stereotype threat stereotype threat people feel risk stereotypes social group introduction academic literature stereotype threat widely studied topics field social psychology stereotype threat shown reduce performance individuals belong negatively groups negative stereotypes present specific group group members likely anxious performance hinder ability perform maximum level example stereotype threat lower intellectual performance african americans taking sat test college entrance united_states stereotype african americans intelligent groups importantly individual need stereotype activated specific mechanism anxiety induced activation stereotype decreases performance working memory especially aspects working memory system stereotype threat potential contributing factor long standing racial gender gaps academic performance occur individual performance confirm negative stereotype stereotype threat thought arise particular situation individual personality traits characteristics people social identity negatively people vulnerable stereotype threat encounter situation stereotype relevant factors increase stereotype threat include difficulty task belief task measures abilities relevance stereotype task individuals higher degrees stereotype threat tasks wish perform identify strongly group effects increased expect discrimination identification negatively group repeated experiences stereotype threat lead vicious circle diminished confidence poor performance loss interest relevant area achievement proponents stereotype threat criticized importance explanation real world performance gaps evidence conclusive review voiced concerns effect estimated field suffers publication bias opposite stereotype threat stereotype boost people perform better exposure positive stereotypes social group variant stereotype boost stereotype lift people achieving better performance exposure negative stereotypes social groups original study performed experiments demonstrating stereotype threat undermine intellectual performance african american european american college students difficult verbal portion graduate record examination test expected based national averages african american students perform test split students groups stereotype threat test described intellectual ability non stereotype threat test described laboratory problem solving task ability condition test described ability participants asked view difficult test challenge groups received test adjusted previous sat scores subjects non challenge condition performed significantly better non condition condition experiment race condition interaction marginally significant second study reported paper found significant interaction effect race condition suggested placement condition significantly impacted african americans compared european americans concluded changing instructions test reduce african american students concern confirming negative stereotype group supporting conclusion found african american students regarded test measure intelligence thoughts related negative stereotypes group measured word completion task found african americans thought test measured intelligence likely complete word fragments words associated relevant negative stereotypes completing dumb studies published papers effects stereotype threat performance variety domains strength stereotype threat occurs depends task framed task framed neutral stereotype threat likely occur tasks framed terms active stereotypes participants likely perform worse task example study chess players revealed female players performed poorly expected told playing male opponent contrast women told opponent female performed predicted past ratings performance female participants aware stereotype females performing worse chess males performed worse chess games researchers daniel extended stereotype threat research traditionally male profession study revealed stereotype threat women intentions men intentions presented gender neutral profession men women express similar level interest experiment involved golf game described test natural athletic ability sports intelligence described test athletic ability european american students performed worse description mentioned intelligence african american students performed worse studies demonstrated stereotype threat negatively affect performance european americans athletic situations performance men tested social sensitivity framing task produce stereotype threat individuals certain individuals appear likely experience stereotype threat individuals highly identify particular group appear vulnerable experiencing stereotype threat individuals identify strongly group mere presence people evoke stereotype threat experiment women took mathematics exam women got answers right women took exam presence men got average score goal study conducted desert children lower groups affected stereotype threat study compared children years old children years old multiple elementary schools children presented raven test intellectual ability test separate groups children given directions way groups given directions non way group received instructions usually given raven test non group given directions children simply playing game results showed performed better test expected lower status children worse test received directions way higher status children received directions way results suggested framing directions given children greater effect performance status shown differences performance based type instructions received information useful classroom settings help improve performance students lower status studies effects stereotype threat based age study senior citizens ranging age years seniors given multiple tests certain factors categories memory physical abilities asked evaluate physically fit believe additionally asked read articles contained positive negative seniors watched reading articles goal study participants tests affect performance results showed control group performed better negative positive words prior tests control group feel confident abilities groups stereotype lift stereotype boost stereotype threat concerns stereotype cues harm performance certain situations stereotype activation lead performance stereotype lift stereotype boost stereotype lift increases performance people exposed negative stereotypes group enhanced performance attributed increases self decreases self doubt result negative stereotypes stereotype boost suggests positive stereotypes enhance performance stereotype boost occurs positive aspect individual social identity identity relevant domain stereotype boost similar stereotype lift enhancing performance stereotype lift result negative stereotype stereotype boost occurs activation positive stereotype consistent positive racial stereotype concerning superior skills asian american women performed better math test asian identity compared control condition social identity conversely participants worse math test instead gender identity associated stereotypes inferior skills consistent stereotype threat mechanisms numerous studies demonstrate effects stereotype threat performance questions remain specific factors effects originally speculated attempts suppress stereotype related thoughts lead anxiety attention contribute observed performance michael forbes published integrated model stereotype threat focused factors stress performance monitoring narrows attention efforts suppress negative thoughts emotions suggest factors pattern evidence accumulated past experiments stereotype threat example stereotype threat shown disrupt working memory executive function increase increase self consciousness performance cause individuals try suppress negative thoughts negative emotions anxiety people limited resources available large portion resources spent focusing anxiety performance pressure individual likely perform worse task hand number studies looking responses support colleagues integrated model processes produce stereotype threat supporting explanation terms stress study found african americans stereotype threat exhibit larger increases arterial blood pressure study found increased activation women watched video men outnumbered women math science conference studies similarly found individuals stereotype threat display increased heart rates stereotype threat activate stress response measured increased levels threat reactions induced stereotype threat distract focus task regard performance monitoring studies brain activity supported idea stereotype threat increases processes forbes colleagues recorded signals measure electrical activity found individuals experiencing stereotype threat performance related study functional magnetic resonance imaging investigate brain activity associated stereotype threat researchers found women experiencing stereotype threat taking math test showed heightened activation ventral stream anterior region thought associated social emotional processing colleagues found women stereotype threat showed increased activation ventral activation predicted performance task individuals aware performance related likely experience stereotype threat study conducted shown stereotype threat affects performance affect ability learn new information study undergraduate men women session learning followed assessment learned participants given information intended induce stereotype threat participants later given gender fair information predicted reduce remove stereotype threat result participants split separate conditions control group stereotype threat stereotype threat removed learning stereotype threat removed learning results study showed women presented gender fair information performed better math related test women presented information study showed beneficial women gender fair information presented prior learning learning results suggest eliminating stereotype threat prior taking mathematical tests help women perform better eliminating stereotype threat prior mathematical learning help women learn better factors affect threat perception degree individual fits prototype group categorized relates threat perception individual looks specifically focusing blacks associate blacks stereotype perceive threatening black targets display physical traits associated blacks broad nose large lips coarse hair darker skin tone affected prejudice shown impact individual characteristics example study showed individuals biased black targets targets daily life individuals likely encounter white people default race united_states opposed black individuals encountering whites white people features associated individuals ultimately settle white response general response typical white targets decide shoot