air_force base air_force base liz united_states_air_force installation northeastern maine near limestone county largest bases air_force strategic air command existence transferred newly created air combat command base origins began order construction airfield new_england division united_states_army corps engineers chosen site northeastern maine limestone township plantation closest point continental europe providing high strategic value cold war base originally named limestone army air field renamed limestone air_force base following establishment air_force named major charles medal honor recipient korean war located air_force station home civilian population employed alongside active duty service members base included amenities hospital school ski hill facilitated adjustment maine life civilians base realignment closure commission recommended closed aircraft mission distributed bases nation base closed september years service redeveloped development authority commerce centre industrial aviation park airfield operated international airport overview majority operational lifetime heavy bomber aerial interception facility military aircraft equipment supplies strategic air command sac succeeding air combat command planned limestone army air field designed capacity strategic bombers plan partially completed budget constraints time largest air bases sac phased based models boeing based number years replaced better known home facilities base nearby air_force station weapons storage area operated separately absorbed air_force station operated east unit associated fully operational base facilities included alert area operated separate facility crews constantly stationed alert double hangar largest hangar facility capacity hold parked major secondary missions included serving headquarters 45th air division october january november host wing bombardment wing small portion early existence primarily home active duty units changed 1980s massachusetts air national_guard fighter squadron sent detachment base closest europe functioned important point base realignment closure commission recommended closure officially closed september later reopened commerce centre major units 42nd bomb wing 42nd bomb wing host unit supporting national security objectives mission ready aircraft wing ability deploy time support sac later missions operational 42nd operations group supported national security objectives directed joint chiefs staff utilizing aircraft operational squadrons time operation included bombardment squadron bombardment squadron 75th bombardment squadron air squadron air squadron carried addition 42nd components 42nd bomb wing 42nd organizational maintenance squadron 42nd field maintenance squadron 42nd maintenance squadron 42nd munitions maintenance squadron 42nd combat support group 42nd transportation squadron 42nd supply squadron 42nd civil engineering squadron 42nd consolidated headquarters squadron 42nd security police squadron 42nd airborne missile maintenance squadron responsible maintenance missiles fitted communications squadron air_force communications command unit absorbed 42nd bomb wing announced close led 42nd moved air_force base alabama 42nd air base wing squadrons wing remained inactive reactivated air_force base history named major charles medal honor recipient korean war morning november led flight shooting stars patrol beginning dive bombing run getting hit entered controlled dive destroyed chinese gun sniper ridge united_nations troops limestone air_force base renamed honor previous designations designations air_force base limestone army air field april june limestone air_force base june october major commands assigned major commands base assigned strategic air command april june air combat command june september major units assigned major units assigned operational history origins carved woods maine beginning late officially dedicated named charles killed korean war closest air_force base east_coast europe originally built capacity bombers equipped foot runway built acres km2 land making biggest sac base country turn allowed largest capacity weapon storage fuel storage sac overall capacity ranked second sac bases weapons storage capacity highest sac new net explosive weight sac fuel storage capacity gallons fuel delivered base mile pipeline maine ramp space exceeded million square yards second sac bases total ramp space excess ramp space furthermore fully capable conventional weapons storage facilities maintained sac cold war new air_force bases constructed northern border continental direct route soviet_union arctic circle sites high importance strategic bases hosting long range missiles aircraft new_england division army corps engineers chose site northeastern maine limestone township plantation remote site consisted dense forest shallow marshes wild slight plateau town helped fog time small base suitable farming little impact county agricultural community additionally far sources materials runway parking apron construction important benefit site miles closer base potential targets europe construction april construction commenced limestone army air field strategic air command base designed built host high speed aircraft including new original plans limestone called parallel north south foot east west runway accommodations aircraft dollar project built specifications original army corps engineers plan north south runway constructed million dollar contract awarded companies aim completing phase construction included north south runway parallel parking apron arch hangar base operations building control tower power plant person barracks later building water supply system railroad spur base montreal maine atlantic railway structures arch hangar time largest arch roof structure united_states largest world construction hangar groundbreaking including foundation set bedrock extensive structures intricate foot arch span runway major construction task airfield northern maine subject freeze cycles types million cubic yards material removed foundation runway constructed depth inches flexible concrete pavement runway feet length feet wide month june began years constant activity limestone 10th officers airmen limestone detachment arrived tenant unit construction days later aircraft oklahoma arrived 15th limited operations began limestone cold war tensions began heat day arrived later departed july brought designation limestone detachment base service squadron korean war broke decision increase squadron size officers airmen civilians august brought permanently assigned aircraft aircraft base states europe war brought increased funding limestone additional constructed southwestern end runway foot addition northern end runway department defense allocated funds north river depot weapons storage facility northwest base later air_force station absorbed facility 1960s end year brought completion communications facility hospital barracks school officers club briefing training building base constructed world war retain surrounding vegetation possible case need camouflage airfield surrounding facilities traditional layout grid system roads built additional aircraft base including foot double hangar built air_force response demand efficient maintenance space house planned concrete arch longer needed runway resurfaced anticipation arrival eighteen additional nose dock contain nose wings aircraft allowing maintenance cockpit area crew need use larger built northwest runway near main parking area parking areas early history february curtis commander sac visited base review construction progress visit indicated limestone operationally ready later month command capabilities formally transferred sac ending year command army corps engineers furthermore personnel base service squadron reassigned bombardment wing reactivated assigned 8th air_force february limestone air_force base officially operational months wing assigned aircraft worked units possession march april base began preparing operations arrived later april gave newly activated bombardment squadron complement aircraft end august number increased bombers officers airmen civilians additionally buildings constructed base making home airmen families january brought declaration 42nd capable implementing emergency war plan october base renamed charles air_force base week later 45th air division activated designated primary base unit designated month primary staging location fighter aircraft flying continental united_states europe permanent aircraft assigned air traffic significantly increased cold war progressed need new aircraft techniques arrived activation air squadron january actually equipped perform aerial planes supported units arrival eventually based air crews base consisted 75th bombardment squadrons hospital operational january landed airfield cold weather testing program months later state maine permanently stationed november air_force base publicity november soviet_union threatened british french troops middle_east days end crisis response president dwight united_nations reporter associated_press visited castle air_force base california sac alerted support action reporter unable find classified information instead invented maintenance records fleet painted dismal picture november bombardment wing 42nd flew nonstop perimeter north_america operation quick kick covered nmi hours minutes sac noted flight time reduced hours fast jet powered tanker aircraft propeller driven flight ended planes landed friendship international airport operation distracted public attention reporter story base location experimental system steam pipes test viability steam melt snow pipes spaced different intervals experiment year christened queen arrived december left april arrived allowing 42nd air squadron reach operational capacity later year alert force created consisting following year response conflict lebanon entire wing placed alert alert force established october wing began supporting force january response conflict lebanon alert force expanded include entire bombardment wing july sac bomber force went alert status sac overall goal achieved march base personnel members air_force land belly configuration near springfield massachusetts lifted wheels plane flown kelly san_antonio texas complete overhaul inspection returned 42nd home support base green pine communications crew naval station detachment officially exist base located floor officers quarters consisted men assigned aircraft aircraft assigned base including massive assigned bombardment wing april september assigned february december assigned june january assigned october assigned january november assigned march fighter aircraft assigned base operation delta dagger assigned 27th fighter squadron located base delta assigned october july fighter squadron july june weapons storage area nuclear weapons storage area operated separate secret facility originally called north river depot remote area northeast property operational site specifically constructed storage assembly testing atomic weapons department defense allocated funds construction ordnance storage site designs called self sufficient maximum security storage area advanced weapons mankind mission facility protection maintenance weapons sac facility northeast base construction began august addition storage weapons storage structures facility included weapons maintenance buildings barracks recreational facilities warehouse offices parallel series fences electrified surrounded heart storage area area nicknamed area denoted department energy clearance required access restricted data june atomic energy commission released custody ownership weapons air_force personnel property later named air_force station absorbed adjacent air_force base defense area provide air defense base united_states_army hercules surface air missile sites constructed sites located near