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occasions because of its being obscured by the Sun , except at its new phase during a transit . Mercury is technically brightest as seen from Earth when it is at a full phase .Although Mercury is farthest from Earth when it is full, the greater illuminated area that is visible and the opposition brightness surge more than compensates for the distance. The opposite is true for Venus, which appears brightest when it is a crescent, because it is much closer to Earth than when gibbous. Mercury is best observed at the first and last quarter, although they are phases of lesser brightness. The first and last quarter phases occur at greatest elongation east and west of the Sun, respectively. At both of these times, Mercury's separation from the Sun ranges anywhere from 17.9° at perihelion to 27.8° at aphelion. At greatest western elongation, Mercury rises at its earliest before sunrise, and at greatest eastern elongation, it sets at its latest after sunset. Mercury is more often and easily visible from the Southern Hemisphere than from the Northern. This is because Mercury's maximum western elongation occurs only during early autumn in the Southern Hemisphere, whereas its greatest eastern elongation happens only during late winter in the Southern Hemisphere. In both of these cases, the angle at which the planet's orbit intersects the horizon is maximized, allowing it to rise several hours before sunrise in the former instance and not set until several hours after sundown in the latter from southern mid-latitudes, such as Argentina and South Africa. An alternate method for viewing Mercury involves observing the planet with a telescope during daylight hours when conditions are clear, ideally when it is at its greatest elongation. This allows the planet to be found easily, even when using telescopes with 8 cm (3.1 in) apertures.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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conditions are clear , ideally when it is at its greatest elongation . This allows the planet to be found easily , even when using telescopes with 8 cm ( 3.1 in ) apertures .However, great care must be taken to obstruct the Sun from sight because of the extreme risk for eye damage. This method bypasses the limitation of twilight observing when the ecliptic is located at a low elevation (e.g. on autumn evenings). The planet is higher in the sky and less atmospheric effects affect the view of the planet. Mercury can be viewed as close as 4° to the Sun near superior conjunction when it is almost at its brightest. Mercury can, like several other planets and the brightest stars, be seen during a total solar eclipse. Observation history
Ancient astronomers
The earliest known recorded observations of Mercury are from the MUL.APIN tablets. These observations were most likely made by an Assyrian astronomer around the 14th century BC. The cuneiform name used to designate Mercury on the MUL.APIN tablets is transcribed as UDU.IDIM.GU\U4.UD ("the jumping planet"). Babylonian records of Mercury date back to the 1st millennium BC. The Babylonians called the planet Nabu after the messenger to the gods in their mythology. The Greco-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy wrote about the possibility of planetary transits across the face of the Sun in his work Planetary Hypotheses. He suggested that no transits had been observed either because planets such as Mercury were too small to see, or because transits were too infrequent. In ancient China, Mercury was known as "the Hour Star" (Chen-xing 辰星). It was associated with the direction north and the phase of water in the Five Phases system of metaphysics. Modern Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese cultures refer to the planet literally as the "water star" (水星), based on the Five elements.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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102
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Phases system of metaphysics . Modern Chinese , Korean , Japanese and Vietnamese cultures refer to the planet literally as the `` water star '' ( 水星 ) , based on the Five elements .Hindu mythology used the name Budha for Mercury, and this god was thought to preside over Wednesday. The god Odin (or Woden) of Germanic paganism was associated with the planet Mercury and Wednesday. The Maya may have represented Mercury as an owl (or possibly four owls; two for the morning aspect and two for the evening) that served as a messenger to the underworld. Mercury was sometimes known as Stilbon (Greek: Στίλβων) meaning 'the shining, glittering'. In medieval Islamic astronomy, the Andalusian astronomer Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī in the 11th century described the deferent of Mercury's geocentric orbit as being oval, like an egg or a pignon, although this insight did not influence his astronomical theory or his astronomical calculations. In the 12th century, Ibn Bajjah observed "two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun", which was later suggested as the transit of Mercury and/or Venus by the Maragha astronomer Qotb al-Din Shirazi in the 13th century. Most such medieval reports of transits were later taken as observations of sunspots. In India, the Kerala school astronomer Nilakantha Somayaji in the 15th century developed a partially heliocentric planetary model in which Mercury orbits the Sun, which in turn orbits Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century. Ground-based telescopic research
The first telescopic observations of Mercury were made by Thomas Harriot and Galileo from 1610. In 1612, Simon Marius observed the brightness of Mercury varied with the planet's orbital position and concluded it had phases "in the same way as Venus and the Moon".
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Mercury (planet)
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. In 1612 , Simon Marius observed the brightness of Mercury varied with the planet 's orbital position and concluded it had phases `` in the same way as Venus and the Moon '' .In 1631, Pierre Gassendi made the first telescopic observations of the transit of a planet across the Sun when he saw a transit of Mercury predicted by Johannes Kepler. In 1639, Giovanni Zupi used a telescope to discover that the planet had orbital phases similar to Venus and the Moon. The observation demonstrated conclusively that Mercury orbited the Sun. A rare event in astronomy is the passage of one planet in front of another (occultation), as seen from Earth. Mercury and Venus occult each other every few centuries, and the event of May 28, 1737, is the only one historically observed, having been seen by John Bevis at the Royal Greenwich Observatory. The next occultation of Mercury by Venus will be on December 3, 2133. The difficulties inherent in observing Mercury meant that it was far less studied than the other planets. In 1800, Johann Schröter made observations of surface features, claiming to have observed 20-kilometre-high (12 mi) mountains. Friedrich Bessel used Schröter's drawings to erroneously estimate the rotation period as 24 hours and an axial tilt of 70°. In the 1880s, Giovanni Schiaparelli mapped the planet more accurately, and suggested that Mercury's rotational period was 88 days, the same as its orbital period due to tidal locking. This phenomenon is known as synchronous rotation. The effort to map the surface of Mercury was continued by Eugenios Antoniadi, who published a book in 1934 that included both maps and his own observations. Many of the planet's surface features, particularly the albedo features, take their names from Antoniadi's map.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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published a book in 1934 that included both maps and his own observations . Many of the planet 's surface features , particularly the albedo features , take their names from Antoniadi 's map .In June 1962, Soviet scientists at the Institute of Radio-engineering and Electronics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, led by Vladimir Kotelnikov, became the first to bounce a radar signal off Mercury and receive it, starting radar observations of the planet. Three years later, radar observations by Americans Gordon H. Pettengill and Rolf B. Dyce, using the 300-metre-wide (330 yd) Arecibo radio telescope in Puerto Rico, showed conclusively that the planet's rotational period was about 59 days. The theory that Mercury's rotation was synchronous had become widely held, and it was a surprise to astronomers when these radio observations were announced. If Mercury were tidally locked, its dark face would be extremely cold, but measurements of radio emission revealed that it was much hotter than expected. Astronomers were reluctant to drop the synchronous rotation theory and proposed alternative mechanisms such as powerful heat-distributing winds to explain the observations. In 1965, Italian astronomer Giuseppe Colombo noted that the rotation value was about two-thirds of Mercury's orbital period, and proposed that the planet's orbital and rotational periods were locked into a 3:2 rather than a 1:1 resonance. Data from Mariner 10 subsequently confirmed this view. This means that Schiaparelli's and Antoniadi's maps were not "wrong". Instead, the astronomers saw the same features during every second orbit and recorded them, but disregarded those seen in the meantime, when Mercury's other face was toward the Sun, because the orbital geometry meant that these observations were made under poor viewing conditions.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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them , but disregarded those seen in the meantime , when Mercury 's other face was toward the Sun , because the orbital geometry meant that these observations were made under poor viewing conditions .Ground-based optical observations did not shed much further light on Mercury, but radio astronomers using interferometry at microwave wavelengths, a technique that enables removal of the solar radiation, were able to discern physical and chemical characteristics of the subsurface layers to a depth of several meters. Not until the first space probe flew past Mercury did many of its most fundamental morphological properties become known. Moreover, technological advances have led to improved ground-based observations. In 2000, high-resolution lucky imaging observations were conducted by the Mount Wilson Observatory 1.5-metre (4.9 ft) Hale telescope. They provided the first views that resolved surface features on the parts of Mercury that were not imaged in the Mariner 10 mission. Most of the planet has been mapped by the Arecibo radar telescope, with 5 km (3.1 mi) resolution, including polar deposits in shadowed craters of what may be water ice. Research with space probes
Reaching Mercury from Earth poses significant technical challenges, because it orbits so much closer to the Sun than Earth. A Mercury-bound spacecraft launched from Earth must travel over 91 million kilometres (57 million miles) into the Sun's gravitational potential well. Mercury has an orbital speed of 47.4 km/s (29.5 mi/s), whereas Earth's orbital speed is 29.8 km/s (18.5 mi/s). Therefore, the spacecraft must make a larger change in velocity (delta-v) to get to Mercury and then enter orbit, as compared to the delta-v required for, say, Mars planetary missions. The potential energy liberated by moving down the Sun's potential well becomes kinetic energy, requiring a delta-v change to do anything other than pass by Mercury.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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106
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say , Mars planetary missions . The potential energy liberated by moving down the Sun 's potential well becomes kinetic energy , requiring a delta-v change to do anything other than pass by Mercury .Some portion of this delta-v budget can be provided from a gravity assist during one or more fly-bys of Venus. To land safely or enter a stable orbit the spacecraft would rely entirely on rocket motors. Aerobraking is ruled out because Mercury has a negligible atmosphere. A trip to Mercury requires more rocket fuel than that required to escape the Solar System completely. As a result, only three space probes have visited it so far. A proposed alternative approach would use a solar sail to attain a Mercury-synchronous orbit around the Sun. Mariner 10
The first spacecraft to visit Mercury was NASA's Mariner 10 (1974–1975). The spacecraft used the gravity of Venus to adjust its orbital velocity so that it could approach Mercury, making it both the first spacecraft to use this gravitational "slingshot" effect and the first NASA mission to visit multiple planets. Mariner 10 provided the first close-up images of Mercury's surface, which immediately showed its heavily cratered nature, and revealed many other types of geological features, such as the giant scarps that were later ascribed to the effect of the planet shrinking slightly as its iron core cools. Unfortunately, the same face of the planet was lit at each of Mariner 10's close approaches. This made close observation of both sides of the planet impossible, and resulted in the mapping of less than 45% of the planet's surface. The spacecraft made three close approaches to Mercury, the closest of which took it to within 327 km (203 mi) of the surface.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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45 % of the planet 's surface . The spacecraft made three close approaches to Mercury , the closest of which took it to within 327 km ( 203 mi ) of the surface .At the first close approach, instruments detected a magnetic field, to the great surprise of planetary geologists—Mercury's rotation was expected to be much too slow to generate a significant dynamo effect. The second close approach was primarily used for imaging, but at the third approach, extensive magnetic data were obtained. The data revealed that the planet's magnetic field is much like Earth's, which deflects the solar wind around the planet. For many years after the Mariner 10 encounters, the origin of Mercury's magnetic field remained the subject of several competing theories. On March 24, 1975, just eight days after its final close approach, Mariner 10 ran out of fuel. Because its orbit could no longer be accurately controlled, mission controllers instructed the probe to shut down. Mariner 10 is thought to be still orbiting the Sun, passing close to Mercury every few months. MESSENGER
A second NASA mission to Mercury, named MESSENGER (MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging), was launched on August 3, 2004. It made a fly-by of Earth in August 2005, and of Venus in October 2006 and June 2007 to place it onto the correct trajectory to reach an orbit around Mercury. A first fly-by of Mercury occurred on January 14, 2008, a second on October 6, 2008, and a third on September 29, 2009. Most of the hemisphere not imaged by Mariner 10 was mapped during these fly-bys. The probe successfully entered an elliptical orbit around the planet on March 18, 2011. The first orbital image of Mercury was obtained on March 29, 2011.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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108
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mapped during these fly-bys . The probe successfully entered an elliptical orbit around the planet on March 18 , 2011 . The first orbital image of Mercury was obtained on March 29 , 2011 .The probe finished a one-year mapping mission, and then entered a one-year extended mission into 2013. In addition to continued observations and mapping of Mercury, MESSENGER observed the 2012 solar maximum. The mission was designed to clear up six key issues: Mercury's high density, its geological history, the nature of its magnetic field, the structure of its core, whether it has ice at its poles, and where its tenuous atmosphere comes from. To this end, the probe carried imaging devices that gathered much-higher-resolution images of much more of Mercury than Mariner 10, assorted spectrometers to determine the abundances of elements in the crust, and magnetometers and devices to measure velocities of charged particles. Measurements of changes in the probe's orbital velocity were expected to be used to infer details of the planet's interior structure. MESSENGER's final maneuver was on April 24, 2015, and it crashed into Mercury's surface on April 30, 2015. The spacecraft's impact with Mercury occurred at 3:26:01 p.m. EDT on April 30, 2015, leaving a crater estimated to be 16 m (52 ft) in diameter. BepiColombo
The European Space Agency and the Japanese Space Agency developed and launched a joint mission called BepiColombo, which will orbit Mercury with two probes: one to map the planet and the other to study its magnetosphere. BepiColombo was launched on October 20, 2018. It will release a magnetometer probe into an elliptical orbit, then chemical rockets will fire to deposit the mapper probe into a circular orbit. Both probes will operate for one terrestrial year.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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109
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It will release a magnetometer probe into an elliptical orbit , then chemical rockets will fire to deposit the mapper probe into a circular orbit . Both probes will operate for one terrestrial year .The mapper probe carries an array of spectrometers similar to those on MESSENGER, and will study the planet at many different wavelengths including infrared, ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma ray. BepiColombo conducted the first of its six planned Mercury flybys on October 1, 2021, and the sixth was completed on January 9, 2025. The spacecraft will enter the planet's orbit in 2026. See also
Notes
References
External links
Atlas of Mercury. NASA. 1978. SP-423. Mercury nomenclature and map with feature names from the USGS/IAU Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature
Equirectangular map of Mercury Archived May 20, 2016, at the Wayback Machine by Applied Coherent Technology Corp
3D globe of Mercury by Google
Mercury at Solarviews.com
Mercury by Astronomy Cast
MESSENGER mission web site
BepiColombo mission web site
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is often called Earth's "twin" or "sister" among the planets of the Solar System for its orbit being the closest to Earth's, both being rocky planets, and having the most similar and nearly equal size, mass, and surface gravity. Venus, though, is significantly different, especially as it has no liquid water, and its atmosphere is far thicker and denser than that of any other rocky body in the Solar System. The atmosphere is composed mostly of carbon dioxide and has a thick cloud layer of sulfuric acid that spans the whole planet. At the mean surface level, the atmosphere reaches a temperature of 737 K (464 °C; 867 °F) and a pressure 92 times greater than Earth's at sea level, turning the lowest layer of the atmosphere into a supercritical fluid. From Earth, Venus is visible as a star-like point of light, appearing brighter than any other natural point of light in the sky, and as an inferior planet always relatively close to the Sun, either as the brightest "morning star" or "evening star". The orbits of Venus and Earth make the two planets approach each other in synodic periods of 1.6 years. In the course of this, Venus comes closer to Earth than any other planet, in contrast to Mercury which stays closer over the course of an orbit to Earth than any other planet, due to its orbit being closer to the Sun. In interplanetary spaceflight from Earth, Venus is frequently used as a waypoint for gravity assists, offering a faster and more economical route. Venus has no moons and a very slow retrograde rotation about its axis, a result of competing forces of solar tidal locking and differential heating of Venus's massive atmosphere.
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economical route . Venus has no moons and a very slow retrograde rotation about its axis , a result of competing forces of solar tidal locking and differential heating of Venus 's massive atmosphere .As a result, a Venusian day is 116.75 Earth days long, about half a Venusian solar year, which is 224.7 Earth days long. Venus has a weak magnetosphere; lacking an internal dynamo, it is induced by the solar wind interacting with the atmosphere. Internally, Venus has a core, a mantle, and a crust. Internal heat escapes through active volcanism, resulting in resurfacing, instead of plate tectonics. Venus may have had liquid surface water early in its history with a habitable environment, before a runaway greenhouse effect evaporated any water and turned Venus into its present state. There are atmospheric conditions at cloud layer altitudes that are the most similar ones to Earth in the Solar System and have been identified as possibly favourable for life on Venus, with potential biomarkers found in 2020, spurring new research and missions to Venus. Throughout history humans across the globe have observed Venus and it has acquired particular importance in many cultures. With telescopes, the phases of Venus became discernible and, by 1613, were presented as decisive evidence disproving the then-dominant geocentric model and supporting the heliocentric model. Venus was visited for the first time in 1961 by Venera 1, which flew past the planet, achieving the first interplanetary spaceflight. The first data from Venus were returned during the second interplanetary mission, Mariner 2, in 1962. In 1967, the first interplanetary impactor, Venera 4, reached Venus, followed by the lander Venera 7 in 1970. As of 2025, Solar Orbiter is on its way to fly-by Venus in 2026, and the next mission planned to launch to Venus is the Venus Life Finder, scheduled for 2026 as well.