quicker frequently trials black targets contrast encountering blacks features black cues appear dominant black decide shoot quicker frequently trials white targets threat perception lay people racially biased average trained individuals police officers shown moderate racial bias shown linked perceived threat black people specifically viewed threatening police officers reduced racial bias comparison members community police officers better community members sensitivity targets providing evidence directly linked stereotypes threat perception ultimately stereotype threat members category race harder distinguish members category look like representation category young racial ambiguity racial ambiguity linked racially ambiguous individuals walk line looking group represent blend groups leave blurred lines terms threat perception having difficulty racially ambiguous individual determining perception accurate threatening perception line black stereotypes threatening perception akin white stereotypes young racially ambiguous faces racial bias white faces racial bias black faces acting intermediate average evidence implicit associations slight differences facial features degree racially ambiguous faces appeared line representation race black white directly activated impacted participants associated respective group bolstered stereotypes individuals judges evaluated based stereotypes potential breed stereotype threat population white context racially ambiguous individuals viewed black threatening black context racially ambiguous individuals viewed black facial features matter racially ambiguous individual association respective group perceptions threat based stereotypes associated certainly promote stereotype threat person associates race based stereotype easily changed phenomenon present racially ambiguous individuals categorized racial group associated socially subordinate heritage concept demonstration way racially ambiguous individuals influence longevity stereotype supporting subordinate heritage individual based race difficult individuals tend look similar representation dominant race example black white distinguish racially ambiguous individual black white ironic think look easier assign racial category assess perceived threat perceptions racially ambiguous faces impacted racial labeling context faces presented white black environment park individuals tool evaluating reduces individual associated representation group stereotypical associations gives rise individuals assessing level threat individual exhibits threatening associated stereotype group research suggests things identified comparing traits association similar items processes stored memory making connections individual stereotype perception threat degree categorized individual stereotype lead stereotype threat falling categorized person lasting effects race category activation judgment evaluation behavior outcomes criminal sentences individuals vary extent stereotypes associated social categories strength stereotype association impacts stereotype effect thought inevitable result perception avoidance hopefully reduce prejudice reduce threat perceptions counteract stereotype threat stereotypes stereotype defined association group trait blacks linked united_states individuals likely encounter white people default race opposed black individuals white majority systems sensitive biased black features automatically activate stereotypes link threat perception event related demonstrate attention directed black targets showing tendency attend potential threats black individuals associated descriptions stereotypical black behavior likely attributed photographs individuals appear quadruple process model involves black male association threat strength association stereotype prompts behavior shoot response survive humans reliably identify threats association stereotype behavior system prompts identification threat response threat relevant associates emotionally essential survival threat perception influenced emotionally factors cultural stereotypes strength combine disadvantage blacks perceived threatening recent stereotypes suggest blacks unarmed perceived threatening shooter bias tendency shoot armed blacks quicker frequently armed whites deciding shoot unarmed whites quicker frequently unarmed blacks individuals greater knowledge cultural stereotype link blacks violence displayed extreme shooter bias especially biased threat perceptions led especially biased behavior race effects lead blacks incorrectly shot whites sensitivity guns distinguishable held blacks response bias objects held blacks likely treated guns tasked shoot individuals held guns shoot carrying object race technically irrelevant decision shoot shoot correct response solely depends object held component evaluation perceived threat value race overall judgment threat perception information participants attend identification weapon non weapon racial cues promote biased behavior false threat perception cue implies danger race create shoot race stereotype associated lead higher evaluation threat perception impacted biased responses stereotypes potential create associations positive negative aspects group research shows general prejudice blacks leading highly prejudice individuals link blacks relevant black stereotype linking blacks words like poison cancer black danger association stereotypes predict black faces capture hold attention faster longer white faces threatening captures holds attention faster longer intervals neutral case black faces perception level threat posed black face significantly attention allocation stereotype leading inaccurate threat perceptions suggests fear individuals taught pre established instinct associate threat perception black individual dangerous attention shown biased result societal stereotypes blacks association danger stereotypes blacks association danger leads black faces seen fear stereotypes gate keepers self directing attention expected information efficient information processing device directs attention new information potentially undermine stereotype dependent individuals use stereotype individual use stereotype perceived threat blacks way conditioning longstanding stereotypes activity increasing strength stereotype associations attached stereotype higher rated threat perception blacks analyzed ease people motivated use little resources possible stereotypes attached threat perceptions blacks readily available easily explanation white majority system sensitive black faces biased demonstrate attention directed black targets participants biased prejudice black targets black targets shown presented individuals non individuals dark skinned white males caused greater activation akin fear response light skinned white males associated fear threat emotion processing stereotypes expectations act filters increase ease consistent information processed people motivated use little resources possible giving attention easiest material consistent information stereotype strength increases ease processing stereotype consistent information attention shift stereotype consistent information stereotype inconsistent information unexpected information processed extensively difficult consistent information coded generic examples inconsistent information uniquely coded new information aligned environment context environment context information received impacts threat associated example man wearing walking fast morning rich neighborhood crowded street threat perception lower encountering individual dark poverty stricken neighborhood rain street threatening intentions context encounter person level threat associated ecological contamination hypothesis states environment perceptions dangerous neighborhood dangerous police use force poverty stricken neighborhoods high crime rates greater proportions minorities background appeared safe racial bias present armed blacks shot quicker frequently armed whites background threatening racial bias reduced demonstrated tendency increase rate white targets shot increasing blacks treated hostile dangerous non dangerous contexts dangerous contexts proved reduce racial bias decision shoot whites treated similar hostile fashion blacks blacks treated similar regard restraint whites increasing racial bias white people racially ambiguous individuals black faces racially ambiguous faces racial bias white faces racial bias black faces acting intermediate average white context racially ambiguous individuals viewed black black context racially ambiguous individuals viewed black perceptions racially ambiguous faces impacted direct racial labeling context faces presented white black environments mixed contexts lead mild bias segregated situation signal detection theory involves bias reduces ability distinguish tools weapons black prime situations race incidental cue participants attend presence weapon non weapon unable blacks stereotype related factors heightened threat perception strategies change bias threat perception evaluation black people caused stereotypes access cues presence absence weapon motivation lay people racially biased average trained police officers target shown moderate racial bias police officers reduced racial bias comparison members community police officers better community members sensitivity targets exposing people race unrelated stereotype eliminate racial bias initial responses racially biased research shows extensive practice race unrelated task hand worked eliminate racial bias counter stereotypical information form multiple sources force change stereotype decreasing strength entirely exposure counter reduce racial bias making race non decision process characteristic violence unrelated group race critical characteristics weapon possession unrelated race paying attention race hinder judgment non task hand beneficial expose individuals counter information change nature category based responses racial bias appeared significantly reduced parameters study training indicating change stereotype directing attention expected information efficient information processing device extraction novel information potential undermine long term consequences decreased performance recognized consequence stereotype threat research shown stereotype threat cause individuals blame perceived failures self handicap value validity performance tasks distance negatively groups situations perceived threatening long run chronic experience stereotype threat lead individuals group example woman stop seeing math person experiencing series situations experienced stereotype threat thought psychological strategy maintain self esteem face failure repeated exposure anxiety lead