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of the light passing through some parts of the B Ring is blocked . The B Ring contains a great deal of variation in its density and brightness , nearly all of it unexplained .These are concentric, appearing as narrow ringlets, though the B Ring does not contain any gaps. In places, the outer edge of the B Ring contains vertical structures deviating up to 2.5 km (1½ miles) from the main ring plane, a significant deviation from the vertical thickness of the main A, B and C rings, which is generally only about 10 meters (about 30 feet). Vertical structures can be created by unseen embedded moonlets. A 2016 study of spiral density waves using stellar occultations indicated that the B Ring's surface density is in the range of 40 to 140 g/cm2, lower than previously believed, and that the ring's optical depth has little correlation with its mass density (a finding previously reported for the A and C rings). The total mass of the B Ring was estimated to be somewhere in the range of 7 to 24×1018 kg. This compares to a mass for Mimas of 37.5×1018 kg. Spokes
Until 1980, the structure of the rings of Saturn was explained as being caused exclusively by the action of gravitational forces. Then images from the Voyager spacecraft showed radial features in the B Ring, known as spokes, which could not be explained in this manner, as their persistence and rotation around the rings was not consistent with gravitational orbital mechanics. The spokes appear dark in backscattered light, and bright in forward-scattered light; the transition occurs at a phase angle near 60°. The leading hypothesis regarding the spokes' composition is that they consist of microscopic dust particles suspended away from the main ring by electrostatic repulsion, as they rotate almost synchronously with the magnetosphere of Saturn.
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Rings of Saturn
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hypothesis regarding the spokes ' composition is that they consist of microscopic dust particles suspended away from the main ring by electrostatic repulsion , as they rotate almost synchronously with the magnetosphere of Saturn .The precise mechanism generating the spokes is still unknown. It has been suggested that the electrical disturbances might be caused by either lightning bolts in Saturn's atmosphere or micrometeoroid impacts on the rings. Alternatively, it is proposed that the spokes are very similar to a phenomenon known as lunar horizon glow or dust levitation, and caused by intense electric fields across the terminator of ring particles, not electrical disturbances. The spokes were not observed again until some twenty-five years later, this time by the Cassini space probe. The spokes were not visible when Cassini arrived at Saturn in early 2004. Some scientists speculated that the spokes would not be visible again until 2007, based on models attempting to describe their formation. Nevertheless, the Cassini imaging team kept looking for spokes in images of the rings, and they were next seen in images taken on 5 September 2005. The spokes appear to be a seasonal phenomenon, disappearing in the Saturnian midwinter and midsummer and reappearing as Saturn comes closer to equinox. Suggestions that the spokes may be a seasonal effect, varying with Saturn's 29.7-year orbit, were supported by their gradual reappearance in the later years of the Cassini mission. Moonlet
In 2009, during equinox, a moonlet embedded in the B ring was discovered from the shadow it cast. It is estimated to be 400 m (1,300 ft) in diameter. The moonlet was given the provisional designation S/2009 S 1. Cassini Division
The Cassini Division is a region 4,800 km (3,000 mi) in width between Saturn's A Ring and B Ring.
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Rings of Saturn
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602
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moonlet was given the provisional designation S/2009 S 1 . Cassini Division The Cassini Division is a region 4,800 km ( 3,000 mi ) in width between Saturn 's A Ring and B Ring .It was discovered in 1675 by Giovanni Cassini at the Paris Observatory using a refracting telescope that had a 2.5-inch objective lens with a 20-foot-long focal length and a 90x magnification. From Earth it appears as a thin black gap in the rings. However, Voyager discovered that the gap is itself populated by ring material bearing much similarity to the C Ring. The division may appear bright in views of the unlit side of the rings, since the relatively low density of material allows more light to be transmitted through the thickness of the rings. The inner edge of the Cassini Division is governed by a strong orbital resonance. Ring particles at this location orbit twice for every orbit of the moon Mimas. The resonance causes Mimas' pulls on these ring particles to accumulate, destabilizing their orbits and leading to a sharp cutoff in ring density. Many of the other gaps between ringlets within the Cassini Division, however, are unexplained. Huygens Gap
Discovered in 1981 through images sent back by Voyager 2, the Huygens Gap is located at the inner edge of the Cassini Division. It contains the dense, eccentric Huygens Ringlet in the middle. This ringlet exhibits irregular azimuthal variations of geometrical width and optical depth, which may be caused by the nearby 2:1 resonance with Mimas and the influence of the eccentric outer edge of the B-ring. There is an additional narrow ringlet just outside the Huygens Ringlet. A Ring
The A Ring is the outermost of the large, bright rings. Its inner boundary is the Cassini Division and its sharp outer boundary is close to the orbit of the small moon Atlas.
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Rings of Saturn
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A Ring is the outermost of the large , bright rings . Its inner boundary is the Cassini Division and its sharp outer boundary is close to the orbit of the small moon Atlas .The A Ring is interrupted at a location 22% of the ring width from its outer edge by the Encke Gap. A narrower gap 2% of the ring width from the outer edge is called the Keeler Gap. The thickness of the A Ring is estimated to be 10 to 30 m, its surface density from 35 to 40 g/cm2 and its total mass as 4 to 5×1018 kg (just under the mass of Hyperion). Its optical depth varies from 0.4 to 0.9. Similarly to the B Ring, the A Ring's outer edge is maintained by orbital resonances, albeit in this case a more complicated set. It is primarily acted on by the 7:6 resonance with Janus and Epimetheus, with other contributions from the 5:3 resonance with Mimas and various resonances with Prometheus and Pandora. Other orbital resonances also excite many spiral density waves in the A Ring (and, to a lesser extent, other rings as well), which account for most of its structure. These waves are described by the same physics that describes the spiral arms of galaxies. Spiral bending waves, also present in the A Ring and also described by the same theory, are vertical corrugations in the ring rather than compression waves. In April 2014, NASA scientists reported observing the possible formative stage of a new moon near the outer edge of the A Ring. Encke Gap
The Encke Gap is a 325-km (200 mile) wide gap within the A ring, centered at a distance of 133,590 km (83,000 miles) from Saturn's center. It is caused by the presence of the small moon Pan, which orbits within it.
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Rings of Saturn
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ring , centered at a distance of 133,590 km ( 83,000 miles ) from Saturn 's center . It is caused by the presence of the small moon Pan , which orbits within it .Images from the Cassini probe have shown that there are at least three thin, knotted ringlets within the gap. Spiral density waves visible on both sides of it are induced by resonances with nearby moons exterior to the rings, while Pan induces an additional set of spiralling wakes. Johann Encke himself did not observe this gap; it was named in honour of his ring observations. The gap itself was discovered by James Edward Keeler in 1888. The second major gap in the A ring, discovered by Voyager, was named the Keeler Gap in his honor. The Encke Gap is a gap because it is entirely within the A Ring. There was some ambiguity between the terms gap and division until the IAU clarified the definitions in 2008; before that, the separation was sometimes called the "Encke Division". Keeler Gap
The Keeler Gap is a 42-km (26 mile) wide gap in the A ring, approximately 250 km (150 miles) from the ring's outer edge. The small moon Daphnis, discovered 1 May 2005, orbits within it, keeping it clear. The moon's passage induces waves in the edges of the gap (this is also influenced by its slight orbital eccentricity). Because the orbit of Daphnis is slightly inclined to the ring plane, the waves have a component that is perpendicular to the ring plane, reaching a distance of 1500 m "above" the plane. The Keeler gap was discovered by Voyager, and named in honor of the astronomer James Edward Keeler. Keeler had in turn discovered and named the Encke Gap in honor of Johann Encke.
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Rings of Saturn
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605
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The Keeler gap was discovered by Voyager , and named in honor of the astronomer James Edward Keeler . Keeler had in turn discovered and named the Encke Gap in honor of Johann Encke .Propeller moonlets
In 2006, four tiny "moonlets" were found in Cassini images of the A Ring. The moonlets themselves are only about a hundred meters in diameter, too small to be seen directly; what Cassini sees are the "propeller"-shaped disturbances the moonlets create, which are several km (miles) across. It is estimated that the A Ring contains thousands of such objects. In 2007, the discovery of eight more moonlets revealed that they are largely confined to a 3,000 km (2000 mile) belt, about 130,000 km (80,000 miles) from Saturn's center, and by 2008 over 150 propeller moonlets had been detected. One that has been tracked for several years has been nicknamed Bleriot. Roche Division
The separation between the A ring and the F Ring has been named the Roche Division in honor of the French physicist Édouard Roche. The Roche Division should not be confused with the Roche limit which is the distance at which a large object is so close to a planet (such as Saturn) that the planet's tidal forces will pull it apart. Lying at the outer edge of the main ring system, the Roche Division is in fact close to Saturn's Roche limit, which is why the rings have been unable to accrete into a moon. Like the Cassini Division, the Roche Division is not empty but contains a sheet of material. The character of this material is similar to the tenuous and dusty D, E, and G Rings. Two locations in the Roche Division have a higher concentration of dust than the rest of the region.
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Rings of Saturn
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.
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606
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material is similar to the tenuous and dusty D , E , and G Rings . Two locations in the Roche Division have a higher concentration of dust than the rest of the region .These were discovered by the Cassini probe imaging team and were given temporary designations: R/2004 S 1, which lies along the orbit of the moon Atlas; and R/2004 S 2, centered at 138,900 km (86,300 miles) from Saturn's center, inward of the orbit of Prometheus. F Ring
The F Ring is the outermost discrete ring of Saturn and perhaps the most active ring in the Solar System, with features changing on a timescale of hours. It is located 3,000 km (2000 miles) beyond the outer edge of the A ring. The ring was discovered in 1979 by the Pioneer 11 imaging team. It is very thin, just a few hundred km in radial extent. While the traditional view has been that it is held together by two shepherd moons, Prometheus and Pandora, which orbit inside and outside it, recent studies indicate that only Prometheus contributes to the confinement. Numerical simulations suggest the ring was formed when Prometheus and Pandora collided with each other and were partially disrupted. More recent closeup images from the Cassini probe show that the F Ring consists of one core ring and a spiral strand around it. They also show that when Prometheus encounters the ring at its apoapsis, its gravitational attraction creates kinks and knots in the F Ring as the moon 'steals' material from it, leaving a dark channel in the inner part of the ring. Since Prometheus orbits Saturn more rapidly than the material in the F ring, each new channel is carved about 3.2 degrees in front of the previous one.
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Rings of Saturn
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn.
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607
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inner part of the ring . Since Prometheus orbits Saturn more rapidly than the material in the F ring , each new channel is carved about 3.2 degrees in front of the previous one .In 2008, further dynamism was detected, suggesting that small unseen moons orbiting within the F Ring are continually passing through its narrow core because of perturbations from Prometheus. One of the small moons was tentatively identified as S/2004 S 6. As of 2023, the clumpy structure of the ring "is thought to be caused by the presence of thousands of small parent bodies (1.0 to 0.1 km in size) that collide and produce dense strands of micrometer- to centimeter-sized particles that re-accrete over a few months onto the parent bodies in a steady-state regime." Outer rings
Janus/Epimetheus Ring
A faint dust ring is present around the region occupied by the orbits of Janus and Epimetheus, as revealed by images taken in forward-scattered light by the Cassini spacecraft in 2006. The ring has a radial extent of about 5,000 km (3000 miles). Its source is particles blasted off the moons' surfaces by meteoroid impacts, which then form a diffuse ring around their orbital paths. G Ring
The G Ring is a very thin, faint ring about halfway between the F Ring and the beginning of the E Ring, with its inner edge about 15,000 km (10,000 miles) inside the orbit of Mimas. It contains a single distinctly brighter arc near its inner edge (similar to the arcs in the rings of Neptune) that extends about one-sixth of its circumference, centered on the half-km (500 yard) diameter moonlet Aegaeon, which is held in place by a 7:6 orbital resonance with Mimas. The arc is believed to be composed of icy particles up to a few m in diameter, with the rest of the G Ring consisting of dust released from within the arc.
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Rings of Saturn
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608
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. The arc is believed to be composed of icy particles up to a few m in diameter , with the rest of the G Ring consisting of dust released from within the arc .The radial width of the arc is about 250 km (150 miles), compared to a width of 9,000 km (6000 miles) for the G Ring as a whole. The arc is thought to contain matter equivalent to a small icy moonlet about a hundred m in diameter. Dust released from Aegaeon and other source bodies within the arc by micrometeoroid impacts drifts outward from the arc because of interaction with Saturn's magnetosphere (whose plasma corotates with Saturn's magnetic field, which rotates much more rapidly than the orbital motion of the G Ring). These tiny particles are steadily eroded away by further impacts and dispersed by plasma drag. Over the course of thousands of years the ring gradually loses mass, which is replenished by further impacts on Aegaeon. Methone Ring Arc
A faint ring arc, first detected in September 2006, covering a longitudinal extent of about 10 degrees is associated with the moon Methone. The material in the arc is believed to represent dust ejected from Methone by micrometeoroid impacts. The confinement of the dust within the arc is attributable to a 14:15 resonance with Mimas (similar to the mechanism of confinement of the arc within the G ring). Under the influence of the same resonance, Methone librates back and forth in its orbit with an amplitude of 5° of longitude. Anthe Ring Arc
A faint ring arc, first detected in June 2007, covering a longitudinal extent of about 20 degrees is associated with the moon Anthe. The material in the arc is believed to represent dust knocked off Anthe by micrometeoroid impacts. The confinement of the dust within the arc is attributable to a 10:11 resonance with Mimas.
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Rings of Saturn
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609
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. The material in the arc is believed to represent dust knocked off Anthe by micrometeoroid impacts . The confinement of the dust within the arc is attributable to a 10:11 resonance with Mimas .Under the influence of the same resonance, Anthe drifts back and forth in its orbit over 14° of longitude. Pallene Ring
A faint dust ring shares Pallene's orbit, as revealed by images taken in forward-scattered light by the Cassini spacecraft in 2006. The ring has a radial extent of about 2,500 km (1500 miles). Its source is particles blasted off Pallene's surface by meteoroid impacts, which then form a diffuse ring around its orbital path. E Ring
Unconfirmed until 1980, the existence of the E ring was a subject of debate among astronomers at least as far back as 1908. In a narrative timeline of Saturn observations, Arthur Francis O'Donel Alexander attributes the first observation of what would come to be called the E Ring to Georges Fournier, who on 5 September 1907 at Mont Revard observed a "luminous zone" "surrounding the outer bright ring." The next year, on 7 October 1908, E. Schaer independently observed "a new dusky ring...surrounding the bright rings of Saturn" at the Geneva Observatory. Following up on Schaer's discovery, W. Boyer, T. Lewis, and Arthur Eddington found signs of a discontinuous ring matching Schaer's description, but described their observations as "uncertain." After Edward Barnard, using the what was at the time the world's best telescope, failed to find signs of a ring.
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Rings of Saturn
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610
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, but described their observations as `` uncertain . '' After Edward Barnard , using the what was at the time the world 's best telescope , failed to find signs of a ring .E. M. Antoniadi argued for the ring's existence in a 1909 publication, recalling a observations by William Wray on 26 December 1861 of a "very faint light...so as to give the impression that it was the dusky ring," but after Barnard's negative result most astronomers became skeptical of the E Ring's existence. Unlike the A, B, and C rings, the E Ring's small optical depth and large vertical extent mean it is best viewed edge-on, which is only possible once every 14–15 years, so perhaps for this reason, it was not until the 1960s that the E Ring was again the subject of observations. Although some sources credit Walter Feibelman with the E Ring's discovery in 1966, his paper published the following year announcing the observations begins by acknowledging the existing controversy and the long record of observations both supporting and disputing the ring's existence, and carefully stresses his interpretation of the data as a new ring as "tentative only." A reanalysis of Feibelman's original observations, conducted in anticipation of the coming Saturn flyby by Pioneer 11, once again called the evidence for this outer ring "shaky." Even polarimetric observations by Pioneer 11 failed to conclusively identify E Ring during its 1979 flyby, though "its existence was inferred from [particle, radiation, and magnetic field measurements]." Only after a digital reanalysis of the 1966 observations as well as several independent observations using ground- and space-based telescopes existence was finally confirmed in a 1980 paper by Feibelman and Klinglesmith.
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Rings of Saturn
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611
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. '' Only after a digital reanalysis of the 1966 observations as well as several independent observations using ground- and space-based telescopes existence was finally confirmed in a 1980 paper by Feibelman and Klinglesmith .The E Ring is the second outermost ring and is extremely wide; it consists of many tiny (micron and sub-micron) particles of water ice with silicates, carbon dioxide and ammonia. The E Ring is distributed between the orbits of Mimas and Titan. Unlike the other rings, it is composed of microscopic particles rather than macroscopic ice chunks. In 2005, the source of the E Ring's material was determined to be cryovolcanic plumes emanating from the "tiger stripes" of the south polar region of the moon Enceladus. Unlike the main rings, the E Ring is more than 2,000 km (1000 miles) thick and increases with its distance from Enceladus. Tendril-like structures observed within the E Ring can be related to the emissions of the most active south polar jets of Enceladus. Particles of the E Ring tend to accumulate on moons that orbit within it. The equator of the leading hemisphere of Tethys is tinted slightly blue due to infalling material. The trojan moons Telesto, Calypso, Helene and Polydeuces are particularly affected as their orbits move up and down the ring plane. This results in their surfaces being coated with bright material that smooths out features. Phoebe ring
In October 2009, the discovery of a tenuous disk of material just interior to the orbit of Phoebe was reported. The disk was aligned edge-on to Earth at the time of discovery. This disk can be loosely described as another ring. Although very large (as seen from Earth, the apparent size of two full moons), the ring is virtually invisible.
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Rings of Saturn
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612
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. This disk can be loosely described as another ring . Although very large ( as seen from Earth , the apparent size of two full moons ) , the ring is virtually invisible .It was discovered using NASA's infrared Spitzer Space Telescope, and was seen over the entire range of the observations, which extended from 128 to 207 times the radius of Saturn, with calculations indicating that it may extend outward up to 300 Saturn radii and inward to the orbit of Iapetus at 59 Saturn radii. The ring was subsequently studied using the WISE, Herschel and Cassini spacecraft; WISE observations show that it extends from at least between 50 and 100 to 270 Saturn radii (the inner edge is lost in the planet's glare). Data obtained with WISE indicate the ring particles are small; those with radii greater than 10 cm comprise 10% or less of the cross-sectional area. Phoebe orbits the planet at a distance ranging from 180 to 250 radii. The ring has a thickness of about 40 radii. Because the ring's particles are presumed to have originated from impacts (micrometeoroid and larger) on Phoebe, they should share its retrograde orbit, which is opposite to the orbital motion of the next inner moon, Iapetus. This ring lies in the plane of Saturn's orbit, or roughly the ecliptic, and thus is tilted 27 degrees from Saturn's equatorial plane and the other rings. Phoebe is inclined by 5° with respect to Saturn's orbit plane (often written as 175°, due to Phoebe's retrograde orbital motion), and its resulting vertical excursions above and below the ring plane agree closely with the ring's observed thickness of 40 Saturn radii. The existence of the ring was proposed in the 1970s by Steven Soter.