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Venus
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2025 , Solar Orbiter is on its way to fly-by Venus in 2026 , and the next mission planned to launch to Venus is the Venus Life Finder , scheduled for 2026 as well .Physical characteristics
Venus is one of the four terrestrial planets in the Solar System, meaning that it is a rocky body like Earth. It is similar to Earth in size and mass and is often described as Earth's "sister" or "twin". Venus is very close to spherical due to its slow rotation. It has a diameter of 12,103.6 km (7,520.8 mi)—only 638.4 km (396.7 mi) less than Earth's—and its mass is 81.5% of Earth's, making it the third-smallest planet in the Solar System. Conditions on the surface of Venus differ radically from those on Earth because its dense atmosphere is 96.5% carbon dioxide, causing an intense greenhouse effect, with most of the remaining 3.5% being nitrogen. The surface pressure is 9.3 megapascals (93 bars), and the average surface temperature is 737 K (464 °C; 867 °F), above the critical points of both major constituents and making the surface atmosphere a supercritical fluid of mainly supercritical carbon dioxide and some supercritical nitrogen. Natural history
Formation
The rocky terrestrial planets including Venus are thought to have formed in 5 stages: dust settling, planetesimal formation, planetary embryos, giant impacts, and finally formation of atmospheres. Limited measurements from Venus have prevented a more detailed analysis of the formation timeline. Future
Venus is expected to be destroyed, along with Mercury, and possibly the Earth and the Moon, when the Sun becomes a red giant in approximately seven or eight billion years. Geography
The Venusian surface was a subject of speculation until some of its secrets were revealed by probes in the 20th century.
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Venus
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becomes a red giant in approximately seven or eight billion years . Geography The Venusian surface was a subject of speculation until some of its secrets were revealed by probes in the 20th century .Venera landers in 1975 and 1982 returned images of a surface covered in sediment and relatively angular rocks. The surface was mapped in detail by Magellan in 1990–91. There is evidence of extensive volcanism, and variations in the atmospheric sulphur dioxide may indicate that there are active volcanoes. About 80% of the Venusian surface is covered by smooth, volcanic plains, consisting of 70% plains with wrinkle ridges and 10% smooth or lobate plains. Two highland "continents" make up the rest of its surface area, one lying in the planet's northern hemisphere and the other just south of the equator. The northern continent is called Ishtar Terra after Ishtar, the Babylonian goddess of love, and is about the size of Australia. The Maxwell Montes mountain range lies on Ishtar Terra. Its peak Skadi Mons is the highest point on Venus, 11 km (7 mi) above the Venusian average surface elevation. The southern continent is called Aphrodite Terra, after the Greek mythological goddess of love, and is the larger of the two highland regions at roughly the size of South America. A network of fractures and faults covers much of this area. There is recent evidence of lava flow on Venus (2024), such as flows on Sif Mons, a shield volcano, and on Niobe Planitia, a flat plain. There are visible calderas. The planet has few impact craters, demonstrating that the surface is relatively young, at 300–600 million years old. Venus has some unique surface features in addition to the impact craters, mountains, and valleys commonly found on rocky planets.
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Venus
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the surface is relatively young , at 300–600 million years old . Venus has some unique surface features in addition to the impact craters , mountains , and valleys commonly found on rocky planets .Among these are flat-topped volcanic features called "farra", which look somewhat like pancakes and range in size from 20 to 50 km (12 to 31 mi) across, and from 100 to 1,000 m (330 to 3,280 ft) high; radial, star-like fracture systems called "novae"; features with both radial and concentric fractures resembling spider webs, known as "arachnoids"; and "coronae", circular rings of fractures sometimes surrounded by a depression. These features are volcanic in origin. Most Venusian surface features are named after historical and mythological women. Exceptions are Maxwell Montes, named after James Clerk Maxwell, and highland regions Alpha Regio, Beta Regio, and Ovda Regio. The last three features were named before the current system was adopted by the International Astronomical Union, the body which oversees planetary nomenclature. The longitude of physical features on Venus is expressed relative to its prime meridian. The original prime meridian passed through the radar-bright spot at the centre of the oval feature Eve, located south of Alpha Regio. After the Venera missions were completed, the prime meridian was redefined to pass through the central peak in the crater Ariadne on Sedna Planitia. The stratigraphically oldest tessera terrains have consistently lower thermal emissivity than the surrounding basaltic plains measured by Venus Express and Magellan, indicating a different, possibly a more felsic, mineral assemblage. The mechanism to generate a large amount of felsic crust usually requires the presence of a water ocean and plate tectonics, implying that habitable condition existed on early Venus, with large bodies of water at some point. However, the nature of tessera terrains is far from certain.
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ocean and plate tectonics , implying that habitable condition existed on early Venus , with large bodies of water at some point . However , the nature of tessera terrains is far from certain .Studies reported in 2023 suggested for the first time that Venus may have had plate tectonics during ancient times and, as a result, may have had a more habitable environment, possibly one capable of sustaining life. Venus has gained interest as a case for research into the development of Earth-like planets and their habitability. Volcanism
Much of the Venusian surface appears to have been shaped by volcanic activity. Venus has several times as many volcanoes as Earth, and it has 167 large volcanoes that are over 100 km (60 mi) across. The only volcanic complex of this size on Earth is the Big Island of Hawaii. More than 85,000 volcanoes on Venus have been identified and mapped. This is not because Venus is more volcanically active than Earth, but because its crust is older and is not subject to the erosion processes active on Earth. Earth's oceanic crust is continually recycled by subduction at the boundaries of tectonic plates, and has an average age of about 100 million years, whereas the Venusian surface is estimated to be 300–600 million years old. Several lines of evidence point to ongoing volcanic activity on Venus. Sulfur dioxide concentrations in the upper atmosphere dropped by a factor of 10 between 1978 and 1986, jumped in 2006, and again declined 10-fold. This may mean that levels were boosted several times by large volcanic eruptions. It has been suggested that Venusian lightning (discussed below) could originate from volcanic activity (i.e. volcanic lightning). In January 2020, astronomers reported evidence suggesting that Venus is currently volcanically active, specifically the detection of olivine, a volcanic product that would weather quickly on the planet's surface.
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Venus
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. In January 2020 , astronomers reported evidence suggesting that Venus is currently volcanically active , specifically the detection of olivine , a volcanic product that would weather quickly on the planet 's surface .This massive volcanic activity is fuelled by a hot interior, which models say could be explained by energetic collisions when the planet was young, as well as radioactive decay as in the case of the earth. Impacts would have had significantly higher velocity than on Earth, both because Venus moves faster due to its closer proximity to the Sun and because high-eccentricity objects colliding with the planet would have high speeds. In 2008 and 2009, the first direct evidence for ongoing volcanism was observed by Venus Express, in the form of four transient localized infrared hot spots within the rift zone Ganis Chasma, near the shield volcano Maat Mons. Three of the spots were observed in more than one successive orbit. These spots are thought to represent lava freshly released by volcanic eruptions. The actual temperatures are not known, because the size of the hot spots could not be measured, but are likely to have been in the 800–1,100 K (527–827 °C; 980–1,520 °F) range, relative to a normal temperature of 740 K (467 °C; 872 °F). In 2023, scientists reexamined topographical images of the Maat Mons region taken by the Magellan orbiter. Using computer simulations, they determined that the topography had changed during an 8-month interval, and concluded that active volcanism was the cause. Craters
There are almost a thousand impact craters on Venus, evenly distributed across its surface. On other cratered bodies, such as Earth and the Moon, craters show a range of states of degradation. On the Moon, degradation is caused by subsequent impacts, whereas on Earth it is caused by wind and rain erosion.
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Venus
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117
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the Moon , craters show a range of states of degradation . On the Moon , degradation is caused by subsequent impacts , whereas on Earth it is caused by wind and rain erosion .On Venus, about 85% of the craters are in pristine condition. The number of craters, together with their well-preserved condition, indicates the planet underwent a global resurfacing event 300–600 million years ago, followed by a decay in volcanism. Whereas Earth's crust is in continuous motion, Venus is thought to be unable to sustain such a process. Without plate tectonics to dissipate heat from its mantle, Venus instead undergoes a cyclical process in which mantle temperatures rise until they reach a critical level that weakens the crust. Then, over a period of about 100 million years, subduction occurs on an enormous scale, completely recycling the crust. Venusian craters range from 3 to 280 km (2 to 174 mi) in diameter. No craters are smaller than 3 km, because of the effects of the dense atmosphere on incoming objects. Objects with less than a certain kinetic energy are slowed so much by the atmosphere that they do not create an impact crater. Incoming projectiles less than 50 m (160 ft) in diameter will fragment and burn up in the atmosphere before reaching the ground. Internal structure
Without data from reflection seismology or knowledge of its moment of inertia, little direct information has been available about the internal structure and geochemistry of Venus. The similarity in size and density between Venus and Earth suggests that they share a similar internal structure: a core, mantle, and crust. Like that of Earth, the Venusian core is most likely at least partially liquid because the two planets have been cooling at about the same rate, although a completely solid core cannot be ruled out.
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Venus
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118
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, the Venusian core is most likely at least partially liquid because the two planets have been cooling at about the same rate , although a completely solid core can not be ruled out .The slightly smaller size of Venus means pressures are 24% lower in its deep interior than Earth's. The predicted values for the moment of inertia based on planetary models suggest a core radius of 2,900–3,450 km. There is now an estimate of 3,500 km from the moment of inertia based on the rate of axial precession, measured between 2006 and 2020. The crust of Venus is estimated to be 40 kilometers thick on average and at most 65 kilometers thick. The principal difference between the two planets is the lack of evidence for plate tectonics on Venus, possibly because its crust is too strong to subduct without water to make it less viscous. This results in reduced heat loss from the planet, preventing it from cooling and providing a likely explanation for its lack of an internally generated magnetic field. Instead, Venus may lose its internal heat in periodic major resurfacing events. Magnetic field and core
In 1967, Venera 4 found Venus's magnetic field to be much weaker than that of Earth. This magnetic field is induced by an interaction between the ionosphere and the solar wind, rather than by an internal dynamo as in the Earth's core. Venus's small induced magnetosphere provides negligible protection to the atmosphere against solar and cosmic radiation. The lack of an intrinsic magnetic field on Venus was surprising, given that it is similar to Earth in size and was expected to contain a dynamo at its core. A dynamo requires three things: a conducting liquid, rotation, and convection. The core is thought to be electrically conductive and, although its rotation is often thought to be too slow, simulations show it is adequate to produce a dynamo.
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Venus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.
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, and convection . The core is thought to be electrically conductive and , although its rotation is often thought to be too slow , simulations show it is adequate to produce a dynamo .This implies that the dynamo is missing because of a lack of convection in Venus's core. On Earth, convection occurs in the liquid outer layer of the core because the bottom of the liquid layer is much higher in temperature than the top. On Venus, a global resurfacing event may have shut down plate tectonics and led to a reduced heat flux through the crust. This insulating effect would cause the mantle temperature to increase, thereby reducing the heat flux out of the core. As a result, no internal geodynamo is available to drive a magnetic field. Instead, the heat from the core is reheating the crust. One possibility is that Venus has no solid inner core, or that its core is not cooling, so that the entire liquid part of the core is at approximately the same temperature. Another possibility is that its core has already been completely solidified. The state of the core is highly dependent on the concentration of sulphur, which is unknown at present. Another possibility is that the absence of a large impact on Venus (contra the Earth's "Moon-forming" impact) left the core of Venus stratified from the core's incremental formation, and without the forces to initiate/sustain convection, and thus a "geodynamo". The weak magnetosphere around Venus means that the solar wind interacts directly with its outer atmosphere. Here, ions of hydrogen and oxygen are being created by the dissociation of water molecules due to ultraviolet radiation. The solar wind then supplies energy that gives some of these ions sufficient speed to escape Venus's gravity field.
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Venus
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are being created by the dissociation of water molecules due to ultraviolet radiation . The solar wind then supplies energy that gives some of these ions sufficient speed to escape Venus 's gravity field .This erosion process results in a steady loss of low-mass hydrogen, helium, and oxygen ions, whereas higher-mass molecules, such as carbon dioxide, are more likely to be retained. Atmospheric erosion by the solar wind could have led to the loss of most of Venus's water during the first billion years after it formed. However, the planet may have retained a dynamo for its first 2–3 billion years, so the water loss may have occurred more recently. The erosion has increased the ratio of higher-mass deuterium to lower-mass hydrogen in the atmosphere 100 times compared to the rest of the solar system. Atmosphere and climate
Venus has a dense atmosphere composed of 96.5% carbon dioxide, 3.5% nitrogen—both exist as supercritical fluids at the planet's surface with a density 6.5% that of water—and traces of other gases including sulphur dioxide. The mass of its atmosphere is 92 times that of Earth's, whereas the pressure at its surface is about 93 times that at Earth's—a pressure equivalent to that at a depth of nearly 1 km (5⁄8 mi) under Earth's ocean surfaces. The density at the surface is 65 kg/m3 (4.1 lb/cu ft), 6.5% that of water or 50 times as dense as Earth's atmosphere at 293 K (20 °C; 68 °F) at sea level. The CO2-rich atmosphere generates the strongest greenhouse effect in the Solar System, creating surface temperatures of at least 735 K (462 °C; 864 °F).
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Venus
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°F ) at sea level . The CO2-rich atmosphere generates the strongest greenhouse effect in the Solar System , creating surface temperatures of at least 735 K ( 462 °C ; 864 °F ) .This makes the Venusian surface hotter than Mercury's, which has a minimum surface temperature of 53 K (−220 °C; −364 °F) and maximum surface temperature of 700 K (427 °C; 801 °F), even though Venus is nearly twice Mercury's distance from the Sun and thus receives only around a quarter of Mercury's solar irradiance, of 2,600 W/m2 (double that of Earth). Because of its runaway greenhouse effect, Venus has been identified by scientists such as Carl Sagan as a warning and research object linked to climate change on Earth. Therefore Venus has been called a greenhouse planet, a planet under a greenhouse inferno. Venus's atmosphere is rich in primordial noble gases compared to that of Earth. This enrichment indicates an early divergence from Earth in evolution. An unusually large comet impact or accretion of a more massive primary atmosphere from the solar nebula have been proposed to explain the enrichment. However, the atmosphere is poor in radiogenic argon-40, a proxy for mantle degassing, suggesting an early shutdown of major magmatism. Studies have suggested that billions of years ago, the atmosphere of Venus may have been much more like the one surrounding the early Earth, and there may have been substantial quantities of liquid water on the surface. After a period of 600 million to several billion years, the rising luminosity of the Sun and possibly large volcanic resurfacing caused the evaporation of the original water. A runaway greenhouse effect was created once a critical level of greenhouse gases (including water) was reached in the atmosphere.
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Venus
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122
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possibly large volcanic resurfacing caused the evaporation of the original water . A runaway greenhouse effect was created once a critical level of greenhouse gases ( including water ) was reached in the atmosphere .Although the surface conditions on Venus are no longer hospitable to any terrestrial-like life that might have formed before this event, there is speculation that life may exist in the upper cloud layers of Venus, 50 km (30 mi) above the surface, where atmospheric conditions are the most Earth-like in the Solar System, with temperatures ranging between 303 and 353 K (30 and 80 °C; 86 and 176 °F), and the pressure and radiation being about the same as at Earth's surface, but with acidic clouds and the carbon dioxide air. More specifically, between heights of 48 and 59 km temperature and radiation conditions are suitable for life. At lower elevations water would evaporate and at higher elevation UV radiation would be too strong. The putative detection of an absorption line of phosphine in Venus's atmosphere, with no known pathway for abiotic production, led to speculation in September 2020 that there could be extant life currently present in the atmosphere. Later research attributed the spectroscopic signal that was interpreted as phosphine to sulphur dioxide, or found that in fact there was no absorption line. Thermal inertia and the transfer of heat by winds in the lower atmosphere mean that the surface temperature does not vary significantly between the hemispheres facing and not facing the Sun, despite Venus's slow rotation. Winds at the surface are slow, moving at a few kilometres per hour, but because of the high density of the atmosphere at the surface, they exert a significant amount of force against obstructions, and transport dust and small stones across the surface.