connor limestone maine new_england division army corps engineers managed construction sites sites manned men 3rd missile battalion 61st air defense artillery regiment provided defense northeastern approaches united_states sites underwent conversion missiles hercules missiles sites remained operational site limestone closed september members 3rd missile battalion gained distinction november annual service practice fort bliss texas simulated launching missiles recorded kills united_states_army air defense command operation head start operation head start conducted base september december helped demonstrate continuous airborne alert maintained successfully flight briefing held basic world events safety criteria hours takeoff crew thoroughly pre flight aircraft inadvertently increased efficiency terms maintenance pre flight routines hours bomber live continue pre determined path greenland eastern canada trip ended hours later frequently message required messages sent bomber strategic air command headquarters air_force base keeping crews alert entering landing pattern crash trucks travel runway await landing standard procedure head start landings landing crew interrogated prior released maintenance intelligence crews alerted performance plane items crew noticed flight release typically physical conditioning room steam bath operation head start eventually lead operation dome dome operation bombers constant airborne alert points outside soviet_union second half cold war unknown opened host conventional enhanced release training bomb range located adjacent runway strategic air command bases range type frequently base located allowed low level training routes training opportunities restricted allowed training accomplished disadvantage location distance strategic training route complex bombing ranges nevada utah ranges west location allowed drop live munitions sac training required crews drop live munitions twice year ranges president richard_nixon stopped july air_force sam returned summit moscow signed threshold test ban treaty speech people double hangar talked importance treaty president nixon welcomed home vice president ford flew washington daughter nixon attendance nixon resigned office weeks later march sac headquarters announced bombardment wing citing poor condition facilities estimated needed million facilities improvements considerable debate took place strategic importance resulting reversal air_force decision close decision open congress committed upgrading facilities nearly million military construction operations maintenance funds spent upgrade facilities congressman tip massachusetts senator william maine firm supporters base time proposed closed time proposed closure region experienced economic uncertainty air_force intent known property values people delayed buying homes fearing need relocate reduction base meant possibly county need relocate according county officials study commissioned department labor conducted northeastern university calculated region lost million years economic uncertainty september members air squadron escorted crippled phantom atlantic_ocean experienced loss engine actions crew received trophy times boom air_force decided close nuclear weapons stations sac bases addition bases world scaled predicted nuclear defense country deemed unnecessary nuclear weapons year fears began surface list base realignment closure commission result community began rally base time included military personnel civilian employees generated million payroll previous year subject million construction services bombers placed alert soviet submarines spotted coast region base briefly mentioned movie film erroneously listed home 43rd bombardment wing base hit earthquakes damaged base hospital caused cracks appear walls control tower 5th fighter squadron based north maintained detachment eagles 5th phantom minnesota air national_guard fighter group fighter squadron sent detachment detachment left massachusetts air national_guard fighter wing fighter squadron deployed base ones 5th second north south runway original plans created pre launch runway sac bases proposed list environmental protection agency national priorities list presence waste oil fuel soil additionally burning waste created problems addition use old gravel pits site fire training area needed clean materials burned site officially added list february operation desert storm responsible aircraft atlantic aircraft travelling persian gulf region vital position base vital allowed planes maintained planes unable reach destination maintenance august aircraft america persian gulf region landed included galaxy hercules boeing fighting falcon mercury joint stars aircraft ufo sighting fall base location unidentified flying object sightings night october unidentified object spotted near secure weapons area member 42nd security police squadron spotted apparent aircraft northern perimeter low altitude later message national military command center washington stated aircraft definitely penetrated air_force base northern perimeter occasion yards munitions storage area perimeter control tower member communications squadron duty picked craft radar nearing base trying contact unidentified aircraft warn approaching restricted area aircraft entered nuclear weapons storage area altitude feet later lowering feet commander bombardment wing colonel robert arrived minutes later weapons storage area police units ordered time declared security option person duty control tower received track mysterious craft radar minutes observed weapons storage area suddenly vanished landed dropped radar witnesses later observed flying away grand falls new_brunswick miles east messages sent national military command center air_force chief staff strategic air command headquarters air_force base base continued remain high state alert following morning efforts identify unidentified aircraft maine state police local police departments federal aviation administration office remained elusive night craft similar night approached base addition tracked radar area minutes characteristics movement similar helicopter additionally weapons storage area altitude night time possibly object unclear weapons storage area possible spotted cigar shaped object described mid air turning lights traveled northern end runway according service member object chased eventually discovered feet ground time determined object car lengths long object tracked radar taking new_brunswick messages sent higher commands explanation found sent november office special investigations detachment national military command center headquarters reported unidentified helicopter sighted low level past nights october november referred unknown entity additionally captain richard operations officer 42nd security police squadron stated advised verified sightings unidentified aircraft flying low level vicinity period initial sighting member 42nd duty hours member spotted object near east gate going east west closure secretary defense dick recommendation secretary air_force rice identified sac bases closure commission commission recommended bomb wing transferred bomb wing near michigan aircraft realigned reserve active units justification closure air_force strategic bases needed support number bomber tanker aircraft defense department structure plan base evaluated selection criteria large number specific air_force bases missions good condition strong community support ranked low criteria compared bases strategic category things hurt limited peacetime value tanker base distance bombing ranges commission note facilities average cost close low contributed closure commission projected impact future community people projected leave region direct indirect jobs affected loss million regional income contrast regional population available jobs annual income million net savings end closing base million million annually cold war ended mission sac june departed november ceremonies held february celebrate end flying mission following month saw depart years officially closed september accidents incidents november crashed taking killing board plane belonged unit air_force base orlando florida plane described having reached thirds way runway sharply right eventually crashing feet north runway november air squadron crashed takeoff roughly area days thrown safety impact crash air_force stated hour mission practicing taking landing runway november crashed landing killing injuring sixteen plane landed half hour training mission left runway thousand feet fire surviving able use emergency evacuate plane safely killed plane crashed takeoff surrounding marsh feet north runway january killed miles north crashed ground takeoff september crashed approximately miles north runway taking seven men killed including minimum interval takeoff drill october crash killed jet crashed miles highway new_brunswick attempting land share incidents result fatalities years march crashed burned able escape unharmed june burned ground destroyed broke takeoff cause frozen water injection surge tube july caught fire destroyed ground base culture civilian life families base able advantage opportunities facility provided life military related constructed support facilities including hospital chapel schools forms civilian life added years education younger students base attended elementary school age children attend school morning afternoon sessions older students given standard fare lunch offerings rated highly state students grades attended nearby limestone high school longer secondary education opportunities northern maine technical institute offered courses help students introductory college level classes college offered credits working earn associate degree business nearby university maine isle offered classes social sciences liberal studies university offered bachelor degree professional credits earned programs counted campus residential credit enrolled additionally day evening night classes offered nearby isle wanted earn graduate degree university denver offered course program wanting earn master science degree systems management offered graduate degrees including master science university maine isle offered master public administration base education center provided testing service interested taking exams provided exams sat act exams community college air_force enrolled active duty personnel programs credits taken transferred affiliated air_force technical institutions personnel qualify commissioning programs healthcare air_force base hospital buildings operation building known green monster damaged earthquake january earthquakes centered new_brunswick caused structural damage facility led replaced hospital new hospital included dental clinic rooms addition beds internal medicine general surgery mental health services provided base addition hour emergency support services services offered separate building base personnel families family services military members adjusting facilities available included family service center family services lending closet center base served independent bank included help types financial needs country federal credit union located right outside facility helped supplement bank shopping completed maine exchange shopping mall designed stop shop shopping needs residents goods purchased base included class store built non chapel helped welcome new members base services offered roman catholic protestant denominations members chapel provided food ate dining hall helped share word god believers base came newspaper named base newspaper helped provide readers information strategic air command information events happening facility main dining hall base named hall maine native edward recipient medal honor actions world war leisure activities came leisure area surrounding offered options recreation areas located base region far miles away morale