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Rings of Saturn
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vertical excursions above and below the ring plane agree closely with the ring 's observed thickness of 40 Saturn radii . The existence of the ring was proposed in the 1970s by Steven Soter .The discovery was made by Anne J. Verbiscer and Michael F. Skrutskie (of the University of Virginia) and Douglas P. Hamilton (of the University of Maryland, College Park). The three had studied together at Cornell University as graduate students. Ring material migrates inward due to reemission of solar radiation, with a speed inversely proportional to particle size; a 3 cm particle would migrate from the vicinity of Phoebe to that of Iapetus over the age of the Solar System. The material would thus strike the leading hemisphere of Iapetus. Infall of this material causes a slight darkening and reddening of the leading hemisphere of Iapetus (similar to what is seen on the Uranian moons Oberon and Titania) but does not directly create the dramatic two-tone coloration of that moon. Rather, the infalling material initiates a positive feedback thermal self-segregation process of ice sublimation from warmer regions, followed by vapor condensation onto cooler regions. This leaves a dark residue of "lag" material covering most of the equatorial region of Iapetus's leading hemisphere, which contrasts with the bright ice deposits covering the polar regions and most of the trailing hemisphere.
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Rings of Saturn
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of `` lag '' material covering most of the equatorial region of Iapetus 's leading hemisphere , which contrasts with the bright ice deposits covering the polar regions and most of the trailing hemisphere .See also
Galileo Galilei – the first person to observe Saturn's rings, in 1610
Christiaan Huygens – the first to propose that there was a ring surrounding Saturn, in 1655
Giovanni Cassini – discovered the separation between the A and B rings (the Cassini Division), in 1675
Édouard Roche – French astronomer who described how a satellite that comes within the Roche limit of Saturn could break up and form the rings
Notes
References
External links
Planetary Rings Node: Saturn's Ring System
Saturn's Rings by NASA's Solar System Exploration
Rings of Saturn nomenclature from the USGS planetary nomenclature page
Biggest Ring Around Saturn Just Got Supersized (retrieved 2017-12-20 from Space.com)
Everything a Curious Mind Should Know About Planetary Ring Systems with Dr Mark Showalter (Waseem Akhtar podcast with Mark Showalter)
High-resolution animation by Seán Doran of the backlit rings
High-resolution animation by Kevin M. Gill of a flyover of the outer B Ring at equinox (it starts getting less uniform after the first minute); see Rings album for more
High-resolution animation by Nick Stevens of Saturn and its rings from an equatorial and a polar orbit, and from a dive below the rings; see listing for more
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Rings of Saturn
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Pluto (minor-planet designation: 134340 Pluto) is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune. It is the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object to directly orbit the Sun. It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by volume by a small margin, but is less massive than Eris. Like other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto is made primarily of ice and rock and is much smaller than the inner planets. Pluto has roughly one-sixth the mass of the Moon and one-third of its volume. Originally considered a planet, its status was changed when astronomers adopted a new definition of the word with new criteria. Pluto has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit, ranging from 30 to 49 astronomical units (4.5 to 7.3 billion kilometres; 2.8 to 4.6 billion miles) from the Sun. Light from the Sun takes 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its orbital distance of 39.5 AU (5.91 billion km; 3.67 billion mi). Pluto's eccentric orbit periodically brings it closer to the Sun than Neptune, but a stable orbital resonance prevents them from colliding. Pluto has five known moons: Charon, the largest, whose diameter is just over half that of Pluto; Styx; Nix; Kerberos; and Hydra. Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a binary system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body, and they are tidally locked. New Horizons was the first spacecraft to visit Pluto and its moons, making a flyby on July 14, 2015, and taking detailed measurements and observations. Pluto was discovered in 1930 by Clyde W. Tombaugh, making it the first known object in the Kuiper belt. It was immediately hailed as the ninth planet. However, its planetary status was questioned when it was found to be much smaller than expected.
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Pluto
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
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616
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first known object in the Kuiper belt . It was immediately hailed as the ninth planet . However , its planetary status was questioned when it was found to be much smaller than expected .These doubts increased following the discovery of additional objects in the Kuiper belt starting in the 1990s, particularly the more massive scattered disk object Eris in 2005. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) formally redefined the term planet to exclude dwarf planets such as Pluto. Many planetary astronomers, however, continue to consider Pluto and other dwarf planets to be planets. History
Discovery
In the 1840s, Urbain Le Verrier used Newtonian mechanics to predict the position of the then-undiscovered planet Neptune after analyzing perturbations in the orbit of Uranus. Subsequent observations of Neptune in the late 19th century led astronomers to speculate that Uranus's orbit was being disturbed by another planet besides Neptune. In 1906, Percival Lowell—a wealthy Bostonian who had founded Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, in 1894—started an extensive project in search of a possible ninth planet, which he termed "Planet X". In 1909, Lowell and William H. Pickering suggested several possible celestial coordinates for such a planet. Lowell and his observatory conducted his search, using mathematical calculations made by Elizabeth Williams, until his death in 1916, but to no avail. Unknown to Lowell, his surveys had captured two faint images of Pluto on March 19 and April 7, 1915, but they were not recognized for what they were. There are fourteen other known precovery observations, with the earliest made by the Yerkes Observatory on August 20, 1909. Percival's widow, Constance Lowell, entered into a ten-year legal battle with the Lowell Observatory over her husband's legacy, and the search for Planet X did not resume until 1929.
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Pluto
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617
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Percival 's widow , Constance Lowell , entered into a ten-year legal battle with the Lowell Observatory over her husband 's legacy , and the search for Planet X did not resume until 1929 .Vesto Melvin Slipher, the observatory director, gave the job of locating Planet X to 23-year-old Clyde Tombaugh, who had just arrived at the observatory after Slipher had been impressed by a sample of his astronomical drawings. Tombaugh's task was to systematically image the night sky in pairs of photographs, then examine each pair and determine whether any objects had shifted position. Using a blink comparator, he rapidly shifted back and forth between views of each of the plates to create the illusion of movement of any objects that had changed position or appearance between photographs. On February 18, 1930, after nearly a year of searching, Tombaugh discovered a possible moving object on photographic plates taken on January 23 and 29. A lesser-quality photograph taken on January 21 helped confirm the movement. After the observatory obtained further confirmatory photographs, news of the discovery was telegraphed to the Harvard College Observatory on March 13, 1930. One Plutonian year corresponds to 247.94 Earth years; thus, in 2178, Pluto will complete its first orbit since its discovery. Name
The name Pluto came from the Roman god of the underworld; and it is also an epithet for Hades (the Greek equivalent of Pluto). Upon the announcement of the discovery, Lowell Observatory received over a thousand suggestions for names. Three names topped the list: Minerva, Pluto and Cronus. 'Minerva' was the Lowell staff's first choice but was rejected because it had already been used for an asteroid; Cronus was disfavored because it was promoted by an unpopular and egocentric astronomer, Thomas Jefferson Jackson See. A vote was then taken and 'Pluto' was the unanimous choice.
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Pluto
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618
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an asteroid ; Cronus was disfavored because it was promoted by an unpopular and egocentric astronomer , Thomas Jefferson Jackson See . A vote was then taken and 'Pluto ' was the unanimous choice .To make sure the name stuck, and that the planet would not suffer changes in its name as Uranus had, Lowell Observatory proposed the name to the American Astronomical Society and the Royal Astronomical Society; both approved it unanimously. The name was published on May 1, 1930. The name Pluto had received some 150 nominations among the letters and telegrams sent to Lowell. The first had been from Venetia Burney (1918–2009), an eleven-year-old schoolgirl in Oxford, England, who was interested in classical mythology. She had suggested it to her grandfather Falconer Madan when he read the news of Pluto's discovery to his family over breakfast; Madan passed the suggestion to astronomy professor Herbert Hall Turner, who cabled it to colleagues at Lowell on March 16, three days after the announcement. The name 'Pluto' was mythologically appropriate: the god Pluto was one of six surviving children of Saturn, and the others had already all been chosen as names of major or minor planets (his brothers Jupiter and Neptune, and his sisters Ceres, Juno and Vesta). Both the god and the planet inhabited "gloomy" regions, and the god was able to make himself invisible, as the planet had been for so long. The choice was further helped by the fact that the first two letters of Pluto were the initials of Percival Lowell; indeed, 'Percival' had been one of the more popular suggestions for a name for the new planet. Symbol
Once named, Pluto's planetary symbol ⟨⟩ was then created as a monogram of the letters "PL". This symbol is rarely used in astronomy anymore, though it is still common in astrology.
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Pluto
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
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619
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Pluto 's planetary symbol ⟨⟩ was then created as a monogram of the letters `` PL '' . This symbol is rarely used in astronomy anymore , though it is still common in astrology .However, the most common astrological symbol for Pluto, occasionally used in astronomy as well, is an orb (possibly representing Pluto's invisibility cap) over Pluto's bident ⟨⟩, which dates to the early 1930s. The name 'Pluto' was soon embraced by wider culture. In 1930, Walt Disney was apparently inspired by it when he introduced for Mickey Mouse a canine companion named Pluto, although Disney animator Ben Sharpsteen could not confirm why the name was given. In 1941, Glenn T. Seaborg named the newly created element plutonium after Pluto, in keeping with the tradition of naming elements after newly discovered planets, following uranium, which was named after Uranus, and neptunium, which was named after Neptune. Most languages use the name "Pluto" in various transliterations. In Japanese, Houei Nojiri suggested the calque Meiōsei (冥王星, "Star of the King (God) of the Underworld"), and this was borrowed into Chinese and Korean. Some languages of India use the name Pluto, but others, such as Hindi, use the name of Yama, the God of Death in Hinduism. Polynesian languages also tend to use the indigenous god of the underworld, as in Māori Whiro. Vietnamese does not follow the Chinese usage due to a phonological constraint: the Sino-Vietnamese word 冥 minh "dark" is homophonous with 明 minh "bright". Instead, Vietnamese uses Yama, which is also a Buddhist deity, in the form of Sao Diêm Vương 星閻王 "Yama's Star", derived from Chinese 閻王 Yán Wáng / Yìhm Wòhng "King Yama".
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Pluto
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620
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which is also a Buddhist deity , in the form of Sao Diêm Vương 星閻王 `` Yama 's Star '' , derived from Chinese 閻王 Yán Wáng / Yìhm Wòhng `` King Yama '' .Planet X disproved
Once Pluto was found, its faintness and lack of a viewable disc cast doubt on the idea that it was Lowell's Planet X. Estimates of Pluto's mass were revised downward throughout the 20th century. Astronomers initially calculated its mass based on its presumed effect on Neptune and Uranus. In 1931, Pluto was calculated to be roughly the mass of Earth, with further calculations in 1948 bringing the mass down to roughly that of Mars. In 1976, Dale Cruikshank, Carl Pilcher and David Morrison of the University of Hawaiʻi calculated Pluto's albedo for the first time, finding that it matched that for methane ice; this meant Pluto had to be exceptionally luminous for its size and therefore could not be more than 1 percent the mass of Earth. (Pluto's albedo is 1.4–1.9 times that of Earth.) In 1978, the discovery of Pluto's moon Charon allowed the measurement of Pluto's mass for the first time: roughly 0.2% that of Earth, and far too small to account for the discrepancies in the orbit of Uranus. Subsequent searches for an alternative Planet X, notably by Robert Sutton Harrington, failed. In 1992, Myles Standish used data from Voyager 2's flyby of Neptune in 1989, which had revised the estimates of Neptune's mass downward by 0.5%—an amount comparable to the mass of Mars—to recalculate its gravitational effect on Uranus. With the new figures added in, the discrepancies, and with them the need for a Planet X, vanished. As of 2000 the majority of scientists agree that Planet X, as Lowell defined it, does not exist.
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Pluto
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621
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discrepancies , and with them the need for a Planet X , vanished . As of 2000 the majority of scientists agree that Planet X , as Lowell defined it , does not exist .Lowell had made a prediction of Planet X's orbit and position in 1915 that was fairly close to Pluto's actual orbit and its position at that time. Ernest W. Brown concluded soon after Pluto's discovery that this was a coincidence. Classification
From 1992 onward, many bodies were discovered orbiting in the same volume as Pluto, showing that Pluto is part of a population of objects called the Kuiper belt. This made its official status as a planet controversial, with many questioning whether Pluto should be considered together with or separately from its surrounding population. Museum and planetarium directors occasionally created controversy by omitting Pluto from planetary models of the Solar System. In February 2000 the Hayden Planetarium in New York City displayed a Solar System model of only eight planets, which made headlines almost a year later. Ceres, Pallas, Juno and Vesta lost their planet status among most astronomers after the discovery of many other asteroids in the 1840s. On the other hand, planetary geologists often regarded Ceres, and less often Pallas and Vesta, as being different from smaller asteroids because they were large enough to have undergone geological evolution. Although the first Kuiper belt objects discovered were quite small, objects increasingly closer in size to Pluto were soon discovered, some large enough (like Pluto itself) to satisfy geological but not dynamical ideas of planethood. In 1998, Brian G. Marsden of Harvard University's Minor Planet Center suggested that Pluto be given the minor planet number 10000 while still retaining its official position as a planet.
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Pluto
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
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622
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planethood . In 1998 , Brian G. Marsden of Harvard University 's Minor Planet Center suggested that Pluto be given the minor planet number 10000 while still retaining its official position as a planet .The prospect of Pluto's "demotion" created a public outcry, and in response the International Astronomical Union clarified that it was not at that time proposing to remove Pluto from the planet list. In the early 2000's, astronomers at Caltech led by Michael E. Brown undertook a wide survey of the skies using digital detection technology, finding numerous Trans-Neptunian objects. Many of these objects were initially measured as larger than or equal in size to Pluto, igniting a debate over whether or not to consider them planets. Later, estimates were revised down due to higher than expected albedos. The debate became unavoidable when, in July 2005, these astronomers announced the discovery of a new object, Eris, which was substantially more massive than Pluto and the most massive object discovered in the Solar System since Triton in 1846. The press initially called it the tenth planet, although there was no official consensus at the time on whether to call it a planet. Others in the astronomical community considered the discovery the strongest argument for reclassifying Pluto as a minor planet. IAU classification
The debate came to a head in August 2006 during the triennial meeting of the IAU, when Uruguayan astronomers Julio Ángel Fernández and Gonzalo Tancredi first proposed the new definition for the term "planet". According to their proposal, there are three conditions for an object in the Solar System to be considered a planet:
The object must be in orbit around the Sun. The object must be massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity. More specifically, its own gravity should pull it into a shape defined by hydrostatic equilibrium. It must have cleared the neighborhood around its orbit.
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Pluto
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623
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to be rounded by its own gravity . More specifically , its own gravity should pull it into a shape defined by hydrostatic equilibrium . It must have cleared the neighborhood around its orbit .Pluto fails to meet the third condition. Its mass is substantially less than the combined mass of the other objects in its orbit: 0.07 times, in contrast to Earth, which is 1.7 million times the remaining mass in its orbit (excluding the moon). The IAU further decided that bodies that, like Pluto, meet criteria 1 and 2, but do not meet criterion 3 would be called dwarf planets. In September 2006, the IAU included Pluto, and Eris and its moon Dysnomia, in their Minor Planet Catalogue, giving them the official minor-planet designations "(134340) Pluto", "(136199) Eris", and "(136199) Eris I Dysnomia". Had Pluto been included upon its discovery in 1930, it would have likely been designated 1164, following 1163 Saga, which was discovered a month earlier. There has been some resistance within the astronomical community toward the reclassification, and in particular planetary scientists often continue to reject it, considering Pluto, Charon, and Eris to be planets for the same reason they do so for Ceres. In effect, this amounts to accepting only the second clause of the IAU definition. Alan Stern, principal investigator with NASA's New Horizons mission to Pluto, derided the IAU resolution. He also stated that because less than five percent of astronomers voted for it, the decision was not representative of the entire astronomical community. Marc W. Buie, then at the Lowell Observatory, petitioned against the definition. Others have supported the IAU, for example Mike Brown, the astronomer who discovered Eris. Public reception to the IAU decision was mixed.
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Pluto
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
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the Lowell Observatory , petitioned against the definition . Others have supported the IAU , for example Mike Brown , the astronomer who discovered Eris . Public reception to the IAU decision was mixed .A resolution introduced in the California State Assembly facetiously called the IAU decision a "scientific heresy". The New Mexico House of Representatives passed a resolution in honor of Clyde Tombaugh, the discoverer of Pluto and a longtime resident of that state, that declared that Pluto will always be considered a planet while in New Mexican skies and that March 13, 2007, was Pluto Planet Day. The Illinois Senate passed a similar resolution in 2009 on the basis that Tombaugh was born in Illinois. The resolution asserted that Pluto was "unfairly downgraded to a 'dwarf' planet" by the IAU." Some members of the public have also rejected the change, citing the disagreement within the scientific community on the issue, or for sentimental reasons, maintaining that they have always known Pluto as a planet and will continue to do so regardless of the IAU decision. In 2006, in its 17th annual words-of-the-year vote, the American Dialect Society voted plutoed as the word of the year. To "pluto" is to "demote or devalue someone or something". In April 2024, Arizona (where Pluto was first discovered in 1930) passed a law naming Pluto as the official state planet. Researchers on both sides of the debate gathered in August 2008, at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory for a conference that included back-to-back talks on the IAU definition of a planet. Entitled "The Great Planet Debate", the conference published a post-conference press release indicating that scientists could not come to a consensus about the definition of planet.