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Venus
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hour , but because of the high density of the atmosphere at the surface , they exert a significant amount of force against obstructions , and transport dust and small stones across the surface .This alone would make it difficult for a human to walk through, even without the heat, pressure, and lack of oxygen. Above the dense CO2 layer are thick clouds 45 to 70 km above the surface, consisting mainly of sulphuric acid, which is formed by a reaction catalyzed by UV radiation from sulphur dioxide molecules and then water, resulting in sulphuric acid hydrate. Additionally, the clouds contain approximately 1% ferric chloride. Other possible constituents of the cloud particles are ferric sulfate, aluminium chloride and phosphoric anhydride. Clouds at different levels have different compositions and particle size distributions. These clouds reflect, like thick cloud cover on Earth, about 70% of the sunlight that falls on them back into space, and since they cover the whole planet they prevent visual observation of the surface. The permanent cloud cover means that although Venus is closer than Earth to the Sun, it receives less sunlight on the ground, with only 10% of the received sunlight reaching the surface, resulting in average daytime levels of illumination at the surface of 14,000 lux, comparable to that on Earth "in the daytime with overcast clouds". Venus's atmosphere rotates much faster than its solid body, a phenomenon known as atmospheric super-rotation. This results in strong 300 km/h (185 mph) winds at the cloud tops, which complete a full rotation around the planet in about 4 days, corresponding to 60 times the speed of the planet's rotation, whereas Earth's strongest winds reach only 10–20% of its rotational speed. Although Venus looks featureless in visible light, there are bands or streaks in the UV, whose origin has not been pinned down.
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Venus
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winds reach only 10–20 % of its rotational speed . Although Venus looks featureless in visible light , there are bands or streaks in the UV , whose origin has not been pinned down .The absorption of UV may be due to a compound of oxygen and sulfur, OSSO, which has a double bond between the sulfur atoms and exists in "cis" and "trans" forms, or due to polysulfur compounds from S2 to S8. The surface of Venus is effectively isothermal; it retains a constant temperature not only between the two hemispheres but between the equator and the poles. Venus's minute axial tilt—less than 3°, compared to 23° on Earth—also minimizes seasonal temperature variation. Altitude is one of the few factors that affect Venusian temperatures. The highest point on Venus, Skadi Mons of the Maxwell Montes range, is therefore the coolest point on Venus, with a temperature of about 655 K (380 °C; 715 °F) and an atmospheric pressure of about 4.5 MPa (45 bar). In 1995, the Magellan spacecraft imaged a highly reflective substance at the tops of the highest mountain peaks, a "Venus snow" that bore a strong resemblance to terrestrial snow. This substance likely formed by a similar process to snow, albeit at a far higher temperature. Too volatile to condense on the surface, it rose in gaseous form to higher elevations, where it is cooler and could precipitate. The identity of this substance is not known with certainty, but speculation has ranged from elemental tellurium to lead sulfide (galena). Although Venus has no seasons, in 2019 astronomers identified a cyclical variation in sunlight absorption by the atmosphere, possibly caused by opaque, absorbing particles suspended in the upper clouds.
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Venus
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) . Although Venus has no seasons , in 2019 astronomers identified a cyclical variation in sunlight absorption by the atmosphere , possibly caused by opaque , absorbing particles suspended in the upper clouds .The variation causes observed changes in the speed of Venus's zonal winds and appears to rise and fall in time with the Sun's 11-year sunspot cycle. The existence of lightning in the atmosphere of Venus has been controversial since the first suspected bursts were detected by the Soviet Venera probes. In 2006–07, Venus Express clearly detected whistler mode waves, the signatures of lightning. Their intermittent appearance indicates a pattern associated with weather activity. According to these measurements, the lightning rate is at least half that on Earth, however other instruments have not detected lightning at all. The origin of any lightning remains unclear, but could originate from clouds or Venusian volcanoes. In 2007, Venus Express discovered that a huge double atmospheric polar vortex exists at the south pole. Venus Express discovered, in 2011, that an ozone layer exists high in the atmosphere of Venus. In 2013 ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to "the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions." In December 2015, and to a lesser extent in April and May 2016, researchers working on Japan's Akatsuki mission observed bow-shaped objects in the atmosphere of Venus. This was considered direct evidence of the existence of perhaps the largest stationary gravity waves in the solar system. Colour and sound of the atmosphere at the surface have been recorded, with the sky having an orange-yellow colour, while at higher altitudes being white. Orbit and rotation
Venus orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 0.72 AU (108 million km; 67 million mi), and completes an orbit every 224.7 days.
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Venus
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white . Orbit and rotation Venus orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 0.72 AU ( 108 million km ; 67 million mi ) , and completes an orbit every 224.7 days .It completes 13 orbits in 7.998 years, so its position in our sky almost repeats every eight years. Although all planetary orbits are elliptical, Venus's orbit is currently the closest to circular, with an eccentricity of less than 0.01. Simulations of the early solar system orbital dynamics have shown that the eccentricity of the Venus orbit may have been substantially larger in the past, reaching values as high as 0.31 and possibly impacting early climate evolution. Venus has retrograde rotation, meaning that unlike most planets including Earth it rotates clockwise around its own axis, opposite to its anticlockwise rotation around the Sun. Therefore Venusian sidereal day, 243 Earth days, lasts longer than a Venusian year, 224.7 Earth days. If Venus were tidally locked to the Sun, it would always have the same face pointed to the Sun and its sidereal day would be 224.7 days. However, Venus's atmosphere is massive and it is close to the Sun, so differential heating of the atmosphere gives Venus a small retrograde rotation. The day length also fluctuates
by up to 20 minutes for the same reason. Venus's rotation period measured with Magellan spacecraft data over a 500-day period is smaller than the rotation period measured during the 16-year period between the Magellan spacecraft and Venus Express visits, with a difference of about 6.5 minutes. Because of the retrograde rotation, the length of a solar day on Venus is significantly shorter than the sidereal day, at 116.75 Earth days. One Venusian year is about 1.92 Venusian solar days.
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Venus
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the retrograde rotation , the length of a solar day on Venus is significantly shorter than the sidereal day , at 116.75 Earth days . One Venusian year is about 1.92 Venusian solar days .To an observer on the surface of Venus, the Sun would rise in the west and set in the east, although Venus's opaque clouds prevent observing the Sun from the planet's surface. Venus may have formed from the solar nebula with a different rotation period and obliquity, reaching its current state because of chaotic spin changes caused by planetary perturbations and tidal effects on its dense atmosphere, a change that would have occurred over the course of billions of years. The rotation period of Venus may represent an equilibrium state between tidal locking to the Sun's gravitation, which tends to slow rotation, and an atmospheric tide created by solar heating of the thick Venusian atmosphere. The 584-day average interval between successive close approaches to Earth is almost exactly equal to 5 Venusian solar days (5.001444 to be precise), but the hypothesis of a spin-orbit resonance with Earth has been discounted. Venus has no natural satellites. It has several trojan asteroids: the quasi-satellite 524522 Zoozve and two other temporary trojans, 2001 CK32 and 2012 XE133. In the 17th century, Giovanni Cassini reported a moon orbiting Venus, which was named Neith and numerous sightings were reported over the following 200 years, but most were determined to be stars in the vicinity. Alex Alemi's and David Stevenson's 2006 study of models of the early Solar System at the California Institute of Technology shows Venus likely had at least one moon created by a huge impact event billions of years ago. About 10 million years later, according to the study, another impact reversed the planet's spin direction and the resulting tidal deceleration caused the Venusian moon gradually to spiral inward until it collided with Venus.
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Venus
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128
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years later , according to the study , another impact reversed the planet 's spin direction and the resulting tidal deceleration caused the Venusian moon gradually to spiral inward until it collided with Venus .If later impacts created moons, these were removed in the same way. An alternative explanation for the lack of satellites is the effect of strong solar tides, which can destabilize large satellites orbiting the inner terrestrial planets. The orbital space of Venus has a dust ring-cloud, with a suspected origin either from Venus–trailing asteroids, interplanetary dust migrating in waves, or the remains of the Solar System's original circumstellar disc that formed the planetary system. Orbit in respect to Earth
Earth and Venus have a near orbital resonance of 13:8 (Earth orbits eight times for every 13 orbits of Venus). Therefore, they approach each other and reach inferior conjunction in synodic periods of 584 days, on average. The path that Venus makes in relation to Earth viewed geocentrically draws a pentagram over five synodic periods, shifting every period by 144°. This pentagram of Venus is sometimes referred to as the petals of Venus due to the path's visual similarity to a flower. When Venus lies between Earth and the Sun in inferior conjunction, it makes the closest approach to Earth of any planet at an average distance of 41 million km (25 million mi). Because of the decreasing eccentricity of Earth's orbit, the minimum distances will become greater over tens of thousands of years. From the year 1 to 5383, there are 526 approaches less than 40 million km (25 million mi); then, there are none for about 60,158 years. While Venus approaches Earth the closest, Mercury is more often the closest to Earth of all planets and to any other planet.
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Venus
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129
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; then , there are none for about 60,158 years . While Venus approaches Earth the closest , Mercury is more often the closest to Earth of all planets and to any other planet .Venus has been used as a waypoint for gravity assist maneuvers, which has been identified as a faster and economic way to travel to Mercury, the Sun, asteroids, Mars, Jupiter and beyond. Tidally Venus exerts the third strongest tidal force on Earth, after the Moon and the Sun, though significantly less. Observability
To the naked eye, Venus appears as a white point of light with a maximum apparent magnitude of −4.92 brighter than any other planet or star apart from the Sun, even when faintest during its transit with an apparent magnitude of −2.98. The planet's mean apparent magnitude is −4.14 with a standard deviation of 0.31. The brightest magnitude occurs during the crescent phase about one month before or after an inferior conjunction. Venus fades to about magnitude −3 when it is backlit by the Sun, although the exact value depends on the phase angle. The planet is bright enough to be seen in broad daylight, but is more easily visible when the Sun is low on the horizon or setting. As an inferior planet, it always lies within about 47° of the Sun. Venus "overtakes" Earth every 584 days as it orbits the Sun. As it does so, it changes from the "Evening Star", visible after sunset, to the "Morning Star", visible before sunrise. Although Mercury, the other inferior planet, reaches a maximum elongation of only 28° and is often difficult to discern in twilight, Venus is hard to miss when it is at its brightest. Its greater maximum elongation means it is visible in dark skies long after sunset.
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Venus
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is often difficult to discern in twilight , Venus is hard to miss when it is at its brightest . Its greater maximum elongation means it is visible in dark skies long after sunset .As the brightest point-like object in the sky, Venus is a commonly misreported "unidentified flying object". Because Venus comes close to the earth at inferior conjunction and has an orbit inclined to the plane of the earth's orbit, it can appear more than 8° north or south of the ecliptic, more than any other planet or the moon. Every eight years around March it appears this far north of the ecliptic, in Pisces (such as in mid-March 2025), and every eight years it appears this far south of the ecliptic in August or September in Virgo (as in late August 2023). Venus can thus be north of the sun and appear as a morning star and an evening star on the same day, in the northern hemisphere. The timing of these north or south excursions gets slowly earlier in the year, and over 30 cycles (240 years) the cycle is gradually replaced by another cycle offset by three years, so the situation returns close to the original situation after 243 orbits of Earth, 395 of Venus. Lunar occultations of Venus, in which the moon blocks the view of Venus for observers in certain parts of the earth, occur on average about twice a year, sometimes several times in a year (though rarely). Phases
As it orbits the Sun, Venus displays phases like those of the Moon in a telescopic view. The planet appears as a small and "full" disc when it is on the opposite side of the Sun (at superior conjunction).
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Venus
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of the Moon in a telescopic view . The planet appears as a small and `` full '' disc when it is on the opposite side of the Sun ( at superior conjunction ) .Venus shows a larger disc and "quarter phase" at its maximum elongations from the Sun, and appears at its brightest in the night sky. The planet presents a much larger thin "crescent" in telescopic views as it passes along the near side between Earth and the Sun. Venus displays its largest size and "new phase" when it is between Earth and the Sun (at inferior conjunction). Its atmosphere is visible through telescopes by the halo of sunlight refracted around it. The phases are clearly visible in a 4" telescope. Although naked eye visibility of Venus's phases is disputed, records exist of observations of its crescent. Daylight apparitions
When Venus is sufficiently bright with enough angular distance from the sun, it is easily observed in a clear daytime sky with the naked eye, though most people do not know to look for it. Astronomer Edmund Halley calculated its maximum naked eye brightness in 1716, when many Londoners were alarmed by its appearance in the daytime. French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte once witnessed a daytime apparition of the planet while at a reception in Luxembourg. Another historical daytime observation of the planet took place during the inauguration of the American president Abraham Lincoln in Washington, D.C., on 4 March 1865. Transits
A transit of Venus is the appearance of Venus in front of the Sun, during inferior conjunction. Since the orbit of Venus is slightly inclined relative to Earth's orbit, most inferior conjunctions with Earth, which occur every synodic period of 1.6 years, do not produce a transit of Venus.
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Venus
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132
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orbit of Venus is slightly inclined relative to Earth 's orbit , most inferior conjunctions with Earth , which occur every synodic period of 1.6 years , do not produce a transit of Venus .Consequently, Venus transits only occur when an inferior conjunction takes place during some days of June or December, when the orbits of Venus and Earth cross a straight line with the Sun. This results in Venus transiting above Earth in a sequence currently of 8 years, 105.5 years, 8 years and 121.5 years, forming cycles of 243 years. Historically, transits of Venus were important, because they allowed astronomers to determine the size of the astronomical unit, and hence the size of the Solar System as shown by Jeremiah Horrocks in 1639 with the first known observation of a Venus transit (after history's first observed planetary transit in 1631, of Mercury). Only seven Venus transits have been observed so far, since their occurrences were calculated in the 1621 by Johannes Kepler. Captain Cook sailed to Tahiti in 1768 to record the third observed transit of Venus, which subsequently resulted in the exploration of the east coast of Australia. The latest pair was June 8, 2004 and June 5–6, 2012. The transit could be watched live from many online outlets or observed locally with the right equipment and conditions. The preceding pair of transits occurred in December 1874 and December 1882. The next transit will occur in December 2117 and December 2125. Ashen light
A long-standing mystery of Venus observations is the so-called ashen light—an apparent weak illumination of its dark side, seen when the planet is in the crescent phase. The first claimed observation of ashen light was made in 1643, but the existence of the illumination has never been reliably confirmed.
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Venus
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, seen when the planet is in the crescent phase . The first claimed observation of ashen light was made in 1643 , but the existence of the illumination has never been reliably confirmed .Observers have speculated it may result from electrical activity in the Venusian atmosphere, but it could be illusory, resulting from the physiological effect of observing a bright, crescent-shaped object. The ashen light has often been sighted when Venus is in the evening sky, when the evening terminator of the planet is towards Earth. Observation and exploration history
Early observation
Venus is in Earth's sky bright enough to be visible without aid, making it one of the classical planets that human cultures have known and identified throughout history, particularly for being the third brightest object in Earth's sky after the Sun and the Moon. Because the movements of Venus appear to be discontinuous (it disappears due to its proximity to the sun, for many days at a time, and then reappears on the other horizon), some cultures did not recognize Venus as a single entity; instead, they assumed it to be two separate stars on each horizon: the morning and evening star. Nonetheless, a cylinder seal from the Jemdet Nasr period and the Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa from the First Babylonian dynasty indicate that the ancient Sumerians already knew that the morning and evening stars were the same celestial object. In the Old Babylonian period, the planet Venus was known as Ninsi'anna, and later as Dilbat. The name "Ninsi'anna" translates to "divine lady, illumination of heaven", which refers to Venus as the brightest visible "star".
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Venus
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Ninsi'anna , and later as Dilbat . The name `` Ninsi'anna '' translates to `` divine lady , illumination of heaven '' , which refers to Venus as the brightest visible `` star '' .Earlier spellings of the name were written with the cuneiform sign si4 (= SU, meaning "to be red"), and the original meaning may have been "divine lady of the redness of heaven", in reference to the colour of the morning and evening sky. The Chinese historically referred to the morning Venus as "the Great White" (Tàibái 太白) or "the Opener (Starter) of Brightness" (Qǐmíng 啟明), and the evening Venus as "the Excellent West One" (Chánggēng 長庚). The ancient Greeks initially believed Venus to be two separate stars: Phosphorus, the morning star, and Hesperus, the evening star. Pliny the Elder credited the realization that they were a single object to Pythagoras in the sixth century BC, while Diogenes Laërtius argued that Parmenides (early fifth century) was probably responsible for this discovery. Though they recognized Venus as a single object, the ancient Romans continued to designate the morning aspect of Venus as Lucifer, literally "Light-Bringer", and the evening aspect as Vesper, both of which are literal translations of their traditional Greek names. In the second century, in his astronomical treatise Almagest, Ptolemy theorized that both Mercury and Venus were located between the Sun and the Earth. The 11th-century Persian astronomer Avicenna claimed to have observed a transit of Venus (although there is some doubt about it), which later astronomers took as confirmation of Ptolemy's theory.