individuals choose distance group research stereotype threat examined effects negative stereotype academic performance recently emphasis stereotype threat self control affect broader category behaviors non domains research michael colleagues suggest women cope negative stereotype math ability perform worse math tests completing math test women continue unrelated domains example women aggressive risky decisions endurance physical exercise perceived discrimination associated stereotype threat negative long term consequences individuals mental health perceived discrimination extensively investigated terms effects mental health particular emphasis depression cross studies involving diverse minority groups found individuals experience perceived discrimination likely exhibit symptoms additionally perceived discrimination found predict symptoms children negative mental health outcomes associated perceived discrimination include reduced general post traumatic stress disorder anxiety rebellious behavior analysis conducted smart shown strong link perceived discrimination negative mental health controlling factors education status employment additional research seeks ways boost test scores academic achievement students negatively groups study teaching college women stereotype threat effects performance sufficient eliminate predicted gender gap difficult math test making people aware fact necessarily perform worse despite existence stereotype boost performance research found opposite effect study women given text experiment stereotypes biological differences shown cause women math performed math exercise found women properly understood meaning information provided stereotype threat performed significantly worse task approach involves participants intelligence increased effort people believe improve performance based effort likely believe overcome negative stereotypes perform type intervention involves having participants engage self process participants write value important researchers nancy master found self exercise form brief class writing assignment significantly improved grades african american middle school students reduced racial achievement gap suggested racial achievement gap partially brief targeted social psychological intervention attempted medical students given written assignment clinical assessment written assignment group white students performed worse minority students clinical assessment groups improved performance maintaining racial difference allowing participants think positive value attribute prior completing task susceptible stereotype threat fourth intervention stereotype threat involves increasing participants feelings social belonging academic world able boost grades african american college students eliminate racial achievement gap year college telling participants concerns social belonging tend time allowing individuals feel welcomed desirable group makes likely ignore stereotypes minority college students welcomed world likely influenced negative stereotypes poor minority performance academic tasks criticism stereotype threat explanation achievement gaps attracted criticism according paul michael media scholarly literature concluded eliminating stereotype threat completely eliminate differences test performance european americans african americans pointed experiments stereotype threat removed achievement gap approximately standard remained groups close size routinely reported african american european americans average scores large scale standardized tests sat subsequent correspondence wrote agree results conclude eliminating stereotype threat african american white test score gap arthur criticised stereotype threat theory basis additional mechanism explain effects according explained known established theories test anxiety especially law view effects attributed stereotype threat simply reflect interaction ability level test anxiety function test complexity examined real world testing broad population lab assessments questionable external validity found opposite stereotype threat randomly assigned questions actually raised female students scores standard lack stereotype threat earlier large experiment advanced placement exams found stereotype threat david reviewed evidence stereotype threat explanation achievement gap mathematics men women concluded relevant stereotype threat research problems having control group stereotype threat literature topic established concluded evidence fact weak failures replicate publication bias effect occurs questioned researchers failing replicate finding concluded reported effect small field inflated publication bias argue likely true effect size near zero plot highlighting restriction large effect low powered studies plot occurs publication bias active earlier analyses reached similar conclusions instance examined stereotype threat mathematics test performance report series studies total sample students included childhood adolescent subjects activation methods ranging implicit explicit found evidence gender differences math occurred regardless stereotype threat importantly found evidence mathematics performance school age girls impacted stereotype threat addition report evidence stereotype threat children appears subject publication bias literature reflect selective publication false positive effects studies large controlled studies find smaller non significant effects findings reported article significant stereotype threat effects found age certain students certain items certain contexts study importantly unpublished showed stereotype threat effect observation suggests possibility publication bias occurring publication bias refers fact studies results written publication accepted publication bias concern especially results recommendations study designed incentives overcome stereotype threat mathematics tests list replicate stereotype threat finding instead modest effect threat males females


lack sexual attraction low absent interest desire sexual activity considered lack sexual orientation variations thereof alongside homosexuality umbrella term broader spectrum sub identities study placed prevalence british population distinct sexual activity generally motivated factors individual personal religious beliefs sexual orientation unlike sexual behavior believed enduring people engage sexual activity despite lacking sexual attraction desire sex variety reasons desire pleasure romantic partners desire children acceptance sexual orientation field scientific research relatively new growing body research psychological perspectives begun develop researchers assert sexual orientation researchers disagree communities started form advent world wide web social media prolific known communities visibility education network founded david jay definition identity relationships referred ace ace community researchers lgbt people significant variation people identify encompass broad definitions researchers generally define lack sexual attraction lack sexual interest definitions vary use term refer individuals low absent sexual desire attractions low absent sexual behaviors exclusively romantic non sexual partnerships combination absent sexual desires behaviors visibility education network defines experience sexual attraction stated small minority think brief period time exploring questioning sexuality test determine like identity core word people use help figure point finds word useful describe encourage use long makes sense people lacking sexual attraction gender engage purely romantic relationships identified individuals report feel sexual attraction act true desire need engage sexual non sexual activity hand holding etc engage non sexual physical activity participate sexual activity curiosity solitary form release feel need regard sexual activity particular need desire commonly referred sex drive sexual attraction sexual generally consider normal product human body sign sexuality find men unable erection sexual activity attempting penetration impossible differ feelings performing sex acts indifferent sex benefit romantic partner strongly idea typically dislike people having sex concerning romantic emotional aspects sexual orientation sexual identity identify lesbian gay bisexual following terms indicate associate romantic sexual aspects sexual orientation lack romantic attraction opposed bisexual opposed opposed homosexual opposed people identify gray gray romantic feel non sexual attraction term gray cover occasionally feels romantic sexual attraction experience sexual attraction secondary component feeling sexual attraction reasonably stable large emotional connection created research prevalence new aspect human sexuality relatively new public discourse smith guardian sure actually increased leaning belief simply visible mid twentieth century alfred rated individuals according sexual orientation homosexual known scale included category called individuals socio sexual contacts reactions modern times categorized representing labeled adult male population second book sexual behavior human female reported breakdown individuals unmarried females married females previously married females unmarried males married males previously married males data demographic appeared research team united_kingdom carried comprehensive survey british residents spurred need sexual information wake aids survey included question sexual attraction respondents replied felt sexually attracted study phenomenon continued canadian sexuality researcher anthony explored demographic series studies believed figure accurate reflection likely larger percentage population identified noting people contacted initial survey chose participate survey sexually experienced people likely refuse participate studies sexuality tend sexually experienced likely represented responding participants study found number combined population smaller studies indicate contrast suggestion higher percentage study published suggests based data prevalence britain people ages percentage indicates decrease figure determined data collected age range decade earlier found similar decline data found evidence ethnic differences respondents experienced sexual attraction men women indian pakistani origin higher likelihood reporting lack sexual attraction muslims likely report lack attraction respondents christian religions sexual orientation mental health significant debate sexual orientation compared sexual desire disorder imply general lack sexual attraction generally considered disorder sexual etc necessarily define having medical problem problems relating socially unlike people people normally experience marked distress difficulty concerning feelings