welfare recreation center offered equipment including tackle boat bowling center lanes modern area finally base library loaned books residents students alike small downhill ski area provided recreation personnel operating base early 1960s closure ski included skating host events area base offered trips regional ski resorts periodically cross country skiing offered local golf course base contained officers club officers club officers club club known allowed military members civilians varieties food offered live entertainment addition booking parties visiting officers quarters officers quarters nearby club convenient officers current status set close result base realignment closure commission officially closing september immediately limestone population limestone dropped years following base closure regional economic activity severely lowered local economy related air_force base immediate ideas redevelopment base turn federal prison previously texas federal medical center opened grounds air_force facilities prisons opened grounds outset reluctance town turning creating prison culture limestone government decided want build federal prison grounds air base base considered inclusion national_register_of_historic_places previous studies found buildings eligible inclusion list including base arch hangar development authority created commerce centre acre km2 site marketed excellent solution business real estate needs reasonable cost maintains center addition site centers exist base food processing forestry operations light manufacturing aviation services military return years defense finance accounting service limestone office major component defense finance accounting service base realignment closure commission consolidated offices consolidation points facility located old base hospital cleanup continued base including removal hazardous materials prevented waste entering nearby brook received drainage nose dock areas demographics 1970s population base declined possible closure base draw personnel vietnam war base population population persons resided base declined year census people households families residing base population density housing units average density racial makeup base white african american asian races races hispanic latino race population


greek italian fortress citadel city crete greece built 16th century captured ottomans early 20th century houses built citadel demolished world war leaving historic buildings today citadel good condition open public history background built hill called meaning old castle site ancient 10th 13th centuries byzantines established fortified settlement east hill called square towers gates fortifications repaired beginning 13th century crete fell republic venice settlement known mean old castle venetian rule small harbour built important city crete april line fortifications began built city walls designed architect completed fortifications strong withstand large assault ali attacked ottomans captured sacked city construction later venetian rule following fall cyprus ottomans crete largest remaining venetian overseas possession sacked decided new fortifications needed built protect city harbour new fortress built hill designed military engineer according italian system construction began september complete fortress built master builder total animals took construction original plan demolish old fortifications inhabitants small house entire city walls approach city left intact citadel housing venetian administration city inhabitants city case ottoman invasion years number modifications fortress nonetheless truly secure lacked ditch low ottoman rule recent history september fifth ottoman venetian war ottoman force besieged city population took refuge conditions citadel deteriorated disease lack food ammunition surrendered favourable terms november ottomans major changes construction outside main gate built houses garrison city administration converted cathedral mosque fort remained use early 20th century early 20th century residential buildings located following end world war city began expand inhabitants moved city fortifications houses demolished point walls left intact point local prison housed large scale restoration work way early 1990s managed ministry culture sports open public ottoman houses archaeological museum layout irregular plan walls total length walls contain following east end fortress contains venetian era building possibly originally laboratory paul southeast end fortress known santa maria south end fortress contains open air theatre opened lucas southwest end fortress fort main gate located east paul protected ottoman era serves archaeological museum smaller gates located west north sides fortress number buildings located including mosque sultan cathedral building near mosque possibly bishop residence house rector residence governor province prisons survived council building housed venetian administration churches catherine built late 19th century fortress contains gunpowder magazines storage rooms

Fortifications and military installations


mcdonald ranch house mcdonald ranch house known trinity site mountains county new_mexico location assembly world nuclear weapon active components trinity test fat man type bomb similar later dropped nagasaki japan assembled july completed bomb test tower following day detonated july trinity nuclear test mcdonald ranch house built german immigrant acquired mcdonald family 1930s ranch vacated mcdonald family protest united_states_army took land bombing gunnery range use training bomber crews world war family hoped ranch returned war army announced kept permanently mcdonald ranch house deteriorating stabilized army restored national_park_service appear july site open visitors year saturday april early history george mcdonald ranch house sits foot low stone wall house built german immigrant old house mile away burned addition constructed north mcdonald family moved area late 1870s early 1880s acquired ranch house 1930s ranch house story square foot building built painted ice house located west underground stored rain water running roof time north addition contained toilet drained tank northwest house large divided water storage tank chicago east house scientists support people north tank swimming pool summer south remains barn garage east holding buildings fixtures east house stabilized prevent deterioration ranch vacated mcdonald family protest bombing gunnery range took land use training bomber crews world war area lands condemned simply told leave occupants given option going court accepting settlement leave case chose court awarded patented land manhattan_project house stood manhattan_project support personnel arrived early northeast room master bedroom designated assembly room tables installed dust sand instruments tools windows covered plastic tape edges plastic seal doors cracks walls pit trinity nuclear test bomb delivered mcdonald ranch house july brigadier general thomas deputy director manhattan_project signed handed louis head pit assembly team active components bomb assembled assembly room july bomb test tower following day trinity test occurred july fat man type bomb detonated similar bomb later dropped nagasaki explosion miles away blew home windows significantly damage structure years rain water intrusion roof responsible decades subsequent deterioration barn roof inward blast blown away collapsed time 1960s 1980s december trinity site declared national historic landmark district october mcdonald house listed national_register_of_historic_places expected ranch returned war occur 1970s announced land returned dave mcdonald niece mary mcdonald staged armed ranch protest house stood deteriorating white sands missile range commander united_states_army major general directed restoration white sands launching site ordered structure stabilized prevent damage shortly acquired funding department energy army national_park_service completely restore house way appeared july work completed buried year time capsule describing restoration opened open house october artifacts display inside home photograph wrote came white sands missile range took command project restoration ranch house great privilege catalyst restoration assisted johnson died shortly dedication historic structure historic area hope succeeding generations appreciate care heritage access years site open saturday april october admission free display family house open house white sands missile range announced budgetary constraints site open year saturday april decision reversed events scheduled april october


fort fort known grove artillery fort established henry_viii east coast formed king device programme protect invasion france holy roman empire defended river led town triangular shape walls hold artillery brought use times century saw service second english civil war fort hosted admiralty court local trade site forced court hall middle 18th century new gun battery built fort napoleonic wars fortification fell decline extensively damaged construction sea wall coast remains earthworks excavated archaeologists history 16th 17th centuries fort built consequence international tensions england france holy roman empire final years reign king henry_viii traditionally crown left coastal defences local lords communities taking modest role building maintaining fortifications france empire remained conflict maritime raids common actual invasion england unlikely modest defences based simple towers existed south west sussex coast impressive works north england general fortifications limited scale henry broke pope paul iii long standing marriage catherine catherine aunt charles holy roman emperor took personal insult resulted france empire declaring alliance henry pope encouraging countries attack england invasion england appeared certain response henry issued order called device giving instructions defence realm time invasion construction forts english coastline county essex priority new investment town reinforced new fortifications including fort built coast direction richard lee richard estimated total cost fort positioned salt south river protected entrance estuary working new built triangular walls approximately feet long protected round filled earth defensive ditch corners circular housing guns buildings courtyard housed garrison comprised captain lieutenant soldiers porter artillery gunners nearby probably use fort fort decommissioned subsequently recommissioned mary addition fort military role hosted court oversee east coast particularly lucrative risk introduced new rules govern trade enforced admiralty court held necessary fort location chosen demonstrate town authority way estuary survey showed fort abandoned military defences poor state guns barrels dirt site occupied elderly woman brought use defend spanish english civil war english civil war supporters king charles parliament fort saw action victory parliament fort garrison conflict outbreak second english civil war taken town immediately besieged general thomas quickly seized fort controlled supply route river fort contained pieces artillery drake royalist raiding party soldiers sent recapture fort success fort placed command captain william guns ammunition kept case fresh rebellion garrison men temporarily reinforced additional squadron horsemen foot soldiers july repairs onwards new accommodation constructed fort gunners invasion scare temporarily suspected planning oliver commonwealth government fort efforts reduce defence costs ordered fort order carried partially practical difficulties opposition owner land admiralty court continued held fort proved harder enforce fishery rules political turmoil 18th 21st centuries 18th century fort ruins fishery rules reinforced fresh legislation created court stocks officially court supposed sit fort dilapidated earthworks began meet hall instead ceremony began place year stone near fort involving local dignitaries extensive eating drinking fort recommissioned napoleonic wars start 19th century new gun battery constructed overlooking sea equipped pounder guns fort abandoned sea wall built coast early century cutting south east fort legislation reformed parliament disbanded previous court structure severed historic link fort defensive box constructed castle second world war 21st century remains site protected law scheduled monument site surveyed excavations carried surviving timber structures exposed coastal erosion