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Venus
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135
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. The 11th-century Persian astronomer Avicenna claimed to have observed a transit of Venus ( although there is some doubt about it ) , which later astronomers took as confirmation of Ptolemy 's theory .In the 12th century, the Andalusian astronomer Ibn Bajjah observed "two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun"; these were thought to be the transits of Venus and Mercury by 13th-century Maragha astronomer Qotb al-Din Shirazi, though this cannot be true as there were no Venus transits in Ibn Bajjah's lifetime. Venus and early modern astronomy
When the planet was first observed with a telescope in December 1610, by the Italian physicist Galileo Galilei, he found it showed phases like the Moon, varying from crescent to gibbous to full and vice versa. When Venus is furthest from the Sun in the sky, it shows a half-lit phase, and when it is closest to the Sun in the sky, it shows as a crescent or full phase. This could be possible only if Venus orbited the Sun, reported by Galileo in his 1613 Letters on Sunspots, becoming one of the first observations to clearly contradict the Ptolemaic geocentric model that the Solar System was concentric and centred on Earth. The 1631 transit of Venus, while not recorded, was the first one successfully predicted, by Johannes Kepler and his calculations, which he published in 1629. The following 1639 transit of Venus was accurately predicted by Jeremiah Horrocks and observed by him and his friend, William Crabtree, at each of their respective homes, on 4 December 1639 (24 November under the Julian calendar in use at that time). The atmosphere of Venus was discovered in 1761 by Russian polymath Mikhail Lomonosov. Venus's atmosphere was observed in 1790 by German astronomer Johann Schröter. Schröter found when the planet was a thin crescent, the cusps extended through more than 180°.
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polymath Mikhail Lomonosov . Venus 's atmosphere was observed in 1790 by German astronomer Johann Schröter . Schröter found when the planet was a thin crescent , the cusps extended through more than 180° .He correctly surmised this was due to scattering of sunlight in a dense atmosphere. Later, American astronomer Chester Smith Lyman observed a complete ring around the dark side of the planet when it was at inferior conjunction, providing further evidence for an atmosphere. The atmosphere complicated efforts to determine a rotation period for the planet, and observers such as Italian-born astronomer Giovanni Cassini and Schröter incorrectly estimated periods of about 24 h from the motions of markings on the planet's apparent surface. Early 20th century advances
Little more was discovered about Venus until the 20th century. Its almost featureless disc gave no hint what its surface might be like, and it was only with the development of spectroscopic and ultraviolet observations that more of its secrets were revealed. The first ultraviolet observations were carried out in the 1920s, when Frank E. Ross found that ultraviolet photographs revealed considerable detail that was absent in visible and infrared radiation. He suggested this was due to a dense, yellow lower atmosphere with high cirrus clouds above it. It had been noted that Venus had no discernible oblateness in its disk, suggesting a slow rotation, and some astronomers concluded based on this that it was tidally locked like Mercury was believed to be at the time; but other researchers had detected a significant quantity of heat coming from the planet's nightside, suggesting a quick rotation (a high surface temperature was not suspected at the time), confusing the issue. Later work in the 1950s showed the rotation was retrograde. First missions to Venus
The first interplanetary spaceflight attempt was in 1961 when the robotic space probe Venera 1 of the Soviet Venera programme flew to Venus. It lost contact en route.
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. First missions to Venus The first interplanetary spaceflight attempt was in 1961 when the robotic space probe Venera 1 of the Soviet Venera programme flew to Venus . It lost contact en route .The first successful interplanetary mission, also to Venus, was Mariner 2 of the United States' Mariner programme, passing on 14 December 1962 at 34,833 km (21,644 mi) above the surface of Venus and gathering data on the planet's atmosphere. Additionally radar observations of Venus were first carried out in the 1960s, and provided the first measurements of the rotation period, which were close to the actual value. Venera 3, launched in 1966, became humanity's first probe and lander to reach and impact another celestial body other than the Moon, but could not return data as it crashed into the surface of Venus. In 1967, Venera 4 was launched and successfully deployed science experiments in the Venusian atmosphere before impacting. Venera 4 showed the surface temperature was hotter than Mariner 2 had calculated, at almost 500 °C (932 °F), determined that the atmosphere was 95% carbon dioxide (CO2), and discovered that Venus's atmosphere was considerably denser than Venera 4's designers had anticipated. In an early example of space cooperation the data of Venera 4 was joined with the 1967 Mariner 5 data, analysed by a combined Soviet–American science team in a series of colloquia over the following year. On 15 December 1970, Venera 7 became the first spacecraft to soft land on another planet and the first to transmit data from there back to Earth. In 1974, Mariner 10 swung by Venus to bend its path towards Mercury and took ultraviolet photographs of the clouds, revealing the extraordinarily high wind speeds in the Venusian atmosphere. This was the first interplanetary gravity assist ever used, a technique which would be used by later probes.
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of the clouds , revealing the extraordinarily high wind speeds in the Venusian atmosphere . This was the first interplanetary gravity assist ever used , a technique which would be used by later probes .Radar observations in the 1970s revealed details of the Venusian surface for the first time. Pulses of radio waves were beamed at the planet using the 300 m (1,000 ft) radio telescope at Arecibo Observatory, and the echoes revealed two highly reflective regions, designated the Alpha and Beta regions. The observations revealed a bright region attributed to mountains, which was called Maxwell Montes. These three features are now the only ones on Venus that do not have female names. In 1975, the Soviet Venera 9 and 10 landers transmitted the first images from the surface of Venus, which were in black and white. NASA obtained additional data with the Pioneer Venus project, consisting of two separate missions: the Pioneer Venus Multiprobe and Pioneer Venus Orbiter, orbiting Venus between 1978 and 1992. In 1982 the first monochrome colour filters images of the surface were obtained with the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 landers. After Venera 15 and 16 operated between 1983 and 1984 in orbit, conducting detailed mapping of 25% of Venus's terrain (from the north pole to 30°N latitude), the Soviet Venera programme came to a close. In 1985 the Soviet Vega programme with its Vega 1 and Vega 2 missions carried the last entry probes and carried the first ever extraterrestrial aerobots for the first time achieving atmospheric flight outside Earth by employing inflatable balloons. Between 1990 and 1994, Magellan operated in orbit until deorbiting, mapping the surface of Venus. Furthermore, probes like Galileo (1990), and Cassini–Huygens (1998/1999) visited Venus with flybys en route to other destinations.
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Venus
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in orbit until deorbiting , mapping the surface of Venus . Furthermore , probes like Galileo ( 1990 ) , and Cassini–Huygens ( 1998/1999 ) visited Venus with flybys en route to other destinations .Renewed exploration
In April 2006, Venus Express, the first dedicated Venus mission by the European Space Agency (ESA), entered orbit around Venus. Venus Express provided unprecedented observation of Venus's atmosphere. ESA concluded the Venus Express mission in December 2014 deorbiting it in January 2015. The same and following year MESSENGER visited Venus with flybys en route to other destinations. In 2010, the first successful interplanetary solar sail spacecraft IKAROS travelled to Venus for a flyby. Between 2015 and 2024 Japan's Akatsuki probe was active in orbit around Venus and BepiColombo performed flybys in 2020/2021. Active and planned missions
As of 2025 there are no active probes at Venus, with Parker Solar Probe scheduled to return repeatedly to Venus until 2030. Several probes are under development as well as multiple proposed missions still in their early conceptual stages. The next Venus mission scheduled is the Venus Life Finder, expected to launch not earlier than summer 2026. Indian ISRO is working on Venus Orbiter Mission, aiming to launch it in 2028. UAE mission to asteroids, MBR Explorer, will perform a flyby of the planet. NASA approved two missions to the planet, VERITAS and DAVINCI, planned to be launched not earlier then 2031. ESA plans to launch EnVision also in 2031. Objectives
Venus has been identified for future research as an important case for understanding:
the origins of the solar system and Earth, and if systems and planets like ours are common or rare in the universe. how planetary bodies evolve from their primordial states to today's diverse objects. the development of conditions leading to habitable environments and life.
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Venus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.
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like ours are common or rare in the universe . how planetary bodies evolve from their primordial states to today 's diverse objects . the development of conditions leading to habitable environments and life .Crewed mission concepts
Venus has been considered since the 1960s as a waypoint for crewed missions to Mars through opposition missions instead of direct conjunction missions with Venus gravity assist flybys, demonstrating that they should be quicker and safer missions to Mars, with better return or abort flight windows, and less or the same amount of radiation exposure from the flight as direct Mars flights. Possible atmospheric habitation
While the surface conditions of Venus are extremely hostile, the atmospheric pressure, temperature, and solar and cosmic radiation 50 km above the surface are similar to those at Earth's surface ("clement conditions"). Among the many engineering challenges for any human presence in the atmosphere of Venus are the corrosive amounts of sulfuric acid in the atmosphere. Aerostats for crewed exploration and possibly for permanent "floating cities" in the Venusian atmosphere have been proposed as an alternative to the popular idea of living on planetary surfaces such as Mars. NASA's High Altitude Venus Operational Concept was a training concept to study a crewed aerostat design. Possibility of life
Speculation on the possibility of life on Venus's surface decreased significantly after the early 1960s when it became clear that conditions were extreme compared to those on Earth. Venus's extreme temperatures and atmospheric pressure make water-based life, as currently known, unlikely. Some scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the cooler, acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere.
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and atmospheric pressure make water-based life , as currently known , unlikely . Some scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the cooler , acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere .Such speculations go back to 1967, when Carl Sagan and Harold J. Morowitz suggested in a Nature article that tiny objects detected in Venus's clouds might be organisms similar to Earth's bacteria (which are of approximately the same size):
While the surface conditions of Venus make the hypothesis of life there implausible, the clouds of Venus are a different story altogether. As was pointed out some years ago, water, carbon dioxide and sunlight—the prerequisites for photosynthesis—are plentiful in the vicinity of the clouds. In August 2019, astronomers led by Yeon Joo Lee reported that long-term pattern of absorbance and albedo changes in the atmosphere of the planet Venus caused by "unknown absorbers", which may be chemicals or even large colonies of microorganisms high up in the atmosphere of the planet, affect the climate. Their light absorbance is almost identical to that of micro-organisms in Earth's clouds. Similar conclusions have been reached by other studies. In September 2020, a team of astronomers led by Jane Greaves from Cardiff University announced the likely detection of phosphine, a gas not known to be produced by any known chemical processes on the Venusian surface or atmosphere, in the upper levels of the planet's clouds. One proposed source for this phosphine is living organisms. The phosphine was detected at heights of at least 30 miles (48 km) above the surface, and primarily at mid-latitudes with none detected at the poles. The discovery prompted NASA administrator Jim Bridenstine to publicly call for a new focus on the study of Venus, describing the phosphine find as "the most significant development yet in building the case for life off Earth".
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Venus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.
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Bridenstine to publicly call for a new focus on the study of Venus , describing the phosphine find as `` the most significant development yet in building the case for life off Earth '' .Subsequent analysis of the data-processing used to identify phosphine in the atmosphere of Venus has raised concerns that the detection-line may be an artefact. The use of a 12th-order polynomial fit may have amplified noise and generated a false reading (see Runge's phenomenon). Observations of the atmosphere of Venus at other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in which a phosphine absorption line would be expected did not detect phosphine. By late October 2020, re-analysis of data with a proper subtraction of background did not show a statistically significant detection of phosphine. Members of the team around Greaves, are working as part of a project by the MIT to send with the rocket company Rocket Lab the first private interplanetary space craft, to look for organics by entering the atmosphere of Venus with a probe named Venus Life Finder. Planetary protection
Due to the harsh surface environment of Venus, Venus has been under the planetary protection category two, the second lowest. This gives it only a remote chance that spacecraft-borne interplanetary contamination could compromise investigations. However with findings of potential biosignatures this categorization for at least some atmospheric layers has been called into question, but since these layers have not been identified as sufficiently conductive to live, adjusting the categorization has not been recommended. Habitability for humans
While the surface of Venus is very inhospitable to humans, conditions at altitudes of 50 km above the surface have been identified to be not only hospitable for indigenous but also for human life, more so than anywhere else in the Solar System other than Earth. Conditions, from atmospheric pressure, gravity, and temperature to radiation, but except chemical, are all very much like conditions on Earth at surface level.
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Venus
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Solar System other than Earth . Conditions , from atmospheric pressure , gravity , and temperature to radiation , but except chemical , are all very much like conditions on Earth at surface level .Because of this prospect, floating habitats for humans at such altitudes have been suggested for humans going to Venus. In culture
Venus is among the most prominent features in the night sky, and has been treated as particularly important in mythology, astrology and fiction across many different cultures. Several hymns praise Inanna in her role as the goddess of the planet Venus. Theology professor Jeffrey Cooley has argued that, in many myths, Inanna's movements may correspond with the movements of the planet Venus in the sky. The discontinuous movements of Venus relate to both mythology as well as Inanna's dual nature. In Inanna's Descent to the Underworld, unlike any other deity, Inanna is able to descend into the netherworld and return to the heavens. The planet Venus appears to make a similar descent, setting in the West and then rising again in the East. An introductory hymn describes Inanna leaving the heavens and heading for Kur, what could be presumed to be, the mountains, replicating the rising and setting of Inanna to the West. In Inanna and Shukaletuda and Inanna's Descent into the Underworld appear to parallel the motion of the planet Venus. In Inanna and Shukaletuda, Shukaletuda is described as scanning the heavens in search of Inanna, possibly searching the eastern and western horizons. In the same myth, while searching for her attacker, Inanna herself makes several movements that correspond with the movements of Venus in the sky. Via Mesopotamian influence, it is possible that the Ancient Egyptians and Greeks knew that the morning star and the evening star were one and the same as early as the second millennium BC—or the Late Period at the latest.
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possible that the Ancient Egyptians and Greeks knew that the morning star and the evening star were one and the same as early as the second millennium BC—or the Late Period at the latest .The Egyptians knew the morning star as Tioumoutiri and the evening star as Ouaiti. They depicted Venus at first as a phoenix or heron (see Bennu), calling it 'the crosser' or 'star with crosses', associating it with Osiris, and later depicting it as two-headed (with human or falcon heads), and associated it with Horus, son of Isis (which during the even later Hellenistic period was together with Hathor identified with Aphrodite). The Greeks used the names Phōsphoros, meaning 'light-bringer' (whence the element phosphorus; alternately Ēōsphoros, meaning 'dawn-bringer'), for the morning star, and Hesperos, meaning 'Western one', for the evening star, both children of dawn Eos and therefore grandchildren of Aphrodite. Though by the Roman era they were recognized as one celestial object, known as "the star of Venus", the traditional two Greek names continued to be used, though usually translated to Latin as Lucifer and Vesper. Classical poets such as Homer, Sappho, Ovid and Virgil spoke of the star and its light. Poets such as William Blake, Robert Frost, Letitia Elizabeth Landon, Alfred Lord Tennyson and William Wordsworth wrote odes to it. The composer Holst included it as the second movement of his The Planets suite. In India, the name for Venus in Sanskrit was Shukra Graha, meaning 'the planet Shukra'—in reference to Shukra, a powerful saint. As appears in Vedic astrology, the Sanskrit name Shukra means 'clear, pure' or 'brightness, clearness'.
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Venus
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145
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Graha , meaning 'the planet Shukra'—in reference to Shukra , a powerful saint . As appears in Vedic astrology , the Sanskrit name Shukra means 'clear , pure ' or 'brightness , clearness ' .One of the nine Navagraha, it is held to affect wealth, pleasure and reproduction; it was the son of Bhrgu, preceptor of the Daityas, and guru of the Asuras. The English name Venus stems originally from the ancient Romans. Romans named Venus after their goddess of love, who in turn was based on the ancient Greek love goddess Aphrodite, who was herself based on the similar Sumerian religion goddess Inanna (which is Ishtar in Akkadian religion), all of whom were associated with the planet. The weekday of the planet and these goddesses is Friday, named after the Germanic goddess Frigg, who has been associated with the Roman goddess Venus. In Chinese, the planet is called metal star or gold star (金星; Jīnxīng); of the five elements of traditional Chinese philosophy, Venus was historically associated with metal. These traditions are shared among modern Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese cultures, including a name for the planet literally meaning 'metal star' (金星) in each language. The Maya considered Venus to be the most important celestial body after the Sun and Moon. They called it Chac ek, or Noh Ek', 'the Great Star'. The cycles of Venus were important to their calendar and were described in some of their books, such as the Maya Codex of Mexico and Dresden Codex. The flag of Chile (Estrella Solitaria, 'Lone Star') depicts Venus. Modern culture
The impenetrable Venusian cloud cover gave science fiction writers free rein to speculate on conditions at its surface; all the more so when early observations showed that not only was it similar in size to Earth, it possessed a substantial atmosphere.