sexuality generally lack sexual considered lack absence sexual attraction life enduring characteristic study found compared subjects reported lower levels sexual desire sexual experience sex related distress symptoms researchers richards report rates depression personality disorders people identify non sexual state explained aforementioned disorders study gave data published concerning relationship sexual orientation mental health subjects students universities united_states taking psychology classes given surveys including clinical scales results showed likely low self esteem likely depressed members sexual called reported problems self esteem similar trend existed depression believe firm conclusions drawn variety reasons study looked mental health results male female participants included findings found male participants likely report having mood disorder males particularly comparison participants found female participants counterparts non non females highest rates participants sexes likely anxiety disorders non participants likely participants report having recent feelings differences discrimination societal factors regard sexual orientation categories argued meaningful category add instead argued lack sexual orientation sexuality arguments propose denial natural sexuality disorder caused shame sexuality anxiety sexual abuse basing belief occasionally engage sexual activity simply romantic partner context sexual orientation identity politics fulfill political function sexual orientation identity category suggestion sexual controversial community identify usually prefer recognized sexual orientation scholars state sexual orientation unable reportedly normal sex drive variations sexual preferences arguing ought included state choose sexual desire generally start find differences sexual behaviors facts coming light argued choice cured like disorder context disease disorder research sexual orientation applied problem sexual orientation consistently defined researchers including sexual orientation defined enduring resistant change proving generally intended change homosexuality usually determined early years life known determined unclear characteristics lacking interest desire sex thought lifelong acquired studies suggested linked biological factors determined early childhood studies report shorter average likely non right handed older brothers known birth order effect birth order reported male homosexuality possibly indicating similar origin non measurement areas sexual orientation accepted american psychological association american psychiatric association national association social workers imply document phenomenon occurs case studies non probability samples adequate groups sufficiently number relative entire population locating probability sampling extremely expensive practically impossible cases use non probability samples appropriate determining small percentage large society given compose smaller percentage information available individuals generally randomly selected sexual activity sexuality solitary form release sex benefit romantic partner institute sponsored small survey topic found self identified reported significantly desire sex partner lower sexual lower sexual differ consistently non sexual scores desire paper titled women invisible groups johnson paper explicitly devoted humans johnson defines men women regardless physical emotional condition actual sexual history marital status ideological orientation prefer engage sexual activity contrasts women women woman sexual desires woman recognizes desires prefers satisfy johnson evidence letters editor found women magazines written women portrays invisible oppressed consensus left sexual revolution feminist movement society ignores denies existence insists religious reasons political reasons study published advances study affect vol article data published journal personality social psychology michael storms university kansas outlined scale measured sexual orientation based combination actual sexual behavior storms storms placed separate axes ends single scale allows distinction exhibiting degrees comparable respectively exhibiting level comparable level comparable homosexual little storms researchers following model subjects bisexual simply defined lack preference gender sexual partners study included subjects students universities united_states taking psychology classes dimensional scale measure sexual orientation based results respondents given score ranging respondents scored lower labeled consisted males females results showed reported lower frequency desired frequency variety sexual activities including having multiple partners anal sexual activities having sexual encounters variety locations activities sexually species portion animals exhibit sexual interest sex considered studies use label express sexual interest series studies ram mating preferences found showed interest mating sex researchers termed animals differ sexual measured levels feminist research paper written june titled new implications theory practice suggests somewhat question studies gender sexuality suggested raises questions resolves person having sex generally accepted society basic instincts article states society deemed lgbt female sexuality empowered movement challenges assumption challenging basic pro sex feminism defined anti sex addition accepting self identification visibility education network formulated determined orientation formula scientifically proven support researcher simon blind study gay men women straight men indicates biological difference straight men gay men edited published feminist perspectives collection essays intended explore politics feminist perspective broken introduction parts new politics media culture health disability reading literary theory contains papers given aspect research paper written common scholarly literature article regard anthology focuses accounts self identified male particular focus pressures men experience having sex dominant western discourse media men living southern ontario canada interviewed admits small sample size means findings greater population terms representation provisional especially field lacking addressed affected stereotype men enjoy want sex order real men articles feminist politics published takes feminist lens scientific writings argues possible western context sexual addresses earlier works argued radical feminist political strategies considers lines productive feminist understanding topic producing facts scientific study sex published feminism psychology distinguishes different stages research late 1970s early 1990s included limited understanding recent subject says began study popularized subject culturally visible article asserts understanding cultural phenomenon continues critical scientific study states radical potential academic research positioned line sexual orientation troublesome creates persons subjected psychiatric intervention disorders sexual desire disorder says implies experience lifelong enduring lack sexual attraction non experience lack sexual desire experience distress experience distress says act govern women sexuality article aims problematic definitions harmful women alike states power challenge commonplace discourse sexuality acceptance current definition allow argues making sense community navigating relationships identities context resistance important distressed low sexual desire argues ethical obligation avoid treating low sexual desire discuss viable possibility relevant clients presenting low sexual desire psychological work theories volume journal sex research argued understanding key importance understanding sexuality general work defines lack feelings directed definition argues relatively new light recent theory work sexual orientation definition makes clear distinction behavior desire notes evidence reduced sexual activity fit definition distinguishes desire desire sexual absent identify acknowledges define differently research needs complex relationship attraction desire distinction romantic sexual attraction draws work developmental psychology suggests romantic systems derive attachment theory sexual systems primarily reside different brain structures concurrent suggestion understanding lead better understanding sexuality overall discusses topic target oriented reversal self typical target object sexual interest attraction attraction oneself labelled earlier article acknowledges distinction behavior attraction accepted recent sexual orientation aids positioning adds framework sexual attraction psychological core sexual orientation addresses skepticism academic clinical communities classifying sexual orientation raises objections classification suggests issue self reporting perceived reported lack attraction particularly definitions sexual orientation consider physical attraction second raises issue overlap absent low sexual desire extremely low desire underlying sexual orientation despite potentially identifying community community self identified early 21st century aided popularity online communities elizabeth author history acknowledges difference element population people kept low profile failure marriage seen insult marriage medieval europe grounds divorce rule marriage void unlike homosexuality illegal people usually able fly radar 21st century online communication general popularity social networking online facilitated formation community built common identity visibility education network organization founded american activist david jay focuses issues stated goals creating public acceptance discussion growth community communities beneficial search answers solve crisis identity regard possible individuals series emotional processes end identifying community realize sexual attractions differ society difference leads questioning way feel acceptable possible reasons feel way beliefs tend follow cases seek medical help feel disease self understanding usually reached find definition matches feelings communities provide support information allows newly identified self identifying communal level empowering associate gives overall socially situation time organizations internet resources play key role informing people lack research makes difficult doctors understand like sexual orientation people self identified problem mistaken intimacy relationship problem symptoms define significant population understand believe adds importance organizations inform general population lack scientific fact subject groups promote information questioned june organised second international conference affiliate event toronto event attended people largest gathering date conference included presentations discussions workshops topics research relationships intersecting identities symbols members participated entry american pride parade walked san_francisco pride parade august period debate having flag set system create contacting communities possible flag announced pride flag teams involved final flag popular candidate previously seen use online forums outside final vote held survey system outside main flag creation efforts organized flag colors artwork referenced articles sexuality discrimination legal study published group processes relations reports prejudice discrimination sexual minorities gay men homosexual people thought cold activist author blogger observed sexual harassment violence rape commonly community different study found little evidence discrimination mark sees middle ground claiming experience discrimination nature people genuinely don understand face prejudice lgbt community coming activist brooks told lgbt people mistaken self identification seek attention social justice movement jurisdictions legal brazil attempted treatment sexual orientation mental health professionals national ethical code state new_york labeled protected class typically attract attention public major scrutiny subject legislation sexual media representation media limited rarely openly acknowledged confirmed creators authors sexual identity biological entity widely discussed media beginning 21st century sexuality general questioned assumed little research conducted susceptible social influence including media portrayal