atlantic wall atlantic wall german extensive system coastal defence fortifications built nazi_germany coast continental europe scandinavia defence anticipated allied invasion nazi occupied europe great_britain world war hitler ordered construction fortifications million french workers drafted build wall frequently mentioned nazi propaganda size strength usually exaggerated fortifications included coastal guns batteries mortars artillery thousands german troops stationed defences allies eventually invaded normandy beaches defences stormed hours today ruins wall exist nations wall built structures fallen ocean demolished years background world war europe began september nazi_germany invasion poland days later britain france declared war germany poland geographical location prevented allies intervening directly weeks attack germans successfully occupied poland month victory adolf_hitler issued directive stating germany ready offensive france low countries der german high command convinced preparations following year furious arguments hitler reluctantly agreed wait massive german_army groups overran france low countries little weeks history creation march hitler issued directive called creation atlantic wall ordered naval submarine bases heavily defended fortifications remained concentrated ports late defences increased areas nazi propaganda claimed wall stretched cape norway spanish border organisation designed line years franco german border chief engineering group responsible design construction wall major gun fortifications regime imposed compulsory labour system drafting french workers construct permanent fortifications dutch belgian french coasts facing english channel british attacks atlantic wall remained relaxed axis troops manning large scale british attacks operation launched near march attempt destroy german pumping machinery installations second attack raid launched near french port august test german defences provide combat experience canadian troops germans defeated little difficulty attack inflicted heavy casualties raid disaster allies alarmed hitler sure allied invasion west shortly follow following hitler gave field marshal von overall german commander chief west divisions shore german positions reorganisation early allied invasion nazi occupied europe likely field marshal assigned improve wall defences believing existing coastal fortifications entirely inadequate immediately began strengthening main concern allied air power seen hand fighting british americans north_africa left profound impression feared german counterattack broken allied aircraft long difference direction hundreds reinforced concrete built beaches slightly inland house machine guns guns light heavy artillery land mines obstacles planted beaches underwater obstacles naval mines placed waters offshore intent destroy allied landing craft beaches day time allied invasion germans laid million mines northern france gun minefields extended inland roads leading away beaches likely landing spots germans poles tops troops called low lying river areas intentionally flooded believed germany inevitably defeated invasion stopped beach declaring absolutely necessary push british americans beaches late hours invasion decisive channel islands heavily fortified particularly island closest britain hitler decreed twelfth steel concrete atlantic wall channel islands propaganda value controlling british territory islands densely fortified areas europe host tunnels casemates coastal artillery positions island considered strongest concentration defences nazis constructed channel islands lacked strategic significance allies bypassed invaded normandy result german garrisons stationed islands surrender day victory europe day garrison surrender garrisons surrendered peacefully channel islands host best preserved atlantic wall sites fortresses major ports positions incorporated atlantic wall receiving heavy fortifications hitler ordered positions fight end remained german hands germany surrender port fortresses submarines surrounded allied forces defenders positions included foreign volunteers troops preservation france immediately war little interest preserving wall negative memories associated nazi occupation best preserved parts battery renewed efforts preserve wall spearheaded organisations germany netherlands united_kingdom beach fortifications toppled underwater ones inland mainly extant location defensive wall fully completed exist near channel islands den scandinavia printed stephen day june climactic battle world war simon isbn peter allied invasion europe publishing group isbn patrick smashing atlantic wall destruction hitler coastal fortresses publishers isbn joy history war peace jazz oxford_university isbn hastings max armageddon battle germany isbn robert fortress german fortifications defense systems world war press isbn chris hitler fortresses german fortifications defences publishing isbn chris combined operations official story read books isbn michael guide lot new holland publishers isbn anthony hitler atlantic wall fortress europe university_of_michigan isbn charles taylor chris channel islands hitler fortress publishing isbn louis boat bases publishing isbn williams paul hitler atlantic wall publishers isbn mark terrible victory canadian army estuary campaign september november publishers isbn online assault plan united_states_army center military history retrieved march hugh september hitler atlantic wall france preserve british broadcasting corporation retrieved march jersey island history german occupation british broadcasting corporation retrieved march media lighting war television documentary united_states world media rights retrieved march great landings television documentary france france retrieved march overlord television documentary united_states world media rights retrieved march atlantic wall features novel villa kevin constructions wall standing photographed andrew


fort jackson virginia fort jackson american_civil_war era fortification virginia defended southern end long bridge near washington long bridge connected washington northern virginia served vital transportation union_army war fort jackson named jackson city suburb washington established south long bridge built days immediately following union_army occupation northern virginia fort initially armed cannon protect bridge removed completion arlington line line defenses built south fort lacked weapons small arms consisted wooden backed earthworks cannon restored fort following battle fort stevens garrison consisted single company union soldiers inspected traffic crossing bridge guarded potential following final surrender confederate states america fort jackson abandoned lumber construction promptly salvaged construction materials proximity long bridge earthworks flattened order provide easier access long bridge early 20th century fort site approaches bridges connecting virginia washington today trace fort remains site fort contained arlington county long bridge park national_park_service survey site indicated archaeological remnants remain beneath park occupation arlington outbreak civil war alexandria county renamed arlington county county virginia closest washington predominantly rural area original mile square district_of_columbia land comprising county virginia july act congress took effect county hilly time county population concentrated city alexandria far southeastern corner county rest county largely consisted scattered farms occasional house fields grazing livestock arlington house owned mary wife robert lee county connected nearby washington long bridge spanned river river flats virginia river jackson city entertainment district named president andrew jackson home gambling halls following surrender fort charleston south_carolina april president abraham_lincoln declared insurrection existed called troops called rebellion sparked resentment southern states promptly moved discussions virginia state convention passed ordinance ordered referendum decide state union army responded creating department washington united union troops district_of_columbia maryland command brigadier general commander department washington argued northern virginia occupied soon possible order prevent possibility confederate army mounting artillery hills arlington government buildings washington urged erection fortifications virginia river protect southern chain bridge long bridge bridge superiors approved recommendations decided wait virginia voted virginia voted margin favor leaving union night army troops began crossing bridges linking washington virginia march began night 23rd described colorful terms new_york herald days later complaints inactivity government forward march movement virginia indicated despatches night took place precise time morning named imposing powerful numbers clock night companies picked men moved long bridge advance guard sent ordered signal reinforced corps regular infantry battery clock infantry regiment artillery cavalry corps began muster assume marching order fast regiments ready proceeded long bridge washington directed route troops georgetown ninth fifth eighth eighth new_york regiments proceeded known chain bridge mouth command general took possession heights direction imposing scene long bridge main body troops crossed thousand infantry regular cavalry companies sections artillery battalion consisting batteries line long bridge clock occupation northern virginia peaceful exception town alexandria colonel commander new_york fire 11th new_york volunteer infantry regiment entered local hotel remove confederate flag flying shot killed james jackson proprietor men killed american_civil_war planning construction men marched northern virginia bringing long train wagons filled work thousands men marched virginia engineer officers command colonel john accompanied army began building fortifications banks river order defend bridges crossed sunrise morning 24th ground broken forts comprising civil war defenses washington fort fort week smaller forts sprung supporting works fort jackson built northeast fort armed cannon owing large physical size extensive armament fort intended primary fort defending long bridge fort jackson located southern end bridge received cannon intended guard post soldiers civilian traffic crossing bridge confederate attempt destroy bridge man fort guns assigned bringing total garrison men wartime use july company 21st new_york volunteer infantry assigned garrison fort jackson august 21st new_york ordered fort virginia later involved second battle bull run information exists unit replaced fort jackson following completion arlington line built miles southwest fort jackson atop heights arlington maintenance forts jackson neglected forts largely redundant newer stronger works atop hills believed played crucial role longer defenses washington fort jackson kept service inspection station traffic crossing long bridge railroad rebuilding new railroad bridge constructed adjacent long bridge plan strengthen logistics army operated northern virginia extension orange alexandria railroad bridge turn century replaced owing weight railroad weak strength bridge locomotives allowed bridge prior crossing train locomotive pulled bridge team horses order provide