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Venus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.
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free rein to speculate on conditions at its surface ; all the more so when early observations showed that not only was it similar in size to Earth , it possessed a substantial atmosphere .Closer to the Sun than Earth, the planet was often depicted as warmer, but still habitable by humans. The genre reached its peak between the 1930s and 1950s, at a time when science had revealed some aspects of Venus, but not yet the harsh reality of its surface conditions. Findings from the first missions to Venus showed reality to be quite different and brought this particular genre to an end. As scientific knowledge of Venus advanced, science fiction authors tried to keep pace, particularly by conjecturing human attempts to terraform Venus. Symbols
The symbol of a circle with a small cross beneath is the so-called Venus symbol, gaining its name for being used as the astronomical symbol for Venus. The symbol is of ancient Greek origin, and represents more generally femininity, adopted by biology as gender symbol for female, like the Mars symbol for male and sometimes the Mercury symbol for hermaphrodite. This gendered association of Venus and Mars has been used to pair them heteronormatively, describing women and men stereotypically as being so different that they can be understood as coming from different planets, an understanding popularized in 1992 by the book titled Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus. The Venus symbol was also used in Western alchemy representing the element copper (like the symbol of Mercury is also the symbol of the element mercury), and since polished copper has been used for mirrors from antiquity the symbol for Venus has sometimes been called Venus mirror, representing the mirror of the goddess, although this origin has been discredited as an unlikely origin.
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been used for mirrors from antiquity the symbol for Venus has sometimes been called Venus mirror , representing the mirror of the goddess , although this origin has been discredited as an unlikely origin .Besides the Venus symbol, many other symbols have been associated with Venus, other common ones are the crescent or particularly the star, as with the Star of Ishtar. See also
Outline of Venus
Physical properties of planets in the Solar System
Venus zone
Notes
References
Further reading
O'Rourke, Joseph G.; Wilson, Colin F.; Borrelli, Madison E.; Byrne, Paul K.; Dumoulin, Caroline; Ghail, Richard; Gülcher, Anna J. P.; Jacobson, Seth A.; Korablev, Oleg; Spohn, Tilman; Way, M. J.; Weller, Matt; Westall, Frances (6 February 2023). "Venus, the Planet: Introduction to the Evolution of Earth's Sister Planet". Space Science Reviews. 219 (1): 10. Bibcode:2023SSRv..219...10O. doi:10.1007/s11214-023-00956-0. hdl:20.500.11850/598198. ISSN 1572-9672. Retrieved 6 February 2025. Widemann, Thomas; et al. (October 2023). "Venus Evolution Through Time: Key Science Questions, Selected Mission Concepts and Future Investigations". Space Science Reviews. 219 (7): 56. Bibcode:2023SSRv..219...56W. doi:10.1007/s11214-023-00992-w. hdl:10852/109541.
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Venus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.
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148
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Through Time : Key Science Questions , Selected Mission Concepts and Future Investigations '' . Space Science Reviews . 219 ( 7 ) : 56 . Bibcode:2023SSRv .. 219 ... 56W . doi:10.1007/s11214-023-00992-w. hdl:10852/109541 .External links
Venus profile at NASA's Solar System Exploration site
Missions to Venus Archived 10 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine and Image catalogue Archived 29 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine at the National Space Science Data Center
Soviet Exploration of Venus and Image catalogue at Mentallandscape.com
Image catalogue from the Venera missions
Venus page at The Nine Planets
Transits of Venus Archived 19 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine at NASA.gov
Geody Venus, a search engine for surface features
Interactive 3D gravity simulation of the pentagram that the orbit of Venus traces when Earth is held fixed at the centre of the coordinate system
Cartographic resources
Map-a-Planet: Venus by the U.S. Geological Survey
Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature: Venus by the International Astronomical Union
Venus crater database by the Lunar and Planetary Institute
Map of Venus by Eötvös Loránd University
Google Venus 3D, interactive map of the planet
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Venus
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149
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Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. This is enabled by Earth being an ocean world, the only one in the Solar System sustaining liquid surface water. Almost all of Earth's water is contained in its global ocean, covering 70.8% of Earth's crust. The remaining 29.2% of Earth's crust is land, most of which is located in the form of continental landmasses within Earth's land hemisphere. Most of Earth's land is at least somewhat humid and covered by vegetation, while large ice sheets at Earth's polar deserts retain more water than Earth's groundwater, lakes, rivers, and atmospheric water combined. Earth's crust consists of slowly moving tectonic plates, which interact to produce mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes. Earth has a liquid outer core that generates a magnetosphere capable of deflecting most of the destructive solar winds and cosmic radiation. Earth has a dynamic atmosphere, which sustains Earth's surface conditions and protects it from most meteoroids and UV-light at entry. It is composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen. Water vapor is widely present in the atmosphere, forming clouds that cover most of the planet. The water vapor acts as a greenhouse gas and, together with other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), creates the conditions for both liquid surface water and water vapor to persist via the capturing of energy from the Sun's light. This process maintains the current average surface temperature of 14.76 °C (58.57 °F), at which water is liquid under normal atmospheric pressure.
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Earth
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150
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capturing of energy from the Sun 's light . This process maintains the current average surface temperature of 14.76 °C ( 58.57 °F ) , at which water is liquid under normal atmospheric pressure .Differences in the amount of captured energy between geographic regions (as with the equatorial region receiving more sunlight than the polar regions) drive atmospheric and ocean currents, producing a global climate system with different climate regions, and a range of weather phenomena such as precipitation, allowing components such as carbon and nitrogen to cycle. Earth is rounded into an ellipsoid with a circumference of about 40,000 kilometres (24,900 miles). It is the densest planet in the Solar System. Of the four rocky planets, it is the largest and most massive. Earth is about eight light-minutes (1 AU) away from the Sun and orbits it, taking a year (about 365.25 days) to complete one revolution. Earth rotates around its own axis in slightly less than a day (in about 23 hours and 56 minutes). Earth's axis of rotation is tilted with respect to the perpendicular to its orbital plane around the Sun, producing seasons. Earth is orbited by one permanent natural satellite, the Moon, which orbits Earth at 384,400 km (238,855 mi)—1.28 light seconds—and is roughly a quarter as wide as Earth. The Moon's gravity helps stabilize Earth's axis, causes tides and gradually slows Earth's rotation. Likewise, Earth's gravitational pull has already made the Moon's rotation tidally locked, keeping the same near side facing Earth. Earth, like most other bodies in the Solar System, formed about 4.5 billion years ago from gas and dust in the early Solar System. During the first billion years of Earth's history, the ocean formed and then life developed within it.
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151
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about 4.5 billion years ago from gas and dust in the early Solar System . During the first billion years of Earth 's history , the ocean formed and then life developed within it .Life spread globally and has been altering Earth's atmosphere and surface, leading to the Great Oxidation Event two billion years ago. Humans emerged 300,000 years ago in Africa and have spread across every continent on Earth. Humans depend on Earth's biosphere and natural resources for their survival, but have increasingly impacted the planet's environment. Humanity's current impact on Earth's climate and biosphere is unsustainable, threatening the livelihood of humans and many other forms of life, and causing widespread extinctions. Etymology
The Modern English word Earth developed, via Middle English, from an Old English noun most often spelled eorðe. It has cognates in every Germanic language, from which Proto-Germanic *erþō has been reconstructed. In its earliest attestation, the word eorðe was used to translate the many senses of Latin terra and Greek gē: the ground, its soil, dry land, the human world, the surface of the world (including the sea), and the globe itself. As with Roman Terra (or Tellus) and Greek Gaia, Earth may have been a personified goddess in Germanic paganism: late Norse mythology included Jörð ('Earth'), a giantess often given as the mother of Thor. Historically, Earth has been written in lowercase. During the Early Middle English period, its definite sense as "the globe" began being expressed using the phrase the earth. By the period of Early Modern English, capitalization of nouns began to prevail, and the earth was also written the Earth, particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.
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earth . By the period of Early Modern English , capitalization of nouns began to prevail , and the earth was also written the Earth , particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies .More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as Earth, by analogy with the names of the other planets, though earth and forms with the earth remain common. House styles now vary: Oxford spelling recognizes the lowercase form as the more common, with the capitalized form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes Earth when appearing as a name, such as a description of the "Earth's atmosphere", but employs the lowercase when it is preceded by the, such as "the atmosphere of the earth". It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as "what on earth are you doing?" The name Terra TERR-ə is occasionally used in scientific writing; it also sees use in science fiction to distinguish humanity's inhabited planet from others, while in poetry Tellus TELL-əs has been used to denote personification of the Earth. Terra is also the name of the planet in some Romance languages, languages that evolved from Latin, like Italian and Portuguese, while in other Romance languages the word gave rise to names with slightly altered spellings, like the Spanish Tierra and the French Terre. The Latinate form Gaea (English: DJEE-ə) of the Greek poetic name Gaia ([ɡâi̯.a] or [ɡâj.ja]) is rare, though the alternative spelling Gaia has become common due to the Gaia hypothesis, in which case its pronunciation is GYE-ə rather than the more traditional English GAY-ə. There are a number of adjectives for the planet Earth. The word earthly is derived from Earth. From the Latin Terra comes terran TERR-ən, terrestrial tərr-EHST-ree-əl, and (via French) terrene tə-REEN, and from the Latin Tellus comes tellurian teh-LUURR-ee-ən and telluric.
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is derived from Earth . From the Latin Terra comes terran TERR-ən , terrestrial tərr-EHST-ree-əl , and ( via French ) terrene tə-REEN , and from the Latin Tellus comes tellurian teh-LUURR-ee-ən and telluric .Natural history
Formation
The oldest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4.5682+0.0002−0.0004 Ga (billion years) ago. By 4.54±0.04 Ga the primordial Earth had formed. The bodies in the Solar System formed and evolved with the Sun. In theory, a solar nebula partitions a volume out of a molecular cloud by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a circumstellar disk, and then the planets grow out of that disk with the Sun. A nebula contains gas, ice grains, and dust (including primordial nuclides). According to nebular theory, planetesimals formed by accretion, with the primordial Earth being estimated as likely taking anywhere from 70 to 100 million years to form. Estimates of the age of the Moon range from 4.5 Ga to significantly younger. A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a Mars-sized object with about 10% of Earth's mass, named Theia, collided with Earth. It hit Earth with a glancing blow and some of its mass merged with Earth. Between approximately 4.0 and 3.8 Ga, numerous asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth. After formation
Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by volcanic activity and outgassing. Water vapor from these sources condensed into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, protoplanets, and comets. Sufficient water to fill the oceans may have been on Earth since it formed. In this model, atmospheric greenhouse gases kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its current luminosity.
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Earth
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may have been on Earth since it formed . In this model , atmospheric greenhouse gases kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70 % of its current luminosity .By 3.5 Ga, Earth's magnetic field was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind. As the molten outer layer of Earth cooled it formed the first solid crust, which is thought to have been mafic in composition. The first continental crust, which was more felsic in composition, formed by the partial melting of this mafic crust. The presence of grains of the mineral zircon of Hadean age in Eoarchean sedimentary rocks suggests that at least some felsic crust existed as early as 4.4 Ga, only 140 Ma after Earth's formation. There are two main models of how this initial small volume of continental crust evolved to reach its current abundance: (1) a relatively steady growth up to the present day, which is supported by the radiometric dating of continental crust globally and (2) an initial rapid growth in the volume of continental crust during the Archean, forming the bulk of the continental crust that now exists, which is supported by isotopic evidence from hafnium in zircons and neodymium in sedimentary rocks. The two models and the data that support them can be reconciled by large-scale recycling of the continental crust, particularly during the early stages of Earth's history. New continental crust forms as a result of plate tectonics, a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. Over the period of hundreds of millions of years, tectonic forces have caused areas of continental crust to group together to form supercontinents that have subsequently broken apart. At approximately 750 Ma, one of the earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart.
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Earth
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areas of continental crust to group together to form supercontinents that have subsequently broken apart . At approximately 750 Ma , one of the earliest known supercontinents , Rodinia , began to break apart .The continents later recombined to form Pannotia at 600–540 Ma, then finally Pangaea, which also began to break apart at 180 Ma. The most recent pattern of ice ages began about 40 Ma, and then intensified during the Pleistocene about 3 Ma. High- and middle-latitude regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every 21,000, 41,000, and 100,000 years. The Last Glacial Period, colloquially called the "last ice age", covered large parts of the continents, to the middle latitudes, in ice and ended about 11,700 years ago. Origin of life and evolution
Chemical reactions led to the first self-replicating molecules about four billion years ago. A half billion years later, the last common ancestor of all current life arose. The evolution of photosynthesis allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms. The resultant molecular oxygen (O2) accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation, formed a protective ozone layer (O3) in the upper atmosphere. The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of complex cells called eukaryotes. True multicellular organisms formed as cells within colonies became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer, life colonized Earth's surface. Among the earliest fossil evidence for life is microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia, biogenic graphite found in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks in Western Greenland, and remains of biotic material found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. The earliest direct evidence of life on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old Australian rocks showing fossils of microorganisms.
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, and remains of biotic material found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia . The earliest direct evidence of life on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old Australian rocks showing fossils of microorganisms .During the Neoproterozoic, 1000 to 539 Ma, much of Earth might have been covered in ice. This hypothesis has been termed "Snowball Earth", and it is of particular interest because it preceded the Cambrian explosion, when multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity. Following the Cambrian explosion, 535 Ma, there have been at least five major mass extinctions and many minor ones. Apart from the proposed current Holocene extinction event, the most recent was 66 Ma, when an asteroid impact triggered the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but largely spared small animals, such as insects, mammals, lizards, and birds. Mammalian life has diversified over the past 66 Mys, and several million years ago, an African ape species gained the ability to stand upright. This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which led to the evolution of humans. The development of agriculture, and then civilization, led to humans having an influence on Earth and the nature and quantity of other life forms that continues to this day. Future
Earth's expected long-term future is tied to that of the Sun. Over the next 1.1 billion years, solar luminosity will increase by 10%, and over the next 3.5 billion years by 40%. Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the inorganic carbon cycle, possibly reducing CO2 concentration to levels lethally low for current plants (10 ppm for C4 photosynthesis) in approximately 100–900 million years. A lack of vegetation would result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, making current animal life impossible.
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plants ( 10 ppm for C4 photosynthesis ) in approximately 100–900 million years . A lack of vegetation would result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere , making current animal life impossible .Due to the increased luminosity, Earth's mean temperature may reach 100 °C (212 °F) in 1.5 billion years, and all ocean water will evaporate and be lost to space, which may trigger a runaway greenhouse effect, within an estimated 1.6 to 3 billion years. Even if the Sun were stable and eternal, a significant fraction of the water in the modern oceans would descend into the mantle, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges as the core of the Earth slowly cools. The Sun will evolve to become a red giant in about 5 billion years. Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly 1 AU (150 million km; 93 million mi), about 250 times its present radius. Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move to an orbit 1.7 AU (250 million km; 160 million mi) from the Sun when the star reaches its maximum radius, otherwise, with tidal effects, it may enter the Sun's atmosphere and be vaporized, with the heavier elements sinking to the core of the dying sun. Physical characteristics
Size and shape
Earth has a rounded shape, through hydrostatic equilibrium, with an average diameter of 12,742 kilometres (7,918 mi), making it the fifth largest planetary sized and largest terrestrial object of the Solar System. Due to Earth's rotation it has the shape of an ellipsoid, bulging at its equator; its diameter is 43 kilometres (27 mi) longer there than at its poles.
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. Due to Earth 's rotation it has the shape of an ellipsoid , bulging at its equator ; its diameter is 43 kilometres ( 27 mi ) longer there than at its poles .Earth's shape also has local topographic variations; the largest local variations, like the Mariana Trench (10,925 metres or 35,843 feet below local sea level), shortens Earth's average radius by 0.17% and Mount Everest (8,848 metres or 29,029 feet above local sea level) lengthens it by 0.14%. Since Earth's surface is farthest out from its center of mass at its equatorial bulge, the summit of the volcano Chimborazo in Ecuador (6,384.4 km or 3,967.1 mi) is its farthest point out. Parallel to the rigid land topography the ocean exhibits a more dynamic topography. To measure the local variation of Earth's topography, geodesy employs an idealized Earth producing a geoid shape. Such a shape is gained if the ocean is idealized, covering Earth completely and without any perturbations such as tides and winds. The result is a smooth but irregular geoid surface, providing a mean sea level as a reference level for topographic measurements. Surface
Earth's surface is the boundary between the atmosphere and the solid Earth and oceans. Defined in this way, it has an area of about 510 million km2 (197 million sq mi). Earth can be divided into two hemispheres: by latitude into the polar Northern and Southern hemispheres; or by longitude into the continental Eastern and Western hemispheres. Most of Earth's surface is ocean water: 70.8% or 361 million km2 (139 million sq mi). This vast pool of salty water is often called the world ocean, and makes Earth with its dynamic hydrosphere a water world or ocean world. Indeed, in Earth's early history the ocean may have covered Earth completely.