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Pluto
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
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625
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definition of a planet . Entitled `` The Great Planet Debate '' , the conference published a post-conference press release indicating that scientists could not come to a consensus about the definition of planet .In June 2008, the IAU had announced in a press release that the term "plutoid" would henceforth be used to refer to Pluto and other planetary-mass objects that have an orbital semi-major axis greater than that of Neptune, though the term has not seen significant use. Orbit
Pluto's orbital period is about 248 years. Its orbital characteristics are substantially different from those of the planets, which follow nearly circular orbits around the Sun close to a flat reference plane called the ecliptic. In contrast, Pluto's orbit is moderately inclined relative to the ecliptic (over 17°) and moderately eccentric (elliptical). This eccentricity means a small region of Pluto's orbit lies closer to the Sun than Neptune's. The Pluto–Charon barycenter came to perihelion on September 5, 1989, and was last closer to the Sun than Neptune between February 7, 1979, and February 11, 1999. Although the 3:2 resonance with Neptune (see below) is maintained, Pluto's inclination and eccentricity behave in a chaotic manner. Computer simulations can be used to predict its position for several million years (both forward and backward in time), but after intervals much longer than the Lyapunov time of 10–20 million years, calculations become unreliable: Pluto is sensitive to immeasurably small details of the Solar System, hard-to-predict factors that will gradually change Pluto's position in its orbit. The semi-major axis of Pluto's orbit varies between about 39.3 and 39.6 AU with a period of about 19,951 years, corresponding to an orbital period varying between 246 and 249 years. The semi-major axis and period are presently getting longer.
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Pluto
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
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626
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about 39.3 and 39.6 AU with a period of about 19,951 years , corresponding to an orbital period varying between 246 and 249 years . The semi-major axis and period are presently getting longer .Relationship with Neptune
Despite Pluto's orbit appearing to cross that of Neptune when viewed from north or south of the Solar System, the two objects' orbits do not intersect. When Pluto is closest to the Sun, and close to Neptune's orbit as viewed from such a position, it is also the farthest north of Neptune's path. Pluto's orbit passes about 8 AU north of that of Neptune, preventing a collision. This alone is not enough to protect Pluto; perturbations from the planets (especially Neptune) could alter Pluto's orbit (such as its orbital precession) over millions of years so that a collision could happen. However, Pluto is also protected by its 2:3 orbital resonance with Neptune: for every two orbits that Pluto makes around the Sun, Neptune makes three, in a frame of reference that rotates at the rate that Pluto's perihelion precesses (about 0.97×10−4 degrees per year). Each cycle lasts about 495 years. There are many other objects in this same resonance, called plutinos. At present, in each 495-year cycle, the first time Pluto is at perihelion (such as in 1989), Neptune is 57° ahead of Pluto. By Pluto's second passage through perihelion, Neptune will have completed a further one and a half of its own orbits, and will be 123° behind Pluto. Pluto and Neptune's minimum separation is over 17 AU, which is greater than Pluto's minimum separation from Uranus (11 AU). The minimum separation between Pluto and Neptune actually occurs near the time of Pluto's aphelion. The 2:3 resonance between the two bodies is highly stable and has been preserved over millions of years.
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Pluto
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
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627
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minimum separation between Pluto and Neptune actually occurs near the time of Pluto 's aphelion . The 2:3 resonance between the two bodies is highly stable and has been preserved over millions of years .This prevents their orbits from changing relative to one another, so the two bodies can never pass near each other. Even if Pluto's orbit were not inclined, the two bodies could never collide. When Pluto's period is slightly different from 3/2 of Neptune's, the pattern of its distance from Neptune will drift. Near perihelion Pluto moves interior to Neptune's orbit and is therefore moving faster, so during the first of two orbits in the 495-year cycle, it is approaching Neptune from behind. At present it remains between 50° and 65° behind Neptune for 100 years (e.g. 1937–2036). The gravitational pull between the two causes angular momentum to be transferred to Pluto. This situation moves Pluto into a slightly larger orbit, where it has a slightly longer period, according to Kepler's third law. After several such repetitions, Pluto is sufficiently delayed that at the second perihelion of each cycle it will not be far ahead of Neptune coming behind it, and Neptune will start to decrease Pluto's period again. The whole cycle takes about 20,000 years to complete. Other factors
Numerical studies have shown that over millions of years, the general nature of the alignment between the orbits of Pluto and Neptune does not change. There are several other resonances and interactions that enhance Pluto's stability. These arise principally from two additional mechanisms (besides the 2:3 mean-motion resonance). First, Pluto's argument of perihelion, the angle between the point where it crosses the ecliptic (or the invariant plane) and the point where it is closest to the Sun, librates around 90°.
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Pluto
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
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628
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argument of perihelion , the angle between the point where it crosses the ecliptic ( or the invariant plane ) and the point where it is closest to the Sun , librates around 90° .This means that when Pluto is closest to the Sun, it is at its farthest north of the plane of the Solar System, preventing encounters with Neptune. This is a consequence of the Kozai mechanism, which relates the eccentricity of an orbit to its inclination to a larger perturbing body—in this case, Neptune. Relative to Neptune, the amplitude of libration is 38°, and so the angular separation of Pluto's perihelion to the orbit of Neptune is always greater than 52° (90°–38°). The closest such angular separation occurs every 10,000 years. Second, the longitudes of ascending nodes of the two bodies—the points where they cross the invariant plane—are in near-resonance with the above libration. When the two longitudes are the same—that is, when one could draw a straight line through both nodes and the Sun—Pluto's perihelion lies exactly at 90°, and hence it comes closest to the Sun when it is furthest north of Neptune's orbit. This is known as the 1:1 superresonance. All the Jovian planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) play a role in the creation of the superresonance. Rotation
Pluto's rotation period, its day, is equal to 6.387 Earth days. Like Uranus and 2 Pallas, Pluto rotates on its "side" in its orbital plane, with an axial tilt of 120°, and so its seasonal variation is extreme; at its solstices, one-fourth of its surface is in continuous daylight, whereas another fourth is in continuous darkness. The reason for this unusual orientation has been debated. Research from the University of Arizona has suggested that it may be due to the way that a body's spin will always adjust to minimize energy.
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Pluto
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this unusual orientation has been debated . Research from the University of Arizona has suggested that it may be due to the way that a body 's spin will always adjust to minimize energy .This could mean a body reorienting itself to put extraneous mass near the equator and regions lacking mass tend towards the poles. This is called polar wander. According to a paper released from the University of Arizona, this could be caused by masses of frozen nitrogen building up in shadowed areas of the dwarf planet. These masses would cause the body to reorient itself, leading to its unusual axial tilt of 120°. The buildup of nitrogen is due to Pluto's vast distance from the Sun. At the equator, temperatures can drop to −240 °C (−400.0 °F; 33.1 K), causing nitrogen to freeze as water would freeze on Earth. The same polar wandering effect seen on Pluto would be observed on Earth were the Antarctic ice sheet several times larger. Geology
Surface
The plains on Pluto's surface are composed of more than 98 percent nitrogen ice, with traces of methane and carbon monoxide. Nitrogen and carbon monoxide are most abundant on the anti-Charon face of Pluto (around 180° longitude, where Tombaugh Regio's western lobe, Sputnik Planitia, is located), whereas methane is most abundant near 300° east. The mountains are made of water ice. Pluto's surface is quite varied, with large differences in both brightness and color. Pluto is one of the most contrastive bodies in the Solar System, with as much contrast as Saturn's moon Iapetus. The color varies from charcoal black, to dark orange and white. Pluto's color is more similar to that of Io with slightly more orange and significantly less red than Mars.
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Pluto
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630
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. The color varies from charcoal black , to dark orange and white . Pluto 's color is more similar to that of Io with slightly more orange and significantly less red than Mars .Notable geographical features include Tombaugh Regio, or the "Heart" (a large bright area on the side opposite Charon), Belton Regio, or the "Whale" (a large dark area on the trailing hemisphere), and the "Brass Knuckles" (a series of equatorial dark areas on the leading hemisphere). Sputnik Planitia, the western lobe of the "Heart", is a 1,000 km-wide basin of frozen nitrogen and carbon monoxide ices, divided into polygonal cells, which are interpreted as convection cells that carry floating blocks of water ice crust and sublimation pits towards their margins; there are obvious signs of glacial flows both into and out of the basin. It has no craters that were visible to New Horizons, indicating that its surface is less than 10 million years old. Latest studies have shown that the surface has an age of 180000+90000−40000 years. The New Horizons science team summarized initial findings as "Pluto displays a surprisingly wide variety of geological landforms, including those resulting from glaciological and surface–atmosphere interactions as well as impact, tectonic, possible cryovolcanic, and mass-wasting processes." In Western parts of Sputnik Planitia there are fields of transverse dunes formed by the winds blowing from the center of Sputnik Planitia in the direction of surrounding mountains. The dune wavelengths are in the range of 0.4–1 km and likely consist of methane particles 200–300 μm in size. Internal structure
Pluto's density is 1.853±0.004 g/cm3.
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Pluto
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
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631
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direction of surrounding mountains . The dune wavelengths are in the range of 0.4–1 km and likely consist of methane particles 200–300 μm in size . Internal structure Pluto 's density is 1.853±0.004 g/cm3 .Because the decay of radioactive elements would eventually heat the ices enough for the rock to separate from them, scientists expect that Pluto's internal structure is differentiated, with the rocky material having settled into a dense core surrounded by a mantle of water ice. The pre–New Horizons estimate for the diameter of the core is 1700 km, 70% of Pluto's diameter. It is possible that such heating continues, creating a subsurface ocean of liquid water 100 to 180 km thick at the core–mantle boundary. In September 2016, scientists at Brown University simulated the impact thought to have formed Sputnik Planitia, and showed that it might have been the result of liquid water upweling from below after the collision, implying the existence of a subsurface ocean at least 100 km deep. In June 2020, astronomers reported evidence that Pluto may have had a subsurface ocean, and consequently may have been habitable, when it was first formed. In March 2022, a team of researchers proposed that the mountains Wright Mons and Piccard Mons are actually a merger of many smaller cryovolcanic domes, suggesting a source of heat on the body at levels previously thought not possible. Mass and size
Pluto's diameter is 2,376.6±3.2 km and its mass is (1.303±0.003)×1022 kg, 17.7% that of the Moon (0.22% that of Earth). Its surface area is 1.774443×107 km2, or just slightly bigger than Russia or Antarctica (particularly including the Antarctic sea ice during winter). Its surface gravity is 0.063 g (compared to 1 g for Earth and 0.17 g for the Moon).
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Pluto
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632
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Russia or Antarctica ( particularly including the Antarctic sea ice during winter ) . Its surface gravity is 0.063 g ( compared to 1 g for Earth and 0.17 g for the Moon ) .This gives Pluto an escape velocity of 4,363.2 km per hour / 2,711.167 miles per hour (as compared to Earth's 40,270 km per hour / 25,020 miles per hour). Pluto is more than twice the diameter and a dozen times the mass of Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt. It is less massive than the dwarf planet Eris, a trans-Neptunian object discovered in 2005, though Pluto has a larger diameter of 2,376.6 km compared to Eris's approximate diameter of 2,326 km. With less than 0.2 lunar masses, Pluto is much less massive than the terrestrial planets, and also less massive than seven moons: Ganymede, Titan, Callisto, Io, the Moon, Europa, and Triton. The mass is much less than thought before Charon was discovered. The discovery of Pluto's satellite Charon in 1978 enabled a determination of the mass of the Pluto–Charon system by application of Newton's formulation of Kepler's third law. Observations of Pluto in occultation with Charon allowed scientists to establish Pluto's diameter more accurately, whereas the invention of adaptive optics allowed them to determine its shape more accurately. Determinations of Pluto's size have been complicated by its atmosphere and hydrocarbon haze. In March 2014, Lellouch, de Bergh et al. published findings regarding methane mixing ratios in Pluto's atmosphere consistent with a Plutonian diameter greater than 2,360 km, with a "best guess" of 2,368 km.
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Pluto
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de Bergh et al . published findings regarding methane mixing ratios in Pluto 's atmosphere consistent with a Plutonian diameter greater than 2,360 km , with a `` best guess '' of 2,368 km .On July 13, 2015, images from NASA's New Horizons mission Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI), along with data from the other instruments, determined Pluto's diameter to be 2,370 km (1,473 mi), which was later revised to be 2,372 km (1,474 mi) on July 24, and later to 2374±8 km. Using radio occultation data from the New Horizons Radio Science Experiment (REX), the diameter was found to be 2,376.6±3.2 km. Atmosphere
Pluto has a tenuous atmosphere consisting of nitrogen (N2), methane (CH4), and carbon monoxide (CO), which are in equilibrium with their ices on Pluto's surface. According to the measurements by New Horizons, the surface pressure is about 1 Pa (10 μbar), roughly one million to 100,000 times less than Earth's atmospheric pressure. It was initially thought that, as Pluto moves away from the Sun, its atmosphere should gradually freeze onto the surface; studies of New Horizons data and ground-based occultations show that Pluto's atmospheric density increases, and that it likely remains gaseous throughout Pluto's orbit. New Horizons observations showed that atmospheric escape of nitrogen to be 10,000 times less than expected. Alan Stern has contended that even a small increase in Pluto's surface temperature can lead to exponential increases in Pluto's atmospheric density; from 18 hPa to as much as 280 hPa (three times that of Mars to a quarter that of the Earth). At such densities, nitrogen could flow across the surface as liquid. Just like sweat cools the body as it evaporates from the skin, the sublimation of Pluto's atmosphere cools its surface.
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Pluto
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
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634
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such densities , nitrogen could flow across the surface as liquid . Just like sweat cools the body as it evaporates from the skin , the sublimation of Pluto 's atmosphere cools its surface .Pluto has no or almost no troposphere; observations by New Horizons suggest only a thin tropospheric boundary layer. Its thickness in the place of measurement was 4 km, and the temperature was 37±3 K. The layer is not continuous. In July 2019, an occultation by Pluto showed that its atmospheric pressure, against expectations, had fallen by 20% since 2016. In 2021, astronomers at the Southwest Research Institute confirmed the result using data from an occultation in 2018, which showed that light was appearing less gradually from behind Pluto's disc, indicating a thinning atmosphere. The presence of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas, in Pluto's atmosphere creates a temperature inversion, with the average temperature of its atmosphere tens of degrees warmer than its surface, though observations by New Horizons have revealed Pluto's upper atmosphere to be far colder than expected (70 K, as opposed to about 100 K). Pluto's atmosphere is divided into roughly 20 regularly spaced haze layers up to 150 km high, thought to be the result of pressure waves created by airflow across Pluto's mountains. Natural satellites
Pluto has five known natural satellites. The largest and closest to Pluto is Charon. First identified in 1978 by astronomer James Christy, Charon is the only moon of Pluto that may be in hydrostatic equilibrium. Charon's mass is sufficient to cause the barycenter of the Pluto–Charon system to be outside Pluto. Beyond Charon there are four much smaller circumbinary moons. In order of distance from Pluto they are Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra. Nix and Hydra were both discovered in 2005, Kerberos was discovered in 2011, and Styx was discovered in 2012.
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Pluto
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635
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from Pluto they are Styx , Nix , Kerberos , and Hydra . Nix and Hydra were both discovered in 2005 , Kerberos was discovered in 2011 , and Styx was discovered in 2012 .The satellites' orbits are circular (eccentricity < 0.006) and coplanar with Pluto's equator (inclination < 1°), and therefore tilted approximately 120° relative to Pluto's orbit. The Plutonian system is highly compact: the five known satellites orbit within the inner 3% of the region where prograde orbits would be stable. The orbital periods of all Pluto's moons are linked in a system of orbital resonances and near-resonances. When precession is accounted for, the orbital periods of Styx, Nix, and Hydra are in an exact 18:22:33 ratio. There is a sequence of approximate ratios, 3:4:5:6, between the periods of Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra with that of Charon; the ratios become closer to being exact the further out the moons are. The Pluto–Charon system is one of the few in the Solar System whose barycenter lies outside the primary body; the Patroclus–Menoetius system is a smaller example, and the Sun–Jupiter system is the only larger one. The similarity in size of Charon and Pluto has prompted some astronomers to call it a double dwarf planet. The system is also unusual among planetary systems in that each is tidally locked to the other, which means that Pluto and Charon always have the same hemisphere facing each other — a property shared by only one other known system, Eris and Dysnomia. From any position on either body, the other is always at the same position in the sky, or always obscured. This also means that the rotation period of each is equal to the time it takes the entire system to rotate around its barycenter.
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Pluto
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
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same position in the sky , or always obscured . This also means that the rotation period of each is equal to the time it takes the entire system to rotate around its barycenter .Pluto's moons are hypothesized to have been formed by a collision between Pluto and a similar-sized body, early in the history of the Solar System. The collision released material that consolidated into the moons around Pluto. Quasi-satellite
In 2012, it was calculated that 15810 Arawn could be a quasi-satellite of Pluto, a specific type of co-orbital configuration. According to the calculations, the object would be a quasi-satellite of Pluto for about 350,000 years out of every two-million-year period. Measurements made by the New Horizons spacecraft in 2015 made it possible to calculate the orbit of Arawn more accurately, and confirmed the earlier ones. However, it is not agreed upon among astronomers whether Arawn should be classified as a quasi-satellite of Pluto based on its orbital dynamics, since its orbit is primarily controlled by Neptune with only occasional perturbations by Pluto. Origin
Pluto's origin and identity had long puzzled astronomers. One early hypothesis was that Pluto was an escaped moon of Neptune knocked out of orbit by Neptune's largest moon, Triton. This idea was eventually rejected after dynamical studies showed it to be impossible because Pluto never approaches Neptune in its orbit. Pluto's true place in the Solar System began to reveal itself only in 1992, when astronomers began to find small icy objects beyond Neptune that were similar to Pluto not only in orbit but also in size and composition. This trans-Neptunian population is thought to be the source of many short-period comets. Pluto is the largest member of the Kuiper belt, a stable belt of objects located between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun.