classification classification practice test publishers labeling score ranges category names superior average publishers tests abilities publishers use exactly classification labels changed time time beginning intelligence testing early twentieth century scores derived different methods advent ability tests method historically ratio based estimating mental age test rounded specified number years months divided test chronological age rounded specified number years months example mental age score thirteen years zero months test chronological age years zero months results division division result multiplied scores reported points score example reported current scoring method tests method score means test performance test median level performance sample test age norm test score means performance standard median score performance standard median lewis early developers tests noticed child scores come approximately number procedure standard scoring tests large allow consistent definition children adults current definition test standard scores thirds test obtain scores percent population scores historically tests invented attempts classify people intelligence categories observing behavior daily life forms observation important classifications based primarily test scores intelligence classification observation behavior outside testing room classification testing depend definition intelligence particular case reliability error classification procedure tests variation scores person takes test scores differ test taking tests publisher age test publishers use uniform names definitions score classifications issues kept mind interpreting individual scores result different classifications person different times individual classification tests generally reliable people ages older similar scores life individuals score differently taking test different times taking kind test age example children famous longitudinal genetic studies genius begun lewis showed declines grew recruited school pupils based teachers gave stanford test children test included study children main study group students contacted students high school age found dropped points average stanford dozen children dropped points points parents children thought children bright brighter tests error measurement test score test inform test confidence interval score obtained given occasion taking test scores scores expressed interval measurement unit inherent error band test score tests sample learned behavior scores misleading test fail follow standardized administration scoring procedures cases test mistakes usual result tests scored giving test higher score test performance test showing halo effect low individuals receiving scores lower standardized procedures followed high individuals receive inflated scores classifications individuals vary category labels score ranges specific brand test test publishers uniform practice labeling score ranges consistent practice dividing score ranges categories size boundary scores specify test given reporting test test authors recommend adopt terminology test publisher reporting score ranges classifications testing word test life information considered placement school job training programs information behavior differs persons differing scores placement school programs medical diagnosis career advising factors individual assessment lesson classification systems necessarily arbitrary change test authors government bodies professional organizations statistical concepts correspond real sense specific capabilities particular person given classification systems provide descriptive labels useful communication purposes case report conference classification tables current tests variety individually administered tests use english speaking world report test results report standard score median score level test scores higher lower median score score indicated standard score points higher lower standard difference higher lower test performance test item content intelligence scales intelligence scales originally developed earlier intelligence scales david test published scale tests children adults frequently individual tests english speaking world translated versions widely tests worldwide tests long regarded gold standard testing adult intelligence scale fourth edition published psychological corporation intelligence scale children fifth edition published psychological corporation primary scale intelligence fourth edition published psychological corporation like current tests tests report standard score scale sample median raw score defined score standard higher defined lower defined proposed alternative language classifications note especially term borderline implies close disabled replaced alternative system term doesn imply medical diagnosis stanford intelligence scale fifth edition current fifth edition stanford scales developed gale published riverside publishing unlike scoring previous versions stanford test scoring scoring standard sample median score points median score like standard scoring tests johnson test abilities johnson iii tests abilities iii developed richard kevin nancy published riverside note iii classification terms applied score ranges stanford tests tests adolescent adult intelligence test developed published american guidance service test scores classified symmetrical fashion words score ranges classification wide median median classification labels assess individuals assessment battery children second edition developed published american guidance service assessment system das assessment system test developed jack das published riverside differential ability scales differential ability scales second edition das developed published psychological corporation das test battery given individually children children ages years months seventeen years months english speaking children age range das yields general conceptual ability score scaled like score median standard score set standard score points standard median lowest possible das highest intellectual ability scales intellectual ability scales developed cecil published psychological assessment resources historical classification tables lewis developer stanford intelligence scales based english language stanford test french language simon test developed alfred believed test measured general intelligence construct advocated charles differed reporting scores test form intelligence mental age divided chronological age scores suggestion german psychologist william stern chose category names score levels stanford test chose classification score levels relied partly usage earlier authors wrote existence tests topics individuals unable care independent adult life version stanford based samples included white american born subjects california nevada oregon proposed set classification terms book intelligence testing methods results commented era including went measurement individual general ability waiting adequate psychological definition retained terms second edition book albert louis marks proposed broader set categories book testing intelligence achievement terminology table came contemporary terms classifying individuals intellectual disabilities second revision stanford test retained scoring despite earlier criticism method reporting test standard scores term genius longer score range second revision children adults american born white children data table published later manual revision form stanford test reported score second revision group david developer scale later developed adult intelligence scale popularized use standard scores tests mental age divided chronological age stanford test devoted chapter book measurement adult intelligence topic classification proposed different category names lewis criticized practice earlier authors published classification tables test obtain scores reported tables published edition book measurement adult intelligence revised chapter topic classification commented mental age scores valid way score intelligence tests scores continued use classification terms revision form stanford test scoring pioneered david rough scores second revision stanford test scoring table author samuel set median standard score level standard score points standard level highest score direct look standard scoring tables based norms 1930s chronological ages years months test raw score mental age years months age years months test raw score mental age years months classification stanford scores include terms exceptionally gifted profoundly gifted test manual david reviewing stanford revision seventh mental measurements published commented test obsolete year edition johnson tests abilities published riverside classifications modern describe levels performance opposed offering diagnosis revised version adult intelligence scale developed david published psychological corporation changed boundaries classification categories names compared version test test manual included information actual percentage persons sample scoring levels compared theoretical expectations assessment battery children abc developed published american guidance service fourth revision stanford scales