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often called the world ocean , and makes Earth with its dynamic hydrosphere a water world or ocean world . Indeed , in Earth 's early history the ocean may have covered Earth completely .The world ocean is commonly divided into the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean, from largest to smallest. The ocean covers Earth's oceanic crust, with the shelf seas covering the shelves of the continental crust to a lesser extent. The oceanic crust forms large oceanic basins with features like abyssal plains, seamounts, submarine volcanoes, oceanic trenches, submarine canyons, oceanic plateaus, and a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system. At Earth's polar regions, the ocean surface is covered by seasonally variable amounts of sea ice that often connects with polar land, permafrost and ice sheets, forming polar ice caps. Earth's land covers 29.2%, or 149 million km2 (58 million sq mi) of Earth's surface. The land surface includes many islands around the globe, but most of the land surface is taken by the four continental landmasses, which are (in descending order): Africa-Eurasia, America, Antarctica, and Australia. These landmasses are further broken down and grouped into the continents. The terrain of the land surface varies greatly and consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other landforms. The elevation of the land surface varies from a low point of −418 m (−1,371 ft) at the Dead Sea, to a maximum altitude of 8,848 m (29,029 ft) at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about 797 m (2,615 ft). Land can be covered by surface water, snow, ice, artificial structures or vegetation.
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. The mean height of land above sea level is about 797 m ( 2,615 ft ) . Land can be covered by surface water , snow , ice , artificial structures or vegetation .Most of Earth's land hosts vegetation, but considerable amounts of land are ice sheets (10%, not including the equally large area of land under permafrost) or deserts (33%). The pedosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's land surface and is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes. Soil is crucial for land to be arable. Earth's total arable land is 10.7% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland. Earth has an estimated 16.7 million km2 (6.4 million sq mi) of cropland and 33.5 million km2 (12.9 million sq mi) of pastureland. The land surface and the ocean floor form the top of Earth's crust, which together with parts of the upper mantle form Earth's lithosphere. Earth's crust may be divided into oceanic and continental crust. Beneath the ocean-floor sediments, the oceanic crust is predominantly basaltic, while the continental crust may include lower density materials such as granite, sediments and metamorphic rocks. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the mass of the crust. Earth's surface topography comprises both the topography of the ocean surface, and the shape of Earth's land surface. The submarine terrain of the ocean floor has an average bathymetric depth of 4 km, and is as varied as the terrain above sea level. Earth's surface is continually being shaped by internal plate tectonic processes including earthquakes and volcanism; by weathering and erosion driven by ice, water, wind and temperature; and by biological processes including the growth and decomposition of biomass into soil.
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tectonic processes including earthquakes and volcanism ; by weathering and erosion driven by ice , water , wind and temperature ; and by biological processes including the growth and decomposition of biomass into soil .Tectonic plates
Earth's mechanically rigid outer layer of Earth's crust and upper mantle, the lithosphere, is divided into tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other at one of three boundaries types: at convergent boundaries, two plates come together; at divergent boundaries, two plates are pulled apart; and at transform boundaries, two plates slide past one another laterally. Along these plate boundaries, earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation can occur. The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates. As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is subducted under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes recycles the oceanic crust back into the mantle. Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than 100 Ma old. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific and is estimated to be 200 Ma old. By comparison, the oldest dated continental crust is 4,030 Ma, although zircons have been found preserved as clasts within Eoarchean sedimentary rocks that give ages up to 4,400 Ma, indicating that at least some continental crust existed at that time. The seven major plates are the Pacific, North American, Eurasian, African, Antarctic, Indo-Australian, and South American. Other notable plates include the Arabian Plate, the Caribbean Plate, the Nazca Plate off the west coast of South America and the Scotia Plate in the southern Atlantic Ocean.
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Earth
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South American . Other notable plates include the Arabian Plate , the Caribbean Plate , the Nazca Plate off the west coast of South America and the Scotia Plate in the southern Atlantic Ocean .The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between 50 and 55 Ma. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the Cocos Plate advancing at a rate of 75 mm/a (3.0 in/year) and the Pacific Plate moving 52–69 mm/a (2.0–2.7 in/year). At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the South American Plate, progressing at a typical rate of 10.6 mm/a (0.42 in/year). Internal structure
Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their chemical or physical (rheological) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct silicate solid crust, which is underlain by a highly viscous solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the Mohorovičić discontinuity. The thickness of the crust varies from about 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) under the oceans to 30–50 km (19–31 mi) for the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the upper mantle are collectively known as the lithosphere, which is divided into independently moving tectonic plates. Beneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at 410 and 660 km (250 and 410 mi) below the surface, spanning a transition zone that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid outer core lies above a solid inner core. Earth's inner core may be rotating at a slightly higher angular velocity than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year, although both somewhat higher and much lower rates have also been proposed.
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may be rotating at a slightly higher angular velocity than the remainder of the planet , advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year , although both somewhat higher and much lower rates have also been proposed .The radius of the inner core is about one-fifth of that of Earth. The density increases with depth. Among the Solar System's planetary-sized objects, Earth is the object with the highest density. Chemical composition
Earth's mass is approximately 5.97×1024 kg (5.970 Yg). It is composed mostly of iron (32.1% by mass), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%), and aluminum (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to gravitational separation, the core is primarily composed of the denser elements: iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements. The most common rock constituents of the crust are oxides. Over 99% of the crust is composed of various oxides of eleven elements, principally oxides containing silicon (the silicate minerals), aluminum, iron, calcium, magnesium, potassium, or sodium. Internal heat
The major contributors to Earth's internal heat are primordial heat (heat left over from Earth's formation) and radiogenic heat (heat produced by radioactive decay). The major heat-producing isotopes within Earth are potassium-40, uranium-238, and thorium-232. At the center, the temperature may be up to 6,000 °C (10,830 °F), and the pressure could reach 360 GPa (52 million psi).
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uranium-238 , and thorium-232 . At the center , the temperature may be up to 6,000 °C ( 10,830 °F ) , and the pressure could reach 360 GPa ( 52 million psi ) .Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat production was much higher. At approximately 3 Gyr, twice the present-day heat would have been produced, increasing the rates of mantle convection and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as komatiites that are rarely formed today. The mean heat loss from Earth is 87 mW/m2, for a global heat loss of 4.42×1013 W. A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by mantle plumes, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce hotspots and flood basalts. More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with mid-ocean ridges. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans. Gravitational field
The gravity of Earth is the acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within Earth. Near Earth's surface, gravitational acceleration is approximately 9.8 m/s2 (32 ft/s2). Local differences in topography, geology, and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad regional differences in Earth's gravitational field, known as gravity anomalies. Magnetic field
The main part of Earth's magnetic field is generated in the core, the site of a dynamo process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy. The field extends outwards from the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is, approximately, a dipole.
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into electrical and magnetic field energy . The field extends outwards from the core , through the mantle , and up to Earth 's surface , where it is , approximately , a dipole .The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth's geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field, the magnetic-field strength at the surface is 3.05×10−5 T, with a magnetic dipole moment of 7.79×1022 Am2 at epoch 2000, decreasing nearly 6% per century (although it still remains stronger than its long time average). The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This causes secular variation of the main field and field reversals at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago. The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the magnetosphere. Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the day-side of the magnetosphere, to about 10 Earth radii, and extends the night-side magnetosphere into a long tail. Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which waves propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic bow shock precedes the day-side magnetosphere within the solar wind. Charged particles are contained within the magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates. The ring current is defined by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field, and the Van Allen radiation belts are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but contained in the magnetosphere.
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but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field , and the Van Allen radiation belts are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random , but contained in the magnetosphere .During magnetic storms and substorms, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms can be excited and ionized, causing an aurora. Orbit and rotation
Rotation
Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is 86,400 seconds of mean solar time (86,400.0025 SI seconds). Because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to tidal deceleration, each day varies between 0 and 2 ms longer than the mean solar day. Earth's rotation period relative to the fixed stars, called its stellar day by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), is 86,164.0989 seconds of mean solar time (UT1), or 23h 56m 4.0989s. Earth's rotation period relative to the precessing or moving mean March equinox (when the Sun is at 90° on the equator), is 86,164.0905 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23h 56m 4.0905s). Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4 ms.
Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. For bodies near the celestial equator, this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the Moon every two minutes; from Earth's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same. Orbit
Earth orbits the Sun, making Earth the third-closest planet to the Sun and part of the inner Solar System.
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Earth
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apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same . Orbit Earth orbits the Sun , making Earth the third-closest planet to the Sun and part of the inner Solar System .Earth's average orbital distance is about 150 million km (93 million mi), which is the basis for the astronomical unit (AU) and is equal to roughly 8.3 light minutes or 380 times Earth's distance to the Moon. Earth orbits the Sun every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one sidereal year. With an apparent movement of the Sun in Earth's sky at a rate of about 1°/day eastward, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours. Due to this motion, on average it takes 24 hours—a solar day—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the meridian. The orbital speed of Earth averages at 29.7827 km/s (107,218 km/h; 66,622 mph), which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about 12,742 km (7,918 mi), in seven minutes, and the distance from Earth to the Moon, 384,400 km (238,855 mi), in about 3.5 hours. The Moon and Earth orbit a common barycenter every 27.32 days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the synodic month, from new moon to new moon, is 29.53 days. Viewed from the celestial north pole, the motion of Earth, the Moon, and their axial rotations are all counterclockwise. Viewed from a vantage point above the Sun and Earth's north poles, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun.
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the Moon , and their axial rotations are all counterclockwise . Viewed from a vantage point above the Sun and Earth 's north poles , Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun .The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's axis is tilted some 23.44 degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane (the ecliptic), and the Earth-Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1 degrees against the Earth–Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between lunar eclipses and solar eclipses. The Hill sphere, or the sphere of gravitational influence, of Earth is about 1.5 million km (930,000 mi) in radius. This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than that of the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun. Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the Milky Way and orbits about 28,000 light-years from its center. It is about 20 light-years above the galactic plane in the Orion Arm. Axial tilt and seasons
The axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281° with the axis of the plane of the Earth's orbit by definition pointing always towards the Celestial Poles. Due to Earth's axial tilt, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year. This causes the seasonal change in climate, with summer in the Northern Hemisphere occurring when the Tropic of Cancer is facing the Sun, and in the Southern Hemisphere when the Tropic of Capricorn faces the Sun. In each instance, winter occurs simultaneously in the opposite hemisphere. During the summer, the day lasts longer, and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate becomes cooler and the days shorter.
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in the opposite hemisphere . During the summer , the day lasts longer , and the Sun climbs higher in the sky . In winter , the climate becomes cooler and the days shorter .Above the Arctic Circle and below the Antarctic Circle there is no daylight at all for part of the year, causing a polar night, and this night extends for several months at the poles themselves. These same latitudes also experience a midnight sun, where the sun remains visible all day. By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the solstices—the points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the equinoxes, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned with its orbital axis. In the Northern Hemisphere, winter solstice currently occurs around 21 December; summer solstice is near 21 June, spring equinox is around 20 March and autumnal equinox is about 22 or 23 September. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped. The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. Its axial tilt does undergo nutation; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6 years. The orientation (rather than the angle) of Earth's axis also changes over time, precessing around in a complete circle over each 25,800-year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a tropical year. Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth's equatorial bulge. The poles also migrate a few meters across Earth's surface. This polar motion has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed quasiperiodic motion. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the Chandler wobble.
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polar motion has multiple , cyclical components , which collectively are termed quasiperiodic motion . In addition to an annual component to this motion , there is a 14-month cycle called the Chandler wobble .Earth's rotational velocity also varies in a phenomenon known as length-of-day variation. Earth's annual orbit is elliptical rather than circular, and its closest approach to the Sun is called perihelion. In modern times, Earth's perihelion occurs around 3 January, and its aphelion around 4 July. These dates shift over time due to precession and changes to the orbit, the latter of which follows cyclical patterns known as Milankovitch cycles. The annual change in the Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.8% in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere. Earth–Moon system
Moon
The Moon is a relatively large, terrestrial, planet-like natural satellite, with a diameter about one-quarter of Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, although Charon is larger relative to the dwarf planet Pluto. The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as "moons", after Earth's. The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the giant-impact hypothesis, states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth.
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Earth
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.
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171
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's . The most widely accepted theory of the Moon 's origin , the giant-impact hypothesis , states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth .This hypothesis explains the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth's crust. Computer simulations suggest that two blob-like remnants of this protoplanet could be inside the Earth. The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes lunar tides on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its tidal locking: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the lunar phases. Due to their tidal interaction, the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately 38 mm/a (1+1⁄2 in/year). Over millions of years, these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's day by about 23 μs/yr—add up to significant changes. During the Ediacaran period, for example, (approximately 620 Ma) there were 400±7 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.9±0.4 hours. The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate. Paleontological evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon. Some theorists think that without this stabilization against the torques applied by the Sun and planets to Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, exhibiting large changes over millions of years, as is the case for Mars, though this is disputed. Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun.
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, as is the case for Mars , though this is disputed . Viewed from Earth , the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun .The angular size (or solid angle) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant. This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth. Asteroids and artificial satellites
Earth's co-orbital asteroids population consists of quasi-satellites, objects with a horseshoe orbit and trojans. There are at least seven quasi-satellites, including 469219 Kamoʻoalewa, ranging in diameter from 10 m to 5000 m. A trojan asteroid companion, 2010 TK7, is librating around the leading Lagrange triangular point, L4, in Earth's orbit around the Sun. The tiny near-Earth asteroid 2006 RH120 makes close approaches to the Earth–Moon system roughly every twenty years. During these approaches, it can orbit Earth for brief periods of time. As of September 2021, there are 4,550 operational, human-made satellites orbiting Earth. There are also inoperative satellites, including Vanguard 1, the oldest satellite currently in orbit, and over 16,000 pieces of tracked space debris. Earth's largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station (ISS). Hydrosphere
Earth's hydrosphere is the sum of Earth's water and its distribution. Most of Earth's hydrosphere consists of Earth's global ocean. Earth's hydrosphere also consists of water in the atmosphere and on land, including clouds, inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters. The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35×1018 metric tons or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass.
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land , including clouds , inland seas , lakes , rivers , and underground waters . The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35×1018 metric tons or about 1/4400 of Earth 's total mass .The oceans cover an area of 361.8 million km2 (139.7 million sq mi) with a mean depth of 3,682 m (12,080 ft), resulting in an estimated volume of 1.332 billion km3 (320 million cu mi). If all of Earth's crustal surface were at the same elevation as a smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting world ocean would be 2.7 to 2.8 km (1.68 to 1.74 mi). About 97.5% of the water is saline; the remaining 2.5% is fresh water. Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is present as ice in ice caps and glaciers. The remaining 30% is ground water, 1% surface water (covering only 2.8% of Earth's land) and other small forms of fresh water deposits such as permafrost, water vapor in the atmosphere, biological binding, etc. In Earth's coldest regions, snow survives over the summer and changes into ice. This accumulated snow and ice eventually forms into glaciers, bodies of ice that flow under the influence of their own gravity. Alpine glaciers form in mountainous areas, whereas vast ice sheets form over land in polar regions. The flow of glaciers erodes the surface, changing it dramatically, with the formation of U-shaped valleys and other landforms. Sea ice in the Arctic covers an area about as big as the United States, although it is quickly retreating as a consequence of climate change. The average salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of seawater (3.5% salt). Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks.