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Pluto
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
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637
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thought to be the source of many short-period comets . Pluto is the largest member of the Kuiper belt , a stable belt of objects located between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun .As of 2011, surveys of the Kuiper belt to magnitude 21 were nearly complete and any remaining Pluto-sized objects are expected to be beyond 100 AU from the Sun. Like other Kuiper-belt objects (KBOs), Pluto shares features with comets; for example, the solar wind is gradually blowing Pluto's surface into space. It has been claimed that if Pluto were placed as near to the Sun as Earth, it would develop a tail, as comets do. This claim has been disputed with the argument that Pluto's escape velocity is too high for this to happen. It has been proposed that Pluto may have formed as a result of the agglomeration of numerous comets and Kuiper-belt objects. Though Pluto is the largest Kuiper belt object discovered, Neptune's moon Triton, which is larger than Pluto, is similar to it both geologically and atmospherically, and is thought to be a captured Kuiper belt object. Eris (see above) is about the same size as Pluto (though more massive) but is not strictly considered a member of the Kuiper belt population. Rather, it is considered a member of a linked population called the scattered disc. Like other members of the Kuiper belt, Pluto is thought to be a residual planetesimal; a component of the original protoplanetary disc around the Sun that failed to fully coalesce into a full-fledged planet. Most astronomers agree that Pluto owes its position to a sudden migration undergone by Neptune early in the Solar System's formation. As Neptune migrated outward, it approached the objects in the proto-Kuiper belt, setting one in orbit around itself (Triton), locking others into resonances, and knocking others into chaotic orbits.
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Pluto
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
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638
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Neptune migrated outward , it approached the objects in the proto-Kuiper belt , setting one in orbit around itself ( Triton ) , locking others into resonances , and knocking others into chaotic orbits .The objects in the scattered disc, a dynamically unstable region overlapping the Kuiper belt, are thought to have been placed in their positions by interactions with Neptune's migrating resonances. A 2004 computer model by Alessandro Morbidelli of the Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur in Nice suggested that the migration of Neptune into the Kuiper belt may have been triggered by the formation of a 1:2 resonance between Jupiter and Saturn, which created a gravitational push that propelled both Uranus and Neptune into higher orbits and caused them to switch places, ultimately doubling Neptune's distance from the Sun. The resultant expulsion of objects from the proto-Kuiper belt could also explain the Late Heavy Bombardment 600 million years after the Solar System's formation and the origin of the Jupiter trojans. It is possible that Pluto had a near-circular orbit about 33 AU from the Sun before Neptune's migration perturbed it into a resonant capture. The Nice model requires that there were about a thousand Pluto-sized bodies in the original planetesimal disk, which included Triton and Eris. Observation and exploration
Observation
Pluto's distance from Earth makes its in-depth study and exploration difficult. Pluto's visual apparent magnitude averages 15.1, brightening to 13.65 at perihelion. To see it, a telescope is required; around 30 cm (12 in) aperture being desirable. It looks star-like and without a visible disk even in large telescopes, because its angular diameter is maximum 0.11". The earliest maps of Pluto, made in the late 1980s, were brightness maps created from close observations of eclipses by its largest moon, Charon. Observations were made of the change in the total average brightness of the Pluto–Charon system during the eclipses.
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Pluto
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
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were brightness maps created from close observations of eclipses by its largest moon , Charon . Observations were made of the change in the total average brightness of the Pluto–Charon system during the eclipses .For example, eclipsing a bright spot on Pluto makes a bigger total brightness change than eclipsing a dark spot. Computer processing of many such observations can be used to create a brightness map. This method can also track changes in brightness over time. Better maps were produced from images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), which offered higher resolution, and showed considerably more detail, resolving variations several hundred kilometers across, including polar regions and large bright spots. These maps were produced by complex computer processing, which finds the best-fit projected maps for the few pixels of the Hubble images. These remained the most detailed maps of Pluto until the flyby of New Horizons in July 2015, because the two cameras on the HST used for these maps were no longer in service. Exploration
The New Horizons spacecraft, which flew by Pluto in July 2015, is the first and so far only attempt to explore Pluto directly. Launched in 2006, it captured its first (distant) images of Pluto in late September 2006 during a test of the Long Range Reconnaissance Imager. The images, taken from a distance of approximately 4.2 billion kilometers, confirmed the spacecraft's ability to track distant targets, critical for maneuvering toward Pluto and other Kuiper belt objects. In early 2007 the craft made use of a gravity assist from Jupiter. New Horizons made its closest approach to Pluto on July 14, 2015, after a 3,462-day journey across the Solar System. Scientific observations of Pluto began five months before the closest approach and continued for at least a month after the encounter.
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Pluto
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
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640
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14 , 2015 , after a 3,462-day journey across the Solar System . Scientific observations of Pluto began five months before the closest approach and continued for at least a month after the encounter .Observations were conducted using a remote sensing package that included imaging instruments and a radio science investigation tool, as well as spectroscopic and other experiments. The scientific goals of New Horizons were to characterize the global geology and morphology of Pluto and its moon Charon, map their surface composition, and analyze Pluto's neutral atmosphere and its escape rate. On October 25, 2016, at 05:48 pm ET, the last bit of data (of a total of 50 billion bits of data; or 6.25 gigabytes) was received from New Horizons from its close encounter with Pluto. Since the New Horizons flyby, scientists have advocated for an orbiter mission that would return to Pluto to fulfill new science objectives. They include mapping the surface at 9.1 m (30 ft) per pixel, observations of Pluto's smaller satellites, observations of how Pluto changes as it rotates on its axis, investigations of a possible subsurface ocean, and topographic mapping of Pluto's regions that are covered in long-term darkness due to its axial tilt. The last objective could be accomplished using laser pulses to generate a complete topographic map of Pluto. New Horizons principal investigator Alan Stern has advocated for a Cassini-style orbiter that would launch around 2030 (the 100th anniversary of Pluto's discovery) and use Charon's gravity to adjust its orbit as needed to fulfill science objectives after arriving at the Pluto system. The orbiter could then use Charon's gravity to leave the Pluto system and study more KBOs after all Pluto science objectives are completed. A conceptual study funded by the NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC) program describes a fusion-enabled Pluto orbiter and lander based on the Princeton field-reversed configuration reactor.
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Pluto
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Pluto science objectives are completed . A conceptual study funded by the NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts ( NIAC ) program describes a fusion-enabled Pluto orbiter and lander based on the Princeton field-reversed configuration reactor .New Horizons imaged all of Pluto's northern hemisphere, and the equatorial regions down to about 30° South. Higher southern latitudes have only been observed, at very low resolution, from Earth. Images from the Hubble Space Telescope in 1996 cover 85% of Pluto and show large albedo features down to about 75° South. This is enough to show the extent of the temperate-zone maculae. Later images had slightly better resolution, due to minor improvements in Hubble instrumentation. The equatorial region of the sub-Charon hemisphere of Pluto has only been imaged at low resolution, as New Horizons made its closest approach to the anti-Charon hemisphere. Some albedo variations in the higher southern latitudes could be detected by New Horizons using Charon-shine (light reflected off Charon). The south polar region seems to be darker than the north polar region, but there is a high-albedo region in the southern hemisphere that may be a regional nitrogen or methane ice deposit. See also
Notes
References
Further reading
== External links ==
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
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Halley's Comet is the only known short-period comet that is consistently visible to the naked eye from Earth, appearing every 72–80 years, though with the majority of recorded apparitions (25 of 30) occurring after 75–77 years. It last appeared in the inner parts of the Solar System in 1986 and will next appear in mid-2061. Officially designated 1P/Halley, it is also commonly called Comet Halley, or sometimes simply Halley. Halley's periodic returns to the inner Solar System have been observed and recorded by astronomers around the world since at least 240 BC, but it was not until 1705 that the English astronomer Edmond Halley understood that these appearances were re-appearances of the same comet. As a result of this discovery, the comet is named after Halley. In March 1986, during its latest visit to the inner Solar System, Halley's Comet became the first comet to be observed in detail by a spacecraft, ESA's Giotto mission, providing the first observational data on the structure of a comet nucleus and the mechanism of coma and tail formation. These observations supported several longstanding hypotheses about comet construction, particularly Fred Whipple's "dirty snowball" model, which correctly predicted that Halley would be composed of a mixture of volatile ices—such as water, carbon dioxide, ammonia—and dust. The missions also provided data that substantially reformed and reconfigured these ideas; for instance, it is now understood that the surface of Halley is largely composed of dusty, non-volatile materials, and that only a small portion of it is icy. It was also visited by the two spacecrafts of the Vega program, Vega 1 & 2, on March 6 and March 9, respectively. They went as close as 8,890 km (5,520 mi), and 8,030 km (4,990 mi), providing data on Halley's dimensions, shape, temperature, and surface properties.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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643
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They went as close as 8,890 km ( 5,520 mi ) , and 8,030 km ( 4,990 mi ) , providing data on Halley 's dimensions , shape , temperature , and surface properties .Pronunciation
Comet Halley is usually pronounced , rhyming with valley, or sometimes , rhyming with daily. As to the surname Halley, Colin Ronan, one of Edmond Halley's biographers, preferred , rhyming with crawly. Spellings of Halley's name during his lifetime included Hailey, Haley, Hayley, Halley, Haly, Hawley, and Hawly, so its contemporary pronunciation is uncertain, but the version rhyming with valley seems to be preferred by modern bearers of the surname. Computation of orbit
Halley was the first comet to be recognised as periodic. Until the Renaissance, the philosophical consensus on the nature of comets, promoted by Aristotle, was that they were disturbances in Earth's atmosphere. This idea was disproven in 1577 by Tycho Brahe, who used parallax measurements to show that comets must lie beyond the Moon. Many were still unconvinced that comets orbited the Sun, and assumed instead that they must follow straight paths through the Solar System. In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton published his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, in which he outlined his laws of gravity and motion. His work on comets was decidedly incomplete. Although he had suspected that two comets that had appeared in succession in 1680 and 1681 were the same comet before and after passing behind the Sun (he was later found to be correct; see Newton's Comet), he was initially unable to completely reconcile comets into his model. Ultimately, it was Newton's friend, editor and publisher, Edmond Halley, who, in his 1705 Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets, used Newton's new laws to calculate the gravitational effects of Jupiter and Saturn on cometary orbits.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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publisher , Edmond Halley , who , in his 1705 Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets , used Newton 's new laws to calculate the gravitational effects of Jupiter and Saturn on cometary orbits .Having compiled a list of 24 comet observations, he calculated that the orbital elements of a second comet that had appeared in 1682 were nearly the same as those of two comets that had appeared in 1531 (observed by Petrus Apianus) and 1607 (observed by Johannes Kepler). Halley thus concluded that all three comets were the same object returning about every 76 years, a period that has since been found to vary between 72 and 80 years. After a rough estimate of the perturbations the comet would sustain from the gravitational attraction of the planets, he predicted its return for 1758. He personally observed the comet around perihelion in September 1682, but died in 1742 before he could observe its predicted return. Halley's prediction of the comet's return proved to be correct, although it was not seen until 25 December 1758, by Johann Georg Palitzsch, a German farmer and amateur astronomer. Other observers from throughout Europe and its colonies sent confirmations to Paris after the comet brightened early the following year. In the Americas, John Winthrop lectured at Harvard University to explain the implications of the comet's reappearance for Newtonian mechanics and natural theology. Another independent recognition that the comet had returned was made by the Jamaican astronomer Francis Williams, but his observations did not reach Europe. A unique portrait commissioned by Williams demonstrates the impact of the comet's return on period astronomers. Williams' hand rests on page 521 of the third edition of Newton's Principia with procedures to predict comet sightings.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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Williams demonstrates the impact of the comet 's return on period astronomers . Williams ' hand rests on page 521 of the third edition of Newton 's Principia with procedures to predict comet sightings .The white smudge in the sky is probably a depiction of Halley's comet relative to the constellations in March 1759, and the chord hanging above the book likely represents the comet's orbit. In 2024, using X-ray imaging, the painting was shown to depict the field of stars in which the comet would have been visible in 1759. Williams likely commissioned the portrait to commemorate his observations. The comet did not pass through its perihelion until 13 March 1759, the attraction of Jupiter and Saturn having caused a delay of 618 days. This effect was computed before its return (with a one-month error to 13 April) by a team of three French mathematicians, Alexis Clairaut, Joseph Lalande, and Nicole-Reine Lepaute. The confirmation of the comet's return was the first time anything other than planets had been shown to orbit the Sun. It was also one of the earliest successful tests of Newtonian physics, and a clear demonstration of its explanatory power. The comet was first named in Halley's honour by French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille in 1759. Some scholars have proposed that first-century Mesopotamian astronomers already had recognised Halley's Comet as periodic. This theory notes a passage in the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Horayot that refers to "a star which appears once in seventy years that makes the captains of the ships err". It has also been suggested that the passage may have referred to the variable star Mira, whose brightness oscillates with a period of sixty years.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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646
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the captains of the ships err '' . It has also been suggested that the passage may have referred to the variable star Mira , whose brightness oscillates with a period of sixty years .Researchers in 1981 attempting to calculate the past orbits of Halley by numerical integration starting from accurate observations in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries could not produce accurate results further back than 837 owing to a close approach to Earth in that year. It was necessary to use ancient Chinese comet observations to constrain their calculations. Orbit and origin
Halley's orbital period has varied between 74 and 80 years since 240 BC. Its orbit around the Sun is highly elliptical, with an orbital eccentricity of 0.967 (with 0 being a circle and 1 being a parabolic trajectory). The perihelion, the point in the comet's orbit when it is nearest the Sun, is 0.59 au (88 million km). This is between the orbits of Mercury and Venus. Its aphelion, or farthest distance from the Sun, is 35 au (5.2 billion km), roughly the orbital distance of Pluto. Unlike the overwhelming majority of objects in the Solar System, Halley's orbit is retrograde; it orbits the Sun in the opposite direction to the planets, or, clockwise from above the Sun's north pole. The orbit is inclined by 18° to the ecliptic, with much of it lying south of the ecliptic. This is usually represented as 162°, to account for Halley's retrograde orbit. The 1910 passage was at a relative velocity of 70.56 km/s (157,800 mph). Because its orbit comes close to Earth's in two places, Halley is associated with two meteor showers: the Eta Aquariids in early May, and the Orionids in late October. Halley is classified as a periodic or short-period comet: one with an orbit lasting 200 years or less.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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647
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: the Eta Aquariids in early May , and the Orionids in late October . Halley is classified as a periodic or short-period comet : one with an orbit lasting 200 years or less .This contrasts it with long-period comets, whose orbits last for thousands of years. Periodic comets have an average inclination to the ecliptic of only ten degrees, and an orbital period of just 6.5 years, so Halley's orbit is atypical. Most short-period comets (those with orbital periods shorter than 20 years and inclinations of 30 degrees or less) are called Jupiter-family comets. Those resembling Halley, with orbital periods of between 20 and 200 years and inclinations extending from zero to more than 90 degrees, are called Halley-type comets. As of 2024, 105 Halley-type comets have been observed, compared with 816 identified Jupiter-family comets. The orbits of the Halley-type comets suggest that they were originally long-period comets whose orbits were perturbed by the gravity of the giant planets and directed into the inner Solar System. If Halley was once a long-period comet, it is likely to have originated in the Oort cloud, a sphere of cometary bodies around 20,000–50,000 au from the Sun. Conversely the Jupiter-family comets are generally believed to originate in the Kuiper belt, a flat disc of icy debris between 30 au (Neptune's orbit) and 50 au from the Sun (in the scattered disc). Another point of origin for the Halley-type comets was proposed in 2008, when a trans-Neptunian object with a retrograde orbit similar to Halley's was discovered, 2008 KV42, whose orbit takes it from just outside that of Uranus to twice the distance of Pluto. It may be a member of a new population of small Solar System bodies that serves as the source of Halley-type comets.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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just outside that of Uranus to twice the distance of Pluto . It may be a member of a new population of small Solar System bodies that serves as the source of Halley-type comets .Halley has probably been in its current orbit for 16,000–200,000 years, although it is not possible to numerically integrate its orbit for more than a few tens of apparitions, and close approaches before 837 AD can only be verified from recorded observations. The non-gravitational effects can be crucial; as Halley approaches the Sun, it expels jets of sublimating gas from its surface, which knock it very slightly off its orbital path. These orbital changes cause delays in its perihelion passage of four days on average. In 1989, Boris Chirikov and Vitold Vecheslavov performed an analysis of 46 apparitions of Halley's Comet taken from historical records and computer simulations, which showed that its dynamics were chaotic and unpredictable on long timescales. Halley's projected dynamical lifetime is estimated to be about 10 million years. The dynamics of its orbit can be approximately described by a two-dimensional symplectic map, known as the Kepler map, a solution to the restricted three-body problem for highly eccentric orbits. Based on records from the 1910 apparition, David Hughes calculated in 1985 that Halley's nucleus has been reduced in mass by 80 to 90% over the last 2,000 to 3,000 revolutions, and that it will most likely disappear completely after another 2,300 perihelion passages. More recent work suggests that Halley will evaporate, or split in two, within the next few tens of thousands of years, or will be ejected from the Solar System within a few hundred thousand years. Structure and composition
The Giotto and Vega missions gave planetary scientists their first view of Halley's surface and structure. The nucleus is a conglomerate of ices and dust, often referred to as a "dirty snowball".