space railroad tracks gates fort jackson removed eventually replaced wide opening needed tracks proved detrimental effect fort defensive ability report col alexander aide camp john gross chief engineer defenses washington described way fort jackson allowed fall disrepair defense bridge imperfect owing decay fort jackson railroad cuts gates entrance railroad crosses ditch fort bridge enemy soon cover cavalry ride lower fort come bridge fix problems fort jackson alexander recommended addition artillery section second company infantry improvements fort spurred confederate attack fort stevens north washington improvements including restoration gates removed railroad line constructed christopher columbus commander department washington recommended fort jackson assigned light guns armament reconstruction post war use surrender general robert lee army northern virginia april primary reason manned defenses protecting washington ceased exist initial recommendations colonel alexander chief engineer washington defenses divide defenses classes kept active class kept reserve state second class abandoned entirely class rear area nature fact longer needed protect long bridge sabotage fort jackson fell class category lumber construction fort jackson sold salvage freed slaves traveling north search new lives following ending slavery united_states settled area fort likely lumber fort jackson ready source forts overlooking city dismantled guns taken land resigned owners negro living forts built officers quarters pulled cord wood log platforms guns great flag poles posts old forts picturesque exist selling old horse shoes iron spikes live families old army kept grass drawing parallels nearer nearer magazines old clothes good deal dirt forgotten graves local features war turn century site fort jackson new railroad bridge constructed years later road bridge constructed west located nearby utilizing clay formed fort raw material bricks later walls washington homes projects little trace fort jackson today csx corporation railroad bridge runs site fort jackson shoreline south bridge studied national_park_service possible site arlington county south federal george_washington memorial parkway csx tracks arlington county long bridge park northern end park developed recreational use include site fort jackson national_park_service study commissioned ongoing review potential sites included observation historical artifacts fort jackson present site


middle english type fortified tower built castles middle ages european nobility scholars debated scope word usually consider refer large towers castles fortified residences refuge resort rest castle fall adversary keeps timber formed key bailey castles emerged normandy 10th century design spread england result norman invasion turn spread wales second half 11th century ireland anglo french rulers began build stone keeps 10th 11th centuries included norman keeps square rectangular design circular shell keeps stone keeps carried considerable political military importance decade build 12th century new designs began introduced france shaped keeps introduced england towers built end century french english designs began philip france built sequence circular keeps bid stamp royal authority new territories england castles built keeps spain keeps increasingly incorporated christian islamic castles germany tall towers called preferred keeps western fashion second half 14th century resurgence building keeps france began fashion tall heavily designs trend adopted spain prominently school spanish castle design tower keeps england popular wealthy nobles large keeps uniquely designed formed castles built period 16th century keeps slowly falling fashion fortifications residences destroyed civil wars 17th 18th centuries incorporated gardens alternative 19th century keeps fashionable england france number restored redesigned gothic architects despite damage french spanish keeps wars 20th century keeps form important tourist heritage industry europe etymology historiography 16th century english word commonly referred large towers castles word originates coming middle english term meaning basket term applied shell said resemble barrel term came shell keeps 15th century 17th century word lost original reference popularly assumed come middle english word meaning hold protect early use word associated idea tower castle serve fortified high status private residence refuge resort issue complicated building fortified renaissance towers italy called defences resort named italian hold 19th century victorian historians incorrectly concluded etymology words linked keeps fulfilled military function result evolution meaning use term historical analysis today problematic contemporary medieval writers terms buildings today keeps latin variously described tower castle tower great tower 12th century french came term latin linking feudal authority similarly medieval spanish writers called buildings del place homage england turned dungeon initially referred place imprisonment ambiguity terminology historical analysis use keeps problematic term remains common academic use academics prefer use term modern historians warn term fortifications today keeps certainly necessarily form unified medieval style similar fashion period history timber keeps 9th 12th centuries earliest keeps built bailey castles 10th century onwards combination documentary archaeological evidence places castle built castles initially built powerful lords late 10th 11th centuries particular iii son built great number william introduced form castle england invaded design spread south wales expanded valleys subsequent decades bailey design castle include mound called usually artificially constructed turf soil bailey lower walled enclosure protective wall usually built protective walls large wall walk outer walls wall walk strengthened filling gap wooden walls earth stones allowing carry weight called smaller support simple towers room soldiers whilst larger equipped wooden keeps designed square structure upper floors building enabling better defences structural design wooden keeps protected skins hides prevent easily set siege contemporary account keeps comes jean described nobles region build mound earth high dig ditch wide deep possible space mound enclosed strong logs strengthened intervals towers means provide inside enclosure citadel commands circuit defences entrance fortress means bridge rising outer moat supported posts mound durham castle contemporaries described arose rising earth reaching thin air strong house beauty having defensive value keeps sent powerful political message local population wooden keeps extensive size robert philip noted possible build tall massive structures example keeps comprised early 12th century chronicler described wooden castle storey surface ground great boxes domestic storey dwelling common living rooms residents rooms great chamber lord wife slept upper storey house rooms storey servants appointed house took sleep holy roman empire tall free standing wooden towers called commonly built 11th century bailey designs castles characteristic inner outer courts german similarities keeps usually distinguished account having smaller area usually non residential typically integrated outer defences castle safe refuge resort early stone keeps 10th 12th centuries 10th century small number stone keeps began built france 11th century numbers increased style spread normandy rest france england existing bailey castles converted stone usually parts upgraded cases new keeps built scratch stone stone keeps introduced ireland following norman occupation east country particularly popular new anglo norman lords broad types design emerged france england period sided stone keeps known norman keeps great keeps english roman french circular shell keeps reasons transition timber stone keeps unclear process slow uneven taking years effect regions traditionally believed stone keeps adopted nature wooden buildings limited lifespan wooden fortifications vulnerability fire recent archaeological studies shown wooden castles robust sophisticated stone wooden keeps converted stone years instead expanded wood nonetheless stone increasingly popular building material keeps military symbolic reasons stone construction required skilled unlike timber earthworks built labour paid stone keeps expensive relatively slow erect limitations lime mortar period walls usually raised maximum feet metres year taking years build number keeps remained relatively low england example early stone keeps built conquest existence built norman keeps sides corners reinforced buttresses keeps particularly normandy france design rectangular plan length twice width particularly england formed square keeps storeys high entrance placed storey prevent door easily broken early french keeps external stairs wood whilst later castles france england built stone cases entrance stairs protected additional walls door producing strength norman design typically came thickness walls usually stone feet metres thick immensely strong producing steady temperature inside building summer winter larger keeps subdivided internal wall smaller versions single slightly cramped chamber floor usually floor vaulted stone higher storeys supported extensive academic discussion extent norman keeps designed military political function mind particularly england earlier analyses norman keeps focused military design historians brown king proposed square keeps adopted military superiority timber keeps norman keeps certainly extremely physically robust characteristic buttresses added little real architectural strength design weaknesses inherent design irrelevant early history corners square keeps theoretically vulnerable siege engines mining introduction end 12th century early artillery stood little practical chance damaging keeps mining rarely practised similarly corners square created dead space defenders fire missile fire castle important introduction middle 12th century began introduced nonetheless stone norman keeps considerable military utility castle example included elaborate blind outside building appears entrance route designed public ceremony defence interior certainly hosted impressive ceremonies events contained numerous flaws military perspective important early english welsh keeps white tower built distinctive style roman materials sites certainly intended impress generate political effect local people political value designs social prestige lent builders help explain continued built england late 12th century point military theory suggested alternative designs adopted second early stone design emerging 12th century onwards shell french involved replacing wooden circular stone wall shell keeps protected additional low protective wall called base buildings built inside shell producing small inner courtyard centre style particularly popular south east england normandy castle classic example development later castle prominent normandy low country include van castles powerful fortifications period circular design held military advantages square corners noted end 12th century onwards major reason adopting shell design 12th century circular design original earthworks exploited support designs circular order accommodate irregular found windsor castle mid medieval keeps late 12th 14th centuries second half 12th century range new designs began appear france england breaking previous unity regional designs use keeps castles spread new castles incorporated keeps designs traditional explanation developments military utility new approaches arguing example curved surfaces new keeps helped attacks drew lessons learnt islamic practices levant recent historical analysis emphasised political social drivers mid medieval changes design 12th century france divided kings ruling france kings england controlled normandy