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Earth 's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of seawater ( 3.5 % salt ) . Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks .The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms. Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large heat reservoir. Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation. The abundance of water, particularly liquid water, on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes it from other planets in the Solar System. Solar System planets with considerable atmospheres do partly host atmospheric water vapor, but they lack surface conditions for stable surface water. Despite some moons showing signs of large reservoirs of extraterrestrial liquid water, with possibly even more volume than Earth's ocean, all of them are large bodies of water under a kilometers thick frozen surface layer. Atmosphere
The atmospheric pressure at Earth's sea level averages 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi), with a scale height of about 8.5 km (5.3 mi). A dry atmosphere is composed of 78.084% nitrogen, 20.946% oxygen, 0.934% argon, and trace amounts of carbon dioxide and other gaseous molecules. Water vapor content varies between 0.01% and 4% but averages about 1%. Clouds cover around two-thirds of Earth's surface, more so over oceans than land. The height of the troposphere varies with latitude, ranging between 8 km (5 mi) at the poles to 17 km (11 mi) at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors. Earth's biosphere has significantly altered its atmosphere. Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved 2.7 Gya, forming the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today.
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equator , with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors . Earth 's biosphere has significantly altered its atmosphere . Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved 2.7 Gya , forming the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today .This change enabled the proliferation of aerobic organisms and, indirectly, the formation of the ozone layer due to the subsequent conversion of atmospheric O2 into O3. The ozone layer blocks ultraviolet solar radiation, permitting life on land. Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small meteors to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature. This last phenomenon is the greenhouse effect: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the surface, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be −18 °C (−0.4 °F), in contrast to the current +15 °C (59 °F), and life on Earth probably would not exist in its current form. Weather and climate
Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, gradually becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first 11 km (6.8 mi) of the surface; this lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is atmospheric circulation that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy. The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the trade winds in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the westerlies in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°.
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climate through redistribution of thermal energy . The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the trade winds in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the westerlies in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60° .Ocean heat content and currents are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the thermohaline circulation that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions. Earth receives 1361 W/m2 of solar irradiance. The amount of solar energy that reaches Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about 0.4 °C (0.7 °F) per degree of latitude from the equator. Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the tropical (or equatorial), subtropical, temperate and polar climates. Further factors that affect a location's climates are its proximity to oceans, the oceanic and atmospheric circulation, and topology. Places close to oceans typically have colder summers and warmer winters, due to the fact that oceans can store large amounts of heat. The wind transports the cold or the heat of the ocean to the land. Atmospheric circulation also plays an important role: San Francisco and Washington DC are both coastal cities at about the same latitude. San Francisco's climate is significantly more moderate as the prevailing wind direction is from sea to land. Finally, temperatures decrease with height causing mountainous areas to be colder than low-lying areas. Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation.
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through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere . When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm , humid air , this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation .Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes. This water cycle is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation, topographic features, and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region. The commonly used Köppen climate classification system has five broad groups (humid tropics, arid, humid middle latitudes, continental and cold polar), which are further divided into more specific subtypes. The Köppen system rates regions based on observed temperature and precipitation. Surface air temperature can rise to around 55 °C (131 °F) in hot deserts, such as Death Valley, and can fall as low as −89 °C (−128 °F) in Antarctica. Upper atmosphere
The upper atmosphere, the atmosphere above the troposphere, is usually divided into the stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. Each layer has a different lapse rate, defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the exosphere thins out into the magnetosphere, where the geomagnetic fields interact with the solar wind. Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth. The Kármán line, defined as 100 km (62 mi) above Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and outer space.
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life on Earth . The Kármán line , defined as 100 km ( 62 mi ) above Earth 's surface , is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and outer space .Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady loss of the atmosphere into space. Because unfixed hydrogen has a low molecular mass, it can achieve escape velocity more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases. The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially reducing state to its current oxidizing one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth. In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere. Life on Earth
Earth is the only known place that has ever been habitable for life. Earth's life developed in Earth's early bodies of water some hundred million years after Earth formed, roughly 4 billion years ago. Earth provides liquid water—an environment where complex organic molecules can assemble and interact, and sufficient energy to sustain a metabolism. Plants and other organisms take up nutrients from water, soils and the atmosphere. These nutrients are constantly recycled between different species. Earth's life has been shaping and inhabiting many particular ecosystems on Earth and has eventually expanded globally forming an overarching biosphere.
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the atmosphere . These nutrients are constantly recycled between different species . Earth 's life has been shaping and inhabiting many particular ecosystems on Earth and has eventually expanded globally forming an overarching biosphere .Earth's life has also over time greatly diversified, allowing the biosphere to have different biomes, which are inhabited by comparatively similar plants and animals. The different biomes developed at distinct elevations or water depths, planetary temperature latitudes and on land also with different humidity. Earth's species diversity and biomass reaches a peak in shallow waters and with forests, particularly in equatorial, warm and humid conditions. While freezing polar regions and high altitudes, or extremely arid areas are relatively barren of plant and animal life. Therefore, life has impacted Earth, significantly altering Earth's atmosphere and surface over long periods of time, causing changes like the Great Oxidation Event. Humans furthermore have impacted Earth, its life and development. Challenges for life on Earth
Extreme weather, such as tropical cyclones, occurs over most of Earth's surface and has a large impact on life in those areas. From 1980 to 2000, these events caused an average of 11,800 human deaths per year. Many places are subject to earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes, blizzards, floods, droughts, wildfires, and other calamities and disasters. Human impact is felt in many areas due to pollution of the air and water, acid rain, loss of vegetation (overgrazing, deforestation, desertification), loss of wildlife, species extinction, soil degradation, soil depletion and erosion. Human activities release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere which cause global warming. This is driving changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, a global rise in average sea levels, increased risk of drought and wildfires, and migration of species to colder areas.
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Earth
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driving changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets , a global rise in average sea levels , increased risk of drought and wildfires , and migration of species to colder areas .Human geography
Humans, who originated from earlier primates in Eastern Africa 300,000 years ago, have since been migrating around Earth, and with the advent of agriculture in the 10th millennium BCE, have been increasingly settling Earth's land. In the 20th century, Antarctica became the last continent to be explored and settled by humans, although human presence there remains limited. Since the 19th century, the human population has grown exponentially to eight billion in the 2020s, and is projected to peak at around ten billion in the second half of the 21st century. Most of the growth is expected to take place in sub-Saharan Africa. Distribution and density of human population varies greatly around the world with the majority living in south to eastern Asia and 90% inhabiting the Northern Hemisphere of Earth, partly due to the hemispherical predominance of the world's land mass, with 68% of the world's land mass being in the Northern Hemisphere. Furthermore, since the 19th century humans have increasingly converged into urban areas, with the majority living in urban areas by the 21st century. Beyond Earth's surface, humans have lived only in a few special-purpose deep underground and underwater presences and a few space stations. The human population virtually completely remains on Earth's surface, fully depending on Earth and the environment it sustains. Since the second half of the 20th century, some hundreds of humans have temporarily stayed beyond Earth, a tiny fraction of whom have reached another celestial body, the Moon. Earth has been subject to extensive human settlement, and humans have developed diverse societies and cultures.
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beyond Earth , a tiny fraction of whom have reached another celestial body , the Moon . Earth has been subject to extensive human settlement , and humans have developed diverse societies and cultures .Most of Earth's land has been territorially claimed since the 19th century by sovereign states (countries) separated by political borders, and 205 such states exist today, with only parts of Antarctica and a few small regions remaining unclaimed. Together, most of these states form the United Nations, the leading worldwide intergovernmental organization, which extends human governance over the ocean and Antarctica, and therefore all of Earth. Natural resources and land use
Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans. Those termed non-renewable resources, such as fossil fuels, are only replenished over geological timescales. Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from Earth's crust, consisting of coal, petroleum, and natural gas. These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production. Mineral ore bodies have also been formed within the crust through a process of ore genesis, resulting from actions of magmatism, erosion, and plate tectonics. These metals and other elements are extracted by mining, a process which often causes environmental and health damage. Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans, including food, wood, pharmaceuticals, oxygen, and the recycling of organic waste. The land-based ecosystem depends upon topsoil and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends on dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.
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pharmaceuticals , oxygen , and the recycling of organic waste . The land-based ecosystem depends upon topsoil and fresh water , and the oceanic ecosystem depends on dissolved nutrients washed down from the land .In 2019, 39 million km2 (15 million sq mi) of Earth's land surface consisted of forest and woodlands, 12 million km2 (4.6 million sq mi) was shrub and grassland, 40 million km2 (15 million sq mi) were used for animal feed production and grazing, and 11 million km2 (4.2 million sq mi) were cultivated as croplands. Of the 12–14% of ice-free land that is used for croplands, 2 percentage points were irrigated in 2015. Humans use natural and manufactured building materials to construct shelters and infrastructure. Humans and the environment
Human activities have impacted Earth's environments. Through activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, humans have been increasing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, altering Earth's energy budget and climate. It is estimated that global temperatures in the year 2020 were 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) warmer than the preindustrial baseline. This increase in temperature, known as global warming, has contributed to the melting of glaciers, rising sea levels, increased risk of drought and wildfires, and migration of species to colder areas. The concept of planetary boundaries was introduced to quantify humanity's impact on Earth. Of the nine identified boundaries, five have been crossed: Biosphere integrity, climate change, chemical pollution, destruction of wild habitats and the nitrogen cycle are thought to have passed the safe threshold. As of 2018, no country meets the basic needs of its population without transgressing planetary boundaries. It is thought possible to provide all basic physical needs globally within sustainable levels of resource use. Cultural and historical viewpoint
Human cultures have developed many views of the planet.
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Earth
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.
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planetary boundaries . It is thought possible to provide all basic physical needs globally within sustainable levels of resource use . Cultural and historical viewpoint Human cultures have developed many views of the planet .The standard astronomical symbols of Earth are a quartered circle, , representing the four corners of the world, and a globus cruciger, . Earth is sometimes personified as a deity. In many cultures, it is a mother goddess that is also the primary fertility deity. Creation myths in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural deity or deities. The Gaia hypothesis, developed in the mid-20th century, compared Earth's environments and life as a single self-regulating organism leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability. Images of Earth taken from space, particularly during the Apollo program, have been credited with altering the way that people viewed the planet that they lived on, called the overview effect, emphasizing its beauty, uniqueness and apparent fragility. In particular, this caused a realization of the scope of effects from human activity on Earth's environment. Enabled by science, particularly Earth observation, humans have started to take action on environmental issues globally, acknowledging the impact of humans and the interconnectedness of Earth's environments. Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in people's view of the planet. Initial belief in a flat Earth was gradually displaced in Ancient Greece by the idea of a spherical Earth, which was attributed to both the philosophers Pythagoras and Parmenides. Earth was generally believed to be the center of the universe until the 16th century, when scientists first concluded that it was a moving object, one of the planets of the Solar System. It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized Earth's age was at least many millions of years.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.
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was a moving object , one of the planets of the Solar System . It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized Earth 's age was at least many millions of years .Lord Kelvin used thermodynamics to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400 million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and radioactive dating were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old. See also
Notes
References
External links
Earth – Profile – Solar System Exploration – NASA
Earth Observatory – NASA
Earth – Videos – International Space Station:
Video (01:02) on YouTube – Earth (time-lapse)
Video (00:27) on YouTube – Earth and auroras (time-lapse)
Google Earth 3D, interactive map
Interactive 3D visualization of the Sun, Earth and Moon system
GPlates Portal (University of Sydney)
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Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun. It is also known as the "Red Planet", for its orange-red appearance. Mars is a desert-like rocky planet with a tenuous atmosphere that is primarily carbon dioxide (CO2). At the average surface level the atmospheric pressure is a few thousandths of Earth’s, atmospheric temperature ranges from −153 to 20 °C (−243 to 68 °F), and cosmic radiation is high. Mars retains some water, in the ground as well as thinly in the atmosphere, forming cirrus clouds, fog, frost, larger polar regions of permafrost and ice caps (with seasonal CO2 snow), but no bodies of liquid surface water. Its surface gravity is roughly a third of Earth's or double that of the Moon. It is about half the Earth in width, or twice the Moon, with a diameter of 6,779 km (4,212 mi), and has a surface area the size of all the dry land of Earth. Fine dust is prevalent across the surface and the atmosphere, being picked up and spread at the low Martian gravity even by the weak wind of the tenuous atmosphere. The terrain of Mars roughly follows a north-south divide, the Martian dichotomy, with the northern hemisphere mainly consisting of relatively flat, low lying plains, and the southern hemisphere of cratered highlands. Geologically, the planet is fairly active with marsquakes trembling underneath the ground, but also hosts many enormous volcanoes that are extinct (the tallest is Olympus Mons, 21.9 km or 13.6 mi tall), as well as one of the largest canyons in the Solar System (Valles Marineris, 4,000 km or 2,500 mi long). Mars has two natural satellites that are small and irregular in shape: Phobos and Deimos.
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largest canyons in the Solar System ( Valles Marineris , 4,000 km or 2,500 mi long ) . Mars has two natural satellites that are small and irregular in shape : Phobos and Deimos .With a significant axial tilt of 25 degrees, Mars experiences seasons, like Earth (which has an axial tilt of 23.5 degrees). A Martian solar year is equal to 1.88 Earth years (687 Earth days), a Martian solar day (sol) is equal to 24.6 hours. Mars formed along with the other planets approximately 4.5 billion years ago. During the martian Noachian period (4.5 to 3.5 billion years ago), its surface was marked by meteor impacts, valley formation, erosion, the possible presence of water oceans and the loss of its magnetosphere. The Hesperian period (beginning 3.5 billion years ago and ending 3.3–2.9 billion years ago) was dominated by widespread volcanic activity and flooding that carved immense outflow channels. The Amazonian period, which continues to the present, is the currently dominating and remaining influence on geological processes. Because of Mars's geological history, the possibility of past or present life on Mars remains an area of active scientific investigation, with some possible traces needing further examination. Being visible with the naked eye in Earth's sky as a red wandering star, Mars has been observed throughout history, acquiring diverse associations in different cultures. In 1963 the first flight to Mars took place with Mars 1, but communication was lost en route. The first successful flyby exploration of Mars was conducted in 1965 with Mariner 4. In 1971 Mariner 9 entered orbit around Mars, being the first spacecraft to orbit any body other than the Moon, Sun or Earth; following in the same year were the first uncontrolled impact (Mars 2) and first successful landing (Mars 3) on Mars.
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Mars
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187
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body other than the Moon , Sun or Earth ; following in the same year were the first uncontrolled impact ( Mars 2 ) and first successful landing ( Mars 3 ) on Mars .Probes have been active on Mars continuously since 1997. At times, more than ten probes have simultaneously operated in orbit or on the surface, more than at any other planet beyond Earth. Mars is an often proposed target for future crewed exploration missions, though no such mission is currently planned. Natural history
Formation
Scientists have theorized that during the Solar System's formation, Mars was created as the result of a random process of run-away accretion of material from the protoplanetary disk that orbited the Sun. Mars has many distinctive chemical features caused by its position in the Solar System. Elements with comparatively low boiling points, such as chlorine, phosphorus, and sulfur, are much more common on Mars than on Earth; these elements were probably pushed outward by the young Sun's energetic solar wind. Late Heavy Bombardment
After the formation of the planets, the inner Solar System may have been subjected to the so-called Late Heavy Bombardment. About 60% of the surface of Mars shows a record of impacts from that era, whereas much of the remaining surface is probably underlain by immense impact basins caused by those events. However, more recent modeling has disputed the existence of the Late Heavy Bombardment. There is evidence of an enormous impact basin in the Northern Hemisphere of Mars, spanning 10,600 by 8,500 kilometres (6,600 by 5,300 mi), or roughly four times the size of the Moon's South Pole–Aitken basin, which would be the largest impact basin yet discovered if confirmed. It has been hypothesized that the basin was formed when Mars was struck by a Pluto-sized body about four billion years ago.
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Mars
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which would be the largest impact basin yet discovered if confirmed . It has been hypothesized that the basin was formed when Mars was struck by a Pluto-sized body about four billion years ago .The event, thought to be the cause of the Martian hemispheric dichotomy, created the smooth Borealis basin that covers 40% of the planet. A 2023 study shows evidence, based on the orbital inclination of Deimos (a small moon of Mars), that Mars may once have had a ring system 3.5 billion years to 4 billion years ago. This ring system may have been formed from a moon, 20 times more massive than Phobos, orbiting Mars billions of years ago; and Phobos would be a remnant of that ring. Geological periods
Epochs:
The geological history of Mars can be split into many periods, but the following are the three primary periods:
Noachian period: Formation of the oldest extant surfaces of Mars, 4.5 to 3.5 billion years ago. Noachian age surfaces are scarred by many large impact craters. The Tharsis bulge, a volcanic upland, is thought to have formed during this period, with extensive flooding by liquid water late in the period. Named after Noachis Terra. Hesperian period: 3.5 to between 3.3 and 2.9 billion years ago. The Hesperian period is marked by the formation of extensive lava plains. Named after Hesperia Planum. Amazonian period: between 3.3 and 2.9 billion years ago to the present. Amazonian regions have few meteorite impact craters but are otherwise quite varied. Olympus Mons formed during this period, with lava flows elsewhere on Mars. Named after Amazonis Planitia. Recent geological activity
Geological activity is still taking place on Mars. The Athabasca Valles is home to sheet-like lava flows created about 200 million years ago.