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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649
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Vega missions gave planetary scientists their first view of Halley 's surface and structure . The nucleus is a conglomerate of ices and dust , often referred to as a `` dirty snowball '' .Like all comets, as Halley nears the Sun, its volatile compounds (those with low boiling points, such as water, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and other ices) begin to sublimate from the surface. This causes the comet to develop a coma, or atmosphere, at distances up to 230,000 kilometres (140,000 mi) from the nucleus. Sublimation of this dirty ice releases dust particles, which travel with the gas away from the nucleus. Gas molecules in the coma absorb solar light and then re-radiate it at different wavelengths, a phenomenon known as fluorescence, whereas dust particles scatter the solar light. Both processes are responsible for making the coma visible. As a fraction of the gas molecules in the coma are ionised by the solar ultraviolet radiation, pressure from the solar wind, a stream of charged particles emitted by the Sun, pulls the coma's ions out into a long tail, which may extend more than 100 million kilometres into space. Changes in the flow of the solar wind can cause disconnection events, in which the tail completely breaks off from the nucleus. Despite the vast size of its coma, Halley's nucleus is relatively small: barely 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) long, 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) wide and perhaps 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) thick. Based on a reanalysis of images taken by the Giotto and Vega spacecraft, Lamy et al. determined an effective diameter of 11 kilometres (6.8 mi). Its shape has been variously compared to that of a peanut, a potato, or an avocado.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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650
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Lamy et al . determined an effective diameter of 11 kilometres ( 6.8 mi ) . Its shape has been variously compared to that of a peanut , a potato , or an avocado .Its mass is roughly 2.2 × 1014 kg, with an average density of about 0.55 grams per cubic centimetre (0.32 oz/cu in). The low density indicates that it is made of a large number of small pieces, held together very loosely, forming a structure known as a rubble pile. Ground-based observations of coma brightness suggested that Halley's rotation period was about 7.4 days. Images taken by the various spacecraft, along with observations of the jets and shell, suggested a period of 52 hours. Given the irregular shape of the nucleus, Halley's rotation is likely to be complex. The flyby images revealed an extremely varied topography, with hills, mountains, ridges, depressions, and at least one crater. Halley's day side (the side facing the Sun) is far more active than the night side. Spacecraft observations showed that the gases ejected from the nucleus were 80% water vapour, 17% carbon monoxide and 3–4% carbon dioxide, with traces of hydrocarbons although more recent sources give a value of 10% for carbon monoxide and also include traces of methane and ammonia. The dust particles were found to be primarily a mixture of carbon–hydrogen–oxygen–nitrogen (CHON) compounds common in the outer Solar System, and silicates, such as are found in terrestrial rocks. The dust particles ranged in size down to the limits of detection (≈0.001 μm). The ratio of deuterium to hydrogen in the water released by Halley was initially thought to be similar to that found in Earth's ocean water, suggesting that Halley-type comets may have delivered water to Earth in the distant past.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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651
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the water released by Halley was initially thought to be similar to that found in Earth 's ocean water , suggesting that Halley-type comets may have delivered water to Earth in the distant past .Subsequent observations showed Halley's deuterium ratio to be far higher than that found in Earth's oceans, making such comets unlikely sources for Earth's water. Giotto provided the first evidence in support of Fred Whipple's "dirty snowball" hypothesis for comet construction; Whipple postulated that comets are icy objects warmed by the Sun as they approach the inner Solar System, causing ices on their surfaces to sublime (change directly from a solid to a gas), and jets of volatile material to burst outward, creating the coma. Giotto showed that this model was broadly correct, though with modifications. Halley's albedo, for instance, is about 0.04, meaning that it reflects only 4% of the sunlight hitting it – about what one would expect for coal. Thus, despite astronomers predicting that Halley would have an albedo of about 0.17 (roughly equivalent to bare soil), Halley's Comet is in fact pitch black. The "dirty ices" on the surface sublime at temperatures between 170 K (−103 °C) in sections of higher albedo to 220 K (−53 °C) at low albedo; Vega 1 found Halley's surface temperature to be in the range 300–400 K (27–127 °C). This suggested that only 10% of Halley's surface was active, and that large portions of it were coated in a layer of dark dust that retained heat. Together, these observations suggested that Halley was in fact predominantly composed of non-volatile materials, and thus more closely resembled a "snowy dirtball" than a "dirty snowball".
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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652
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heat . Together , these observations suggested that Halley was in fact predominantly composed of non-volatile materials , and thus more closely resembled a `` snowy dirtball '' than a `` dirty snowball '' .History
Before 1066
Due to its intrinsic brightness, about one eighth of all comet sightings mentioned in historic records belong to Halley's Comet. The first certain appearance of Halley's Comet in the historical record is a description from 240 BC, in the Chinese chronicle Records of the Grand Historian or Shiji, which describes a comet that appeared in the east and moved north. The only surviving record of the 164 BC apparition is found on two fragmentary Babylonian tablets, which were rediscovered in August 1984 in the collection of the British Museum. The apparition of 87 BC was recorded in Babylonian tablets which state that the comet was seen "day beyond day" for a month. This appearance may be recalled in the representation of Tigranes the Great, an Armenian king who is depicted on coins with a crown that features, according to Vahe Gurzadyan and R. Vardanyan, "a star with a curved tail [that] may represent the passage of Halley's Comet in 87 BC." Gurzadyan and Vardanyan argue that "Tigranes could have seen Halley's Comet when it passed closest to the Sun on August 6 in 87 BC" as the comet would have been a "most recordable event". The apparition of 12 BC was recorded in the Book of Han by Chinese astronomers of the Han dynasty who tracked it from August through October. It passed within 0.16 au of Earth. According to the Roman historian Cassius Dio, a comet appeared suspended over Rome for several days portending the death of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa in that year.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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653
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passed within 0.16 au of Earth . According to the Roman historian Cassius Dio , a comet appeared suspended over Rome for several days portending the death of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa in that year .Halley's appearance in 12 BC, only a few years distant from the conventionally assigned date of the birth of Jesus Christ, has led some theologians and astronomers to suggest that it might explain the biblical story of the Star of Bethlehem. There are other explanations for the phenomenon, such as planetary conjunctions, and there are also records of other comets that appeared closer to the date of Jesus's birth. If Yehoshua ben Hananiah's reference in the Talmud to "a star which arises once in seventy years and misleads the sailors" refers to Halley's Comet, he can only have witnessed the 66 AD appearance. Another possible reference to the same apparition is also found in the writings of the Jewish historian Josephus, who described several portents visible over Jerusalem shortly before the outbreak of the First Jewish–Roman War. He reported that "there was a star resembling a sword, which stood over the city, and a comet, that continued a whole year," events that were interpreted as omens of the city's destruction in 70 AD. The 141 AD apparition was recorded in Chinese chronicles, with observations of a bluish white comet on 27 March and 16, 22 and 23 April. The early Tamil bards of southern India (c. 1st - 4th century CE) also describe a certain relatable event. The 374 AD and 607 approaches each came within 0.09 au of Earth. The 451 AD apparition was said to herald the defeat of Attila the Hun at the Battle of Chalons. The 684 AD apparition was reported in Chinese records as the "broom star".
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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654
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451 AD apparition was said to herald the defeat of Attila the Hun at the Battle of Chalons . The 684 AD apparition was reported in Chinese records as the `` broom star '' .The 760 AD apparition was recorded in the Zuqnin Chronicle's entry for iyyōr 1071 SE (May 760 AD), calling it a "white sign":
The year [SE] one thousand seventy one (AD 759/760). In the month of iyyōr (May) a white sign was seen in the sky,
before early twilight, in the north-east [quarter],
in the Zodiac [sign] which is called Aries, to the north from these three stars in it, which are very shining. And it resembled in its shape a broom [...]
And the sign itself remained for fifteen nights, until dawn of the feast of Pentecost. In 837 AD, Halley's Comet may have passed as close as 0.03 astronomical units (2.8 million miles; 4.5 million kilometres) from Earth, by far its closest approach. Its tail may have stretched 60 degrees across the sky. It was recorded by astronomers in China, Japan, Germany, the Byzantine Empire, and the Middle East; Emperor Louis the Pious observed this appearance and devoted himself to prayer and penance, fearing that "by this token a change in the realm and the death of a prince are made known." In 912 AD, Halley is recorded in the Annals of Ulster, which states "A dark and rainy year. A comet appeared." 1066
In 1066, the comet was seen in England and thought to be an omen: later that year Harold II of England died at the Battle of Hastings and William the Conqueror claimed the throne. The comet is represented on the Bayeux Tapestry and described in the tituli as a star.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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655
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Harold II of England died at the Battle of Hastings and William the Conqueror claimed the throne . The comet is represented on the Bayeux Tapestry and described in the tituli as a star .Surviving accounts from the period describe it as appearing to be four times the size of Venus, and shining with a light equal to a quarter of that of the Moon. Halley came within 0.10 au of Earth at that time. This appearance of the comet is also noted in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Eilmer of Malmesbury may have seen Halley in 989 and 1066, as recorded by William of Malmesbury:
Not long after, a comet, portending (they say) a change in governments, appeared, trailing its long flaming hair through the empty sky: concerning which there was a fine saying of a monk of our monastery called Æthelmær. Crouching in terror at the sight of the gleaming star, "You've come, have you? ", he said. "You've come, you source of tears to many mothers. It is long since I saw you; but as I see you now you are much more terrible, for I see you brandishing the downfall of my country." The Irish Annals of the Four Masters recorded the comet as "A star [that] appeared on the seventh of the Calends of May, on Tuesday after Little Easter, than whose light the brilliance or light of The Moon was not greater; and it was visible to all in this manner till the end of four nights afterwards." Chaco Native Americans in New Mexico may have recorded the 1066 apparition in their petroglyphs. The Italo-Byzantine chronicle of Lupus the Protospatharios mentions that a "comet-star" appeared in the sky in the year 1067 (the chronicle is erroneous, as the event occurred in 1066, and by Robert he means William).
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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656
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mentions that a `` comet-star '' appeared in the sky in the year 1067 ( the chronicle is erroneous , as the event occurred in 1066 , and by Robert he means William ) .The Emperor Constantine Ducas died in the month of May, and his son Michael received the Empire. And in this year there appeared a comet star, and the Norman count Robert [sic] fought a battle with Harold, King of the English, and Robert was victorious and became king over the people of the English. The Armenian chronicler, Matthew of Edessa also noted the appearance of the comet, and its coincidence with a Turkic invasion saying:
"At the beginning of the year 515 of the Armenian era [March 5, 1066-March 4, 1067] a comet appeared out of the eastern portion of the sky and traveled in a westerly direction. It appeared for one month and then disappeared. A number of days after this, it reappeared for one month and then disappeared. A number of days after this, it reappeared in the western portion of the sky at night; many who saw it said that it was the same comet which had appeared in the eastern portion before. During these times, the infidels marched forth and ravaged all of Armenia, consuming all the faithful by the sword and enslavement." 1145–1378
The 1145 apparition may have been recorded by the monk Eadwine. According to legend, Genghis Khan was inspired to turn his conquests toward Europe by the westward-seeming trajectory of the 1222 apparition. In Korea, the comet was reportedly visible during the daylight on 9 September 1222. In Vietnam, the comet was recorded visible in the south-west direction in August (September in solar calendar). The 1301 apparition was visually spectacular, and may be the first that resulted in convincing portraits of a particular comet.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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657
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in the south-west direction in August ( September in solar calendar ) . The 1301 apparition was visually spectacular , and may be the first that resulted in convincing portraits of a particular comet .The Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani wrote that the comet left "great trails of fumes behind", and that it remained visible from September 1301 until January 1302. It was seen by the artist Giotto di Bondone, who represented the Star of Bethlehem as a fire-coloured comet in the Nativity section of his Arena Chapel cycle, completed in 1305. Giotto's depiction includes details of the coma, a sweeping tail, and the central condensation. According to the art historian Roberta Olson, it is much more accurate than other contemporary descriptions, and was not equaled in painting until the 19th century. Olson's identification of Halley's Comet in Giotto's Adoration of the Magi is what inspired the European Space Agency to name their mission to the comet Giotto, after the artist. Halley's 1378 appearance is recorded in the Annales Mediolanenses as well as in East Asian sources. 1456
In 1456, the year of Halley's next apparition, the Ottoman Empire invaded the Kingdom of Hungary, culminating in the siege of Belgrade in July of that year. In a papal bull, Pope Callixtus III ordered special prayers be said for the city's protection. In 1470, the humanist scholar Bartolomeo Platina wrote in his Lives of the Popes that,
A hairy and fiery star having then made its appearance for several days, the mathematicians declared that there would follow grievous pestilence, dearth and some great calamity. Calixtus, to avert the wrath of God, ordered supplications that if evils were impending for the human race He would turn all upon the Turks, the enemies of the Christian name.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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658
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Calixtus , to avert the wrath of God , ordered supplications that if evils were impending for the human race He would turn all upon the Turks , the enemies of the Christian name .He likewise ordered, to move God by continual entreaty, that notice should be given by the bells to call the faithful at midday to aid by their prayers those engaged in battle with the Turk. Platina's account is not mentioned in official records. In the 18th century, a Frenchman further embellished the story, in anger at the Church, by claiming that the Pope had "excommunicated" the comet, though this story was most likely his own invention. Halley's apparition of 1456 was also witnessed in Kashmir and depicted in great detail by Śrīvara, a Sanskrit poet and biographer to the Sultans of Kashmir. He read the apparition as a cometary portent of doom foreshadowing the imminent fall of Sultan Zayn al-Abidin (AD 1418/1420–1470). After witnessing a bright light in the sky which most historians have identified as Halley's Comet, Zara Yaqob, Emperor of Ethiopia from 1434 to 1468, founded the city of Debre Berhan (tr. City of Light) and made it his capital for the remainder of his reign. 1531–1759
In the Sikh scriptures of the Guru Granth Sahib, the founder of the faith Guru Nanak makes reference to "a long star that has risen" at Ang 1110, and it is believed by some Sikh scholars to be a reference to Halley's appearance in 1531. Halley's periodic returns have been subject to scientific investigation since the 16th century. Petrus Apianus and Girolamo Fracastoro described the comet's visit in 1531, with the former even including graphics in his publication. Through his observations, Apianus was able to prove that a comet's tail always points away from the Sun.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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659
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visit in 1531 , with the former even including graphics in his publication . Through his observations , Apianus was able to prove that a comet 's tail always points away from the Sun .The three apparitions from 1531 to 1682 were noted by Edmond Halley, enabling him to predict it would return. One key breakthrough occurred when Halley talked with Newton about his ideas of the laws of motion. Newton also helped Halley get John Flamsteed's data on the 1682 apparition. By studying data on the 1531, 1607, and 1682 comets, he came to the conclusion these were the same comet, and presented his findings in 1696. One difficulty was accounting for variations in the comet's orbital period, which was over a year longer between 1531 and 1607 than it was between 1607 and 1682. Newton had theorised that such delays were caused by the gravity of other comets, but Halley found that Jupiter and Saturn would cause the appropriate delays. In the decades that followed, more refined mathematics would be worked on, notable by Paris Observatory; the work on Halley also provided a boost to Newton and Kepler's rules for celestial motions. (See also computation of orbit.) 1835
At Markree Observatory in Ireland, Edward Joshua Cooper used a Cauchoix of Paris lens telescope with an aperture of 340 millimetres (13.3 in) to sketch Halley's comet in 1835. The same apparition was sketched by German astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel. Observations of streams of vapour prompted Bessel to propose that the jet forces of evaporating material could be great enough to significantly alter a comet's orbit.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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660
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by German astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel . Observations of streams of vapour prompted Bessel to propose that the jet forces of evaporating material could be great enough to significantly alter a comet 's orbit .An interview in 1910, of someone who was a teenager at the time of the 1835 apparition had this to say:
When the comet was first seen, it appeared in the western sky, its head toward the north and tail towards the south, about horizontal and considerably above the horizon and quite a distance south of the Sun. It could be plainly seen directly after sunset every day, and was visible for a long time, perhaps a month ... They go on to describe the comet's tail as being more broad and not as long as the comet of 1843 they had also witnessed. Famous astronomers across the world made observations starting August 1835, including Struve at Dorpat observatory, and Sir John Herschel, who made of observations from the Cape of Good Hope. In the United States telescopic observations were made from Yale College. The new observations helped confirm early appearances of this comet including its 1456 and 1378 apparitions. At Yale College in Connecticut, the comet was first reported on 31 August 1835 by astronomers D. Olmstead and E. Loomis. In Canada reports were made from Newfoundland and also Quebec. Reports came in from all over by later 1835, and often reported in newspapers of this time in Canada. Several accounts of the 1835 apparition were made by observers who survived until the 1910 return, where increased interest in the comet led to them being interviewed. The time to Halley's return in 1910 would be only 74.42 years, one of the shortest known periods of its return, which is calculated to be as long as 79 years owing to the effects of the planets.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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661
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1910 would be only 74.42 years , one of the shortest known periods of its return , which is calculated to be as long as 79 years owing to the effects of the planets .At Paris Observatory Halley's Comet 1835 apparition was observed with a Lerebours telescope of 24.4 cm (9.6 in) aperture by the astronomer François Arago. Arago recorded polarimetric observations of Halley, and suggested that the tail might be sunlight reflecting off a sparsely distributed material; he had earlier made similar observations of Comet Tralles of 1819. 1910
The 1910 approach, which came into naked-eye view around 10 April and came to perihelion on 20 April, was notable for several reasons: it was the first approach of which photographs exist, and the first for which spectroscopic data were obtained. Furthermore, the comet made a relatively close approach of 0.15 au, making it a spectacular sight. Indeed, on 19 May, Earth actually passed through the tail of the comet. One of the substances discovered in the tail by spectroscopic analysis was the toxic gas cyanogen, which led press to misquote the astronomer Camille Flammarion by stating he claimed that, when Earth passed through the tail, the gas "would impregnate the atmosphere and possibly snuff out all life on the planet". Despite reassurances from scientists that the gas would not inflict harm on Earth, the damage had already been done with members of the public panic buying gas masks and quack "anti-comet pills". The comet added to the unrest in China on the eve of the Xinhai Revolution that would end the last dynasty in 1911. As James Hutson, a missionary in Sichuan Province at the time, recorded:
"The people believe that it indicates calamity such as war, fire, pestilence, and a change of dynasty.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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662
