthy argument courts state versus federal jurisdiction compensation outcome offered cash settlement state texas acknowledged artifacts recovered conservation facility set study material found extended principles approaches developed cover conservation analysis created basis future marine texas closed principles carried forward conservation research laboratory texas university san excavation texas committee commissioned institute underwater research survey miles coast month period institute found san survey indicated iron present vertical jet water blew feet layer sand shell away pleistocene clay exposed artifacts wreck committee arranged site san excavated summer follow work summers focused wreck disturbed ship wooden hull lost layout ship seen placement anchors guns chemical interactions metal artifacts weighed tons metres length held anchors barrel gun wrought iron objects divers careful maps material recovered way determining spot inside metal marine growth divers recovered individual artifacts year recovered rest large smaller individual artifacts brought kilograms artifacts texas archaeological research laboratory received artifacts analysis material carefully documented photographs practical detailed conservation records researchers small break open subjected metal wood objects complex time consuming processes remove products preserve future degradation suspicion excavated san santo analysis san artifacts clear collection came santo san findings included broken anchors wrought iron swivel gun broken broken objects kept later repaired ballast anchors working condition anchors wrought iron finds included ship fittings tools cannon iron bars gun wrought iron guns obsolete europe presumably considered sufficient new world divers recovered stern end keel portion stern keel section san similar period contributes view ship construction time experts estimated ship metres long displaced long tons centimetres thick miscellaneous finds included brass glass olive pits held providing evidence shipment insects europe americas personal possessions included gold silver silver coins salvage team found silver gold locally items included blades polished iron use mirror items included weapons instruments navigation oldest instrument confirmed date objects england found cologne germany end artifacts retrieved san preservation display january national_park_service listed cut underwater district national_register_of_historic_places texas committee state texas owns san wreck managed national_park_service national register lists site archaeological district national significance texas committee sponsored travelling exhibition finds wreck visited museums texas exhibition showed anchor cannons remaining parts keel stern post display cases held explanatory text illustrations artifacts recovered objects found permanent home corpus museum science history extension museum opened house exhibition