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Mars . Named after Amazonis Planitia . Recent geological activity Geological activity is still taking place on Mars . The Athabasca Valles is home to sheet-like lava flows created about 200 million years ago .Water flows in the grabens called the Cerberus Fossae occurred less than 20 million years ago, indicating equally recent volcanic intrusions. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has captured images of avalanches. Physical characteristics
Mars is approximately half the diameter of Earth or twice that of the Moon, with a surface area only slightly less than the total area of Earth's dry land. Mars is less dense than Earth, having about 15% of Earth's volume and 11% of Earth's mass, resulting in about 38% of Earth's surface gravity. Mars is the only presently known example of a desert planet, a rocky planet with a surface akin to that of Earth's deserts. The red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by iron(III) oxide (nanophase Fe2O3) and the iron(III) oxide-hydroxide mineral goethite. It can look like butterscotch; other common surface colors include golden, brown, tan, and greenish, depending on the minerals present. Internal structure
Like Earth, Mars is differentiated into a dense metallic core overlaid by less dense rocky layers. The outermost layer is the crust, which is on average about 42–56 kilometres (26–35 mi) thick, with a minimum thickness of 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) in Isidis Planitia, and a maximum thickness of 117 kilometres (73 mi) in the southern Tharsis plateau. For comparison, Earth's crust averages 27.3 ± 4.8 km in thickness. The most abundant elements in the Martian crust are silicon, oxygen, iron, magnesium, aluminum, calcium, and potassium.
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Mars
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190
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Earth 's crust averages 27.3 ± 4.8 km in thickness . The most abundant elements in the Martian crust are silicon , oxygen , iron , magnesium , aluminum , calcium , and potassium .Mars is confirmed to be seismically active; in 2019, it was reported that InSight had detected and recorded over 450 marsquakes and related events. Beneath the crust is a silicate mantle responsible for many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet's surface. The upper Martian mantle is a low-velocity zone, where the velocity of seismic waves is lower than surrounding depth intervals. The mantle appears to be rigid down to the depth of about 250 km, giving Mars a very thick lithosphere compared to Earth. Below this the mantle gradually becomes more ductile, and the seismic wave velocity starts to grow again. The Martian mantle does not appear to have a thermally insulating layer analogous to Earth's lower mantle; instead, below 1050 km in depth, it becomes mineralogically similar to Earth's transition zone. At the bottom of the mantle lies a basal liquid silicate layer approximately 150–180 km thick. The Martian mantle appears to be highly heterogenous, with dense fragments up to 4 km across, likely injected deep into the planet by colossal impacts ~4.5 billion years ago; high-frequency waves from eight marsquakes slowed as they passed these localized regions, and modeling indicates the heterogeneities are compositionally distinct debris preserved because Mars lacks plate tectonics and has a sluggishly convecting interior that prevents complete homogenization. Mars's iron and nickel core is at least partially molten, and may have a solid inner core. It is around half of Mars's radius, approximately 1650–1675 km, and is enriched in light elements such as sulfur, oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. The temperature of the core is estimated to be 2000–2400 K, compared to 5400–6230 K for Earth's solid inner core.
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Mars
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elements such as sulfur , oxygen , carbon , and hydrogen . The temperature of the core is estimated to be 2000–2400 K , compared to 5400–6230 K for Earth 's solid inner core .In 2025, based on data from the InSight lander, a group of researchers reported the detection of a solid inner core 613 kilometres (381 mi) ± 67 kilometres (42 mi) in radius. Surface geology
Mars is a terrestrial planet with a surface that consists of minerals containing silicon and oxygen, metals, and other elements that typically make up rock. The Martian surface is primarily composed of tholeiitic basalt, although parts are more silica-rich than typical basalt and may be similar to andesitic rocks on Earth, or silica glass. Regions of low albedo suggest concentrations of plagioclase feldspar, with northern low albedo regions displaying higher than normal concentrations of sheet silicates and high-silicon glass. Parts of the southern highlands include detectable amounts of high-calcium pyroxenes. Localized concentrations of hematite and olivine have been found. Much of the surface is deeply covered by finely grained iron(III) oxide dust. The Phoenix lander returned data showing Martian soil to be slightly alkaline and containing elements such as magnesium, sodium, potassium and chlorine. These nutrients are found in soils on Earth, and are necessary for plant growth. Experiments performed by the lander showed that the Martian soil has a basic pH of 7.7, and contains 0.6% perchlorate by weight, concentrations that are toxic to humans. Streaks are common across Mars and new ones appear frequently on steep slopes of craters, troughs, and valleys. The streaks are dark at first and get lighter with age. The streaks can start in a tiny area, then spread out for hundreds of metres. They have been seen to follow the edges of boulders and other obstacles in their path.
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Mars
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.
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. The streaks can start in a tiny area , then spread out for hundreds of metres . They have been seen to follow the edges of boulders and other obstacles in their path .The commonly accepted hypotheses include that they are dark underlying layers of soil revealed after avalanches of bright dust or dust devils. Several other explanations have been put forward, including those that involve water or even the growth of organisms. Environmental radiation levels on the surface are on average 0.64 millisieverts of radiation per day, and significantly less than the radiation of 1.84 millisieverts per day or 22 millirads per day during the flight to and from Mars. For comparison the radiation levels in low Earth orbit, where Earth's space stations orbit, are around 0.5 millisieverts of radiation per day. Hellas Planitia has the lowest surface radiation at about 0.342 millisieverts per day, featuring lava tubes southwest of Hadriacus Mons with potentially levels as low as 0.064 millisieverts per day, comparable to radiation levels during flights on Earth. Magnetic characteristics
Although Mars has no evidence of a structured global magnetic field, observations show that parts of the planet's crust have been magnetized, suggesting that alternating polarity reversals of its dipole field have occurred in the past. This paleomagnetism of magnetically susceptible minerals is similar to the alternating bands found on Earth's ocean floors. One hypothesis, published in 1999 and re-examined in October 2005 (with the help of the Mars Global Surveyor), is that these bands suggest plate tectonic activity on Mars four billion years ago, before the planetary dynamo ceased to function and the planet's magnetic field faded. Geography and features
Although better remembered for mapping the Moon, Johann Heinrich von Mädler and Wilhelm Beer were the first areographers. They began by establishing that most of Mars's surface features were permanent and by more precisely determining the planet's rotation period.
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Mars
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193
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Heinrich von Mädler and Wilhelm Beer were the first areographers . They began by establishing that most of Mars 's surface features were permanent and by more precisely determining the planet 's rotation period .In 1840, Mädler combined ten years of observations and drew the first map of Mars. Features on Mars are named from a variety of sources. Albedo features are named for classical mythology. Craters larger than roughly 50 km are named for deceased scientists and writers and others who have contributed to the study of Mars. Smaller craters are named for towns and villages of the world with populations of less than 100,000. Large valleys are named for the word "Mars" or "star" in various languages; smaller valleys are named for rivers. Large albedo features retain many of the older names but are often updated to reflect new knowledge of the nature of the features. For example, Nix Olympica (the snows of Olympus) has become Olympus Mons (Mount Olympus). The surface of Mars as seen from Earth is divided into two kinds of areas, with differing albedo. The paler plains covered with dust and sand rich in reddish iron oxides were once thought of as Martian "continents" and given names like Arabia Terra (land of Arabia) or Amazonis Planitia (Amazonian plain). The dark features were thought to be seas, hence their names Mare Erythraeum, Mare Sirenum and Aurorae Sinus. The largest dark feature seen from Earth is Syrtis Major Planum. The permanent northern polar ice cap is named Planum Boreum. The southern cap is called Planum Australe. Mars's equator is defined by its rotation, but the location of its Prime Meridian was specified, as was Earth's (at Greenwich), by choice of an arbitrary point; Mädler and Beer selected a line for their first maps of Mars in 1830.
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Mars
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.
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194
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Meridian was specified , as was Earth 's ( at Greenwich ) , by choice of an arbitrary point ; Mädler and Beer selected a line for their first maps of Mars in 1830 .After the spacecraft Mariner 9 provided extensive imagery of Mars in 1972, a small crater (later called Airy-0), located in the Sinus Meridiani ("Middle Bay" or "Meridian Bay"), was chosen by Merton E. Davies, Harold Masursky, and Gérard de Vaucouleurs for the definition of 0.0° longitude to coincide with the original selection. Because Mars has no oceans, and hence no "sea level", a zero-elevation surface had to be selected as a reference level; this is called the areoid of Mars, analogous to the terrestrial geoid. Zero altitude was defined by the height at which there is 610.5 Pa (6.105 mbar) of atmospheric pressure. This pressure corresponds to the triple point of water, and it is about 0.6% of the sea level surface pressure on Earth (0.006 atm). For mapping purposes, the United States Geological Survey divides the surface of Mars into thirty cartographic quadrangles, each named for a classical albedo feature it contains. In April 2023, The New York Times reported an updated global map of Mars based on images from the Hope spacecraft. A related, but much more detailed, global Mars map was released by NASA on 16 April 2023. Volcanoes
The vast upland region Tharsis contains several massive volcanoes, which include the shield volcano Olympus Mons. The edifice is over 600 km (370 mi) wide. Because the mountain is so large, with complex structure at its edges, giving a definite height to it is difficult.
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Mars
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The edifice is over 600 km ( 370 mi ) wide . Because the mountain is so large , with complex structure at its edges , giving a definite height to it is difficult .Its local relief, from the foot of the cliffs which form its northwest margin to its peak, is over 21 km (13 mi), a little over twice the height of Mauna Kea as measured from its base on the ocean floor. The total elevation change from the plains of Amazonis Planitia, over 1,000 km (620 mi) to the northwest, to the summit approaches 26 km (16 mi), roughly three times the height of Mount Everest, which in comparison stands at just over 8.8 kilometres (5.5 mi). Consequently, Olympus Mons is either the tallest or second-tallest mountain in the Solar System; the only known mountain which might be taller is the Rheasilvia peak on the asteroid Vesta, at 20–25 km (12–16 mi). Impact topography
The dichotomy of Martian topography is striking: northern plains flattened by lava flows contrast with the southern highlands, pitted and cratered by ancient impacts. It is possible that, four billion years ago, the Northern Hemisphere of Mars was struck by an object one-tenth to two-thirds the size of Earth's Moon. If this is the case, the Northern Hemisphere of Mars would be the site of an impact crater 10,600 by 8,500 kilometres (6,600 by 5,300 mi) in size, or roughly the area of Europe, Asia, and Australia combined, surpassing Utopia Planitia and the Moon's South Pole–Aitken basin as the largest impact crater in the Solar System. Mars is scarred by 43,000 impact craters with a diameter of 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) or greater.
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Mars
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Moon 's South Pole–Aitken basin as the largest impact crater in the Solar System . Mars is scarred by 43,000 impact craters with a diameter of 5 kilometres ( 3.1 mi ) or greater .The largest exposed crater is Hellas, which is 2,300 kilometres (1,400 mi) wide and 7,000 metres (23,000 ft) deep, and is a light albedo feature clearly visible from Earth. There are other notable impact features, such as Argyre, which is around 1,800 kilometres (1,100 mi) in diameter, and Isidis, which is around 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) in diameter. Due to the smaller mass and size of Mars, the probability of an object colliding with the planet is about half that of Earth. Mars is located closer to the asteroid belt, so it has an increased chance of being struck by materials from that source. Mars is more likely to be struck by short-period comets, i.e., those that lie within the orbit of Jupiter. Martian craters can have a morphology that suggests the ground became wet after the meteor impact. Tectonic sites
The large canyon, Valles Marineris (Latin for 'Mariner Valleys, also known as Agathodaemon in the old canal maps), has a length of 4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi) and a depth of up to 7 kilometres (4.3 mi). The length of Valles Marineris is equivalent to the length of Europe and extends across one-fifth the circumference of Mars. By comparison, the Grand Canyon on Earth is only 446 kilometres (277 mi) long and nearly 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) deep. Valles Marineris was formed due to the swelling of the Tharsis area, which caused the crust in the area of Valles Marineris to collapse.
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Mars
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.
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197
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nearly 2 kilometres ( 1.2 mi ) deep . Valles Marineris was formed due to the swelling of the Tharsis area , which caused the crust in the area of Valles Marineris to collapse .In 2012, it was proposed that Valles Marineris is not just a graben, but a plate boundary where 150 kilometres (93 mi) of transverse motion has occurred, making Mars a planet with possibly a two-tectonic plate arrangement. Holes and caves
Images from the Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) aboard NASA's Mars Odyssey orbiter have revealed seven possible cave entrances on the flanks of the volcano Arsia Mons. The caves, named after loved ones of their discoverers, are collectively known as the "seven sisters". Cave entrances measure from 100 to 252 metres (328 to 827 ft) wide and they are estimated to be at least 73 to 96 metres (240 to 315 ft) deep. Because light does not reach the floor of most of the caves, they may extend much deeper than these lower estimates and widen below the surface. "Dena" is the only exception; its floor is visible and was measured to be 130 metres (430 ft) deep. The interiors of these caverns may be protected from micrometeoroids, UV radiation, solar flares and high energy particles that bombard the planet's surface. Other features
Atmosphere
Mars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago, possibly because of numerous asteroid strikes, so the solar wind interacts directly with the Martian ionosphere, lowering the atmospheric density by stripping away atoms from the outer layer. Both Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Express have detected ionized atmospheric particles trailing off into space behind Mars, and this atmospheric loss is being studied by the MAVEN orbiter. Compared to Earth, the atmosphere of Mars is quite rarefied.
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Mars
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198
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detected ionized atmospheric particles trailing off into space behind Mars , and this atmospheric loss is being studied by the MAVEN orbiter . Compared to Earth , the atmosphere of Mars is quite rarefied .Atmospheric pressure on the surface today ranges from a low of 30 Pa (0.0044 psi) on Olympus Mons to over 1,155 Pa (0.1675 psi) in Hellas Planitia, with a mean pressure at the surface level of 600 Pa (0.087 psi). The highest atmospheric density on Mars is equal to that found 35 kilometres (22 mi) above Earth's surface. The resulting mean surface pressure is only 0.6% of Earth's 101.3 kPa (14.69 psi). The scale height of the atmosphere is about 10.8 kilometres (6.7 mi), which is higher than Earth's 6 kilometres (3.7 mi), because the surface gravity of Mars is only about 38% of Earth's. The atmosphere of Mars consists of about 96% carbon dioxide, 1.93% argon and 1.89% nitrogen along with traces of oxygen and water. The atmosphere is quite dusty, containing particulates about 1.5 μm in diameter which give the Martian sky a tawny color when seen from the surface. It may take on a pink hue due to iron oxide particles suspended in it. The concentration of methane in the Martian atmosphere fluctuates from about 0.24 ppb during the northern winter to about 0.65 ppb during the summer. Estimates of its lifetime range from 0.6 to 4 years, so its presence indicates that an active source of the gas must be present. Methane is most likely produced by non-biological process such as serpentinization involving water, carbon dioxide, and the mineral olivine, which is known to be common on Mars, although it could also be produced by Martian life.
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non-biological process such as serpentinization involving water , carbon dioxide , and the mineral olivine , which is known to be common on Mars , although it could also be produced by Martian life .Compared to Earth, its higher concentration of atmospheric CO2 and lower surface pressure may be why sound is attenuated more on Mars, where natural sources are rare apart from the wind. Using acoustic recordings collected by the Perseverance rover, researchers concluded that the speed of sound there is approximately 240 m/s for frequencies below 240 Hz, and 250 m/s for those above. Auroras have been detected on Mars. Because Mars lacks a global magnetic field, the types and distribution of auroras there differ from those on Earth; rather than being mostly restricted to polar regions as is the case on Earth, a Martian aurora can encompass the planet. In September 2017, NASA reported radiation levels on the surface of the planet Mars were temporarily doubled, and were associated with an aurora 25 times brighter than any observed earlier, due to a massive, and unexpected, solar storm in the middle of the month. Climate
Mars has seasons, alternating between its northern and southern hemispheres, similar to on Earth. Additionally the orbit of Mars has, compared to Earth's, a large eccentricity and approaches perihelion when it is summer in its southern hemisphere and winter in its northern, and aphelion when it is winter in its southern hemisphere and summer in its northern. As a result, the seasons in its southern hemisphere are more extreme and the seasons in its northern are milder than would otherwise be the case. The summer temperatures in the south can be warmer than the equivalent summer temperatures in the north by up to 30 °C (54 °F).
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Mars
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.
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