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Hutson , a missionary in Sichuan Province at the time , recorded : '' The people believe that it indicates calamity such as war , fire , pestilence , and a change of dynasty .In some places on certain days the doors were unopened for half a day, no water was carried and many did not even drink water as it was rumoured that pestilential vapour was being poured down upon the earth from the comet." The 1910 visitation coincided with a visit from Hedley Churchward, the first known English Muslim to make the Haj pilgrimage to Mecca. The comet was used in an advertising campaign of Le Bon Marché, a well-known department store in Paris. The comet was also fertile ground for hoaxes. One that reached major newspapers claimed that the Sacred Followers, a supposed Oklahoma religious group, attempted to sacrifice a virgin to ward off the impending disaster, but were stopped by the police. American satirist and writer Mark Twain was born on 30 November 1835, exactly two weeks after the comet's perihelion. In his autobiography, published in 1909, he said,
I came in with Halley's comet in 1835. It is coming again next year, and I expect to go out with it. It will be the greatest disappointment of my life if I don't go out with Halley's comet. The Almighty has said, no doubt: "Now here are these two unaccountable freaks; they came in together, they must go out together." Twain died on 21 April 1910, the day following the comet's subsequent perihelion. The 1985 fantasy film The Adventures of Mark Twain was inspired by the quotation. Halley's 1910 apparition is distinct from the Great Daylight Comet of 1910, which surpassed Halley in brilliance and was visible in broad daylight for a short period, approximately four months before Halley made its appearance.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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663
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is distinct from the Great Daylight Comet of 1910 , which surpassed Halley in brilliance and was visible in broad daylight for a short period , approximately four months before Halley made its appearance .1986
The 1986 apparition of Halley's Comet was the least favourable on record. In February 1986, the comet and the Earth were on opposite sides of the Sun, creating the worst possible viewing circumstances for Earth observers during the previous 2,000 years. Halley's closest approach was 0.42 au. Additionally, increased light pollution from urbanisation caused many people to fail in attempts to see the comet. With the help of binoculars, observation from areas outside cities was more successful. Further, the comet appeared brightest when it was almost invisible from the northern hemisphere in March and April 1986, with best opportunities occurring when the comet could be sighted close to the horizon at dawn and dusk, if not obscured by clouds. The approach of the comet was first detected by astronomers David C. Jewitt and G. Edward Danielson on 16 October 1982 using the 5.1 m Hale Telescope at Mount Palomar and a CCD camera. The first visual observation of the comet on its 1986 return was by an amateur astronomer, Stephen James O'Meara, on 24 January 1985. O'Meara used a home-built 610-millimetre (24 in) telescope on top of Mauna Kea to detect the magnitude 19.6 comet. The first to observe Halley's Comet with the naked eye during its 1986 apparition were Stephen Edberg (then serving as the coordinator for amateur observations at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory) and Charles Morris on 8 November 1985. The 1986 apparition gave scientists the opportunity to study the comet closely, and several probes were launched to do so. The Soviet Vega 1 probe began returning images of Halley on 4 March 1986, captured the first-ever image of its nucleus, and made its flyby on 6 March.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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664
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to do so . The Soviet Vega 1 probe began returning images of Halley on 4 March 1986 , captured the first-ever image of its nucleus , and made its flyby on 6 March .It was followed by the Vega 2 probe, making its flyby on 9 March. On 14 March, the Giotto space probe, launched by the European Space Agency, made the closest pass of the comet's nucleus. There also were two Japanese probes, Suisei and Sakigake. Unofficially, the numerous probes became known as the Halley Armada. Based on data retrieved by the largest ultraviolet space telescope of the time, Astron, in December 1985, a group of Soviet scientists developed a model of the comet's coma. The comet also was observed from space by the International Cometary Explorer (ICE). Originally launched as the International Sun-Earth Explorer 3, the spacecraft was renamed, and departed the Sun-Earth L1 Lagrangian point in 1982 in order to intercept the comets 21P/Giacobini-Zinner and Halley. ICE flew through the tail of Halley's Comet, coming within about 40.2 million km (25.0 million mi) of the nucleus on 28 March 1986. Two U.S. Space Shuttle missions—STS-51-L and STS-61-E—had been scheduled to observe Halley's Comet from low Earth orbit. The STS-51-L mission carried the Shuttle-Pointed Tool for Astronomy (Spartan Halley) satellite, also called the Halley's Comet Experiment Deployable (HCED). The mission to capture the ultraviolet spectrum of the comet ended in disaster when the Space Shuttle Challenger disintegrated in flight, killing all seven astronauts onboard. Scheduled for March 1986, STS-61-E was a Columbia mission carrying the ASTRO-1 platform to study the comet, but the mission was cancelled following the Challenger disaster and ASTRO-1 would not fly until late 1990 on STS-35. In Japan, the comet was observed by Emperor Hirohito, who was 84.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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665
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but the mission was cancelled following the Challenger disaster and ASTRO-1 would not fly until late 1990 on STS-35 . In Japan , the comet was observed by Emperor Hirohito , who was 84 .He had already seen it in 1910 when he was 8. After 1986
On 12 February 1991, at a distance of 14.3 au (2,140 million km) from the Sun, Halley displayed an outburst that lasted for several months. The comet released dust with a total mass of about 108 kg, which spread into an elongated cloud roughly 374,000 km (232,000 mi) by 269,000 km (167,000 mi) in size. The outburst likely started in December 1990, and then the comet brightened from about magnitude 25 to magnitude 19. Comets rarely show outburst activity at distances beyond 5 au from the Sun. Different mechanisms have been proposed for the outburst, ranging from interaction with the solar wind to a collision with an undiscovered asteroid. The most likely explanation is a combination of two effects, the polymerisation of hydrogen cyanide and a phase transition of amorphous water ice, which raised the temperature of the nucleus enough for some of the more volatile compounds on its surface to sublime. Halley was most recently observed in 2003 by three of the Very Large Telescopes at Paranal, Chile, when Halley's magnitude was 28.2. The telescopes observed Halley, at the faintest and farthest any comet had ever been imaged, in order to verify a method for finding very faint trans-Neptunian objects. Astronomers are now able to observe the comet at any point in its orbit. On 9 December 2023, Halley's Comet reached the farthest and slowest point in its orbit from the Sun when it was travelling at 0.91 km/s (2,000 mph) with respect to the Sun.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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666
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December 2023 , Halley 's Comet reached the farthest and slowest point in its orbit from the Sun when it was travelling at 0.91 km/s ( 2,000 mph ) with respect to the Sun .2061
The next perihelion of Halley's Comet is predicted for 28 July 2061, when it will be better positioned for observation than during the 1985–1986 apparition, as it will be on the same side of the Sun as Earth. The closest approach to Earth will be one day after perihelion. It is expected to have an apparent magnitude of −0.3, compared with only +2.1 for the 1986 apparition. On 9 September 2060, Halley will pass within 0.98 au (147,000,000 km) of Jupiter, and then on 20 August 2061 will pass within 0.0543 au (8,120,000 km) of Venus. 2134
Halley will come to perihelion on 27 March 2134. Then on 7 May 2134, Halley will pass within 0.092 au (13,800,000 km) of Earth. Its apparent magnitude is expected to be −2.0. List of apparitions
Halley's calculations enabled the comet's earlier appearances to be found in the historical record. The following table sets out the astronomical designations for every apparition of Halley's Comet from 240 BC, the earliest documented sighting. In the designations, "1P/" refers to Halley's Comet; the first periodic comet discovered. The number represents the year, with negatives representing BC. The letter-number combination indicates which it was of the comets observed for a given segment of the year, divided into 24 equal parts. The Roman numeral indicates which comet past perihelion it was for a given year, while the lower-case letter indicates which comet it was for a given year overall. The perihelion dates farther from the present are approximate, mainly because of uncertainties in the modelling of non-gravitational effects.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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667
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the lower-case letter indicates which comet it was for a given year overall . The perihelion dates farther from the present are approximate , mainly because of uncertainties in the modelling of non-gravitational effects .Perihelion dates of 1531 and earlier are in the Julian calendar, while perihelion dates 1607 and after are in the Gregorian calendar. The perihelion dates for some of the early apparitions (particularly before 837 AD) are uncertain by a couple of days. While Halley's Comet usually peaks at around 0th magnitude, there are indications that the comet got considerably brighter than that in the past. See also
Kepler orbit – Celestial orbit whose trajectory is a conic section in the orbital plane
List of Halley-type comets
Notes
References
Bibliography
Goodrich, Richard J. (2023). Comet Madness. How the 1910 Return of Halley's Comet (Almost) Destroyed Civilization. Prometheus Books. p. 188. ISBN 978-1-63388-857-9. Grier, David Alan (2005). "The First Anticipated Return: Halley's Comet 1758". When Computers Were Human. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09157-9. Kronk, Gary W. (1999). Cometography, vol. 1: Ancient-1799. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-58504-0. Lancaster-Brown, Peter (1985). Halley & His Comet. Blandford Press. ISBN 0-7137-1447-6. Lequeux, James (2015). François Arago: A 19th Century French Humanist and Pioneer in Astrophysics. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-20723-0. Milbrath, Susan (1999). Star Gods of the Maya: Astronomy in Art, Folklore, and Calendars. The Linda Schele Series in Maya and Pre-Columbian Studies. University of Texas Press. doi:10.7560/752252. ISBN 978-0-292-79793-2. Needham, Joseph (1959). "Comets, meteors, and meteorites". Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Cambridge University Press.
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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668
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) . `` Comets , meteors , and meteorites '' . Science and Civilisation in China : Volume 3 , Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth . Cambridge University Press .pp. 430–433. ISBN 978-0-521-05801-8. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Rayner, John D. (1998). A Jewish Understanding of the World. Berghahn Books. pp. 108–111. ISBN 1-57181-973-8. Sagan, Carl; Druyan, Ann (1985). Comet. Random House. ISBN 0-394-54908-2. Schmude, Richard M. (2010). Comets and How to Observe Them. Springer. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4419-5790-0. Shayler, David J.; Burgess, Colin (2007). "Ending of Eras". NASA's Scientist-Astronauts. Praxis. ISBN 978-0-387-21897-7. Retrieved 7 January 2009. Siddiqi, Asif A. (2018). Beyond Earth: A Chronicle of Deep Space Exploration. United States: NASA History Program Office. pp. 149–150. ISBN 978-1-62683-042-4. Yeomans, Donald Keith (1991). Comets: A Chronological History of Observation, Science, Myth, and Folklore. Wiley and Sons. pp. 260–261. ISBN 0-471-61011-9. External links
1P/Halley at the JPL Small-Body Database
Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets (1706 reprint of Halley's 1705 paper)
Image of Halley's Comet by the Giotto spacecraft
seds.org, links to images and further information about Halley's Comet
Photographs of 1910 approach from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive
HDR Astrophotography: Simulations Atlas of Past Comets (Antiquity to 1699) by Nicolas Lefaudeux
HDR Astrophotography: Simulations Atlas of Past Comets (1900 to 1999) by Nicolas Lefaudeux
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Halley's Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
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669
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A dwarf planet is a small planetary-mass object that is in direct orbit around the Sun, massive enough to be gravitationally rounded, but insufficient to achieve orbital dominance like the eight classical planets of the Solar System. The prototypical dwarf planet is Pluto, which for decades was regarded as a planet before the "dwarf" concept was adopted in 2006. Many planetary geologists consider dwarf planets and planetary-mass moons to be planets, but since 2006 the IAU and many astronomers have excluded them from the roster of planets. Dwarf planets are capable of being geologically active, an expectation that was borne out in 2015 by the Dawn mission to Ceres and the New Horizons mission to Pluto. Planetary geologists are therefore particularly interested in them. Astronomers are in general agreement that at least the nine largest candidates are dwarf planets – in rough order of decreasing diameter, Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Gonggong, Quaoar, Sedna, Ceres, and Orcus. A considerable uncertainty remains over the tenth largest candidate Salacia, which may thus be considered a borderline case. Of these ten, two have been visited by spacecraft (Pluto and Ceres) and seven others have at least one known moon (Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Gonggong, Quaoar, Orcus, and Salacia), which allows their masses and thus an estimate of their densities to be determined. Mass and density in turn can be fit into geophysical models in an attempt to determine the nature of these worlds. Only one, Sedna, has neither been visited nor has any known moons, making an accurate estimate of mass difficult. Some astronomers include many smaller bodies as well, but there is no consensus that these are likely to be dwarf planets. History of the concept
Starting in 1801, astronomers discovered Ceres and other bodies between Mars and Jupiter that for decades were considered to be planets.
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Dwarf planet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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670
|
these are likely to be dwarf planets . History of the concept Starting in 1801 , astronomers discovered Ceres and other bodies between Mars and Jupiter that for decades were considered to be planets .Between then and around 1851, when the number of planets had reached 23, astronomers started using the word asteroid (from Greek, meaning 'star-like' or 'star-shaped') for the smaller bodies and began to distinguish them as minor planets rather than major planets. With the discovery of Pluto in 1930, most astronomers considered the Solar System to have nine major planets, along with thousands of significantly smaller bodies (asteroids and comets). For almost 50 years, Pluto was thought to be larger than Mercury, but with the discovery in 1978 of Pluto's moon Charon, it became possible to measure Pluto's mass accurately and to determine that it was much smaller than initial estimates. It was roughly one-twentieth the mass of Mercury, which made Pluto by far the smallest planet. Although it was still more than ten times as massive as the largest object in the asteroid belt, Ceres, it had only one-fifth the mass of Earth's Moon. Furthermore, having some unusual characteristics, such as large orbital eccentricity and a high orbital inclination, it became evident that it was a different kind of body from any of the other planets. In the 1990s, astronomers began to find objects in the same region of space as Pluto (now known as the Kuiper belt), and some even farther away. Many of these shared several of Pluto's key orbital characteristics, and Pluto started being seen as the largest member of a new class of objects, the plutinos.
|
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Dwarf planet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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671
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even farther away . Many of these shared several of Pluto 's key orbital characteristics , and Pluto started being seen as the largest member of a new class of objects , the plutinos .It became clear that either the larger of these bodies would also have to be classified as planets, or Pluto would have to be reclassified, much as Ceres had been reclassified after the discovery of additional asteroids. This led some astronomers to stop referring to Pluto as a planet. Several terms, including subplanet and planetoid, started to be used for the bodies now known as dwarf planets. Astronomers were also confident that more objects as large as Pluto would be discovered, and the number of planets would start growing quickly if Pluto were to remain classified as a planet. Eris (then known as 2003 UB313), a trans-Neptunian object, was discovered in January 2005; it was thought to be slightly larger than Pluto, and some reports informally referred to it as the tenth planet. As a consequence, the issue became a matter of intense debate during the IAU General Assembly in August 2006. The IAU's initial draft proposal included Charon, Eris, and Ceres in the list of planets. After many astronomers objected to this proposal, an alternative was drawn up by the Uruguayan astronomers Julio Ángel Fernández and Gonzalo Tancredi: They proposed an intermediate category for objects large enough to be round but that had not cleared their orbits of planetesimals. Beside dropping Charon from the list, the new proposal also removed Pluto, Ceres, and Eris, because they have not cleared their orbits. Although concerns were raised about the classification of planets orbiting other stars, the issue was not resolved; it was proposed instead to decide this only when dwarf-planet-size objects start to be observed.
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Dwarf planet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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672
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Although concerns were raised about the classification of planets orbiting other stars , the issue was not resolved ; it was proposed instead to decide this only when dwarf-planet-size objects start to be observed .In the immediate aftermath of the IAU definition of dwarf planet, some scientists expressed their disagreement with the IAU resolution. Campaigns included car bumper stickers and T-shirts. Mike Brown (the discoverer of Eris) agrees with the reduction of the number of planets to eight. NASA announced in 2006 that it would use the new guidelines established by the IAU. Alan Stern, the director of NASA's mission to Pluto, rejects the current IAU definition of planet, both in terms of defining dwarf planets as something other than a type of planet, and in using orbital characteristics (rather than intrinsic characteristics) of objects to define them as dwarf planets. Thus, in 2011, he still referred to Pluto as a planet, and accepted other likely dwarf planets such as Ceres and Eris, as well as the larger moons, as additional planets. Several years before the IAU definition, he used orbital characteristics to separate "überplanets" (the dominant eight) from "unterplanets" (the dwarf planets), considering both types "planets". Name
Names for large subplanetary bodies include dwarf planet, planetoid (more general term), meso-planet (narrowly used for sizes between Mercury and Ceres), quasi-planet, and (in the transneptunian region) plutoid. Dwarf planet, however, was originally coined as a term for the smallest planets, not the largest sub-planets, and is still used that way by many planetary astronomers. The term dwarf planet, used as a synonym for asteroid, dates back at least to 1838.
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Dwarf planet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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673
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not the largest sub-planets , and is still used that way by many planetary astronomers . The term dwarf planet , used as a synonym for asteroid , dates back at least to 1838 .It has also been used as an antonym for giant planet, including the terrestrial planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, as well as the Moon. In their 2006 codification, the IAU decided that dwarf planets are not to be considered planets. Other terms for the IAU definition of the largest subplanetary bodies that do not have such conflicting connotations or usage include quasi-planet and the older term planetoid ("having the form of a planet"). Michael E. Brown stated that planetoid is "a perfectly good word" that has been used for these bodies for years, and that the use of the term dwarf planet for a non-planet is "dumb", but that it was motivated by an attempt by the IAU division III plenary session to reinstate Pluto as a planet in a second resolution. Indeed, the draft of Resolution 5A had called these median bodies planetoids, but the plenary session voted unanimously to change the name to dwarf planet. The second resolution, 5B, defined dwarf planets as a subtype of planet, as Stern had originally intended, distinguished from the other eight that were to be called "classical planets". Under this arrangement, the twelve planets of the rejected proposal were to be preserved in a distinction between eight classical planets and four dwarf planets. Resolution 5B was defeated in the same session that 5A was passed. Because of the semantic inconsistency of a dwarf planet not being a planet due to the failure of Resolution 5B, alternative terms such as nanoplanet and subplanet were discussed, but there was no consensus among the CSBN to change it.
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Dwarf planet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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674
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planet not being a planet due to the failure of Resolution 5B , alternative terms such as nanoplanet and subplanet were discussed , but there was no consensus among the CSBN to change it .In most languages equivalent terms have been created by translating dwarf planet more-or-less literally: French planète naine, Spanish planeta enano, German Zwergplanet, Russian karlikovaya planeta (карликовая планета), Arabic kaukab qazm (كوكب قزم), Chinese ǎixíngxīng (矮行星), Korean waesohangseong (왜소행성 / 矮小行星) or waehangseong (왜행성 / 矮行星), but in Japanese they are called junwakusei (準惑星), meaning "quasi-planets" or "peneplanets" (pene- meaning "almost"). IAU Resolution 6a of 2006 recognizes Pluto as "the prototype of a new category of trans-Neptunian objects". The name and precise nature of this category were not specified but left for the IAU to establish at a later date; in the debate leading up to the resolution, the members of the category were variously referred to as plutons and plutonian objects but neither name was carried forward, perhaps due to objections from geologists that this would create confusion with their pluton. On June 11, 2008, the IAU Executive Committee announced a new term, plutoid, and a definition: all trans-Neptunian dwarf planets are plutoids. Other departments of the IAU have rejected the term: ...in part because of an email miscommunication, the WG-PSN [Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature] was not involved in choosing the word plutoid. ...
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Dwarf planet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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675
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IAU have rejected the term : ... in part because of an email miscommunication , the WG-PSN [ Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature ] was not involved in choosing the word plutoid . ...In fact, a vote taken by the WG-PSN subsequent to the Executive Committee meeting has rejected the use of that specific term..."