developed published riverside publishing retained scoring revision standard median defined point difference adopted new classification terminology test published psychologist lamented tests caught advances research human intelligence twentieth century edition adult intelligence scale iii different classification terminology earliest versions tests classification low individuals earliest terms classifying individuals low intelligence medical legal terms preceded development testing legal system recognized concept individuals impaired responsible criminal behavior medical doctors encountered adult patients live independently unable care daily living needs terms attempt classify individuals varying degrees intellectual disability earliest terms considered offensive current medical diagnosis scores conclusive finding intellectual disability recently adopted standards place major emphasis behavior individual score factor diagnosis addition behavior scales category intellectual disability defined primarily scores point evidence testing assessment evidence mind end interpretations test performance gain meaning data sources related area areas difficulty specified united_states holding supreme_court case virginia bars states imposing capital punishment persons mental defined subsequent cases persons scores legal standard continues actively capital cases classification high individuals classification genius francis pioneer investigating eminent human achievement mental testing book hereditary genius writing development testing proposed hereditary influences eminent achievement strong rare general population lewis chose near genius genius classification label highest classification version stanford test began publishing longitudinal study california referred testing called genetic studies genius conducted rest life catherine cox colleague wrote book early mental traits published volume genetic studies genius book series analyzed biographical data historic estimates childhood scores historical figures took tests criticized grounds cox study thorough finding matters genius second revision stanford test longer term genius classification subsequent test specifically commented hesitant calling person genius basis single intelligence test score longitudinal study california eventually provided historical evidence genius related scores california pupils recommended study pupils tested rejected inclusion study scores low study grew nobel prize winners physics william walter based historical findings study biographical examples richard went win nobel prize physics widely known genius current view scholars genius minimum level lower strictly necessary genius level sufficient development genius combined influences identified cox biographical study opportunity talent development characteristics drive persistence charles bearing mind influential theory originated intelligence general factor special factors specific particular mental tasks summed research best wrote normal man woman child genius idiot classification major point consensus scholars intellectual generally agreed definition scholarly agreement identifying gifted facto reliance scores identifying participants school gifted education programs practice school districts united_states use score including upper percent national population cut score inclusion school gifted programs long ago lewis pointed error scoring increases score increases certainty assigning test band scores looks higher bands current tests large error bands high scores underlying reality exceptionally gifted profoundly gifted established longitudinal studies shown test bounce score switch rank order compared course childhood test claim classification categories profoundly gifted meaningful based obsolete stanford revision form test highest reported standard score tests approximately leaving aside issue considerable error measurement level test scores level dubious insufficient cases base justified rank ordering stanford adult populations trace terminology writings lewis current tests attempt provide extended norms allow classification different levels norms based data


george miller george miller february july founders psychology field contributed birth science general miller wrote books directed development online word database usable computer programs authored paper magical number seven plus minus observed different experimental findings considered reveal presence average limit seven human short term memory capacity paper frequently cited psychology wider culture won awards national medal science miller started education focusing speech language published papers topics focusing mathematical psychological aspects field started career time reigning theory psychology attempt study mental processes focused behavior working harvard_university mit princeton_university miller introduced experimental techniques study psychology mental processes went founders key figures founding broader new field science circa collaborated authored work figures science moving psychology realm mental processes information theory theory miller considered great twentieth century review general psychology survey published ranked miller 20th cited psychologist era biography miller born february charleston west_virginia son executive steel company george miller florence miller soon parents divorced grew mother great depression attended public school graduated charleston high school relocated mother stepfather washington george_washington university year family practiced christian science required turning prayer medical science healing stepfather transferred birmingham alabama miller transferred university alabama received bachelor degree history speech master speech university alabama taken courses voice science speech membership drama club fostered interest courses speech department influenced professor introduced psychology indirectly future wife james married november died january married margaret page miller taught course introduction psychology alabama years enrolled program psychology harvard_university coming university received doctorate harvard acoustic laboratory supervision stanley smith stevens researching military voice communications army signal corps world war doctorate thesis optimal design signals classified secret army career receiving doctorate miller stayed research fellow harvard continue research speech hearing appointed assistant professor psychology course developed language communication eventually lead major book language communication took spent year visiting fellow institute advanced study princeton pursue interest mathematics miller befriended robert played miller joined mit associate professor psychology led psychology group mit lincoln lab worked voice communication human engineering identified minimal voice features speech required based work invited talk eastern psychological association presentation magical number seven plus minus later published paper went legendary psychology miller moved harvard associate professor professor expanding research language affects human university met young founders science spent summer stanford training faculty families shared house miller took leave join center advanced study sciences alto california stanford_university collaborated eugene book plans structure behavior founded center studies harvard term break dominant school insisted fit scientific study center attracted notable visitors jean alexander miller chair psychology department miller instrumental time recruiting teach harvard miller knew university alabama miller teaching psychology graduated undergraduate degree department miller taught university year visiting professor professor university continued professor new president selection leave moved princeton_university james distinguished university professor psychology helped founding science laboratory princeton eventually professor emeritus senior research psychologist princeton directed program science miller honorary university sussex columbia_university yale_university catholic university university humane letters honorary williams college elected american academy arts sciences national academy sciences presidency eastern psychological association presidency american psychological association royal netherlands academy arts sciences miller speaker convention association psychological science research fellow oxford_university received national medal science death later years miller enjoyed playing golf died home new_jersey complications pneumonia time death survived wife margaret children marriage son james daughter nancy david christopher grandchildren murray miller morgan murray miller james miller major contributions miller career started reign psychology questioned mental thought processes fit scientific study focused working responses particularly animals miller disagreed considered founders field psychology replaced framework analyzing mind working memory days william james idea memory consisted short term long term memory short term memory expected limited exact limits known miller capacity limit paper magical number seven plus minus tested immediate memory tasks asking person repeat set presented absolute judgment presenting label asking recall label later span attention asking count things group items quickly cases miller found average limit seven items mixed feelings focus work exact number seven short term memory felt stated introducing paper research time persecuted miller invented term characterize highly variable units limit memory applied single letter familiar word larger familiar unit miller saw relationship disparate tasks immediate memory absolute judgment fill hour presentation results influenced field psychology years starting miller directed development large computer electronic reference usable applications search engines large database representing human memory english fundamental building block collection synonyms representing concept idea words multiple entire class grouped separately links existing major groups going includes inter word relationships relationships inclusion intended dictionary short definitions added time went miller colleagues planned tool test theories humans use understand words miller later worked closely developers inc meaning based search engine based proved extremely influential international scale emulated different languages language psychology miller considered founders links language psychology analyze people use create language book language communication considered seminal field later book science words focused language psychology published papers mathematics aspects language new areas study miller