west france territories early experimentation new designs began circular built round turrets internally structure remained conventionally square years later adopted design designs remained isolated experiments struggle power france began swing favour philip culminating capture normandy philip started construct completely circular keeps tour arc built newly acquired territories philip new keeps begun followed built consistent standard cost architectural idea circular keeps come circular towers castles formed local tradition probably carried military advantages philip intention building new keeps fresh style clearly political attempt demonstrate new power authority extended territories historian suggests keeps provided military security physical representation renewal design england began change end 12th century later france wooden keeps ceased built england continued erected wales welsh marches end 12th century england ireland saw handful innovative angular keeps built including castle rectangular towers built high circular central tower cross shaped trim castle famous design despite new designs square keeps remained popular england late square norman great keeps built newcastle circular designs similar france popular britain welsh marches scotland short period early 13th century new keeps constructed france anglo norman designs informed military thinking political drivers particularly extensively analysed regard traditional explanations suggested unusual plan result experimental military design recent analysis concludes design instead probably driven political symbolism need henry dominate contested lands east architecture century nobility summoned images king arthur constantinople versions royal imperial power formidable military designs built political effect mind designed authority fiercely disputed conflict zone militarily impressive contained royal audience chamber built soft chalk internal defects defensive perspective medieval period divided christian islamic kingdoms traditionally built keeps instead building mural towers 12th century influence france military orders encouraging development square keeps christian castles region second half century practice spread islamic kingdoms contrast remainder europe saw stone towers castles way fulfilled range functions seen western european keeps low countries popular local nobility build stand square towers rarely wider castle similarly square stone towers popular venice role western keeps germany rectangular stone castles began replace bailey castles 12th century onwards designs included stone versions traditional remained distinct domestic keeps western parts europe occasional notable exception large residential castle designs new castles emerged keeps unnecessary design concentric approach involving exterior walls guarded towers supported concentric layered defenses castles central military factors driven development brown example suggests designs separate bailey system inherently lacked combined defensive system bailey walls sophisticated militarily unnecessary england growing size challenged need castle classic gatehouse large flanking towers multiple designed defended attacks outside main castle compared earlier norman keeps largest called gatehouse keeps reason castle design emerged france 13th century development removed need castles needed additional living space emergence 9th century initially provided halls bailey later ranges chambers alongside inside bailey wall french designs late 12th century took layout contemporary manor house rooms faced central rectangular courtyard built wall form castle result illustrated initially later characteristic layout large circular corner towers lacked needed support design late medieval keeps 14th 16th centuries end medieval period saw fresh resurgence building keeps western castles castles continued built keeps example combined traditional design corner towers moat walls equal height towers fashion copied french england particularly example royalty wealthiest france england spain began construct small number keeps larger scale england termed tower keeps new palace fortresses shift reflected political social pressures desire wealthiest lords privacy growing households architectural ideas exchanged region despite ongoing years war france england resurgence french design began defeat royal armies battles caused high levels social unrest remaining french territories charles france attempted restore french royal authority prestige construction new range castles new completed charles example palace fortresses highly innovative stories high running appointed building protected wall formed fortified envelope copied france particularly french kings territories english encouraging style emphasised tall keeps prominent emerging new gunpowder weapons keeps later century slowly added example charles saint french model spread second half century powerful nobles built number similar tall keeps taking advantage weakness crown period henry responded 15th century creating sequence royal castles prominent keeps castle built particular proportions keeps known key element school spanish castle design smaller versions keeps subsequently built aspiring new aristocracy spain including converted jews keen improve social prestige position society french model tall keeps echoed german castles layout positioning towers followed existing model western castles 15th 16th centuries saw small number english occasional welsh castles develop keeps large tower keeps built north england 14th century locations probably partially inspired designs france reflected improvements security scottish border period regional rise major noble families wealth encouraged surge castle building end 14th century new castles castle took castle styles south combined exceptionally large tower keeps form distinctive northern style built major noble houses castles typically smaller castles like built marked historian anthony described second peak castle building england wales following designs end 14th century 15th century fashion creation expensive french influenced castles featuring complex tower keeps spread new keeps built castle central eastern england keeps began built brick forming examples trend scotland construction great tower drew english tradition incorporated additional french influences produce highly secure comfortable guarded gun park tower keeps expensive buildings construct built unique design specific lord historian norman pounds suggested designed allow rich men live luxury time keeps built extremely wealthy smaller like structures called tower houses towers built ireland scotland northern england relatively poorer local lords landowners originally argued irish tower houses based scottish design pattern development castles ireland support hypothesis tower house typically tall square stone built building scottish tower houses surrounded wall academics concluded tower houses classified keeps form fortified house 16th century progressed keeps fell fashion england gatehouse began key focus new castle development 15th century increasingly unusual lord build large gatehouse castle early 16th century gatehouse easily overtaken fashionable feature new keeps built england period classical style began dominate european architecture 17th century causing away use keeps buildings style usually required considerable space formal rooms essential modern palaces middle century style impossible fit traditional castle england built design later use destruction keeps 17th 21st centuries 17th century onwards keeps deliberately destroyed england destroyed end second english civil war parliament took steps prevent royalist uprising damaging castles prevent having military utility expensive took considerable effort carry damage usually cost efficient fashion selected walls destroyed keeps singled particular attention process continuing political cultural importance prestige lent royalist owners example main focus parliamentary activity equivalent destruction keeps france 17th 18th centuries cardinal catalogue damage far early england england ruined medieval castles fashionable middle 18th century considered interesting classical architecture gave degree medieval owners keeps modified effect example appear taller decayed better produce good silhouette interest continued late 18th 19th century fashionable build intact replica castles england resulting called norman style new castle building characterised inclusion large keeps final replica built way existing castle site response 19th century europe attempt improve buildings bringing chaotic historic features line integrated architectural aesthetic style termed gothic numerous attempts restore rebuild keeps produce consistently gothic style england architect anthony particularly prominent illustrated reworking windsor castle france reworked keeps castles locations like 1860s 1870s largely speculative fashion original destroyed spanish civil war second world wars 20th century caused damage castle keeps europe particular famous destroyed german_army late 20th century conservation castle keeps formed government policy france england ireland spain 21st century england keeps ruins form tourism heritage industries functioning buildings windsor castle rare exception contrast fate towers germany large numbers restored functional buildings late 19th early 20th century government offices youth modern conversion tower houses cases domestic homes


citadel old town city croatia best preserved largest ensemble baroque buildings croatia consists star fort built right bank river described world monuments fund unique example eighteenth century baroque military administrative commercial urban center star fort constructed immediate vicinity medieval defeat ottoman forces strategic importance constructed starting plans von planned gates complete inner town finished northern added complete largest advanced fortress border ottoman_empire consisting featuring depots garrison headquarters military court construction office garrison physician officers apartments military hospital seven barracks completed fort entirely surrounded walls main gates north south east west street lights site public water supply croatia opened military importance decreased berlin congress increasing stability surrounding region fort walls fortifications destroyed 1920s obstacle presented development fortifications largely removed fort interior core remains intact home churches museums schools public buildings numerous bars restaurants fortification system northern walls remain intact parts eighth northern gate known water gate sustained significant damage croatian war independence 1990s featured world monuments watch list endangered sites features croatia tentative list consideration nominee world heritage site history medieval ottoman eras new appeared center medieval banks river stands town trade port settlement early 12th century position way southwards site home church holy trinity ruled ottomans change layout settlement substantial way introduced islamic places worship giving area oriental appearance traces medieval ottoman towns remain day including remnant old ottoman fortress wall known today turkish wall fort lying access road ottoman period internationally known bridge construction bridge begun august following orders magnificent bridge connected took form wooden road piers approximately kilometres long metres wide seen great threat christian europe bridge attacked times destroyed set fire orders croatian feudal lord nicholas vii croatian vii hungarian vii bridge rebuilt rule finally burned armies design construction layout late 17th century development military settlement started armies drove ottomans city great turkish war chief commander imperial army louis william saw location exceptional strategic importance war ottomans urged repair city walls