The category of 'plutoid' captured an earlier distinction between the 'terrestrial dwarf' Ceres and the 'ice dwarfs' of the outer Solar system, part of a conception of a threefold division of the Solar System into inner terrestrial planets, central giant planets, and outer ice dwarfs, of which Pluto was the principal member. 'Ice dwarf' also saw some use as an umbrella term for all trans-Neptunian minor planets, or for the ice asteroids of the outer Solar System; one attempted definition was that an ice dwarf "is larger than the nucleus of a normal comet and icier than a typical asteroid." Since the Dawn mission, it has been recognized that Ceres is a geologically icy body that may have originated from the outer Solar System. Ceres has since been called an ice dwarf as well. Criteria
The category dwarf planet arose from a conflict between dynamical and geophysical ideas of what a useful conception of a planet would be. In terms of the dynamics of the Solar System, the major distinction is between bodies that gravitationally dominate their neighbourhood (Mercury through Neptune) and those that do not (such as the asteroids and Kuiper belt objects). A celestial body may have a dynamic (planetary) geology at approximately the mass required for its mantle to become plastic under its own weight, which results in the body acquiring a round shape.
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Dwarf planet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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676
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body may have a dynamic ( planetary ) geology at approximately the mass required for its mantle to become plastic under its own weight , which results in the body acquiring a round shape .Because this requires a much lower mass than gravitationally dominating the region of space near their orbit, there are a population of objects that are massive enough to have a world-like appearance and planetary geology, but not massive enough to clear their neighborhood. Examples are Ceres in the asteroid belt and Pluto in the Kuiper belt. Dynamicists usually prefer using gravitational dominance as the threshold for planethood, because from their perspective smaller bodies are better grouped with their neighbours, e.g. Ceres as simply a large asteroid and Pluto as a large Kuiper belt object. Geoscientists usually prefer roundness as the threshold, because from their perspective the internally driven geology of a body like Ceres makes it more similar to a classical planet like Mars, than to a small asteroid that lacks internally driven geology. This necessitated the creation of the category of dwarf planets to describe this intermediate class. Orbital dominance
Alan Stern and Harold F. Levison introduced a parameter Λ (upper case lambda) in 2000, expressing the likelihood of an encounter resulting in a given deflection of orbit. The value of this parameter in Stern's model is proportional to the square of the mass and inversely proportional to the period. This value can be used to estimate the capacity of a body to clear the neighbourhood of its orbit, where Λ > 1 will eventually clear it. A gap of five orders of magnitude in Λ was found between the smallest terrestrial planets and the largest asteroids and Kuiper belt objects.
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Dwarf planet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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677
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, where Λ > 1 will eventually clear it . A gap of five orders of magnitude in Λ was found between the smallest terrestrial planets and the largest asteroids and Kuiper belt objects .Using this parameter, Steven Soter and other astronomers argued for a distinction between planets and dwarf planets based on the inability of the latter to "clear the neighbourhood around their orbits": planets are able to remove smaller bodies near their orbits by collision, capture, or gravitational disturbance (or establish orbital resonances that prevent collisions), whereas dwarf planets lack the mass to do so. Soter went on to propose a parameter he called the planetary discriminant, designated with the symbol µ (mu), that represents an experimental measure of the actual degree of cleanliness of the orbital zone (where µ is calculated by dividing the mass of the candidate body by the total mass of the other objects that share its orbital zone), where µ > 100 is deemed to be cleared. Jean-Luc Margot refined Stern and Levison's concept to produce a similar parameter Π (upper case Pi). It is based on theory, avoiding the empirical data used by Λ . Π > 1 indicates a planet, and there is again a gap of several orders of magnitude between planets and dwarf planets. There are several other schemes that try to differentiate between planets and dwarf planets, but the 2006 definition uses this concept. Hydrostatic equilibrium
Enough internal pressure, caused by the body's gravitation, will turn a body plastic, and enough plasticity will allow high elevations to sink and hollows to fill in, a process known as gravitational relaxation. Bodies smaller than a few kilometers are dominated by non-gravitational forces and tend to have an irregular shape and may be rubble piles.
|
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Dwarf planet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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678
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to fill in , a process known as gravitational relaxation . Bodies smaller than a few kilometers are dominated by non-gravitational forces and tend to have an irregular shape and may be rubble piles .Larger objects, where gravity is significant but not dominant, are potato-shaped; the more massive the body, the higher its internal pressure, the more solid it is and the more rounded its shape, until the pressure is enough to overcome its compressive strength and it achieves hydrostatic equilibrium. Then, a body is as round as it is possible to be, given its rotation and tidal effects, and is an ellipsoid in shape. This is the defining limit of a dwarf planet. If an object is in hydrostatic equilibrium, a global layer of liquid on its surface would form a surface of the same shape as the body, apart from small-scale surface features such as craters and fissures. The body will have a spherical shape if it does not rotate and an ellipsoidal one if it does. The faster it rotates, the more oblate or even scalene it becomes. If such a rotating body were heated until it melts, its shape would not change. The extreme example of a body that may be scalene due to rapid rotation is Haumea, which is twice as long on its major axis as it is at the poles. If the body has a massive nearby companion, then tidal forces gradually slow its rotation until it is tidally locked; that is, it always presents the same face to its companion. Tidally locked bodies are also scalene, though sometimes only slightly so. Earth's Moon is tidally locked, as are all the rounded satellites of the gas giants. Pluto and Charon are tidally locked to each other, as are Eris and Dysnomia, and probably also Orcus and Vanth.
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|
Dwarf planet
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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679
|
, as are all the rounded satellites of the gas giants . Pluto and Charon are tidally locked to each other , as are Eris and Dysnomia , and probably also Orcus and Vanth .There are no specific size or mass limits of dwarf planets, as those are not defining features. There is no clear upper limit: an object very far out in the Solar System that is more massive than Mercury might not have had time to clear its neighbourhood, and such a body would fit the definition of dwarf planet rather than planet. Indeed, Mike Brown set out to find such an object. The lower limit is determined by the requirements of achieving and retaining hydrostatic equilibrium, but the size or mass at which an object attains and retains equilibrium depends on its composition and thermal history, not simply its mass. An IAU 2006 press release question-and-answer section estimated that objects with mass above 0.5×1021 kg and radius greater than 400 km would "normally" be in hydrostatic equilibrium (the shape ... would normally be determined by self-gravity), but that all borderline cases would need to be determined by observation. This is close to what as of 2019 is believed to be roughly the limit for objects beyond Neptune that are fully compact, solid bodies, with Salacia ( r = 423±11 km , m = (0.492±0.007)×1021 kg ) being a borderline case both for the 2006 Q&A expectations and in more recent evaluations, and with Orcus being just above the expected limit. No other body with a measured mass is close to the expected mass limit, though several without a measured mass approach the expected size limit. Population of dwarf planets
Though the definition of a dwarf planet is clear, evidence about whether a given trans-Neptunian object is large and malleable enough to be shaped by its own gravitational field is often inconclusive.
|
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Dwarf planet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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680
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planets Though the definition of a dwarf planet is clear , evidence about whether a given trans-Neptunian object is large and malleable enough to be shaped by its own gravitational field is often inconclusive .There are also outstanding questions relating to the interpretation of the IAU criterion in certain instances. Consequently the number of currently conformed TNOs which meet the hydrostatic equilibrium criterion is uncertain. The three objects under consideration during the debates leading up to the 2006 IAU acceptance of the category of dwarf planet – Ceres, Pluto and Eris – are generally accepted as dwarf planets, including by those astronomers who continue to classify dwarf planets as planets. Only one of them – Pluto – has been observed in enough detail to verify that its current shape fits what would be expected from hydrostatic equilibrium. Ceres is close to equilibrium, but some gravitational anomalies remain unexplained. Eris is generally assumed to be a dwarf planet because it is more massive than Pluto. In order of discovery, these three bodies are:
Ceres – discovered January 1, 1801, and announced January 24, 45 years before Neptune. Considered a planet for half a century before reclassification as an asteroid. Considered a dwarf planet by the IAU since the adoption of Resolution 5A on August 24, 2006. Pluto – discovered February 18, 1930, and announced March 13. Considered a planet for 76 years. Explicitly reclassified as a dwarf planet by the IAU with Resolution 6A on August 24, 2006. Five known moons. Eris (2003 UB313) – discovered January 5, 2005, and announced July 29. Called the "tenth planet" in media reports. Considered a dwarf planet by the IAU since the adoption of Resolution 5A on August 24, 2006, and named by the IAU dwarf-planet naming committee on September 13 of that year. One known moon.
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Dwarf planet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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681
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planet by the IAU since the adoption of Resolution 5A on August 24 , 2006 , and named by the IAU dwarf-planet naming committee on September 13 of that year . One known moon .The IAU only established guidelines for which committee would oversee the naming of likely dwarf planets: any unnamed trans-Neptunian object with an absolute magnitude brighter than +1 (and hence a minimum diameter of 838 km at the maximum geometric albedo of 1) was to be named by a joint committee consisting of the Minor Planet Center and the planetary working group of the IAU. At the time (and still as of 2023), the only bodies to meet this threshold were Haumea and Makemake. These bodies are generally assumed to be dwarf planets, although they have not yet been demonstrated to be in hydrostatic equilibrium, and there is some disagreement for Haumea:
These five bodies – the three under consideration in 2006 (Pluto, Ceres and Eris) plus the two named in 2008 (Haumea and Makemake) – are commonly presented as the dwarf planets of the Solar System, though the limiting factor (albedo) is not what defines an object as a dwarf planet. The astronomical community commonly refers to other larger TNOs as dwarf planets as well. At least four additional bodies meet the preliminary criteria of Brown, of Tancredi et al., of Grundy et al., and of Emery et al. for identifying dwarf planets, and are generally called dwarf planets by astronomers as well:
For instance, JPL/NASA called Gonggong a dwarf planet after observations in 2016, and Simon Porter of the Southwest Research Institute spoke of "the big eight [TNO] dwarf planets" in 2018, referring to Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Gonggong, Quaoar, Sedna and Orcus. The IAU itself has called Quaoar a dwarf planet in a 2022–2023 annual report.
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Dwarf planet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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682
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2018 , referring to Pluto , Eris , Haumea , Makemake , Gonggong , Quaoar , Sedna and Orcus . The IAU itself has called Quaoar a dwarf planet in a 2022–2023 annual report .More bodies have been proposed, such as Salacia and Máni by Brown; Varuna and Ixion by Tancredi et al., and Chiminigagua by Sheppard et al. Most of the larger bodies have moons, which enables a determination of their mass and thus their density, which inform estimates of whether they could be dwarf planets. The largest TNOs that are not known to have moons are Sedna, Máni, Aya, and Ixion. In particular, Salacia has a known mass and diameter, putting it as a borderline case by the IAU's 2006 Q&A. At the time Makemake and Haumea were named, it was thought that trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) with icy cores would require a diameter of only about 400 km (250 mi), or 3% the size of Earth – the size of the moons Mimas, the smallest moon that is round, and Proteus, the largest that is not – to relax into gravitational equilibrium. Researchers thought that the number of such bodies could prove to be around 200 in the Kuiper belt, with thousands more beyond. This was one of the reasons (keeping the roster of 'planets' to a reasonable number) that Pluto was reclassified in the first place. Research since then has cast doubt on the idea that bodies that small could have achieved or maintained equilibrium under the typical conditions of the Kuiper belt and beyond. Individual astronomers have recognized a number of objects as dwarf planets or as likely to prove to be dwarf planets. In 2008, Tancredi et al.
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Dwarf planet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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683
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of the Kuiper belt and beyond . Individual astronomers have recognized a number of objects as dwarf planets or as likely to prove to be dwarf planets . In 2008 , Tancredi et al .advised the IAU to officially accept Orcus, Sedna and Quaoar as dwarf planets (Gonggong was not yet known), though the IAU did not address the issue then and has not since. Tancredi also considered the five TNOs Varuna, Ixion, Achlys, Goibniu, and Aya to most likely be dwarf planets as well. Since 2011, Brown has maintained a list of hundreds of candidate objects, ranging from "nearly certain" to "possible" dwarf planets, based solely on estimated size. As of September 13, 2019, Brown's list identifies ten trans-Neptunian objects with diameters then thought to be greater than 900 km (the four named by the IAU plus Gonggong, Quaoar, Sedna, Orcus, Máni, and Salacia) as "near certain" to be dwarf planets, and another 16, with diameter greater than 600 km, as "highly likely". Notably, Gonggong may have a larger diameter (1230±50 km) than Pluto's round moon Charon (1212 km). But in 2019 Grundy et al. proposed, based on their studies of Gǃkúnǁʼhòmdímà, that dark, low-density bodies smaller than about 900–1000 km in diameter, such as Salacia and Varda, never fully collapsed into solid planetary bodies and retain internal porosity from their formation (in which case they could not be dwarf planets). They accept that brighter (albedo > ≈0.2) or denser (> ≈1.4 g/cc) Orcus and Quaoar probably were fully solid:
Orcus and Charon probably melted and differentiated, considering their higher densities and spectra indicating surfaces made of relatively clean H2O ice.
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Dwarf planet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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684
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> ≈1.4 g/cc ) Orcus and Quaoar probably were fully solid : Orcus and Charon probably melted and differentiated , considering their higher densities and spectra indicating surfaces made of relatively clean H2O ice .But the lower albedos and densities of Gǃkúnǁʼhòmdímà, 55637 (Uni), Varda, and Salacia suggest that they never did differentiate, or if they did, it was only in their deep interiors, not a complete melting and overturning that involved the surface. Their surfaces could remain quite cold and uncompressed even as the interior becomes warm and collapses. The liberation of volatiles could further help transport heat out of their interiors, limiting the extent of their internal collapse. An object with a cold, relatively pristine surface and a partially collapsed interior should exhibit very distinctive surface geology, with abundant thrust faults indicative of the reduction in total surface area as the interior compresses and shrinks. Salacia was later found to have a somewhat higher density, comparable within uncertainties to that of Orcus, though still with a very dark surface. Despite this determination, Grundy et al. call it "dwarf-planet sized", while calling Orcus a dwarf planet. Later studies on Varda suggest that its density may also be high, though a low density could not be excluded. In 2023, Emery et al. wrote that near-infrared spectroscopy by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) in 2022 suggests that Sedna, Gonggong, and Quaoar underwent internal melting, differentiation, and chemical evolution, like the larger dwarf planets Pluto, Eris, Haumea, and Makemake, but unlike "all smaller KBOs". This is because light hydrocarbons are present on their surfaces (e.g. ethane, acetylene, and ethylene), which implies that methane is continuously being resupplied, and that methane would likely come from internal geochemistry.
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0.029652783647179604, 0.011059865355491638, 0.004040920175611973, 0.002012035110965371, 0.04992054030299187, 0.02240905910730362, -0.04103346914052963, 0.00032398890471085906, -0.01138058491051197, 0.06874266266822815, -0.025764621794223785, 0.009637313894927502, 0.015650160610675812, 0.04807496815919876, -0.06487628072500229, -0.006777405738830566, -0.07497719675302505, 0.025337858125567436, -0.008933109231293201, 0.10441038012504578, 0.07045506685972214, -0.044760968536138535, -0.04903526231646538, 0.0580768957734108]
|
Dwarf planet
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
|
685
|
are present on their surfaces ( e.g . ethane , acetylene , and ethylene ) , which implies that methane is continuously being resupplied , and that methane would likely come from internal geochemistry .On the other hand, the surfaces of Sedna, Gonggong, and Quaoar have low abundances of CO and CO2, similar to Pluto, Eris, and Makemake, but in contrast to smaller bodies. This suggests that the threshold for dwarf planethood in the trans-Neptunian region is a diameter of ~900 km (thus including only Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Gonggong, Quaoar, Orcus, and Sedna), and that even Salacia may not be a dwarf planet. A 2023 study of Máni shows that it probably has an extremely large crater, whose depth takes up 5.7% of its diameter: this is proportionally larger than the Rheasilvia crater on Vesta, which is the reason Vesta is not usually considered a dwarf planet today. In 2024, Kiss et al. found that Quaoar has an ellipsoidal shape incompatible with hydrostatic equilibrium for its current spin. They hypothesized that Quaoar originally had a rapid rotation and was in hydrostatic equilibrium, but that its shape became "frozen in" and did not change as it spun down due to tidal forces from its moon Weywot. If so, this would resemble the situation of Saturn's moon Iapetus, which is too oblate for its current spin. Iapetus is generally still considered a planetary-mass moon nonetheless, though not always. Most likely dwarf planets
The trans-Neptunian objects in the following tables, except Salacia, are agreed by Brown, Tancredi et al., Grundy et al., and Emery et al. to be probable dwarf planets, or close to it. Salacia has been included as the largest TNO not generally agreed to be a dwarf planet; it is a borderline body by many criteria, and is therefore italicized.
|
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|
Dwarf planet
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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686
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close to it . Salacia has been included as the largest TNO not generally agreed to be a dwarf planet ; it is a borderline body by many criteria , and is therefore italicized .Charon, a moon of Pluto that was proposed as a dwarf planet by the IAU in 2006, is included for comparison. Those objects that have absolute magnitude greater than +1, and so meet the threshold of the joint planet–minor planet naming committee of the IAU, are highlighted, as is Ceres, which the IAU has assumed is a dwarf planet since they first debated the concept. The masses of given dwarf planets are listed for their systems (if they have satellites) with exceptions for Pluto and Orcus. Symbols
Ceres and Pluto received planetary symbols, as they were considered to be planets when they were discovered. By the time the others were discovered, planetary symbols had mostly fallen out of use among astronomers. Unicode includes symbols for Quaoar , Sedna , Orcus , Haumea , Eris , Makemake , and Gonggong , that are primarily used by astrologers: they were devised by Denis Moskowitz, a software engineer in Massachusetts. NASA has used his Haumea, Eris, and Makemake symbols, as well as the traditional astrological symbol for Pluto when referring to it as a dwarf planet. Symbols for smaller objects are less established; a Unicode proposal notes the Moskowitz symbol for Salacia. Moskowitz additionally devised a symbol for Charon . Exploration
As of 2025, only two missions have targeted and explored dwarf planets up close. On March 6, 2015, the Dawn spacecraft entered orbit around Ceres, becoming the first spacecraft to visit a dwarf planet. On July 14, 2015, the New Horizons space probe flew by Pluto and its five moons.