researched people understood words sentences problem faced artificial speech recognition technology book plans structure behavior written eugene explored humans plan act trying robot programmed plan things miller known miller law order understand person saying assume true try imagine true books miller authored books considered major works respective fields language communication miller language communication significant texts study language behavior book scientific study language emphasizing data based mathematical model shannon information theory model imposed learning association scheme borrowed miller attached pure perspective book reviewed information theory physiology speech recognition statistical techniques analyze language focus speech generation recognition second psychology differences people language use developmental structure word associations people use symbolism language social aspects language use reviewing book charles classified book graduate level text based objective facts theoretical thought book topics brief directly related author expertise area critical miller use simple single stage response learning explain human language acquisition use approach impossible analyze concept meaning idea language consisting signs find book objective emphasis facts theory depicting clearly application information theory psychology plans structure behavior plans structure behavior miller authors tried explain artificial intelligence perspective animals plan act radical break explained behavior set sequence response actions authors introduced planning element controlling actions saw plans executed based input stored inherited information environment called image strategy called test operate test exit image essentially stored memory past context akin map strategy initial test phase compared input image operate function attempted reduce cycle repeated till vanished exit function invoked passing control unit arranged scheme peter review canadian journal psychology noted book short concrete details implementing strategy critically viewed book able tie model details molecular level book covered brain gross level studies showing regions possibly implement strategies giving reader indication region implement strategy psychology communication miller work psychology communication collection seven previously published articles information memory dealt presenting idea separating physical length number items presented learned psychological length number ideas recipient manages items capacity short term memory measured units psychological length arguing pure interpretation meaning items reinforcement punishment central psychological length second essay paper magical number seven human link communication systems information theory idea channel capacity analyze human perception essay concluded absorb knowledge limited property handful items paper described effort speaking understanding sentence related self reference similar structures present inside sentence broken clauses phrases book general view seeing language rules grammar having biological basis simple idea language performance improved reinforcement tools information place sound theoretical framework analyze data practically efficiently miller specifically addressed experimental data framework concept level field language noted qualified level overthrow spheres psychology legacy society established george miller prize contributions field american psychological association established george miller award outstanding article general psychology department psychology princeton_university presented george miller prize annually best senior thesis science paper magical number seven continues cited popular press explain liking seven digit phone numbers argue digit codes especially modern psychology highlight break miller considered 20th eminent psychologist 20th century list republished american psychological association awards distinguished scientific contribution award american psychological association distinguished service award american speech hearing association award sciences new_york academy sciences fellow william james fellow american psychological society von award institute gold medal american psychological foundation national medal science white_house louis levy medal franklin institute international prize foundation william james book award division general psychology john award american association advancement science outstanding lifetime contribution psychology award prize european languages research association list miller books language communication hill mathematics psychology perspectives psychology john sons isbn frank smith george miller genesis language approach proceedings conference language development children mit press frank smith george miller genesis language approach mit press isbn george miller communication language meaning perspectives psychology basic books isbn linguistic communication perspectives research international reading association isbn psychology communication harper isbn george miller philip johnson language perception harvard_university press isbn morris joan george miller linguistic theory psychological reality mit press isbn george miller elizabeth psychology biology language thought essays honor academic press isbn oscar george miller organizations free press isbn block george miller readings philosophy psychology volume harvard_university press isbn george miller eugene plans structure behavior adams cox isbn spontaneous children language tree life press isbn language speech freeman isbn psychology science mental life books ltd isbn science words freeman isbn chapters books miller george eugene comments models psychological theories arrow kenneth samuel patrick mathematical models social sciences proceedings stanford stanford mathematical studies social sciences stanford california stanford_university press isbn


attachment disorder attachment disorder broad term intended describe disorders mood behavior social relationships arising failure form normal primary care giving figures early childhood failure result unusual early experiences neglect abuse abrupt separation months years age frequent change excessive numbers lack child efforts resulting lack basic trust problematic history social relationships occurring age child result attachment disorder term attachment disorder describe emotional problems young children applied school age children teenagers adults specific difficulties implied depend age individual assessed child attachment related behaviors different familiar adult suggesting disorder relationship interactions people aspect personality list symptoms legitimately presented generally term attachment disorder refers absence distortion age appropriate social behaviors adults example attachment behavior include failure stay near familiar adults strange environment contact familiar person year old attachment behavior involve excessive inappropriate approaches strangers currently main areas theory practice relating definition diagnosis attachment disorder considerable discussion broader definition altogether main area based scientific found academic journals books pays close attention attachment theory described attachment disorder form attachment disorder dad form comparable types called attachment disorder second area controversial considered found clinical practice websites books publications little evidence base makes controversial claims relating basis attachment theory use controversial attachment disorder linked use attachment treat authors suggested attachment aspect emotional development better assessed spectrum considered fall non overlapping categories spectrum end characteristics called secure attachment midway range disturbance insecure undesirable attachment styles extreme non attachment agreement reached respect criteria finally term cover difficulties arising relation attachment styles disorders clinical sense attachment attachment disorder attachment theory primarily evolutionary theory relation primarily consists proximity seeking attachment figure face threat purpose survival attachment tie synonymous love affection despite going healthy attachment considered important foundation subsequent relationships attached adults sensitive responsive social interactions infant remain consistent time parental responses lead development patterns attachment turn lead internal working models guide individual feelings thoughts expectations later relationships fundamental aspect attachment called basic trust basic trust broader concept attachment extends infant relationship wider social network caring links confidence past faith future argues sense trust oneself foundation human development balance produces hope clinical sense disorder condition requiring treatment opposed risk factors subsequent disorders lack consensus precise meaning term attachment disorder general agreement disorders arise following early adverse experiences attachment disorder indicates absence main aspects proximity seeking identified attachment figure occur institutions repeated changes extremely primary persistent disregard child basic attachment needs age months current official classifications largely based understanding nature attachment words attachment style pattern refer types attachment arising early care experiences called secure anxious ambivalent anxious organized disorganized styles problematic disorders clinical sense discussed term attachment disorder discussion disorganized attachment style includes style attachment disorders disorganized attachment seen beginning developmental trajectory individual normal range culminating actual disorders thought behavior mood early intervention disorganized attachment problematic styles directed changing trajectory development provide better outcome later person life colleagues proposed alternative set criteria categories attachment disorder attachment figure secure base disrupted attachment disorder classifications consider disorder variation requires treatment individual difference normal range classification describes attachment disorder childhood known disorder childhood known dad describes attachment disorder infancy early childhood divides type type known classifications similar include markedly disturbed inappropriate social contexts disturbance accounted solely developmental delay meet criteria developmental disorder onset years age requires history significant neglect implicit lack identifiable preferred attachment figure includes diagnosis psychological physical abuse injury addition neglect somewhat controversial commission omission abuse lead attachment disorder form described