proposed construction new fort according principles military engineering town magistrate established plans new fort drawn documents august year described condition settlement months later october ottoman army suddenly attacked attack repulsed thanks organised defense turks withdrew november brief siege event clear lesson construction fort delayed phase conversion baroque fortress based plan devised engineer von second layout 18th century original plan drafted need reinforce town walls include provisions redesign interior envisaged largely development new plans fort right bank river drawn took planning fort construction way starting august austrian engineers supervised fort commander general von built barracks staff headquarters churches monasteries surrounded system gun positions design design followed model lowland dutch military fortifications period planned gates complete additional western gate leading upper town added construction opposite bank river designed offer protection north serve completed final fourth gate leading lower town added construction inner town completed additional northern completed post office fort construction office hospital completed fort major depots garrison headquarters military court construction office garrison physician officer apartments military hospital seven barracks based ring model fortifications took area hectares acres making largest fortress border ottoman_empire plan left space churches built stood initially converted churches started build baroque church consecrated monastery built new wing added subsequently new monastery commenced construction parish church michael croatian following construction monastery church use despite incomplete holy trinity column erected fort main square plague monument featuring plague placed additional added monument featuring statue saint street lighting early system supply public water croatia opened century reportedly estimated account fort buildings crown prince joseph stayed visiting joseph decreed merger upper town lower town single town council 19th 20th century early second half 18th century little new constructions taking place maintenance fort burden granted free royal town status council accommodated building south eastern corner main square military importance decreased berlin congress result increasing political military stability region north western demolished 1870s making way park croatian construction royal grammar school started royal general secondary school completed episcopal seminary built south western corner main square buildings erected walls decades 19th century grew city fort presence hindered potential urban development demolition fort walls happened construction electric gunpowder magazine located church michael demolished fortifications demolished eighth northern wall called water gate kept center remains intact yugoslav people army maintained garrison military hospital 1980s buildings gradually abandoned adapted local painters fort sustained considerable damage croatian war independence lasted war brought structural damage collapsing roofs walls floors damages threaten plaster sculpture murals lack proper protection subject continuing decay present day fortress military importance decreased end 19th century center administrative educational cultural scholarly life entire region school organized scholarly curriculum introduced later expanded renewed printing press started working significance educational institutions best fact croatian nobel prize serbian scientist cycles alumni graduates schools faculty agriculture university occupied general headquarters previous site destroyed croatian war independence faculty food technology relocated building served military hospital century beginning 1990s present day educational institutions include iii gymnasium music school roman catholic seminary jesuit classical gymnasium logistics barracks built century secondary school economics grammar school girls according census city district inhabitants living households fort interior centre numerous bars restaurants fort hosts museum largest general type museum croatia located town museum archives building today houses state monument protection department croatian ministry culture patron saint saint michael feast day september celebrated day city district heritage status seen european towns found identical development existing urban nucleus turned fortification similar town planning solution world monuments fund described unique example eighteenth century baroque military administrative commercial urban center croatia tentative list consideration nominee world heritage site conflict croatia cent buildings damaged extent fort featured world monuments watch list endangered sites appeared list published years building general headquarters dating ground plan fortress depicted reverse croatian issued agency restoration croatian established stated goals protection restoration restoration process aims preserve architectural historical aesthetic qualities accordance restoration principles set international council monuments sites maintaining character international cooperation envisioned particular council europe agency jointly funded government croatia county city


castle castle scottish fort slope ruined medieval fortress located rocky north east_coast scotland kilometres south surviving buildings largely 15th 16th centuries site believed fortified early middle ages played prominent role history scotland 18th century strategic location defensive strength best known place honours scotland scottish crown hidden oliver invading army 17th century property 14th century seat earl declined earl titles taking rebellion castle restored 20th century open public ruins castle spread hectares acres surrounded steep cliffs drop north_sea metres narrow strip land joins mainland steep path leads gatehouse buildings castle include 14th century tower house 16th century palace castle scheduled monument structures site listed buildings history early middle ages chapel said founded 5th century clear site fortified case legend late highly possibly earliest written reference site found annals record earlier event interpreted attack king extend power north east_coast scotland scottish chronicle records king ruler called king killed attack king led force scotland raided far north according account durham simpson speculated lie present excavations 1980s failed uncover substantive evidence early medieval fortification discovery group stones nearby sea stack prompted speculation actually located adjacent kilometres north later middle ages reign king william lion ruled center local administration castle named roman early 13th century romance hero travel retrieve magic shield church site consecrated william bishop poet blind harry relates william wallace captured english wars scottish independence said imprisoned defeated english soldiers church burned alive edward iii england ordered william 8th baron sail ships partially ruined purpose rebuilding site forward resupply base northern campaign took soldiers horses corps edward visited july english efforts end year scottish regent sir andrew murray led force captured destroyed defences 14th century granted william 5th earl licence issued david william keith scotland married margaret niece robert bruce granted time keith gave lands daughter christian son law william exchange agreed keith regained took lands william keith completed construction tower house building consecrated ground associated parish church keith provided new parish church closer forced write pope issued bull lifting william keith created mid 15th century held 18th century 16th century rebuilding 16th century improved expanded principal seats keith east james visited james earl men military service grounds mary queen scots visited battle returned james stayed days progress angus meeting council convened rebellion catholic nobles captured captain behalf earl restored lord weeks later george keith succeeded 5th earl began large scale reconstruction saw medieval fortress converted comfortable home founder college 5th earl valued dramatic situation security palace comprising series ranges built north eastern cliffs creating luxurious living quarters sea views 13th century chapel restored incorporated impressive stone gatehouse constructed known lodging featuring numerous gun ports facing approach impressive likely fashionable genuine defensive features civil wars william keith 7th earl came support presbyterian movement opposed established episcopal church changes charles attempting impose james graham 1st marched catholic james gordon 2nd earl defeated attempt seize changed sides marched north remained given command area parliament burned joined faction deal king led troop horse battle preston support following execution charles gave allegiance son heir charles_ii proclaimed king arriving scotland june visited july presence scotland prompted oliver lead force scotland defeating scots september honours scotland charles_ii crowned palace january honours scotland crown sword troops honours returned edinburgh earl scotland formal responsibility honours june council duly decided place brought castle hidden sacks wool sir george appointed lieutenant governor castle given responsibility defence november troops called surrender refused subsequent blockade castle removal honours scotland planned elizabeth douglas wife sir george christian wife james minister parish church king papers removed castle anne elizabeth douglas walked besieging force papers clothes stories exist removal honours stated course visits castle february march carried away crown sword sword case hidden sacks goods account given 18th century tutor earl records honours lowered castle beach collected servant carried basket having smuggled honours castle husband buried floor old commander blockade colonel thomas morgan taken delivery artillery necessary reduction surrendered condition garrison free finding honours gone imprisoned wife castle following year false story suggesting honours taken overseas castle property removed including brass cannons required sell lands possessions pay fines imposed government restoration charles_ii honours removed church returned king mother credit saving honours eventually rewarded awarded parliament sum paid religious political conflicts continued played 17th early 18th centuries rebellion earl new king james vii seized held cellar prisoners included men women associated anti royalist group movement refused oath allegiance new king imprisoned late july group escaped killed fall cliffs recaptured prisoners died vault released taking oath allegiance remaining prisoners transported perth new_jersey scheme devised george like died voyage cellar located beneath king bedroom 16th century castle buildings known vault supporters exiled supporters george castle campaign support deposed james vii castle garrisoned william mary lord appointed captain seventeen suspected seized held fortress weeks including george professor mathematics college rising george keith 10th earl took active role rebels leading cavalry battle subsequent abandonment rising lord fled continent eventually french ambassador frederick great prussia titles estates including declared crown later history seized estates earl purchased york buildings company dismantled castle earl briefly returned scotland bought sell years later alexander keith edinburgh lawyer served knight scotland inherited sir patrick keith murray turn sold july major alexander purchased pearson 1st wife embarked programme repairs time castle remained family open public attracting visitors castle stands designated scheduled monument structures listed buildings listed category national importance entrance gateway lodging remaining listings category regional importance charles anthony pearson younger son 3rd