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Dwarf planet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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687
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spacecraft entered orbit around Ceres , becoming the first spacecraft to visit a dwarf planet . On July 14 , 2015 , the New Horizons space probe flew by Pluto and its five moons .Ceres displays such evidence of an active geology as salt deposits and cryovolcanos, while Pluto has water-ice mountains drifting in nitrogen-ice glaciers, as well as a significant atmosphere. Ceres evidently has brine percolating through its subsurface, while there is evidence that Pluto has an actual subsurface ocean. Dawn had previously orbited the asteroid Vesta. Saturn's moon Phoebe has been imaged by Cassini and before that by Voyager 2, which also encountered Neptune's moon Triton. All three bodies show evidence of once being dwarf planets, and their exploration helps clarify the evolution of dwarf planets. New Horizons has captured distant images of Triton, Quaoar, Haumea, Eris, and Makemake, as well as the smaller candidates Ixion, Máni, and 2014 OE394. Quaoar has been proposed as a potential flyby target of the China National Space Administration's two Shensuo probes. Similar objects
A number of bodies physically resemble dwarf planets. These include former dwarf planets, which may still have equilibrium shape or evidence of active geology; planetary-mass moons, which meet the physical but not the orbital definition for dwarf planet; and Charon in the Pluto–Charon system, which is arguably a binary dwarf planet. The categories may overlap: Triton, for example, is both a former dwarf planet and a planetary-mass moon. Former dwarf planets
Vesta, the next-most-massive body in the asteroid belt after Ceres, was once in hydrostatic equilibrium and is roughly spheroidal, deviating mainly due to massive impacts that formed the Rheasilvia and Veneneia craters after it solidified. Its dimensions are not consistent with it currently being in hydrostatic equilibrium.
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Dwarf planet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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688
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and is roughly spheroidal , deviating mainly due to massive impacts that formed the Rheasilvia and Veneneia craters after it solidified . Its dimensions are not consistent with it currently being in hydrostatic equilibrium .Triton is more massive than Eris or Pluto, has an equilibrium shape, and is thought to be a captured dwarf planet (likely a member of a binary system), but no longer directly orbits the sun. Phoebe is a captured centaur that, like Vesta, is no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium, but is thought to have been so early in its history due to radiogenic heating. Planetary-mass moons
At least nineteen moons have equilibrium shapes from having collapsed into a solid body (or in a few cases into a nearly solid body) or even relaxed under self-gravity at some point, though some of the latter have since frozen solid and are no longer in equilibrium. Seven are more massive than either Eris or Pluto. These larger moons are not physically distinct from the dwarf planets, but do not fit the IAU definition because they do not directly orbit the Sun. (Indeed, Neptune's moon Triton is a captured dwarf planet, and Ceres formed in the same region of the Solar System as the moons of Jupiter and Saturn.) Alan Stern calls planetary-mass moons "satellite planets", one of three categories of planet, together with dwarf planets and classical planets. The term planemo ("planetary-mass object") also covers all three populations. Charon
There has been some debate as to whether the Pluto–Charon system should be considered a double dwarf planet. In a draft resolution for the IAU definition of planet, both Pluto and Charon were considered planets in a binary system.
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Dwarf planet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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689
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whether the Pluto–Charon system should be considered a double dwarf planet . In a draft resolution for the IAU definition of planet , both Pluto and Charon were considered planets in a binary system .The IAU currently says Charon is not considered a dwarf planet but rather a satellite of Pluto, though the idea that Charon might qualify as a dwarf planet may be considered at a later date. Nonetheless, it is no longer clear that Charon is in hydrostatic equilibrium. Also, the location of the barycentre depends not only on the relative masses of the bodies, but also on the distance between them; the barycentre of the Sun–Jupiter orbit, for example, lies outside the Sun, but they are not considered a binary object. Thus, a formal definition of what constitutes a binary (dwarf) planet must be established before Pluto and Charon are formally defined as binary dwarf planets. See also
Notes
References
External links
A Visual Introduction to the Dwarf Planets in our Solar System (Anshool Deshmukh, Visual Capitalist, October 8, 2021, graphics by Mark Belan)
NPR: Dwarf Planets May Finally Get Respect (David Kestenbaum, Morning Edition)
BBC News: Q&A New planets proposal, August 16, 2006
Ottawa Citizen: The case against Pluto (P. Surdas Mohit) August 24, 2006
James L. Hilton: When Did the Asteroids Become Minor Planets? NASA: IYA 2009 Dwarf Planets
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Dwarf planet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet.
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690
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A comet is an icy, small Solar System body or interstellar object that warms and begins to release gases when passing close to the Sun, a process called outgassing. This produces an extended, gravitationally unbound atmosphere or coma surrounding the nucleus, and sometimes a tail of gas and dust gas blown out from the coma. These phenomena are due to the effects of solar radiation and the outstreaming solar wind plasma acting upon the nucleus of the comet. Comet nuclei range from a few hundred meters to tens of kilometers across and are composed of loose collections of ice, dust, and small rocky particles. The coma may be up to 15 times Earth's diameter, while the tail may stretch beyond one astronomical unit. If sufficiently close and bright, a comet may be seen from Earth without the aid of a telescope and can subtend an arc of up to 30° (60 Moons) across the sky. Comets have been observed and recorded since ancient times by many cultures and religions. Comets usually have highly eccentric elliptical orbits, and they have a wide range of orbital periods, ranging from several years to potentially several millions of years. Short-period comets originate in the Kuiper belt or its associated scattered disc, which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune. Long-period comets are thought to originate in the Oort cloud, a spherical cloud of icy bodies extending from outside the Kuiper belt to halfway to the nearest star. Long-period comets are set in motion towards the Sun by gravitational perturbations from passing stars and the galactic tide. Hyperbolic comets may pass once through the inner Solar System before being flung to interstellar space. The appearance of a comet is called an apparition. Extinct comets that have passed close to the Sun many times have lost nearly all of their volatile ices and dust and may come to resemble small asteroids.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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691
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comet is called an apparition . Extinct comets that have passed close to the Sun many times have lost nearly all of their volatile ices and dust and may come to resemble small asteroids .Asteroids are thought to have a different origin from comets, having formed inside the orbit of Jupiter rather than in the outer Solar System. However, the discovery of main-belt comets and active centaur minor planets has blurred the distinction between asteroids and comets. In the early 21st century, the discovery of some minor bodies with long-period comet orbits, but characteristics of inner solar system asteroids, were called Manx comets. They are still classified as comets, such as C/2014 S3 (PANSTARRS). Twenty-seven Manx comets were found from 2013 to 2017. As of November 2021, there are 4,584 known comets. However, this represents a very small fraction of the total potential comet population, as the reservoir of comet-like bodies in the outer Solar System (in the Oort cloud) is about one trillion. Roughly one comet per year is visible to the naked eye, though many of those are faint and unspectacular. Particularly bright examples are called "great comets". Comets have been visited by uncrewed probes such as NASA's Deep Impact, which blasted a crater on Comet Tempel 1 to study its interior, and the European Space Agency's Rosetta, which became the first to land a robotic spacecraft on a comet. Etymology
The word comet derives from the Old English cometa from the Latin comēta or comētēs. That, in turn, is a romanization of the Greek κομήτης 'wearing long hair', and the Oxford English Dictionary notes that the term (ἀστὴρ) κομήτης already meant 'long-haired star, comet' in Greek.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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692
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is a romanization of the Greek κομήτης 'wearing long hair ' , and the Oxford English Dictionary notes that the term ( ἀστὴρ ) κομήτης already meant 'long-haired star , comet ' in Greek .Κομήτης was derived from κομᾶν (koman) 'to wear the hair long', which was itself derived from κόμη (komē) 'the hair of the head' and was used to mean 'the tail of a comet'. The astronomical symbol for comets (represented in Unicode) is U+2604 ☄ COMET, consisting of a small disc with three hairlike extensions. Physical characteristics
Nucleus
The solid, core structure of a comet is known as the nucleus. Cometary nuclei are composed of an amalgamation of rock, dust, water ice, and frozen carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, and ammonia. As such, they are popularly described as "dirty snowballs" after Fred Whipple's model. Comets with a higher dust content have been called "icy dirtballs". The term "icy dirtballs" arose after observation of Comet 9P/Tempel 1 collision with an "impactor" probe sent by NASA Deep Impact mission in July 2005. Research conducted in 2014 suggests that comets are like "deep fried ice cream", in that their surfaces are formed of dense crystalline ice mixed with organic compounds, while the interior ice is colder and less dense. The surface of the nucleus is generally dry, dusty or rocky, suggesting that the ices are hidden beneath a surface crust several metres thick. Nuclei contain a variety of organic compounds, which may include methanol, hydrogen cyanide, formaldehyde, ethanol, ethane, and perhaps more complex molecules such as long-chain hydrocarbons and amino acids. In 2009, it was confirmed that the amino acid glycine had been found in the comet dust recovered by NASA's Stardust mission.
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Comet
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693
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complex molecules such as long-chain hydrocarbons and amino acids . In 2009 , it was confirmed that the amino acid glycine had been found in the comet dust recovered by NASA 's Stardust mission .In August 2011, a report, based on NASA studies of meteorites found on Earth, was published suggesting DNA and RNA components (adenine, guanine, and related organic molecules) may have been formed on asteroids and comets. The outer surfaces of cometary nuclei have a very low albedo, making them among the least reflective objects found in the Solar System. The Giotto space probe found that the nucleus of Halley's Comet (1P/Halley) reflects about four percent of the light that falls on it, and Deep Space 1 discovered that Comet Borrelly's surface reflects less than 3.0%; by comparison, asphalt reflects seven percent. The dark surface material of the nucleus may consist of complex organic compounds. Solar heating drives off lighter volatile compounds, leaving behind larger organic compounds that tend to be very dark, like tar or crude oil. The low reflectivity of cometary surfaces causes them to absorb the heat that drives their outgassing processes. Comet nuclei with radii of up to 30 kilometers (19 mi) have been observed, but ascertaining their exact size is difficult. The nucleus of 322P/SOHO is probably only 100–200 meters (330–660 ft) in diameter. A lack of smaller comets being detected despite the increased sensitivity of instruments has led some to suggest that there is a real lack of comets smaller than 100 meters (330 ft) across. Known comets have been estimated to have an average density of 0.6 g/cm3 (0.35 oz/cu in). Because of their low mass, comet nuclei do not become spherical under their own gravity and therefore have irregular shapes.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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694
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have an average density of 0.6 g/cm3 ( 0.35 oz/cu in ) . Because of their low mass , comet nuclei do not become spherical under their own gravity and therefore have irregular shapes .Roughly six percent of the near-Earth asteroids are thought to be the extinct nuclei of comets that no longer experience outgassing, including 14827 Hypnos and 3552 Don Quixote. Results from the Rosetta and Philae spacecraft show that the nucleus of 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko has no magnetic field, which suggests that magnetism may not have played a role in the early formation of planetesimals. Further, the ALICE spectrograph on Rosetta determined that electrons (within 1 km (0.62 mi) above the comet nucleus) produced from photoionization of water molecules by solar radiation, and not photons from the Sun as thought earlier, are responsible for the degradation of water and carbon dioxide molecules released from the comet nucleus into its coma. Instruments on the Philae lander found at least sixteen organic compounds at the comet's surface, four of which (acetamide, acetone, methyl isocyanate and propionaldehyde) have been detected for the first time on a comet. Coma
The streams of dust and gas thus released form a huge and extremely thin atmosphere around the comet called the "coma". The force exerted on the coma by the Sun's radiation pressure and solar wind cause an enormous "tail" to form pointing away from the Sun. The coma is generally made of water and dust, with water making up to 90% of the volatiles that outflow from the nucleus when the comet is within 3 to 4 AU (450 to 600 million km; 280 to 370 million mi) of the Sun. The H2O parent molecule is destroyed primarily through photodissociation and to a much smaller extent photoionization, with the solar wind playing a minor role in the destruction of water compared to photochemistry.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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695
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. The H2O parent molecule is destroyed primarily through photodissociation and to a much smaller extent photoionization , with the solar wind playing a minor role in the destruction of water compared to photochemistry .Larger dust particles are left along the comet's orbital path whereas smaller particles are pushed away from the Sun into the comet's tail by light pressure. Although the solid nucleus of comets is generally less than 60 kilometers (37 mi) across, the coma may be thousands or millions of kilometers across, sometimes becoming larger than the Sun. For example, about a month after an outburst in October 2007, comet 17P/Holmes briefly had a tenuous dust atmosphere larger than the Sun. The Great Comet of 1811 had a coma roughly the diameter of the Sun. Even though the coma can become quite large, its size can decrease about the time it crosses the orbit of Mars around 1.5 AU (220 million km; 140 million mi) from the Sun. At this distance the solar wind becomes strong enough to blow the gas and dust away from the coma, and in doing so enlarging the tail. Ion tails have been observed to extend one astronomical unit (150 million km) or more. Both the coma and tail are illuminated by the Sun and may become visible when a comet passes through the inner Solar System, the dust reflects sunlight directly while the gases glow from ionisation. Most comets are too faint to be visible without the aid of a telescope, but a few each decade become bright enough to be visible to the naked eye. Occasionally a comet may experience a huge and sudden outburst of gas and dust, during which the size of the coma greatly increases for a period of time. This happened in 2007 to Comet Holmes. In 1996, comets were found to emit X-rays.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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696
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dust , during which the size of the coma greatly increases for a period of time . This happened in 2007 to Comet Holmes . In 1996 , comets were found to emit X-rays .This greatly surprised astronomers because X-ray emission is usually associated with very high-temperature bodies. Thomas E. Cravens was the first to propose an explanation in early 1997. The X-rays are generated by the interaction between comets and the solar wind: when highly charged solar wind ions fly through a cometary atmosphere, they collide with cometary atoms and molecules, "stealing" one or more electrons from the atom in a process called "charge exchange". This exchange or transfer of an electron to the solar wind ion is followed by its de-excitation into the ground state of the ion by the emission of X-rays and far ultraviolet photons. Bow shock
Bow shocks form as a result of the interaction between the solar wind and the cometary ionosphere, which is created by the ionization of gases in the coma. As the comet approaches the Sun, increasing outgassing rates cause the coma to expand, and the sunlight ionizes gases in the coma. When the solar wind passes through this ion coma, the bow shock appears. The first observations were made in the 1980s and 1990s as several spacecraft flew by comets 21P/Giacobini–Zinner, 1P/Halley, and 26P/Grigg–Skjellerup. It was then found that the bow shocks at comets are wider and more gradual than the sharp planetary bow shocks seen at, for example, Earth. These observations were all made near perihelion when the bow shocks already were fully developed. The Rosetta spacecraft observed the bow shock at comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko at an early stage of bow shock development when the outgassing increased during the comet's journey toward the Sun. This young bow shock was called the "infant bow shock".
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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697
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67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko at an early stage of bow shock development when the outgassing increased during the comet 's journey toward the Sun . This young bow shock was called the `` infant bow shock '' .The infant bow shock is asymmetric and, relative to the distance to the nucleus, wider than fully developed bow shocks. Tails
In the outer Solar System, comets remain frozen and inactive and are extremely difficult or impossible to detect from Earth due to their small size. Statistical detections of inactive comet nuclei in the Kuiper belt have been reported from observations by the Hubble Space Telescope but these detections have been questioned. As a comet approaches the inner Solar System, solar radiation causes the volatile materials within the comet to vaporize and stream out of the nucleus, carrying dust away with them. The streams of dust and gas each form their own distinct tail, pointing in slightly different directions. The tail of dust is left behind in the comet's orbit in such a manner that it often forms a curved tail called the type II or dust tail. At the same time, the ion or type I tail, made of gases, always points directly away from the Sun because this gas is more strongly affected by the solar wind than is dust, following magnetic field lines rather than an orbital trajectory. On occasions—such as when Earth passes through a comet's orbital plane, the antitail, pointing in the opposite direction to the ion and dust tails, may be seen. The observation of antitails contributed significantly to the discovery of solar wind. The ion tail is formed as a result of the ionization by solar ultra-violet radiation of particles in the coma. Once the particles have been ionized, they attain a net positive electrical charge, which in turn gives rise to an "induced magnetosphere" around the comet.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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698
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particles in the coma . Once the particles have been ionized , they attain a net positive electrical charge , which in turn gives rise to an `` induced magnetosphere '' around the comet .The comet and its induced magnetic field form an obstacle to outward flowing solar wind particles. Because the relative orbital speed of the comet and the solar wind is supersonic, a bow shock is formed upstream of the comet in the flow direction of the solar wind. In this bow shock, large concentrations of cometary ions (called "pick-up ions") congregate and act to "load" the solar magnetic field with plasma, such that the field lines "drape" around the comet forming the ion tail. If the ion tail loading is sufficient, the magnetic field lines are squeezed together to the point where, at some distance along the ion tail, magnetic reconnection occurs. This leads to a "tail disconnection event". This has been observed on a number of occasions, one notable event being recorded on 20 April 2007, when the ion tail of Encke's Comet was completely severed while the comet passed through a coronal mass ejection. This event was observed by the STEREO space probe. In 2013, ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions." Jets
Uneven heating can cause newly generated gases to break out of a weak spot on the surface of comet's nucleus, like a geyser. These streams of gas and dust can cause the nucleus to spin, and even split apart. In 2010 it was revealed that sublimation of dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide) can power jets of material flowing out of a comet nucleus. Infrared imaging of Hartley 2 shows such jets exiting and carrying with it dust grains into the coma.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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699
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frozen carbon dioxide ) can power jets of material flowing out of a comet nucleus . Infrared imaging of Hartley 2 shows such jets exiting and carrying with it dust grains into the coma .Orbital characteristics
Most comets are small Solar System bodies with elongated elliptical orbits that take them close to the Sun for a part of their orbit and then out into the further reaches of the Solar System for the remainder. Comets are often classified according to the length of their orbital periods: The longer the period the more elongated the ellipse. Short period
Periodic comets or short-period comets are generally defined as those having orbital periods of less than 200 years. They usually orbit more-or-less in the ecliptic plane in the same direction as the planets. Their orbits typically take them out to the region of the outer planets (Jupiter and beyond) at aphelion; for example, the aphelion of Halley's Comet is a little beyond the orbit of Neptune. Comets whose aphelia are near a major planet's orbit are called its "family". Such families are thought to arise from the planet capturing formerly long-period comets into shorter orbits. At the shorter orbital period extreme, Encke's Comet has an orbit that does not reach the orbit of Jupiter, and is known as an Encke-type comet. Short-period comets with orbital periods less than 20 years and low inclinations (up to 30 degrees) to the ecliptic are called traditional Jupiter-family comets (JFCs). Those like Halley, with orbital periods of between 20 and 200 years and inclinations extending from zero to more than 90 degrees, are called Halley-type comets (HTCs). As of July 2025 there are 74 known Encke-type comets (six of which are classified as near-earth objects (NEOs)), 109 HTCs (36 of which are NEOs), and 815 JFCs (153 of which are NEOs).
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Comet
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