failure initiate respond social interactions manifest excessively responses seek accept comfort times threat alarm distress failing maintain proximity essential element attachment behavior form shows excessive familiarity relative strangers lack second basic element attachment behavior descriptions comparable terms attachment disorder exist child form greater tendency appropriate whilst form enduring likely occur following abusive automatic diagnosis basis children form stable social relationships despite marked abuse neglect abuse occur alongside required factors explain attachment disorder experiences abuse associated development attachment child prefers familiar responds person unpredictable somewhat bizarre way official classifications attachment risk factor attachment disorder attachment disorders tend occur context institutions repeated changes primary extremely identifiable primary persistent disregard child basic attachment needs children raised conditions develop attachment disorder leading attachment recognized limitations criteria proposed broader criteria official consensus criteria recognised recommendations attachment problems extending real appropriate concern professionals working children set recommendations assessment offered approach attachment disorders considers cases children opportunity form attachment distorted relationship existing attachment abruptly disrupted significantly extend definition definitions definitions limited situations child attachment attachment specified attachment figure use term disorder attachment indicate situation young child preferred adult children approach adults familiar alternatively emotionally withdrawn fail seek comfort type attachment problem parallel attachment disorder defined forms described describe condition term secure base distortion situation child preferred familiar relationship child use adult safety gradually exploring environment children adult excessively role care punish adult type disorder discussed termed disrupted attachment type problem covered approaches attachment results abrupt separation loss familiar attachment developed young child reaction loss parallel grief reaction older person progressive changes protest crying searching despair sadness withdrawal communication play finally detachment original relationship recovery social play activities recently daniel shown relationship maternal violence related stress disorder secure base distortion characterized child separation anxiety role reversal problems attachment style majority year old children tolerate brief familiar quickly return children use familiar people secure base return periodically exploring new situation children said secure attachment style continue develop emotionally smaller numbers children positive development age months desirable attachment styles poor later social development children behavior months problem appear developmental end poor social skills relationships attachment styles serve later development appropriate think certain attachment styles range attachment disorders insecure attachment styles involve unusual separation familiar person children returning person resist picked reunite fail return previous play children likely later social problems peers teachers spontaneously develop better ways interacting people small group way reuniting separation called disorganized style reunion pattern involve looking frightened freezing place backing approaching head sharply showing behaviors imply person sought disorganized attachment considered major risk factor child appears interfere regulation tolerance negative emotions foster aggressive behavior disorganized patterns attachment strongest links concurrent subsequent considerable research demonstrated child environmental disorganized attachment diagnosis recognised assessment methods attachment styles difficulties disorders include strange situation procedure mary separation reunion procedure assessment attachment record environment attachment sort sort recent research uses disturbances attachment interview developed semi structured interview designed administered covers items having preferred adult seeking comfort distressed responding comfort offered social emotional emotional regulation checking away care unfamiliar adults willingness relative strangers self behavior excessive role reversal treatment variety mainstream prevention programs treatment approaches attachment disorder attachment problems moods behaviors considered potential problems context attachment theory approaches younger children concentrate increasing sensitivity possible changing approaches include watch wait wonder manipulation sensitive modified interaction guidance parent circle security attachment catch abc new_orleans intervention parent child known treatment methods include developmental individual difference relationship based therapy referred floor time stanley primarily directed treatment developmental disorders approaches suggested consider attachment status adult play important role development emotional connection adult child includes foster parents children poor attachment experiences appropriate responses attachment behaviors despite care treatment attachment disorder children usually involves mix therapy counseling education designed sure child safe environment live develop positive interactions improves relationships peers medication way treat similar conditions like depression anxiety quick fix treating attachment disorder recommend treatment plan example mix family therapy individual psychological counseling play therapy special education services skills classes possible mechanisms study reported connection specific genetic marker disorganized attachment associated problems author compared social behavior genetic conditions williams syndrome behaviors typical attachment development begins infant reactions social signals ability send receive social communications facial expressions gestures voice develops social experience seven months makes possible infant interpret messages calm alarm face voice months typically begin respond fear unfamiliar startling situations look faces familiar information fear developmental combination social skills emergence fear reactions results attachment behavior proximity seeking familiar sensitive responsive cooperative adult available developments attachment negotiation separation period depend factors interaction style ability understand child emotional communications frequent changes infant experiences encourage proximity seeking familiar person infant experiences fear find information adult face voice develop ways maintenance distance adults seeking proximity adults symptoms accord criteria attachment disorder behavior patterns create developmental trajectory leading farther typical attachment processes development internal working model social relationships giving receiving care development constitutional tendency excessive inadequate fear reactions necessary infant vulnerable effects poor attachment experiences alternatively variations develop inability develop stranger inadequate care appropriate fear responses able develop infant begun form selective attachment infant position afford interest person potential attachment figures faced swift succession child opportunity form selective attachment possible determined sensitive period developing stranger passed thought process lead form form behave attachment system switched innate capacity attachment behavior lost explain children diagnosed form institutions invariably formation attachment behavior good children suffer form consequence neglect frequent changes continue form far longer placed families additionally development theory mind play role emotional development theory mind ability know experience knowledge intention lies human actions facial expressions reported young different responses humans non human objects theory mind develops relatively gradually possibly results predictable interactions adults ability kind place mutual communication gaze gesture occur seven months disorders attributed absence mental functions theory mind possible absence ability lack experiences communicate predictable fashion development attachment disorder treatment absence officially recognized criteria discourse broader set criteria discussed term attachment disorder increasingly refer broader set children behavior affected lack primary attachment figure seriously attachment relationship primary disrupted attachment relationship studies examining accuracy concern expressed potential diagnosis based broad form therapy including diagnosis accompanying techniques scientifically considered mainstream psychology despite based attachment theory considered incompatible described potentially abusive intervention resulted tragic outcomes children common feature form diagnosis attachment therapy use extensive lists symptoms include likely consequence neglect abuse related attachment related clinical disorder lists described wildly inclusive gives examples lists ranging multiple domains elements criteria entirely non specific behavior developmental destructive behaviors refusal eye contact cruelty animals siblings lack cause effect thinking fire blood gore poor peer relationships stealing lying lack conscience persistent nonsense questions poor impulse control abnormal speech patterns fighting control food suggest prefers dad mom wants hold bottle soon possible indicative attachment problems expresses concern high rates false positive virtually certain posting types lists web sites serve marketing tools lead parents conclude children attachment disorders considerable variety treatments alleged attachment disorders diagnosed controversial alternative basis outlined popularly known attachment therapy little evidence base vary talking play extreme forms physical techniques best known holding therapy rage reduction model general aimed adopted fostered children view creating attachment children new critics maintain based accepted version attachment theory theoretical base broadly combination accompanied methods emphasise obedience parental control concentrate changing child estimated children died consequence forms treatments application accompanying techniques known cases following associated publicity advocates attachment therapy began alter views practices potentially dangerous children change publication task force report subject january commissioned american professional society abuse children largely critical attachment therapy practices continue april attach organisation originally set attachment formally adopted white paper stating opposition use practices therapy