currently owns runs castle square kilometre acre estates portions film hamlet starring gibson close shot description strategic location allowed owners control coastal terrace north_sea cliffs hills kilometres inland enabled access north east scotland site accessed steep metre modern car park coastal road kilometre cliff path buildings 13th 17th centuries arranged covering hectares acres dominant building viewed land approach 14th century tower house principal buildings gatehouse chapel 16th century palace incorporates vault defences approach castle overlooked head western entrance defended main gate set curtain wall entirely blocks rocky cliffs gate partly blocked alongside main gate 16th century lodging storey building cut rock incorporated prison apartments tiers gun ports face lower floors lodging inside main gate group gun ports face entrance entrance passage turns sharply left running underground tunnels emerge near tower house simpson contends defences exception strongest scotland later writers doubted effectiveness gun ports notes alignment gun ports lodging facing approach means limited efficiency gun ports facing entrance questioned inventory records brass cannons placed second access castle leads rocky cove marine cave northern cliffs small boat brought steep path leads fortified gate cliff turn offers access castle water gate palace artillery defences taking form earthworks surround north west corner castle facing inland south east facing small box guard house stands eastern battery overlooking coast tower house surrounding buildings late 14th century tower house stone vaulted basement originally storeys measuring metres tower house stood metres high principal rooms included great hall private chamber lord upstairs tower house forge large chimney stable block ranged southern edge nearby lodging known priest house built possibly use william keith died son 4th earl small self contained house includes hall kitchen ground level private chambers projecting spiral north named thomas forbes attendant 7th earl palace palace north east built late 16th century early century comprises main wings set probably work 5th earl succeeded provided extensive comfortable accommodation replace rooms tower house long low design compared contemporary english buildings contrast scottish tradition taller towers prevalent 16th century seven identical arranged west range opening including windows fireplace west range comprised metre gallery gallery originally elaborate oak ceiling display roman tablet taken wall north end gallery drawing room linked north range gallery accessed silver house south incorporated broad treasury basement north range incorporates stores dining room great chamber ground floor level water gate north west ranges gives access northern cliffs east north ranges linked rectangular east range ground level suite apartments north east wing contains earl apartments includes king bedroom charles_ii stayed room carved stone inscribed arms 7th earl wife date rooms vault cellar measuring metres cellar held large eastern window lower vault accessed trap door floor chambers palace dining room silver house remain having restored 1920s central area contains circular fish pond metres metres deep bowling green located west south east corner chapel consecrated largely rebuilt 16th century medieval 13th century windows remain graveyard south


known line located fortified sector facing belgium lies towns sur possesses combat blocks linked underground gallery westernmost position sector comparatively weakly armed fortification exposed position left vulnerable isolation attack sustained attack battle france position overwhelmed german forces destroyed entire garrison killed fighting heaviest position line preserved war memorial design construction positions called french defensive lines belgian border isolated area new fronts west main line created defend increased threat german advance belgium new positions suffered restricted funding fortification lines large distances fortifications compared earlier portions line mutual support difficult site approved supervision commission organisation des line design construction agency work contractor began cost million second phase planned add artillery block scaled pair separate artillery casemates separate entrance block proposed april linking casemates initial confrontation germany underway late built projected construction time months compared earlier positions site suffered number design construction deficiencies site block required great deal rubble fill cover sides block rubble stabilized spring artillery fire block suffered restricted fields fire west southwest covered automatic rifle nearby road ran cutting swept direct fire lacked mortars road dead ground separate artillery casemates extended period lacked close defenses unusually large gun measuring meters meters afforded little protection crews accurate fire coverage main poor description located immediately west river semi buried reinforced concrete combat blocks containing position armament observation posts linked deep underground gallery block infantry entry block automatic rifle observation mixed arms twin machine gun machine gun anti tank gun block infantry block retractable mixed arms turret observation block principal focus german assault separate entry block planned adjacent est underground gallery system simple limited gallery linking blocks initially designed function separate units separate generating plants ventilation facilities block meter gallery contained shared facilities kitchen laundry average depth meters surface gallery small size useful link garrison magazine command post long term shelter afforded gallery systems unlike living spaces near surface combat blocks typical position spaces meters earth rock cover unlike positions main drain emergency exit mixed arms turret block known trouble prone turret particularly casemates number small associated unconnected casemates double block kilometres east southeast far artillery block gun est artillery block gun gun casemates close block directly adjacent road replaced planned gun turret block casemates connected main weakness influenced combat action village lies kilometer northwest fortified dozen networks barbed wire tank obstacles primarily prepared reinforced firing positions necessarily possess fixed armament manning manning command lieutenant comprised men officers fortress infantry regiment position artillery regiment rap units umbrella second army army group provided peacetime ground barracks support services fortifications area lieutenant exchanged commands lieutenant march taking position assisted sub lieutenant commanded block previously posted machine gun battalion lacked specific training systems replaced captain mayor promoted responsible command block overall command compared similar positions officers strategic situation second army commanded general charles responsible defense region frontier including fortified sector sector composed parts eastern portion defended positions widely spaced small compared massive fortifications sectors like western portion sector lightly defended lines fortifications ranging fortified houses near border small farther western defenses scale sufficient support act significant block invading force organized support mobile army formations relatively weak position effectively acted western end fixed fortifications german forces crossed near integrated land air tactics broke morale french 55th infantry division driving line allowing germans gain strong position exploit breakthrough progressive collapse french second ninth armies allowed german forces west cutting mobile support fortified sector broader discussion events sector line advance elements german infantry division approached germans called occupied surrounding area range fire trained specifically assault line provided shaped charge explosives type assault belgian fort days night 13th 14th installed machine gun turret delivered 11th est opened fire german troops advancing nearby farm 16th germans took nearby hill overlooked west attacked higher hill overlooking southwest despite fire evening german reconnaissance marie casemates drew supporting fire guns fired rounds seven hours german forces series determined attacks hill german artillery began bombardment mortars high velocity anti tank guns midday 17th telephone communications cut forcing position communicate radio monitored germans required transmit reach headquarters germans eventually captured hill nightfall driving battalion 23rd colonial infantry regiment losses afternoon 17th artillery casemates evacuated german bombardment continued amid french fire time general ordered relieved prevent emphasizing importance french possession hill directing town southwest held costs general responsible area decided counterattack south hill 3rd north african infantry division newly arrived 6th infantry division ensuing night requested received supporting fire suppress german movements telephone service restored morning 18th allowing better artillery coordination support afternoon germans occupied village completing hours 18th block automatic rifle observation hit german fire killing time retractable mixed arms turret block stuck opened position facing rear unable aim comprised heaviest armament significantly reduced position defensive strength hours germans entered vacant est occupying hour later evacuated french amid concerns german presence hill batteries german fired supporting fire fort surroundings german guns opened fire exposed portions main combined artillery fire destroyed barbed wire surrounding ground firing ceased minutes allow german destroy previously damaged threw smoke bombs resulting hole destroyed stuck turret leaving block incapable resistance supporting fire hampered smoke shells obscured french observation posts view french counterattack ordered french lines tanks supported battalions infantry regiment 6th infantry division attack launched hours infantry making late start tanks halted saddle hill let catch infantry met slopes hill battalions german infantry regiment tanks lost enemy fire counterattack failed reach meantime ordered cease supporting fire fear hitting french rescue force allowing germans freely surface dark 18th germans opened artillery fire block time blasting block mixed arms turret air landed opening ground assault block launched hours later block action directly ordered fire 6th artillery director despite continuing observers germans position lieutenant repeatedly asked general commander 3rd colonial infantry division permission abandon position refused permission evacuate saying mission changed commander commander pleaded divisional staff allow evacuate advised line like submarine doesn leave submarine contact lost overnight morning 19th resistance ceased response repeated telephone calls french headquarters apparent interior block fire 20th equipped germans entered block encountering day able enter block finding resistance germans moved objectives french patrols reached 28th 29th reporting dense smoke unable advance june german patrol survey finding difficult conditions discovering corpses garrison apparently wearing gas masks june area firmly german control bodies garrison recovered german disciplinary battalion buried examination indicated garrison died carbon poisoning gas masks effective low concentrations carbon cope concentration greater entire garrison posthumously awarded legion german alfred led assault block awarded knight cross walter awarded knight cross conquering leading june current condition preserved visible concrete site includes military memorial facing new road alignment small cemetery established opposite memorial burial site majority garrison surrounding casemates recorded french historic monuments interior open public stated days